● Study on Doppler Weather RADAR

1. Introduction:
Radar is an object-detection system that uses radio waves to determine the range, angle, or
velocity of objects. It can be used to detect aircraft, ships, spacecraft, guided missiles, motor
vehicles, weather formations, and terrain. RADARS were developed to detect and determine
the range of aircraft by radio techniques, but as they became more powerful, their beams
more directive, receivers more sensitive, and transmitters coherent, they also found highly
successful applications in mapping the earth’s surface and atmosphere, and their signals have
reached out into space to explore surface features on our planetary neighbours. Recently
pulsed Doppler radar techniques have been applied to map severe storm reflectivity and
velocity structure with some astounding success, particularly showing, in real time, the
development of incipient tornado cyclones [I. P. Burg, “Maximum entropy spectral
analysis,”], [Vortex signature recognition by a Doppler radar], [K. S. Gage, W. P.
Birkemeyer, and W. H. Jasperson,]. The radar beam penetrates thunderstorms and clouds to
reveal the dynamical structure inside of an otherwise unobservable event. This inside look
will help researchers understand the life cycle and dynamics of storms. The first detection of
storms by microwave radar was made in England in early 1941. An excellent historical
review of the early developments in radar meteorology can be found in Atlas’ work 1523 [G.
B. Foote and P. S. duToit, “Terminal velocity of raindrops aloft,”]. Because the angular
resolution A6 in degrees (”) at wavelength X is well approximated by A9 70 AID where D is
the diameter of the antenna system , it is evident that remote radio sensing, even at
microwave frequencies, is characterized by pool spatial resolution compared to optical
standards. One essential distinguishing feature favouring microwaves is its property to see
inside rain showers and thunderstorms, day or night. Rain and cloud do attenuate microwave
signals, but slightly (for X > 0.05 m) compared to the almost complete extinction of optical
signals. Scattered signal strength can be related to rain intensity, and time rate of change of
phase (Doppler shift) is a measure of raindrop radial speed. Development of high power and
high gain klystron amplifiers in the 1950’s made practical the generation of microwaves that
are phase coherent pulse to pulse, a requirement for pulsed Doppler radars if velocities of
other than first time around (first trip) echoes are to be measured . Radar signals are phase
coherent from pulse to pulse if the distance (or time) between wave crests of successive
transmitted pulses is fixed or known. Magnetron oscillators, phase incoherent pulse to pulse,
can only be used for Doppler measurements of targets beyond the first trip if provision is
made to store phase for time durations longer than the pulse repetition time (PRT). The first
reported use of a Doppler radar to observed weather was made by Brantley and Barczys in
1957. A rapid development of Doppler techniques followed. Boyenval deduced the drop size
distribution of Rayleigh scatters from the Doppler spectrum while Probert-Jones and Harper
[961 used vertically pointed antenna and storm motion to produce a vertical cross section [
101. Zenith-pointing Doppler radars can be used to estimate vertical air velocities as a
function of height and time, can yield data from which one can sometimes infer the nature of
the hydrometeors (snow, rain, or hail), and in some instances, yield data for calculating
hydrometeor size distributions [Radar Observation of the Atmosphere. Chicago, IL: Univ.
Chicago Press] . These earliest observations of radial velocities used analog spectrum
analyzers or filter banks that have economical utility for, at most, observations in a few
resolution volumes. Atlas [] D. Atlas, “Radar analysis of severe storms,” Meteorol.
Monographs,] recognized the utility of scanning storms horizontally to map radial velocities
on a plan-position indicator (PPI) type display and Lhermitte [ 811 accurately assessed
requirements for the development of a viable pulsed Doppler radar. These early investigators
foresaw real-time severe storm and tornado warnings from pulsed Doppler observations of
storm circulations and their predictions were to be verified a few years later by several
investigating teams. The first remote measurement of tornadic wind speed was accomplished
in 1958 by Smith and Holmes using a 3-cm continuous wave (CW) Doppler radar. Real-time
reflectivity displayed on PPI has been available to radar meteorologists since the mid-1940.
The PPI shows reflectivity distributions on conical surfaces as the antenna beam sweeps in
azimuth at constant elevation angle. But real-time Doppler velocity mapping was a goal that
eluded researchers until the late 1960’s. Contrary to reflectivity estimation which only
requires echo sample averaging to reduce statistical fluctuations, mean velocity estimation
requires sophisticated data processing. Probably the long development and cost of Doppler
processors (to estimate velocities simultaneously at all resolution volumes along the beam)
lay principally in preoccupation with pursuit of 1524 PROCEEDINGS OF THE IEEE, VOL.
67, NO. 11, NOVEMBER 1979 spectrum measurements, from which the most interesting
moments (mean velocity and spectrum width) need to be extracted. One of the first -Doppler
spectrum analyzers that could indeed generate velocity spectra in real time for each
contiguous resolution volume is described by Chimera [A. M. Chimera, “Meteorological
radar echo study,”], and this machine, called a velocity indicating coherent integrator,
processed with a single electronic circuit the echo signals to generate spectrum estimates
simultaneously at all resolution volumes. Another machine, called the coherent memory filter
(CMF), employing the same principles was developed [ 621 for weather radar observations
and used by researchers at the Air Force Cambridge Research Laboratories (AFCRL).' This
machine produced the first real-time maps of velocity fields on a PPI [3]. In the early
seventies Sirmans and Doviak described a device that generates digital estimates of mean
Doppler velocity of weather targets. This device, a phase change estimator, circumvented
spectral calculations and digitally processes echoes in contiguous resolution cells at the radar
data rate. The need to obtain the principal moments economically and with minimum
variance, and have these in digital format (to facilitate processing and analysis with electronic
computers) has led researchers to use covariance estimate techniques popularly known as
pulse pair processing described in Section V. Hyde and Perry reported an early version of this
method , but it was first used by ionosphere investigators at Jicamarca .
 Fig:.1.1

