DC Machines

• Types of rotating electrical machines

• How they work: motors & generators
• DC machine construction
• AC operation
• DC operation
• Armature winding arrangements
• EMF equation
1
H63EMA
 ROTATING ELECTRICAL MACHINES
Almost all of the rotating electrical machines work based on the same principles.

DC MACHINES
Shunt, series, separately and compound excited,
Brush PM

INDUCTION (ASYNCHRONOUS) MACHINES

Capacitor start (single phase, squirrel cage)
Shaded-pole (single phase, squirrel cage)
3 phase squirrel-cage
3 phase wound-rotor (or slip-ring)

SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES
3 phase conventional excitation
3 phase Brushless Permanent (PM) Magnet

SPECIAL ELECTRICAL MOTORS

2
Reluctance motors, Stepper motor, Universal motors……
H63EMA
Different Rotor Types Used in Rotating Electrical Machines

Solid-steel Squirrel- Salient-poled Semihard-steel

cage Squirrel-cage

Commutators

PM

Permanent Short-circuit Salient-poled Commutator-wound

Magnet winding steel 3
H63EMA
 How they work

Two electromagnetic conversion phenomena:

• Induced voltage: when a conductor moves in a

magnetic field, voltage is induced in the conductor.
(Generator action)

• Force and developed torque: when a current-carrying

conductor is placed in a magnetic field, the conductor
experiences a mechanical force. (Motor action)

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 a) Induced emf (back emf in motor operation),
Generator action

Faraday’s Law: v
e=Blv
moving conductor

In general, B

e = B l v sin θ
e
v
θ : angle between field
and conductor motion B

e 5
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 b) Force and developed torque
(Motor action)
F=Bli F i

The torque developed by

a conductor placed on the
current carrying
periphery of the armature: B conductor

T = (B l i) r
(r : radius of the armature) F

For the ideal machine : B

Te ωm = v i
i
Pmech = Pelc
Fleming’s Left-Hand Rule
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 Cross section of a permanent magnet motor

Stator
Direction of B

Winding Axis of
Rotor
Note it is
perpendicular to
the magnet flux

Rotor with Commutator and

End Frame with Brushes of
Simple Permanent Magnet
Machine
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H63EMA
 Torque Production in Rotating Machines

In any rotating electrical machine, the torque is obtained as a result of the interaction
of a current and a magnetic field. Depending upon the type of electrical machine, the
current flowing part and the part where the magnetic field is generated can be either
on the rotating part or on the stationary part.

T = ka BS i2 sin δ
DC MOTOR
n

. Direct current i1 is supplied to

BS
. the stator to establish BS and to
N S
. the rotor as i2 to establish BR .
δ
. The commutator maintains δ at
BR
the optimum 90o at any speed.

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H63EMA
 Direct Current (DC) Machines

DC machines are a family of rotating electromagnetic devices. DC currents

are required for both its field winding, located on the stator and its
armature winding located on the rotor.
Compare to AC machines:
• More costly
• Superior torque characteristics
• Higher efficiencies over their speed range

APPLICATIONS:
DC machines are usually used as motors for control purposes in industry,
such as in steel mills, paper mills, conveyors, robots, packaging machines,
textile machines, pump, fan and compressor
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 DC machines Construction

Brush holder Brushes

The commutator is the distinguishing characteristic of the dc machines.

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 DC machines Construction 11
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 The field
Produces the magnetic flux in the DC machines which is basically an
electromagnet composed of a set of salient poles bolted to the inside of a circular
frame. The frame is usually made of cast iron, the pole pieces are composed of
stacked iron laminations

FRAME : solid cast iron

POLE: stacked iron laminations
N

S S

4-pole DC machine

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 The armature
Consists of a commutator, an iron core and a set of coils. The armature conductors
carry the main current, and they are insulated from the iron core by several layers
of paper or mica. At high currents (exceeding 20A), rectangular conductors are
preferred.

fiber
iron teeth slot stick

1 3

2 4

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 The brushes :
Slide on the commutator and ensure good electrical contact. The poor contact
causes spark which burn the brushes and overheat and carbonize the
commutators. The brush sets are spaced at equal intervals around the
commutators.

