Applied Ocean Research 32 (2010) 83–90

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Applied Ocean Research

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/apor

A comparison of computational and experimental results of Wells turbine

performance for wave energy conversion
Zahari Taha a , Sugiyono a,∗ , Tatsuo Sawada b
a
Centre for Product Design and Manufacturing, University of Malaya, Lembah Pantai, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
b
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Keio University, 3-14-1 Hiyoshi, Kohoku-ku, Yokohama 223-8522, Japan

article info abstract

Article history: This paper presents an investigation on the performance of a Wells turbine for wave energy conversion
Received 28 July 2009 using computational fluid dynamics (CFD). The investigation was performed on numerical models of a
Received in revised form NACA0020 blade profile with various uniform tip clearances under steady flow conditions. The main
24 January 2010
objective of this investigation is to compare computational and experimental results, particularly for the
Accepted 20 April 2010
Available online 23 May 2010
cases of tip clearance to chord length ratios of 0.0056 and 0.0111. Further, the effect of tip clearance on
the turbine performance can also be observed. It was shown that there was good agreement between
Keywords:
the computational and experimental results for both cases of tip clearance to chord length ratio in terms
Wave energy conversion of torque and power coefficients, and efficiency. It was also shown clearly that the turbine performance
Wells turbine is influenced significantly by tip clearance. The tip leakage flow constituted an important factor which
NACA0020 blade profile determined the turbine performance. An investigation on the flow-field around the turbine blade was
Tip clearance performed to explain the phenomena.
CFD © 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction pneumatic chamber, which then forces an oscillating airflow above