Independently and at about the same time Rummler [“Introduction of a new estimator for
velocity Lett., vol. 5, no. 5, pp. 357-360, May 1978. spectral parameters,” ], introduced it to
the engineering community. Soon the advantages of pulse pair (PP) processing became
evident, and scientists at several universities and government laboratories began
implementing this signal processing technique on the Doppler weather radar, [L. R. Novick
and K. M. Glover], A single Doppler radar maps a field of radial velocities. Two such radars
spaced apart to view the winds nearly orthogonally can be utilized to reconstruct the two-
dimensional wind field in the planes containing the radials [ “A theory for the determination
of wind and precipiDC, 1964. tation velocities with Doppler radars,”], . With help of the air
mass continuity equation the third wind component can be estimated and thus the total three-
dimensional wind field within the storm may be reconstructed. This is most significant as it
will enable one to follow the kinematics during birth, growth, and dissipation of severe
storms and thus perhaps understand storm initiation and evolution. It may even provide the
answer as to why some storms reach great severity while others under similar conditions do
not. Doppler radars are not limited to the study of precipitation laden air. The kinematic
structure of the planetary boundary layer (PBL) has been mapped even when particulate
matter does not offer significant reflectivity . Coherent processing can often improve the
detection of weather echoes . Measurement at VHF and UHF suggests height continuous
clear air returns to over 20 km, and experiments with a moderately powerful radar at S band
consistently show reflectivity in the first kilometer or two . Although the Doppler radar
became a valuable tool in meteorological research, it has not yet been transferred to routine
operational applications. As a matter of fact, several government organizations (The National
Weather Service, Air Weather Service, Air Force Geophysical Laboratory, Federal Aviation
Administration and the National Severe Storms Laboratory) [llOI. Presently the Air Force
Geophysics Laboratory. are presently engaged in a joint experiment, the purpose of which is
to demonstrate the utility of the Doppler radar for severe storm warnings and establish
guidelines for the design of next generation weather radars. We anticipate that the new radars
with Doppler capability will go in production in the 1980's and believe that this paper will
acquaint the electrical engineering community with some specifics of Doppler weather radar,
weather echo data processing, and meteorological interpretation. 11. THE DOPPLER
WEATHER RADAR AND ITS SIGNALS Fig. 1 shows in a simplified block diagram the
principal components of a pulsed Doppler radar. The klystron amplifier, turned on and off by
the pulse modulator, transmits a train of high "peak" power microwave pulses having
duration T of about 1 ps with spacing at the PRT designated as T,, the sampling time interval.
The antenna reflector, usually a parabola of revolution, has a tapered illumination in order to
reduce side lobe levels. Weather radars measure awide range of volumetric target cross
sections; the weakest (about lo-'' m2/ m3) associates with scatter from the aerosol-free
troposphere, the strongest with cross sections (3 X lo-' m-') of heavy rain. Needless to say,
antenna sidelobes place limitations on the weather radar's dynamic range and can lead to
misinterpretation of thunderstorm heights [41] and radial velocity measurements [ 1221. The
backscatter cross section ob of a water drop with a diameter Di small compared to A
(Rayleigh approximation, i.e., Di < x/16) is where lK12 is a parameter, related to the
refractive index of the water, that varies between 0.91 and 0.93 for wavelengths between 0.01
and 0.10 m and is practically independent of temperature [ 1 1, p. 381. Ice spheres have (KI2
values of about 0.18 (for a density 0.91 7 g/cm3 ) which is independent of temperature as
well as wavelength in the microwave region. There is an abundance of experimental and
theoretical work that relates particle cross section to its shape, size relative to wavelength
when Di 2 A/16, temperature, and mixture of phases (e.g., water-coated ice spheres). These
works are well reviewed by Battan [ 11 ] and Atlas [ 51. Were it not for electromagnetic
energy absorption by water or ice drops, radars with shorter wavelength radiation would be
much more in use because of the superior spatial resolution. Short wavelength (e.g., A = 3
cm) radars suffer echo power loss that can be 100 times larger than radars operated with A 2
10 cm. Weather radar meteorologists are not only interested in the detection of weather but
also need to make quantitative measurement of target cross section in order to estimate
rainfall rate. Thus it is important to consider losses that are greater than a few tenths of a
decibel. Besides attenuation due to rain and cloud droplets, there is attenuation due to energy
absorbed by the atmosphere's molecular constituents, mainly water vapour and oxygen.