Brush holder 14
Brushes
H63EMA
 TWO POLE DC MACHINE

Quadrature axis
Carbon
INTERPOLES
brushes
(COMMUTATING POLES)

Armature

Direct axis
(Field axis) Field

OR

Field
winding Armature winding
on the rotor
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 NAMEPLATE OF A DC MACHINE

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 NAMEPLATE OF A DC MACHINE

Insulation classes:

40 HP = 40 x746 = 29.84 kW : shaft power, TORQUE A: 105 oC, the

500V the rated armature voltage designed hot-spot
temperature

66.5A the rated armature current B: 130 oC

40oC, maximum ambient temperature F: 155 oC
H: 180 oC

F, Insulation class for the armature and field windings

1750/2300 rpm, the rated and the maximum allowable speed

SHUNT, designed to operate as a shunt machine

CONT, designed for continuous operation

3/2.1A, the rated current of the field winding for 240 V field supply

63Ω, the resistance of the field winding in ohms at 25oC

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H63EMA
 CONCLUSIONS
A DC machine
will have an induced EMF while rotating in a magnetic field
(GENERATING)
will develop a torque if the armature carries a current
(MOTORING)

THE EMF
IN A GENERATOR IN A MOTOR

Induced emf Back emf

(the available internal voltage) (opposes the terminal voltage)

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 AC operation n

N S

SLIP-RINGS B2 e
&
BRUSHES
B1

AC voltage induced in the armature winding as the rotor turns

under the magnetic field of the stator 19
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 DC Operation
n

N S
+ OUTPUT
e e
VOLTAGE

-
π
2π

The induced AC voltage in the armature winding

is converted to DC via commutator/brush combination
(MECHANICAL VERSION OF A DIODE !).
The commutator segments are insulated from the other as well as from the
20
motor shaft
H63EMA
 The ripple in the output (induced) voltage can be
reduced ... ! ωm

N S
Ideal voltage waveform
(average)
e
B2 B1

e ωt
0 π 2π

In modern DC generators : the ripple < 5% 21

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 Armature Winding Arrangements

turn  coil  winding

commutators

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 Windings Arrangements
There are two arrangements:

g g
In lap windings, the number of parallel paths (a) is h h

always equal to the number of poles(P) and

also the number of brushes. (high current ag b h c a db e c f d ge h f

(low voltage)) N S N S

In wave windings, the number of parallel paths (a) 8 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

is always two and there may be two or more _ _

+ +
brush positions. Looks like a wave (low
current)
17 18 19 20 21 17 18 19 20 21

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21

N S N S

15 16 17 18 19 20 21 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 1

+ - + - +

Please see handout for more explanation… 23

H63EMA
 THE EMF EQUATION

Let us define the following symbols to determine emf

by using the physical parameters of a DC machine.

p : number of field poles

φ : flux per pole, Wb
n : speed of rotation of the armature, rpm
Z : number of active conductors on the armature
a : number of parallel paths in the armature winding

For a lap winding a = p

For a wave winding a = 2

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 DERIVING THE EMF EQUATION
nφ p
φ
pφ npφ
60
flux cut by flux cut by flux cut per second
one conductor one conductor by one conductor
in a rotation in n rotation (rpm)

number of conductors in series

n φ p  Z  = E
60  a  a Ea =kaφ ωm
flux cut per second
by Z/a conductor

ka : the armature constant, the emf constant, torque constant.

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 THE ELECTROMAGNETIC TORQUE

φ) only, no loss
Assumptions ! no saturation, e = f(φ

P E Ia k a φ ω m Ia
Te = = = = k a φ Ia
ωm ωm ωm

Zp
ka =
2π a

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 Questions

• How can I increase generated voltage?

• By generator design?
• During operation?

• How can I increase generated torque?

• By generator design?
• During operation?

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 EXAMPLE
Determine the voltage induced in the armature of a DC machine running at 1750
rpm and having four poles. The flux per pole is 25 mWb, and the armature is
lap-wound with 728 conductors.
If the armature carries a current of 123 A. Calculate the electromagnetic torque
developed by the armature.
SOLUTION :

728 conductors in total

p=4 a = p (lap-winding)
φ = 25 mWb
Z = number of active conductor = 728
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H63EMA
 EXAMPLE
Determine the voltage induced in the armature of a DC machine running at 1750
rpm and having four poles. The flux per pole is 25 mWb, and the armature is lap-
wound with 728 conductors.
If the armature carries a current of 123 A. Calculate the electromagnetic torque
developed by the armature.