Ocean wave energy is one of the renewable forms of energy
which can be utilized in response to the disturbing prospect
of an exhaustible source of energy. Since ocean wave energy is
so conspicuous, many researchers have been inspired to devise
methods of converting this energy into more usable forms. Various
energy conversion methods have been proposed [1] and one of
them is based on the oscillating water column (OWC) system. A
practical device using an OWC system was firstly developed by
Masuda [2], which was designed to provide power to navigation
aids such as light buoys. Today, the OWC system represents the
most studied wave energy converter, and has been successful in
harnessing wave energy [3,4], and is relatively easy to maintain and
repair [5].
Essentially, an OWC system, as shown in Fig. 1, consists of a
capture pneumatic chamber that opens at the bottom front to the
incident wave, an air turbine and an electrical generator [6]. In
its energy conversion chain, the incident wave motion will excite
an oscillation of the free surface of the entrained water in the
∗ Corresponding address: Centre for Product Design and Manufacturing, Depart-
ment of Engineering Design and Manufacture, Faculty of Engineering, University of
Malaya, Lembah Pantai, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. Tel.: +60 3796675200; fax:
+60 379675330.
E-mail address: sugiyono_ugm@yahoo.com (Sugiyono).
0141-1187/$ – see front matter © 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.apor.2010.04.002
the water surface. This process illustrates an energy conversion of
which the hydraulic energy stored in wave motion is converted
into pneumatic energy in the form of a bi-directional airflow. The
subsequent process of energy conversion will be performed by
means of the turbine to extract mechanical shaft power from the
bi-directional airflow, which is then converted into electricity by
the generator.
The most critical issue in an OWC system is the energy
conversion efficiency, which ultimately depends on the turbine
performance. The turbine should be unidirectional rotating despite
being in a bi-directional airflow. For the sake of operation, a Wells
turbine is commonly used. This turbine is the simplest kind of
self-rectifying turbine, which comprises a number of symmetrical
airfoil blades positioned around a rotor hub. The airflow around
the blades will produce a resultant force with a component in
the direction of rotation. This driving force is still in the forward
direction when the airflow reverses.
In the past two decades, investigations on Wells turbine per-
formance have mainly been performed experimentally. However,
there is a difficulty due to the interpretation of experimental re-
sults when this method is not able to provide detailed descriptions
of the flow. On the other hand, the development achieved in com-
puter hardware and software has made computational fluid dy-
namics (CFD) methods become an alternative tool to overcome the
aforementioned problem. Moreover, this method is able to provide
modeling capabilities for a wide range of fluid flow, and has proven
to provide highly accurate predictions [5].
84 Z. Taha et al. / Applied Ocean Research 32 (2010) 83–90
Fig. 1. Oscillating water column system.
There are several reports of the investigation on Wells turbines
using CFD. Takao et al. [4] used CFD to clarify the performance
improvement of a Wells turbine due to the effect of end
plates, and its effectiveness was demonstrated. Kim et al. [5]
investigated the effect of blade sweep on the performance of
a Wells turbine, and compared the performance of NACA0020
and CA9 blade profiles. Watterson and Raghunathan [7] studied
the effect of solidity on the performance of a Wells turbine
with NACA0015 blade profile. The effect of blade geometry
with several hub-to-tip ratios and aspect ratios of rotor on
the performance of a Wells turbine with NACA0020 blade
profile was studied by Kim et al. [8]. In order to investigate
hysteretic phenomena of a Wells turbine, numerical investigations
have been conducted under unsteady flow conditions [9–11].
Dhanasekaran and Govardhan [12] investigated the performance
and aerodynamics of a Wells turbine with NACA0021 constant
chord blade, while performance improvement using a variable
chord blade was studied by Govardhan and Chauhan [13].
This paper describes the use of CFD to investigate the perfor-
mance of a Wells turbine with various uniform tip clearances, in
which the size of the gap between the tip and casing is the same
from the leading to trailing edges of the turbine blade. The investi-
gation was carried out on a three-dimensional numerical model of
a NACA0020 blade profile under steady flow conditions. The main
objective of this investigation is to compare the computational re-
sults with the experimental ones of Takao et al. [14], particularly
for the cases of tip clearance to chord length ratio of 0.0056 and
0.0111. Further, the effect of tip clearance on the turbine perfor-
mance can also be observed. Moreover, an investigation on the
flow-field around the turbine blade was conducted in order to ex-