2.What is Doppler Effect

When wave energy like sound or radio waves travels from two objects, the wavelength can
seem to be changed if one or both of them are moving. This is called the Doppler effect.

The Doppler effect causes the received frequency of a source (how it is perceived when it
gets to its destination) to differ from the sent frequency if there is motion that is increasing or
decreasing the distance between the source and the receiver. This effect is readily observable
as variation in the pitch of sound between a moving source and a stationary observer. Imagine
the sound a race car makes as it rushes by, whining high pitched and then suddenly lower.
Vrrrm-VROOM. The high pitched whine is caused by the sound waves being compacted as
the car approaches you, the lower pitched VROOM comes after it passes you and is speeding
away. The waves are spread out.
 Fig:2.1

When the distance between the source and receiver of electromagnetic waves remains
constant, the frequency waves is the same in both places. When the distance between the
source and receiver of electromagnetic waves is increasing, the frequency of the received
wave forms is lower than the frequency of the source wave form. When the distance is
decreasing, the frequency of the received wave form will be higher than the source wave
form. Besides sound and radio waves, the Doppler effect also affects the light emitted by
other bodies in space. If a body in space is "blue shifted," its light waves are compacted and it
is coming towards us. If it is "red shifted" the light waves are spread apart, and it is travelling
away from us. All other stars we have detected are "red shifted," which is one piece of
evidence for the theory that the universe is constantly expanding, perhaps from a "big bang."
TYPES OF DOPPLER EFFECT:
Symmetrical: - It implies that Doppler shift is same when the source of light moves
towards/away from a stationary observer or the observer moves with the same velocity
towards/away from the stationary source.
Asymmetrical: - It implies that apparent change in the frequency is different when the source
of sound moves towards/away from a stationary observer or as that occurs, when the observer
moves with the same velocity towards/away from the stationary source.

3.Doppler’s Principle The first statement of the Doppler principle (Doppler

shift, Doppler Effect), which states that the observed frequency changes if either the observer
or the source is moving. A common example of Doppler shift is the change of pitch heard
when a vehicle sounding a horn approaches and recedes from an observer. Compared to the
emitted frequency, the received frequency is higher during the approach, identical at the
instant of passing by, and lower during the recession. The reason for the Doppler effect is that
when the source of the waves is moving towards the observer, each successive wave crest is
emitted from a position closer to the observer than the previous wave. Therefore, each wave
takes slightly less time to reach the observer than the previous wave. Hence, the time between
the arrival of successive wave crests at the observer is reduced, causing an increase in the
frequency. While they are travelling, the distance between successive wave fronts is reduced,
so the waves "bunch together". Conversely, if the source of waves is moving away from the
observer, each wave is emitted from a position farther from the observer than the previous
wave, so the arrival time between successive waves is increased, reducing the frequency. The
distance between successive wave fronts is then increased, so the waves "spread out". For
waves that propagate in a medium, such as sound waves, the velocity of the observer and of
the source are relative to the medium in which the waves are transmitted. The total Doppler
effect may therefore result from motion of the source, motion of the observer, or motion of
the medium. Each of these effects are analyzed separately. For waves which do not require a
medium, such as light or gravity in general relativity, only the relative difference in velocity
between the observer and the source needs to be considered.

Doppler mentions the application of this principle to both acoustics and optics, particularly to
the colored appearance of double stars and the fluctuations of variable stars and novae;
however, his reasoning in the optical arguments was flawed by his erroneous belief that all
stars were basically white and emitted light only or mostly in the visible spectrum. Five years
later, the astronomer Hippolyte Fizeau will publish a paper announcing his independent
discovery of the effect, noting the usefulness of observing spectral line shifts in its
application to astronomy. This point was of such fundamental importance to Doppler's
principle that it is sometimes called the Doppler-Fizeau principle. The acoustical Doppler
effect was verified experimentally in 1845, and the optical effect in 1901. Modified by
relativity theory, it became one of the major tools of astronomy. It also has numerous
commercial applications beyond astronomy, such as in Doppler radar and in Doppler
ultrasound imaging to evaluate blood flow.