SOLUTION :

n φ p  Z  1750 x 25 x10 − 3 4  728 

Ea =  =   = 530
60  a  60  
 4 

Zp 728 x 4
Te = k a φ I a = φ Ia = 0.025 x 123 = 356.3 Nm
2πa 2π 4

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H63EMA
 CLASSIFICATION OF DC MACHINES
(MOTOR or GENERATOR)

Permanent Magnet DC Machines

Separately Excited DC Machines
Self Excited DC Machines
Shunt

Series
Compound
(Cumulative / Differential)
(Short / Long)
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 CLASSIFICATION OF DC MACHINES
SEPARATELY
SELF EXCITED DC MACHINES EXCITED
DC MACHINES

Shunt Series Compound

A1 A1
A1 Armature
F1
F1 F2
Field
Field F2 A2
A2 F1 F2
A2
Cumulative Differential
Compound Compound

Field Field Field Field

Field Field Short Long Field 31

Field
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Compound Compound
 CLASSIFICATION OF DC MACHINES
As they are illustrated in the previous slide, in separately excited DC machines,
the armature and field windings are electrically isolated. Each winding is
excited from a separate DC source. Permanent magnet DC machines are
equivalent to separately excited machine having constant excitation.

If the armature and the field voltages are the same, these machines can be
connected in parallel (SHUNT MACHINE).

In series DC machines The armature and field windings are electrically

connected in series. The series field carries the same current as the armature
(load current) and consists of only a few turns of thick wire.

The compound DC machine has two field windings: one connected in series
(series field) with the armature, and the other is connected in parallel (shunt
field) with the armature.

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 DC GENERATORS
ELECTRICAL
(DC) OUTPUT
Field current If
to establish flux

DC
MECHANICAL ωm GENERATOR
INPUT

How can the polarity of the generated voltage be changed ?

EITHER the direction of the rotation must be reversed , OR the field terminals
(shunt and series fields) must be swapped NOT BOTH !
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H63EMA
 MODELLING OF DC MACHINES
In this course, the armature and field windings of DC machines are modelled
in steady-state. In the equivalent circuits, the mechanical losses (windage and
friction) are not included.
FIELD
TERMINALS

+
DC supply +
ALWAYS !
- Ea

-
ωm

ARMATURE
TERMINALS 34
H63EMA
 SEPARATELY EXCITED DC GENERATOR

Armature A1

Field

A2
F1 F2

Excited from a separate DC source

Electrically isolated

Applications :
As excitation sources for large synchronous generators
As auxiliary and emergency power supplies.

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H63EMA
 EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT MODEL

ia

+
Lfw + La Ra
ea
vt

Rfw - -

if
+ v - ωm
f

The dynamic equations

d ia
v t = ea − i a Ra − La ea = ka φ ωm
dt
dif ea ia dω m
vf = R fw if + L fw Te = k a φ i a = =J + B ω m + TL
dt ωm dt
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H63EMA
 SEPARATELY EXCITED DC GENERATOR
Ia IL

+
+ Ra
Rfw
Ea Vt
RL

- -
Rfc

If Equivalent circuit model at steady-state

+ Vf -

Ea = Ra Ia + Vt

Vf = (Rfc + Rfw) If

Ea = ka φ ωm
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H63EMA
 SEPARATELY EXCITED DC GENERATOR

No-load operation and saturation curve (magnetisation curve, open-circuit

characteristic)

Vt = Ea
Ia = 0 (~ φ)
+
Rfw + Ra
Ea Vt V ωm(3)
ωm(2)
Rfc -
- ωm(1)
Saturation
If A Knee

+ Vf -
If

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H63EMA
 SEPARATELY EXCITED DC GENERATOR

Load characteristics

Vt = Ea - Ra Ia IL = Ia

Vt
Vt 0 ideal machine
Ra Ia drop

Brush contact
drop (~2V)
Armature
reaction drop

IL
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H63EMA
 SEPARATELY EXCITED DC GENERATOR

Voltage regulation

Vt = Ea - Ra Ia

Voltage Vt (no − load) − Vt (load)

regulation (%) = x 100
V t(load)

“+” voltage regulation a dropping characteristic

“-” voltage regulation a rising characteristic
“0” voltage regulation a flat characteristic

40
H63EMA
 EXAMPLE:

A separately excited generator has a no-load voltage of 125 V at a field current of 2A and a
speed of 1750 rpm. Assume that the generator is operating on the straight-line portion of its
saturation curve.
a) Calculate the generated voltage when the field current is increased
to 2.5A.
b) Calculate the generated voltage when the speed is reduced to
1650 rpm and the field current is increased to 2.75A.