plain the turbine performance.
2. Numerical method
The present work was performed by means of a numerical
method using a CFD code called FLUENT. The method solves
the three-dimensional, steady, incompressible Reynolds-averaged
Navier–Stokes equations. The Reynolds stress is related to the
mean velocity gradients by employing the Boussinesq approach,
while the turbulence model adopts the Realizable k–ε model. The
non-equilibrium wall functions are used for near-wall modeling
by considering their capability to deal with complex flows
involving separations, reattachment or any other non-equilibrium
effects, and strong pressure gradients. The basic governing
equations are solved in the absolute frame and discretized by
the finite volume technique. The discretization schemes used in
this calculation are as follows: standard scheme for pressure;
Table 1
Specification of the turbine model.
Blade profile NACA0020
Number of planes 1
Number of blades 6
Blade chord length 90 mm
Solidity at mean radius 0.67
Casing diameter 300 mm
Hub diameter 210 mm
Mean radius 127.5 mm
Tip clearance to chord length ratio 0.0056, 0.0083, 0.0111 and 0.0139
Blade sweep ratio 0.35
Width of flow passage 45 mm
SIMPLE algorithm for pressure–velocity coupling; and second-
order accurate upwind scheme for momentum, turbulence kinetic
energy (k) and turbulence dissipation rate (ε ).
The specification of the turbine model for this calculation
is summarized in Table 1. Note that the adopted turbine rotor
is the most promising one in previous studies [15,16]. By
considering the symmetry of the turbine geometry, and in order
to make the calculation practical, the computational domain of
the turbine model is restricted to one blade-to-blade passage with
periodic boundaries. The computational domain is also limited
to four and eight blade chord lengths upstream and downstream
from the blade row, respectively. The perspective view of the
computational domain for the turbine model is illustrated in
Fig. 2. For the boundary conditions, the inlet velocity and static
pressure are imposed on the inflow and outflow boundaries,
respectively, which are normal to the axis of turbine. Periodic
boundaries are applied on the pairs of surfaces which constitute
the circumferential sides of the domain. A moving reference frame
is employed on the fluid zone which had the rotational speed
equivalent to that of the rotor. No-slip conditions are used for the
blade and the hub surfaces.
Fig. 3 illustrates the mesh employed on the computational
domain, which consists of structured, hexahedral grids. This has
been achieved by decomposition of the model geometry into
meshable pieces for mapping and sub-mapping grid algorithms.
The total number of grids is approximately 295,500. As shown in
the figure, mapping grids of O-type are applied surrounding the
blade. Further, there are five grids in the span-wise direction which
are imposed in the tip clearance region, and then the sub-mapping
grids are only used in this region.
The calculations on each case of tip clearance are carried
out under steady flow conditions for various values of the flow
coefficient (φ ), which is defined as the ratio of the axial velocity
 Z. Taha et al. / Applied Ocean Research 32 (2010) 83–90
Fig. 2. Perspective view of computational domain (l: blade chord length).
Fig. 3. Computational grid.
of the inlet flow (v ) to the circumferential velocity of the blade at
mean radius (U),
v mental one, while the input coefficient is almost the same. Hence,
φ= . (1)
U
In this study, the various values of flow coefficient were
achieved by varying the rotational speed of the rotor at a constant
value of the axial velocity. Reynolds number is based on the
blade chord length and relative velocity at mean radius, which is
about 0.74 × 105 to 4.41 × 105 . Furthermore, for the solution
initialization, the calculations are performed under the absolute
reference frame and the axial velocity is set to zero. During the
solution process, the default under-relaxation factors are selected
to control the update of computed variables, which is found to
be near optimal for a large number of cases. The convergence of
solution is monitored by checking the residuals of the numerically
solved governing equations. Moreover, in order to judge the
convergence, the behaviour of other quantities, such as the total
pressure at the inlet and outlet boundaries, and torque coefficient
generated by the rotor, are also monitored. Here, the default
convergence criterion of each residual is reduced in order to allow
the monitored quantities to stagnate at consistent values. Finally,
the convergence of the solution is checked for mass balance in
which the calculations on each case of tip clearance results in the
net mass imbalance of less than 0.001%.
3. Results and discussion
In this study, the turbine performance is expressed in the form
of three dimensionless parameters which are torque coefficient
85
(CT ), input coefficient (CA ) and efficiency (η). The definitions of
these parameters are as follows [14]:
T
CT =   (2)
ρ v + U 2 hlzr /2