Fig:3.1
 Fig:3.2

Doppler theorem:

V= - (f λ)/2

where f = frequency shift , λ= wavelength, V = radial velocity, i.e. component of velocity

toward of away from the radar Maximum unambiguous Doppler velocity, Vmax, is

Vmax = (PRF. λ)/4

4. Principle of Doppler RADAR The Doppler Effect has been characterized for a
long time now, when it was first observed for sound waves. This effect has been used for
very practical purposes by applying it to electromagnetic waves. It is a very useful way to
determine speed along with other applications in a system. This application note will go over
several ways to implement Doppler radar in a way that is useful for a particular system.
Doppler radar uses the same principles discovered by Christian Doppler when observing
sound and applies them to electromagnetic waves. In general, the Doppler Effect is a shift in
frequency perceived by a receiver from a signal source due to relative movement of the
source and/or receiver.
 Fig:4.1

The most obvious way to see how this can affect electromagnetic waves is how astronomers
use the color shift from light waves travelling from astral bodies to identify the speed these
objects are moving away or toward the Earth. For a Doppler radar system, a known frequency
signal is transmitted from an antenna which is pointed at a reference object. A separate
antenna is used to receive the signal that is reflected back from the reference to measure the
Doppler shift of the signal. The basic formulas used from here are as follows:
fr = f0(v±v0)/(v±vs)
Here fr is the received frequency, fo the source, vs relative speed of the source, vo the
observer speed, and v the speed of the waves in the medium. For practical purposes the
difference in frequency is used for calculations.
Δf = fr – f0

5.
7. PPI and RHI
The plan position indicator (PPI), is the most common type of radar display. The radar
antenna is usually represented in the centre of the display, so the distance from it and height
above ground can be drawn as concentric circles. As the radar antenna rotates, a radial trace
on the PPI sweeps in unison with it about the centre point. The radar antenna sends pulses
while rotating 360 degrees around the radar site at a fixed elevation angle. It can then change
angle or repeat at the same angle according to the need. Return echoes from targets are
received by the antenna and processed by the receiver and the most direct display of those
data is the PPI. It is to be noted that the height of the echoes increases with the distance to the
radar, as represented in the adjacent image. This change is not a straight line but a curve as
the surface of the Earth is curved and sinks below the radar horizon. For fixed-site
installations, north is usually represented at the top of the image. For moving installations,
such as small ship and aircraft radars, the top may represent the bow or nose of the ship or
aircraft, i.e., its heading (direction of travel) and this is usually represented by a lubber line.
Some systems may incorporate the input from a gyrocompass to rotate the display and once
again display north as "up".

Fig:7.1

Also, the signal represented is the reflectivity at only one elevation of the antenna, so it is
possible to have many PPIs at one time, one for each antenna elevation.
The PPI display was first used prior to the start of the Second World War in
a Jagdschloss experimental radar system outside Berlin. The first production PPI was devised
at the Telecommunications Research Establishment, UK and was first introduced in the H2S
radar blind-bombing system of World War II.
 Fig:7.2 PPI Technique

Originally, data was displayed in real time on a cathode ray tube, and thus the only way to
store the information received was by taking a photograph of the screen.

Fig:7.3 PPI output

Philo Taylor Farnsworth, the American inventor of all-electronic television in September

1927, contributed to this in an important way. Farnsworth refined a version of his picture tube
(cathode ray tube, or CRT) and called it an "Iatron;" generically known as a storage tube. It
could store an image for milliseconds to minutes and even hours. One version that kept an
image alive about a second before fading proved to be useful for radar. This slow-to-fade
display tube was used by air traffic controllers from the very beginning of radar usage. With
the development of more sophisticated radar systems, it became possible to digitize data and
store it in memory, allowing access at a later date. The PPI is used in many domains
involving display of range and positioning, especially in radars, including air traffic control,
ship navigation, meteorology, on board ships and aircraft etc. PPI displays are also used to
display sonar data, especially in underwater warfare. However, because the speed of sound in
water is very slow compared to microwaves in air, a sonar PPI has an expanding circle that
starts with each transmitted "ping" of sound. In meteorology, a competing display system is
the CAPPI (Constant Altitude Plan Position Indicator) when a multi-angle scan is available.
Using computers to process data, modern sonar and lidar installations can mimic radar PPI
displays too.
The PPI, also called the P-Scope, is by far the most commonly used radar display. It
is an intensity-modulated circular display on which echo signals are shown in plan
position with range and azimuth angle displayed in polar coordinates. It is a polar coordinate
display of the area surrounding the radar platform. Own ship is represented as the origin of
the sweep, which is normally located in the center of the scope, but may be offset from the
center on some sets. The PPI uses a radial sweep pivoting about the center of the
presentation. This results in a map-like picture of the area covered by the radar beam. A long-
persistence screen is used so that the display remains visible until the sweep passes again.The
origin of the polar coordinates is at the location of the radar, and is normally located at the
center of the display. The PPI uses a radial sweep pivoting around the center. The result is a
map-like display of the area covered by the radar beam. Azimuth angle to the target is
indicated by the target's angular position in relation to a line extending vertically from the
sweep origin to the top of the scope. The top of the scope is usually true north. The PPI
display provides a 2-D "all round" display of the airspace around a radar site

Fig:7.4 PPI Scope Radar Display

 .
Fig:7.5

The distance out from the center of the display indicates range, and the angle around the
display is the azimuth to the target. The current position of the radar antenna is typically
indicated by a line extending from the center to the outside of the display, which rotates along
with the antenna in real-time. It is essentially a B-scope extended to 360 degrees. The PPI
display is typically what people think of as a radar display.