SOLUTION:
Ra
+ Vt = Ea ωm = constant
Rfw +
Ea Vt = 125 V
-
-
If = 2A
Vf If
+ - n = 1750 rpm
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H63EMA
 SOLUTION:
Ea = ka φ ωm
ωm= 2 π n / 60

Vt = Ea
ωm 0 = constant
OR n = constant

Ea1

Ea0

If

If 0 If 1
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H63EMA
SOLUTION:

a)
Ea1 k a φ ω m 1 k a ′ I f 1 ω m 1 k a ′ ( 2. 5 ) ω m 0
= = ′ = ′
125 k a φ ω m 0 k a I f 0 ω m 0 k a ( 2.0 ) ω m 0

( 2.5)
E a1 = 125=156 .25V
( 2 .0)

b)
′
E a 2 k a ( 2.75)( 2π 1650 / 60)
=
125 k ′ ( 2.0) ( 2π 1750 / 60)
a

( 2.75)(1650 )
Ea 2 = 125 =162 .05V
( 2.0) (1750 )
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H63EMA
 SHUNT EXCITED DC GENERATOR

If IL

Ia +
Ra
Rfw
+ Vt RL

Rfc Ea
-
-

The generator itself provides its own field excitation.

Ea = Ra Ia + Vt Ea = ka φ ωm

Vt = Vf = Rf If = (Rfc + Rfw) If = RL IL Ia = IL +If

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H63EMA
 SHUNT EXCITED DC GENERATOR

Ea R f (critical)

(ωm= constant)

Ea(3) Rf = Vf / If (Rf = Rfc + Rfw)

(The field resistance line)
Ea(2)
Ea(res)
If
If1 If2 If3
Three factors affect the proper voltage buildup :
1. Residual magnetism (field winding)
2. Critical field winding resistance
3. Relative polarity of the field winding and the terminal voltage

45
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 SHUNT EXCITED DC GENERATOR
(Load characteristics)

Vt
Armature open-circuit voltage
~ 15% drop
Vt = f (IL)
Separately excited
Vt = Ea - Ra Ia DC generator
As Vt decreases with load,
field current also decreases
Ia = IL + If resulting in less generated
voltage…
IL

The main causes of the decrease in terminal voltage:

Armature resistance drop Brush contact drop
Armature reaction drop

46
H63EMA
 EXAMPLE:
A DC shunt generator has armature and field resistances of 0.2Ω Ω and 150Ω Ω,
respectively. The generator supplies 10 kW to a load connected to its terminals
at 230 V. Assuming that the total brush-contact voltage drop is 2V, determine
the induced voltage.

10 kW
If IL LOAD

Ia +
Ω
Ra = 0.2Ω
Ω
Rfw = 150Ω
+ Vt = 230V RL P = V t IL
VBR = 2V Ea
- -

n = constant 47
H63EMA
 Solution:

10 kW
If IL LOAD
P 10 000 Ia
IL = = = 43.48 A +

Vt 230 Ω
Rfw = 150Ω
Ω
Ra = 0.2Ω

+ Vt = 230V RL
VBR = 2V Ea
Vt 230 - -

If = = = 1.53 A
R f 150

I a = I L + I f = 43 .48 + 1.53 = 45 A

E a = V t + R a I a + VBD = 230 + ( 0 .2 ) ( 45 ) + 2 = 241V

48
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 Series DC generator
If IL The series field carries the load
current and consists of only a
Ia + few turns of thick wire.
Ra
Rs
Ea = (Ra + Rs) Ia + Vt
+ Vt RL
Ea
Ia = IL = If
- - Ea = ka φ ωm

Load characteristic At no-load, the generated

for the separately voltage is small due to residual
Vt & Ea excited DC generator
Ea
field flux only. When a load is
Ia (Ra + Rs ) added, the flux increases, so
does the generated voltage.
Vt
Beyond a certain load (since the field current is
the same as the load current) saturation will
cause the voltage to collapse to zero.
IL = Ia = If 49
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 Compound DC Generator
Compound

Cumulative Differential
Compound Compound

Field Field Field Field

Short Compound Long Compound

Field Field Field Field

50
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 Compound DC Generator

If the compound is too strong.