2
1pQ
CA =   (3)
ρ v 2 + U 2 hlz v/2

Tω CT
η= = (4)
1pQ CA φ
where T , Q , 1p, ω, ρ , l, h, r, and z denote the turbine output torque,
flow rate, total pressure drop across the turbine, turbine angular
velocity, density of air, chord length, width of flow passage, mean
radius, and number of rotor blades, respectively. In addition, as
stated above, the calculations are carried out for various values of
flow coefficient. However, this study is only confined to a value of
flow coefficient when stalling occurs. As presented in Kim et al. [5],
the stall point is decided by a decrease in the turbine torque
coefficient.
The performance of the Wells turbine is computed on a
NACA0020 blade profile with various uniform tip clearances, which
are 0.5 mm, 0.75 mm, 1 mm and 1.25 mm, or in term of tip clear-
ance to chord length ratio, TC ∗ = 0.0056, 0.0083, 0.0111 and
0.0139. Firstly, computations were carried out for the cases of
TC ∗ = 0.0056 and 0.0111. Their computational results are then
compared with the experimental values of Takao et al. [14]. Subse-
quent computations were performed to predict the performance
of the cases of TC ∗ = 0.0083 and 0.0139.
Figs. 4 and 5 present a comparison of the turbine performance
between the computational and experimental results for TC ∗ =
0.0056 and 0.0111, respectively. From both figures it can be ob-
served that within the range of the flow coefficients given, the
computational results of the torque coefficient, input coefficient
and efficiency are very close to the experimental values of Takao
et al. [14].
For the case of TC ∗ = 0.0056 (Fig. 4), the torque coefficient of
the computational result is slightly lower than that of the experi-
the turbine efficiency of the computational result is slightly lower.
The value of peak efficiency differs by approximately 1% and oc-
curs at almost the same value of flow coefficient of both computa-
tional and experimental results. Moreover, it also can be observed
in Fig. 4 that the stall point is predicted with quite good accuracy.
On the other hand for the case of TC ∗ = 0.0111, the three parame-
ters of the computational result are slightly higher than those of the
experimental one, as shown in Fig. 5. The value of peak efficiency
differs by approximately 1% and is predicted at the value of flow
coefficient which is very close to the experimental one. However,
the stall margin is predicted slightly wider.
Fig. 6 depicts the computational results of the turbine perfor-
mance with various values of tip clearance to chord length ratio
(TC ∗ ). It can be observed that the effect of tip clearance signifi-
cantly influences the torque and input coefficients as well as the
efficiency. Globally a small TC ∗ results in higher values of the three
parameters than a larger TC ∗ for low values of flow coefficient.
Moreover, from the viewpoint of the turbine efficiency it can be
seen that the peak efficiency of the turbine decreases and shifts to-
wards a higher flow coefficient as TC ∗ increases. In addition, the
stall margin also becomes wider. The highest peak efficiency is
obtained from the smallest ratio of tip clearance to chord length
(TC ∗ = 0.0056), but the stall appears the earliest. Thus the oper-
ational range of flow becomes relatively narrow, in which the tur-
bine operates with good efficiency only within a limited range of
flow around the peak efficiency point. The use of a turbine with a
narrow operational range is disadvantageous in the irregular air-
flow which occurs in the sea [14]. Generally, a wider operational
86 Z. Taha et al. / Applied Ocean Research 32 (2010) 83–90

0.7 6
Experimental of Takao et al.[14]
Experimental of Takao et al.[14]
0.6 Computational
5 Computational

0.5
4
0.4

cA
cr

0.3 3

0.2
2
0.1
1
0

-0.1 0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
φ φ
(a) Torque coefficient. (b) Input coefficient.

60
Experimental of Takao et al.[14]
Computational
50

40
η(%)

30

20

10

0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
φ
(c) Efficiency.

Fig. 4. Comparison of turbine performance between computational and experimental results for TC ∗ = 0.0056.