Fig:7.6

RHI Technique

Prior to the 2008 Spring Experiment, both surveillance and sector scans were PPI based
scans. RHI scans are an alternative to quickly obtain information about the vertical structure
of a storm. Therefore, we implemented a mechanism into the MC&C that lets the IP1 system
perform automated RHI scans, which operates as described in the following. To determine
the azimuthal position of the RHI, the highest reflectivity area of the storm in the coverage
area of the radar is determined. At this position an RHI scan will then be performed in
elevation from 0° to 30° degrees. RHI scans are performed every 3 minutes. In the heartbeat
in which the RHI scan is performed, it is interleaved with either surveillance or sector scans
based on the scanning determined by the MC&C.

Fig:7.7

MC&C display indicating RHI scans

Shown at right are the scans initiated by the MC&C on top of the reflectivity data of the
actual storm. The small wedges leading from the radar centers all the way out to the
maximum range, indicate the azimuthal position of the RHI scan.
In the case shown, the most intense part of the storm is located in an area where all four
radars overlap. Thus, the RHI scans from all four radars are intersected which gives us
multiple cross section views of this intense part of the storm. Below is shown the resulting
reflectivity data for the RHI scan performed by the IP1 radar in Chickasha.

Fig:7.8

The CASA IP1 network is the first radar network that performs these automated RHI scans,
which provides end users of the system with a new feature to allow them to quickly obtain
information about the vertical structure of the storm. This new functionality could be
implemented rather quickly since CASA has created a well-established, inter-disciplinary
team of researchers and engineers. In addition, it has been shown that the control architecture
(MC&C) of the IP1 test bed, which has been designed and implemented by this multi-
disciplinary team, is flexible and easy to extend.

Fig:7.9

The range-height indicator (RHI) scope, shown in figure below, is a two-dimensional

presentation indicating target range and altitude. The sweep originates in the lower left side
of the scope. It moves across the scope, to the right, at an angle that is the same as the angle
of transmission of the height-finding radar. The line of sight to the horizon is indicated by the
bottom horizontal line. The area directly overhead is straight up the left side of the scope.
Target echoes are displayed on the scope as vertical PIPS or BLIPS (spots of increased
intensity that indicate a target location). The operator determines altitude by adjusting a
movable height line to the point where it bisects the centre of the blip. Target height is then
read directly from an altitude dial or digital readout. Vertical range markers are also provided
to estimate target range.
 Fig:7.10

RHI Scope Radar Display

8 Application of Doppler Radar

8.1 Weather forecasting:
Weather radar, also called weather surveillance radar (WSR) and Doppler weather radar, is a
type of radar used to locate precipitation, calculate its motion, and estimate its type (rain,
snow, hail etc.). Modern weather radars are mostly pulse-Doppler radars, capable of detecting
the motion of rain droplets in addition to the intensity of the precipitation. Both types of data
can be analyzed to determine the structure of storms and their potential to cause severe
weather. During World War II, radar operators discovered that weather was causing echoes
on their screen, masking potential enemy targets. Techniques were developed to filter them,
but scientists began to study the phenomenon. Soon after the war, surplus radars were used to
detect precipitation. Since then, weather radar has evolved on its own and is now used by
national weather services, research departments in universities, and in television stations'
weather departments. Raw images are routinely used and specialized software can take radar
data to make short term forecasts of future positions and intensities of rain, snow, hail, and
other weather phenomena. Radar output is even incorporated into numerical weather
prediction models to improve analyses and forecasts. During World War II, military radar
operators noticed noise in returned echoes due to rain, snow, and sleet. After the war, military
scientists returned to civilian life or continued in the Armed Forces and pursued their work in
developing a use for those echoes. In the United States, David Atlas,[1] at first working for
the Air Force and later for MIT, developed the first operational weather radars. In Canada,
J.S. Marshall and R.H. Douglas formed the "Stormy Weather Group"[2] in Montreal. Marshall
and his doctoral student Walter Palmer are well known for their work on the drop size
distribution in mid-latitude rain that led to understanding of the Z-R relation, which correlates
a given radar reflectivity with the rate at which rainwater is falling. In the United Kingdom,
research continued to study the radar echo patterns and weather elements such
as stratiform rain and convective clouds, and experiments were done to evaluate the potential
of different wavelengths from 1 to 10 centimetres. By 1950 the UK company EKCO was
demonstrating its airborne 'cloud and collision warning search radar equipment
 Fig:8.1 1960s radar technology detected tornado producing supercells over the Minneapolis-Saint
Paul metropolitan area.