Vt (%) over-compound The generator manufacturers adds one or two
110 (cumulative) extra turns on the series winding so that the
terminal voltage increases at the load current rises.
If the compounding is too strong, a
100 low resistance (diverter resistance)
flat-compound can be placed in parallel with the
(cumulative) series field (effectively reducing
90
the number of turns of the field
under-compound winding).
(cumulative or shunt)

Full load
differential compound
In a differential compound generator, shunt and
series fields are in opposition. Hence the terminal
voltage drops very rapidly with the load.

0 IL(%)
0 100
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 EFFICIENCY (DC GENERATORS)

P P
= output = output
η (%) 100 100
P P + ∑ P
input output losses

Pinput Poutput
= Pmechanical Power flow in a DC generator
= Pelectrical
= Tshaft ωm = Vt IL

ELECTRICAL
ROTATIONAL LOSSES :
AND COPPER LOSSES
Magnetic or core loss (Ohmic losses, winding losses)
Mechanical losses
Stray load losses
52
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 Armature Reaction
Armature
Resultant
mmf Flux density distribution
mmf

N S
Field
mmf

The interaction between the fluxes produced by the

field windings and by the armature windings is
called “armature reaction”.
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 The effect of Armature Reaction
The magnetic field due to
armature reaction higher flux density,
results saturation

1 3

N S
2 4

higher flux density

results saturation
The total flux decreases (flux weakening).
It causes a reduction in the induced voltage.
For large machines: ~ 10% reduction !
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 The effect of Armature Reaction

• Armature Flux OPPOSES the Field Flux over

one half of the field pole
• Armature Flux AIDS Field Flux over the other
half
• Saturation of the pole magnetic material
prevents the decrease in flux under one pole
half being compensated by an increase over the
other half
• The result is a decrease of net flux cutting the
armature as armature current increases
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 The effect of Armature Reaction
(Problems)

• A decrease of flux with increasing armature current is

dangerous in shunt wound machines.
• Assume the machine is operating from a fixed DC voltage
source
• Reducing field flux causes speed increase
• Speed increase causes an increase in the mechanical load
power
• This requires more armature current
• Hence further reduction in field flux!
56
H63EMA
 Solutions to Armature Reaction
1. Use a very big field MMF compared to the armature.

This saturates the field pole so heavily that armature MMF has little
influence

2. Use a series machine

Here the field MMF increases as armature MMF increases ( However
series machines have widely varying speed with changing load)

3. Use a compound machine

Here the series field boosts the field mmf BUT stable, constant speed
is possible due to the shunt field which prevents field flux reducing
sharply as load is removed.

4. Use a Separately Excited Machine with Power Electronic Speed Control

the speed control loop causes the armature voltage to drop as load
is applied and the effective field flux drops. Hence no instability.

57
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 Expensive Solution to
Armature Reaction

1. A compensating winding on the stator

which
2. Is connected in series with the armature
3. Mirrors the rotor winding.
4. Carries the same current
5. Opposes and neutralises the armature
mmf at the air gap
6. Result is no armature reaction
58
H63EMA
 Compensating Windings
are used to neutralise the effect of armature reaction

Compensating
windings (in series with
the armature windings, carries
current in opposite direction)
N S

Used in DC machines in the 100 kW to 10 MW range employed in steel mills,

perform a series of rapid and heavy duty operation.

59
H63EMA
 Compensating Windings

Opened Out Machine Cross Section of 2 Poles

of a Compensated DC Machine
Stator

Rotor
Net MMF (Current) Enclosed in
Loop
60
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 Commutation
I/2 I/2

I/2
A I
3 2 1 Motion Segment 1
time
Brush
0
I

I/2 I/2 e=Ldi/dt.

