PROPOSITION AND SENTENCES

IDEAS are expressed in WORDS which we call TERMS.

In the same way, JUDGEMENTS are expressed in SENTENCES we call
PROPOSITIONS.

DEFINITION:
 Proposition is a statement or assertion that expresses a judgment or opinion.
 Sentence is a set of words that is complete in itself, typically containing a subject
and predicate, conveying a statement, question, exclamation, or command.

PROPOSITION DISTINGUISHED FROM SENTENCES:

PROPOSITIONS SENTENCES

COMPOSITION • Is an expression of • Is made up of words.

judgment, is made up of
concepts.
IN • Is not the sentence itself, • In other words, a sentence
DECLARATIVE but that which is expressed is not the bearer of truth or
SENTECE or asserted, which is either falsehood because these
true or false. are properties of
Proposition.
MOREOVER • Propositions necessarily • But not all sentences
contain assertions. convey judgement.

TAKE NOTE:
• SOME SENTENCES DO NOT ASSERT OR DENY ANYTHING, HENCE CAN
NOT BE SAID TO BE EITHER TRUE OR FALSE.

EXAMPLES OF TYPES OF SENTENCES:

TYPE DEFINITION EXAMPLE

DECLARATIVE • Used to declare or state • We will not tolerate this.

SENTENCES something.

INTERROGATIVE • Used to ask questions. • What did you do when you

SENTENCES saw the dead body?
IMPERATIVE • Used to issue commands. • Please leave your
SENTENCES footwear outside.
EXCALMATORY • Used to express joy, • The monster is attacking!
SENTENCES surprise or some other
emotions.

 These types of sentences, plus those which take the form of request, proposal,
prayer, greeting, and etc., do not explicitly state that something is or is not.
 Clearly then, all propositions are sentences but not all sentences are
propositions.
 There is only one type of sentence that is of prime importance in logic because it
is through this form that judgements are plainly expressed, and that type of
sentence is a Declarative Sentence.
 Nonetheless, Declarative Sentences are still not synonymous with proposition
because proposition, technically speaking, refers to the judgement expressed in
a declarative sentence.
 THREE (3) BASIC TYPES OF PROPOSITION:

1. CATEGORICAL PROPOSITION
2. HYPOTHETICAL PROPOSITION
3. MODAL PROPOSITION

1. Categorical Proposition
 A proposition which declares something about two terms.
 A proposition that asserts or denies that all or some of the members of one
category (the subject term) are included in another (the predicate term).
 Symbols of Categorical Propositions:

NAME MEANING

A • UNIVERSAL AFFIRMATIVE (+)

• Uses: All, Every, An, The…
E • UNIVERSAL NEGATIVE (-)
• Uses: Are not, Is not…
I • PARTICULAR AFFIRMATIVE (+)
• Uses: Few, Some, Certain, Most…
O • PARTICULAR NEGATIVE (-)
• Uses: Some are not, Most are not…

 Example #1:

Name Statement Distribution

Subject Predicate
A All S are P. distributed undistributed
E No S are P. distributed distributed
I Some S are P. undistributed undistributed
O Some S are not P. undistributed distributed

 Example #2:
Sentece: “All apples are fruits.”

ALL APPLES ARE FRUITS.

(Quatifier) (Subject) (Copula) (Predicate)

 Quantifier (All): The quantifier determines the extension of the subject.

The quantifiers can be singular, particular, or universal. It should be noted,
however, that from the point of view of practical correct thinking, a singular
is a universal.
 Subject Term (apples): The subject is that part of a proposition about
which something is either affirmed or denied.
 Copula (are): The copula is the qualifier of the proposition. Because of it,
the proposition is either affirmative or negative.
 Predicate Term (fruits): The predicate term is that which is affirmed or
denied of a subject.
2. Hypothetical Proposition
 Does not declare an unconditional affirmation or denial, but expresses a relation
of dependence such as an opposition or a likeness between 2 clauses.
 There are three (3) of hypothetical proposition:

1. Conditional proposition
 Expresses a condition or relation of dependence between two
propositions. (Two parts are joined by if, unless, when, where, suppose, in
case, etc.)
 Sometimes known as the IF-THEN proposition.
 EXAMPLE:
“If a man is farsighted, then he needs eyeglasses.”
“If dry weather continues, then harvest will be poor.”

2. Disjunctive proposition
 One whose subject or predicate consists of parts which exclude each
other.
 Sometimes known as the EITHER-OR proposition.
 EXAMPLE:
“A body is either in motion or at test.”
“Either Pedro or Juan is dishonest.”

3. Conjunctive proposition
 One which denies that two contrary predicated together can be true of the
same subject at the same time.
 EXAMPLE:
“You cannot stand and sit at the same time.”
“You cannot be in Quiapo and in Makati at the same time.”

Distinction between Categorical and Hypothetical Proposition:

CATEGORICAL PROPOSITION HYPOTHETICAL PROPOSITION

• DECLARES SOMETHING • EXPRESSES SOMETHING

3. Modal Proposition
 The modal proposition is a composite single sentence in which the copula is so
modified as to express the manner or mode in which the predicate belongs to the
subject.
 The qualification does not affect the subject or the predicate. It affects the copula
itself. It states whether the objective connection between the subject and the
predicate, expressed by the copula, is necessary, impossible, possible, or
contingent.
 There are, then, four different modes, each producing a different type of
proposition.
MODE DEFINITION EXAMPLE
 Mode 1  The necessary modal  “A circle is round.”
proposition states that the  “Man is an animal.”
predicate belongs to the subject,  “Two plus two equal four.”
and must belong to it.

 Mode 2  The impossible proposition  “A square has five sides.”

states that the predicate does  “A dog is a rational animal.”
not and cannot belong to the  “Four plus four equal nine.”
subject.
 Mode 3  The possible proposition states
that the predicate is not actually
found in the subject, but it might
be.
 Mode 4  The contingent proposition
states that the predicate actually
belongs to the subject, but it
need not.
 “A diabetic may go into a coma.”
 “My truck can go over 100 miles
per hour.”
 “Paul may be a good student.”
 “These students need not attain
good grades.”
 “It is not necessary that the dog
keep on barking.”
 “I need not go to the dance
Friday night.”