8.1.1 Sending radar pulses

Weather radars send directional pulses of microwave radiation, on the order of

a microsecond long, using a cavity magnetron or klystron tube connected by a waveguide to
a parabolic antenna. The wavelengths of 1 – 10 cm are approximately ten times the diameter
of the droplets or ice particles of interest, because Rayleigh scattering occurs at these
frequencies. This means that part of the energy of each pulse will bounce off these small
particles, back in the direction of the radar station. Shorter wavelengths are useful for smaller
particles, but the signal is more quickly attenuated. Thus 10 cm (S-band) radar is preferred
but is more expensive than a 5 cm C-band system. 3 cm X-band radar is used only for short-
range units, and 1 cm Ka-band weather radar is used only for research on small-particle
phenomena such as drizzle and fog.[12] W band weather radar systems have seen limited
university use, but due to quicker attenuation, most data are not operational. Radar pulses
spread out as they move away from the radar station. Thus the volume of air that a radar
pulse is traversing is larger for areas farther away from the station, and smaller for nearby
areas, decreasing resolution at far distances. At the end of a 150 – 200 km sounding range,
the volume of air scanned by a single pulse might be on the order of a cubic kilometer. This is
called the pulse volume The volume of air that a given pulse takes up at any point in time
may be approximated by the formula,
v = hr2Ɵ2
where v is the volume enclosed by the pulse, h is pulse width (in e.g. meters, calculated from
the duration in seconds of the pulse times the speed of light), r is the distance from the radar
that the pulse has already travelled (in e.g. meters), and Ɵ is the beam width (in radians).
This formula assumes the beam is symmetrically circular; "r" is much greater than "h" so "r"
taken at the beginning or at the end of the pulse is almost the same, and the shape of the
volume is a cone frustum of depth "h".
 Fig:8.2

A radar beam spreads out as it moves away from the radar station, covering an increasingly
large volume.

8.1.2 Listening for return signals

Between each pulse, the radar station serves as a receiver as it listens for return signals from
particles in the air. The duration of the "listen" cycle is on the order of a millisecond, which is
a thousand times longer than the pulse duration. The length of this phase is determined by the
need for the microwave radiation (which travels at the speed of light) to propagate from the
detector to the weather target and back again, a distance which could be several hundred
kilometers. The horizontal distance from station to target is calculated simply from the
amount of time that elapses from the initiation of the pulse to the detection of the return
signal. The time is converted into distance by multiplying by the speed of light in air:
Distance = c(Δt/2n)
where c = 299,792.458 km/s is the speed of light, and n ≈ 1.0003 is the refractive index of air.
If pulses are emitted too frequently, the returns from one pulse will be confused with the
returns from previous pulses, resulting in incorrect distance calculations.

8.1.3 Determining height

Assuming the Earth is round, the radar beam in vacuum would rise according to the reverse
curvature of the Earth. However, the atmosphere has a refractive index that diminishes with
height, due to its diminishing density. This bends the radar beam slightly toward the ground
and with a standard atmosphere this is equivalent to considering that the curvature of the
beam is 4/3 the actual curvature of the Earth. Depending on the elevation angle of the antenna
and other considerations, the following formula may be used to calculate the target's height
above ground
where:
r = distance radar–target,
ke = 4/3,
ae = Earth radius,
θe = elevation angle above the radar horizon,
ha = height of the feed horn above ground.

Fig:8.3 The radar beam path with height

A weather radar network uses a series of typical angles that will be set according to the needs.
After each scanning rotation, the antenna elevation is changed for the next sounding. This
scenario will be repeated on many angles to scan all the volume of air around the radar within
the maximum range. Usually, this scanning strategy is completed within 5 to 10 minutes to
have data within 15 km above ground and 250 km distance of the radar. For instance in
Canada, the 5 cm weather radars use angles ranging from 0.3 to 25 degrees. The image to the
right shows the volume scanned when multiple angles are used. Due to the Earth's curvature
and change of index of refraction with height, the radar cannot "see" below the height above
ground of the minimal angle or closer to the radar than the maximal one.

8.1.4 Calibrating intensity of return

Because the targets are not unique in each volume, the radar equation has to be developed
beyond the basic one. Assuming a monostatic radar where Gt = Ar (or Gr) = G;
Where Pr is received power, Pt is transmitted power, G is the gain of the
transmitting/receiving antenna, λ is radar wavelength, σ is the radar cross section of the
target and is the distance from transmitter to target. n this case, we have to add the cross
sections of all the targets. In this case, we have to add the cross sections of all the targets

where c is the light speed, ς is temporal duration of a pulse and Ɵ is the beam width in radian.In
combining the two equations:

Which leads to :

Notice that the return now varies inversely to R2 instead of R4. In order to compare the data
coming from different distances from the radar, one has to normalize them with this ratio.