I/2 Segment 1 and 2
A
3 2 1 Motion Segment 1
time
Brush 0 tc
I

I/2 I/2

I/2 Segment 1 and 2 I/2

I A
3 2 1 Segment 1 Segment 2
Motion time

Brush 0 tc 61
I
H63EMA
 Poor commutation is indicated by
arcing at the trailing edge of the
brush.

Brush

Commutators

n
62
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Methods of improved commutation
Commutation problem can be eased:

By adding extra poles (interpoles)

Opened Out Machine Cross Section of 2 Poles

q-axis
Showing Interpoles
Interpole Stator
(commutating)
Main field winding
winding +
Ea
d-axis

Rotor
Compensating
winding

See separate handouts for more details on

commutation 63
H63EMA
 DC MOTORS
The operation is based on the force on a current carrying
conductor.

Their equivalent circuits looks exactly like that of a
DC generator, except the direction of the current.

Ia

Rfw + Ra +
Ea Ea Vt SUPPLY

If - -
+ Vf -

Used where there is a need for variable-speed drives.

64
H63EMA
 SEPARATELY EXCITED DC MOTOR
Ia

+ Ra +
Rfw
Ea Vt DC voltage source 1

- -
Rfc

ωm
If
+ Vf -

DC voltage source 2

1 It is the most flexible DC motor connection.

2 Suitable for feedback control.
3 The effects of demagnetising armature reaction and the voltage
drop effects can be compensated by increasing field excitation.
65
H63EMA
 Ra Ia

+ +
Rfw
Ea
Vt = Ea + Ra Ia
Vt
Rfc - -

If ωm
+ Vf -
Vf = (Rfc + Rfw) If = Rf If

Assuming : No saturation
No armature reaction
If = constant

T = ka φ Ιa = ka (kf Ιf) Ιa = kT Ιa
Ea = ka φ ωm = ka (kf Ιf) ωm = kT ωm
Motor Constant: kT = ka kf Ιf Nm/A
66
H63EMA
 SHUNT EXCITED DC MOTOR
Used for constant speed applications, centrifugal pumps, fans
and machine tools.

If It

Ia +V Vt = Ea + Ra Ia
Vf = (Rfw + Rfc) If t
Ra
+ Ea = ka φ ωm
Rfw
Ea T = ka φ Ιa
Rfc -
- Vt − I a R a
ωm =
ka φ
If = 0 ? (what is going to happen)

67
H63EMA
 SHUNT EXCITED DC MOTOR
(Torque-speed characteristic)

Vt = Ea + Ra Ia Ea = ka φ ωm T = ka φ Ιa

1 Ra
ωm = Vt − 2
T
ka φ ( k a φ)
ωm, n

0 Torque, T
If Vt and φ = constant , for a given load, the speed decreases linearly
with torque
! In a practical machine, the denominator term also decreases due
to the armature reaction.  CONSTANT SPEED APPLICATIONS
68
H63EMA
 SERIES DC MOTOR
Used in electric traction applications and overhead cranes , due to their high
starting torque characteristics.

Ia If +
Ra
Vt = Ea + (Ra + Rs ) Ia
+ Rs Vt
Ea = ka φ ωm = ka (ksΙa) ωm = k Ιa ωm Ea
- -
ωm
In the unsaturated region :
T = ka φ Ιa = ka (ks Ιa) Ιa = k Ιa2
In the saturation region:
T = ka φ Ιa = ka (ks Ιa) Ιa = k Ιa1

69
H63EMA
 SERIES DC MOTOR (T-n , T-Ia)

n
Ia
T versus Ia V R
ω = t − a
m k I k
a
V R
T versus n = t − a
(Vt = constant) T/ k k

High starting T
0
T
lightly loaded region
(Small Ia)

The loads in series DC motors should not be removed

! completely or reduced to very low levels
70
H63EMA “mechanical runaways !”
 COMPOUND DC MOTOR
(cumulative compound motor)

If Ia + It
Ra
Rfw + Rs Vt
Ea
Rfc -
-

ωm differential compound
Vt = Ea + Ra Ia + Rs It

It = Ia + If

Ea = ka φ ωm cumulative compound

Te = ka φ Ιa
0 T71
H63EMA
 EFFICIENCY : DC MOTORS

Poutput
Pinput = Pelectrical Power flow in a DC motor = Pmechanical
= V t IL = Tshaft ωm