8.1.5 Reflectivity (in decibel or dBZ)

Return echoes from targets ("reflectivity") are analyzed for their intensities to establish the
precipitation rate in the scanned volume. The wavelengths used (1–10 cm) ensure that this
return is proportional to the rate because they are within the validity of Rayleigh scattering which
states that the targets must be much smaller than the wavelength of the scanning wave (by a
factor of 10).
Reflectivity perceived by the radar (Ze) varies by the sixth power of the rain droplets' diameter
(D), the square of the dielectric constant (K) of the targets and the drop size distribution (e.g.
N[D] of Marshall-Palmer) of the drops. This gives a truncated Gamma function, [Yau, M.K.;
Rogers, R.R. Short Course in Cloud Physics ] of the form:

Precipitation rate (R), on the other hand, is equal to the number of particles, their volume and
their fall speed (v[D]) as:

So Ze and R have similar functions that can be resolved giving a relation between the two of the
form:
Where a and b depend on the type of precipitation (snow, rain, convective or stratiform),
which has different K, N0 and v.
● As the antenna scans the atmosphere, on every angle of azimuth it obtains a certain
strength of return from each type of target encountered. Reflectivity is then averaged for
that target to have a better data set.

● Since variation in diameter and dielectric constant of the targets can lead to large
variability in power return to the radar, reflectivity is expressed in dBZ (10 times the
logarithm of the ratio of the echo to a standard 1 mm diameter drop filling the same
scanned volume).
8.1.6 How to read reflectivity on a radar display
Radar returns are usually described by colour or level. The colours in a radar image normally
range from blue or green for weak returns, to red or magenta for very strong returns. The
numbers in a verbal report increase with the severity of the returns. For example, the U.S.
National Doppler Radar sites use the following scale for different levels of reflectivity
[National Weather Service]
● magenta: 65 dBZ (extremely heavy precipitation, possible hail)

● red: 52 dBZ

● yellow: 36 dBZ

● green: 20 dBZ (light precipitation)

Strong returns (red or magenta) may indicate not only heavy rain but also thunderstorms, hail,
strong winds, or tornadoes, but they need to be interpreted carefully, for reasons described
below.
Aviation conventions
When describing weather radar returns, pilots, dispatchers, and air traffic controllers will
typically refer to three return levels [ Stoen, Hal (27 November 2001)]
● level 1 corresponds to a green radar return, indicating usually light precipitation and little
to no turbulence, leading to a possibility of reduced visibility.

● level 2 corresponds to a yellow radar return, indicating moderate precipitation, leading to

the possibility of very low visibility, moderate turbulence and an uncomfortable ride for
aircraft passengers.

● level 3 corresponds to a red radar return, indicating heavy precipitation, leading to the
possibility of thunderstorms and severe turbulence and structural damage to the aircraft.
● Aircraft will try to avoid level 2 returns when possible, and will always avoid level 3
unless they are specially-designed research aircraft.
Precipitation types
Some displays provided by commercial weather sites, like The Weather Channel, show
precipitation types during the winter month : rain, snow, mixed precipitations
(sleet and freezing rain). This is not an analysis of the radar data itself but a post-treatment
done with other data sources, the primary being surface reports (METAR) [Haby,
Jeff. "Winter Weather Radar] Over the area covered by radar echoes, a program assigns a
precipitation type according to the surface temperature and dew point reported at the
underlying weather stations. Precipitation types reported by human operated stations and
certain automatic ones (AWOS) will have higher weight. Then the program does
interpolations to produce an image with defined zones. These will include interpolation errors
due to the calculation. Mesoscale variations of the precipitation zones will also be
lost.[22] More sophisticated programs use the numerical weather prediction output from
models, such as NAM and WRF, for the precipitation types and apply it as a first guess to the
radar echoes, then use the surface data for final output.
Until dual-polarization (section Polarization below) data are widely available, any
precipitation types on radar images are only indirect information and must be taken with care.
8.1.7 Doppler interpretation
In a uniform rainstorm moving eastward, a radar beam pointing west will "see" the raindrops
moving toward itself, while a beam pointing east will "see" the drops moving away. When
the beam scans to the north or to the south, no relative motion is noted.[12]
Synoptic
In the synoptic scale interpretation, the user can extract the wind at different levels over the
radar coverage region. As the beam is scanning 360 degrees around the radar, data will come
from all those angles and be the radial projection of the actual wind on the individual angle.
The intensity pattern formed by this scan can be represented by a cosine curve (maximum in
the precipitation motion and zero in the perpendicular direction). One can then calculate the
direction and the strength of the motion of particles as long as there is enough coverage on
the radar screen.
However, the rain drops are falling. As the radar only sees the radial component and has a
certain elevation from ground, the radial velocities are contaminated by some fraction of the
falling speed. This component is negligible in small elevation angles, but must be taken into
account for higher scanning angles.[ Doviak, R. J.; Zrnic, D. S. (1993). Doppler radar and
Weather Observations]
Meso scale
In the velocity data, there could be smaller zones in the radar coverage where the wind varies
from the one mentioned above. For example, a thunderstorm is a mesoscale phenomenon
which often includes rotations and turbulence. These may only cover few square kilometers
but are visible by variations in the radial speed. Users can recognize velocity patterns in the
wind associated with rotations, such as mesocyclone, convergence (outflow boundary) and
divergence (downburst).