ROTATIONAL LOSSES:
ELECTRICAL AND Magnetic or core loss
COPPER LOSSES : Mechanical losses
Armature copper loss Stray load losses
Shunt field copper loss
Series field copper loss
Brush electrical loss

Poutput Poutput
η(%)= 100 = 100
Pinput Poutput + ∑ Plosses
72
H63EMA
 SPEED REGULATION
The performance measure of interest is the speed regulation.
“Analogous to the voltage regulation in DC generators”

n (no − load) − n (full − load)

Speed regulation (%) = x 100
n (full − load)

“+” the motor speed decreases when the load is increased

“-” the motor speed increases when the load is increased

DC shunt motor : about 5-10 % speed regulation

DC compound motor : about 15-30 % speed regulation
DC series motor : “running away”

73
H63EMA
 STARTING OF DC MOTORS Ia
+
Rfw + Ra
Ea Vt
A typical 50 hp, 230 V
motor has an armature - -
Rfc
resistance of 0.05Ω. When
the motor is at rest ( ωm = 0 If ωm
and Ea = 0), the armature + Vf -
current Ia becomes

V − E 230 − 0
I = t a = = 4600 A
a(start)
R 0 . 05
a
“There is one possibility to limit the starting current : applying a reduced voltage
at starting”

by using an external resistor

or by using a variable DC source
74
H63EMA
 Rexternal

Ia +
Rfw + Ra
variable Vt
Ea
DC supply
- -
Vf = constant
Vt = Ea + Ra Ia

Ea = ka φ ωm
Ia +
Rfw + Ra
Ea variable
Vt
DC supply
- -
Vf = constant

“During the acceleration period of the DC motor, Ea increases

and as a result of this, the armature current decreases”
75
H63EMA
 BRAKING OF DC MOTORS
In practical applications, due to the high system inertia, the deceleration time of a DC
machine might be very high.

+ Ra ia
Rfw
Ea vt

Rfc -

ωm
J = Jmotor + Jload
If = constant + Vf -

dω m − v t + ka φ ω m
ka φ i a = J ia =
dt Ra 76
H63EMA
 THE METHODS OF BRAKING:
a) “Regenerative braking”

ia + ia +
Rfw + Ra Rfw + Ra
Ea Ea
Vsupply Vsupply
Rfc - Rfc -

If ωm If ωm
J
+ Vf - + Vf -

flywheel
load

The kinetic energy of the rotating system is stored in a battery or a flywheel by means of
the generator action of the DC machine.

77
H63EMA
 THE METHODS OF BRAKING:
b) “Dynamic braking or resistance braking”

Rfw + Ra ia + Rfw + Ra ia +
Ea Ea vt Rext
Vsupply
Rfc - Rfc -

If ωm If ωm
J J
+ Vf - + Vf -
Τe
Τreverse

− v t + ka φ ω m
ia =
Rext + Ra
The current flows in the opposite direction (generating), therefore a
reverse torque is developed whose magnitude depends upon ia.
78
H63EMA
THE METHODS OF BRAKING:
c) “Plugging”

Rfw + Ra ia + Rfw + Ra ia EITHER Vdc

Ea Vdc Ea
+
- Rfc -
Rfc
ωm J ωm J
If Τe If
+ Vf - - +

OR Vf

Rfw + Ra ia Rext Rfw + Ra ia Rext

Ea Vdc Ea Vdc
Rfc + -
+
- Rfc
ωm J J
If If
+ +

Vf − (Vt + E a ) Vf
Ia =
R total When the motor is stopped
79
H63EMA
 SUMMARY: Braking of DC motors

Speed (%)

100

0 time (s)
0 τ0 2τ0 3τ0
80
H63EMA
 Permanent Magnet (PM)
DC Machines

1. Basically a dc machine with the field

winding replaced by a permanent
magnet.