Fig:8.4

8.2. Police use a radar detector to determine the speed of a car as it moves down the
highway. Radar waves are transmitted from the police car at a certain frequency. Recall that
waves have both amplitude and frequency. When the waves bounce off a moving object their
frequency is affected. As the radio waves bounce of a car that is moving toward the detector
the frequency of the wave decreases. If the waves bounce of a car moving away from the
detector the frequency of the wave increases. The detector uses the difference in the
transmitted and received wave frequencies to determine the speed of the car.

Fig:8.5

8.3. Radar technology has now been built into a new flashlight sized device that can detect
human movement through a door or wall. The device can detect movement due to human
respiration from up to three metres away. The device will prove useful for police in detecting
criminals in an ambush situation, when doing bed checks in prisons or for determining the
location of hostages in a building. The device could also be used to locate the survivors of an
earthquake or avalanche.

8.4. Mining
Radar technology may also be used to detect land mines. NATO is spending millions to
develop a device to identify and neutralize land mines. The basic technology consists of two
antennas that focus radar energy to a point just below ground a few feet in front of the person
carrying the antenna. The device is programmed to ignore signals that bounce back from the
surface and to make buried objects shine brighter in the radar image. This allows the operator
to actually detect the land mines without ever touching the ground.

8.5. Astronomy
Doppler Effect is used to measure the speed at which stars and galaxies are approaching or
receding from us, in a mechanism named red shift or blue shift. Redshift happens when light seen
coming from an object that is moving away is proportionally increased in wavelength, or shifted
to the red end of the spectrum. Vice versa occurs with blue shift. Since blue light has a higher
frequency than red light, the spectral lines of an approaching astronomical light source exhibit a
blue shift and those of a receding astronomical light source exhibit a redshift.

Fig:8.6

8.6. Doppler ultrasound

A Doppler ultrasound is a noninvasive test that can be used to estimate the blood flow
through your blood vessels by bouncing high-frequency sound waves (ultrasound) off
circulating red blood cells. A regular ultrasound uses sound waves to produce images, but
can't show blood flow.

A Doppler ultrasound may help diagnose many conditions, including:

● Blood clots
● Poorly functioning valves in your leg veins, which can cause blood or other fluids to pool
in your legs (venous insufficiency)

● Heart valve defects and congenital heart disease

● A blocked artery (arterial occlusion)

● Decreased blood circulation into your legs (peripheral artery disease)

● Bulging arteries (aneurysms)

● Narrowing of an artery, such as in your neck (carotid artery stenosis)

Fig:8.7

A Doppler ultrasound can estimate how fast blood flows by measuring the rate of change in
its pitch (frequency). During a Doppler ultrasound, a technician trained in ultrasound imaging
(sonographer) presses a small hand-held device (transducer), about the size of a bar of soap,
against your skin over the area of your body being examined, moving from one area to
another as necessary. This test may be done as an alternative to more-invasive procedures,
such as angiography, which involves injecting dye into the blood vessels so that they show up
clearly on X-ray images. A Doppler ultrasound test may also help your doctor check for
injuries to your arteries or to monitor certain treatments to your veins and arteries.

9. Conclusion
The introduction of Doppler frequency shift measurement capability into weather radars has
opened new horizons for exploration by atmospheric scientists. The astounding success
achieved with these radars in detection of thunderstorm cyclones well in advance of tornado
formation should cause incorporation of coherent systems in new radars used for operation by
the national services. Advances in digital signal processing and display techniques have
allowed economical development of real time presentation of the three principle Doppler
Spectral moments. The techniques in this case are constantly improving and we believe that
important new scientific disclosures and new operational application in the different areas are
forthcoming. Doppler radars at centimetre wavelengths do not have a sufficiently large
velocity-range ambiguity product ra ua to match that required to observe, without obscuration,
severe convective storms. There is no comprehensive data and documentation that show the
full extent of the .problem nor is there any foreseeable solution. Thus it appears that storm
observers will have to accept some limitations in Doppler radar weather measurements. Dual
Doppler-radar observations of the kinematic structure of severe storms and the planetary
boundary layer (PBL) agree with theoretical models but much investigation is still required.
The Doppler weather radar shows promise of greatly increasing our knowledge of
thunderstorms and the planetary boundary layer on scales not before possible. Furthermore,
we can monitor significant mesoscale phenomena which are of importance to air traffic
safety, air pollution control, and (perhaps most important) we may be able to see the
triggering impulses of severe storms that each year cause such destruction. Increased power
and sensitivity of weather radars may soon result in the meteorologist being able to observe
the wind structure and its evolution throughout the troposphere The important advances in
meteorological observations brought forth by the application of Doppler techniques to
weather radars will continue in the future.. However, there is room for further improvement
in the radar system to reduce the deleterious effect of ambiguities while lessening data
acquisition time for observation of severe storm convection, shear, and turbulence in clear or
precipitation laden air. Thus Doppler radar has become a field of wide importance in different
areas of development including the medical field, mining, effective distance calculation. Thus
various researches are being carried out in this field for further advancement and to route out
all the possible backdrops.