2. Effectively no field weakening

81
H63EMA
 PM BRUSH DC MOTORS

Permanent Magnet
Ia
Ia
+
Rfw + Ra + Ra +
Ea Vt
Rfc - - Ea Vt

If ωm - -
+ Vf -

They create the fields

82
H63EMA
 Ia

+ Ra +
Vt = Ea + Ra Ia
Ea Vt
Ea = kc ωm
-
- back emf or T = kc Ιa
torque
constant Vt − k c ω m

torque
T = kc
Ra
Linear T-n
Vt
T = Tstart = k c
Ra

Vt(3) Vt(2) Vt(1)

0 speed
0
Vt
ω max =
kc 83
H63EMA
 PM BRUSH DC MOTORS
ADVANTAGES: DISADVANTAGES:

1. Smaller in size than… 1. Absence of field control

2. Higher efficiency (no
field coil power loss)
3. High stall (starting)
torque
4. Linear speed-torque
characteristics
c.f. …
2. Demagnetisation might
occur
3. Normally require a high
number of poles to
avoid demagnetisation
with low magnet
volumes

84
H63EMA
 DETERMINATION OF DC MACHINE
PARAMETERS
Ra , Rfw : are the total electrical
dia resistances of the armature and
v t = e a + ia R a + L a
dt the field windings
La , Lfw : are the inductances of the
dif armature and the field windings
vf = R fw if + L fw (given as a position averaged value
dt in Henries)
ka :is a function of open circuit
ea = ka φ ωm voltage (average voltage) at a
specified temperature (25oC),
volt/rad/sec.
dω m J : is the total moment of inertia
Te = J + B ω m + TL B : the viscous damping coefficient,
dt
(usually ignored)
85
H63EMA
 SPEED CONTROL OF DC MOTORS
The motor’s equations (at steady-state)

Ra La
+
Ia
Lf Rf If
Va Ea
Vf

armature field

V
a =R I + E
a a a
Ea = k φ f ω Vf =RI f f

ea ia
T= kφ f ia = = TL 86
H63EMA
ω
 SPEED CONTROL

Va − Ia (R a + R ext )
ωm =
K a φf

1. armature circuit resistance (Ra + Rexternal)

2. armature voltage (variable va)
3. excitation flux linkage (variable φf)

87
H63EMA
 THE TORQUE CONTROL

ea ia
T = kφ f ia = = Bω + TL
ω
THE TORQUE OF THE MOTOR CAN BE CONTROLLED BY

1. armature current (ia)

2. excitation flux linkage (variable φf)

88
H63EMA
 In practice, two types of voltage
controllers are used :

1) The armature voltage controller

(for speeds below base speed)

2) The field voltage controller

(for speeds above base speed).
89
H63EMA
 Torque Speed Characteristics

T,P CONSTANT TORQUE REGION

(Operation below the rated speed) CONSTANT POWER REGION
(Operation above the rated speed)
Torque

Ea = kT ωm
Power
Ea = ka φ ωm
base
speed
0 n
(Field weakening,
(Armature voltage variation,
Ia is held constant)
maximum torque by the maximum excitation)

T = kT Ιa P = Ea Ia = (kf Ιf) ωm Ia
90
H63EMA
 Modern DC motor drives incorporate
electronic control facilities : DC-DC
CONVERTERS (for use on fixed voltage DC
supplies) I a

+ Ra +
Rfw +

Ea Vt Vbattery
-
If - -

+ Vf -
vt
solid-state switches or ton
(transistor, thyristor) vf
+ -
vaverage
Vbattery
vaverage

0 Τ time
91
H63EMA
 Speed control block diagram
(with transistor)
ia
+
Vs va
Ra
CONTROL
CIRCUIT
Ref.
La

ea
field
winding

current feedback

speed feedback
or another vf
DC chopper
92
H63EMA
 Controlled Rectifiers
vt
for use on AC supplies
or
vf
Vaverage

ωt
0

+ Ra +
Rfw
Ea Vt
~
If - AC Vsource
-
+ Vf -

controlled rectifiers
~ (thyristor bridges)
AC Vsource 93
H63EMA
 The DC motor drive
(with a line-commutated converter)
Controlled
bridge rectifier Vdc ia
VARIABLE DC
AC va SUPPLY
SUPPLY
Ra

La

CONTROL
CIRCUIT ea
field
winding

Ref. current feedback

speed feedback

94
H63EMA
 DC Motor Control
(with back-to-back rectifier group)

Converter 1 Converter 2
(Positive rectifier) (Negative rectifier)
ia

Ra

v1 La
v2 va
v3
ea

95
H63EMA