range of turbine with good efficiency is desirable in view of the to-
tal annual production of electrical energy.
In order to explain the effect of tip clearance as described above,
an investigation on the flow-field around the turbine blade was
also performed. Fig. 7(a)–(d) illustrate the circumferential veloc-
ity contours on the plane of constant radius through 50% width of
flow passage (h) for TC ∗ = 0.0056, 0.0083, 0.0111 and 0.0139, re-
spectively. The four figures show the velocity contours at the flow
coefficients, φ = 0.09, 0.20 and 0.32, while the direction of the ax-
ial flow is from the left to right sides in each figure. As shown in the
four figures, at a low flow coefficient (φ = 0.09) the boundary layer
on the suction surface is relatively thin and attached from the lead-
ing to trailing edges. A separated region appears behind the trailing
edge, which is followed by a wake extending toward the down-
stream periodic boundary and then re-entering at the upstream
periodic boundary. It also can be seen that the wake formed by
the front side blade interacts with the boundary layer. As the flow
coefficient increases, the separated region tends to be larger and
creeps forward, while the interaction between the wake formed by
the front side blade and the boundary layer becomes weaker. These
phenomena excite the boundary layer to be thicker and to separate
from the suction surface. A deep separation of the boundary layer
can lead to a stall condition of the turbine.
Further, it can be seen in Fig. 7(a)–(d) that at φ = 0.09 and 0.20
there is no significant difference in the velocity contours for the
four cases of TC ∗ . The difference can be seen clearly at φ = 0.32,
in which the boundary layer for TC ∗ = 0.0056 is thicker than the
others. Immediately, this reveals the effect of different tip clear-
ances. Furthermore, it also can be observed that the cases of TC ∗ =
0.0083, 0.0111 and 0.0139 result in velocity contours almost the
same at φ = 0.32. A possible reason may be that the performances
of the three cases of TC ∗ are very close (see Fig. 6). On the other
hand, it should be noted that the case of TC ∗ = 0.0056 is in a stall
condition at φ = 0.32, while the others are not (see Fig. 6). How-
ever, as shown in Fig. 7(a), the boundary layer separation does not
appear considerable on the plane at 50% h for the case of TC ∗ =
0.0056, at φ = 0.32. A further explanation can be offered by ob-
serving Fig. 8.
Fig. 8(a)–(c) present the circumferential velocity contours on
planes of constant radius through 5% h, 50% h and 95% h, respec-
tively. The figures are for TC ∗ = 0.0056, at φ = 0.32 (stall condi-
tion), while the direction of the axial flow is from the undercarriage
to the upper sides in each figure. As shown in Fig. 8(c), considerable
boundary layer separation occurs on the plane at 95% h which is
just beneath the tip. On the other hand, that separation behaviour
is not encountered in Fig. 8(a) and (b). It indicates that the stall
condition of the turbine is induced strongly by the flow around the
tip which is due to the tip leakage flow. Further, it is interesting to
observe in Fig. 8(a) that the boundary layer remains attached over
almost the entire blade chord on the plane at 5% h, which is just
above the hub. When compared with Fig. 8(c), hence it can be con-
cluded that the effect of the flow around the tip is more significant
in the process of turbine stall than that around the hub.
 Z. Taha et al. / Applied Ocean Research 32 (2010) 83–90 87

0.7 6
Experimental of Takao et al.[14]
Experimental of Takao et al.[14]
Computational
0.6
5 Computational

0.5
4
0.4
cr

cA
0.3 3

0.2
2
0.1
1
0

-0.1 0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
φ φ
(a) Torque coefficient. (b) Input coefficient.

60
Experimental of Takao et al.[14]
Computational
50

40
η(%)

30

20

10

0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
φ
(c) Efficiency.

Fig. 5. Comparison of turbine performance between computational and experimental results for TC ∗ = 0.0111.

The detailed flow around the tip can be found in Fig. 9(a)–(d),
which depicts the circumferential velocity contours on the planes
perpendicular to the blade chord line through 5% l, 35% l, 60% l,
80% l and 95% l, for TC ∗ = 0.0056, 0.0083, 0.0111 and 0.0139, re-
spectively. The four figures are presented at φ = 0.32, while the
direction of the axial flow is from the left to right sides in each
figure. From the four figures, it can be observed that the leakage
flows through the gap of the tip clearance, blowing the boundary
layer near the tip to separate from the suction surface. The effect of
the tip leakage flow tends to become stronger toward the trailing
edge region, and consequently, a deeper separation occurs around
that region. Besides, it can be seen that this effect also extends in
a span-wise direction from the tip, and then causes the boundary
layer separation spreading over on the suction surface. These phe-
nomena show clearly that the flow around the tip or the tip leakage
flow constitute an important factor which strongly determines the
boundary layer separation that later influences the process of tur-
bine stall, as revealed in Fig. 8. Furthermore, it can be found by com-
paring the four figures that the effect of the tip leakage flows for
the case of TC ∗ = 0.0056 seems stronger than that for the others.
Hence, the separation region for the case of TC ∗ = 0.0056 is larger
than that for the others. As mentioned earlier, TC ∗ = 0.0056 is in
the stall condition at a flow coefficient, φ = 0.32, while the others
are not. On the other hand, the separation regions for the cases of
TC ∗ = 0.0083, 0.0111 and 0.0139 are almost the same when the
performances of the three cases are very close at φ = 0.32.
Fig. 10(a)–(d) illustrate the velocity vectors on the plane
perpendicular to the blade chord line through 35% l, for TC ∗ =
0.0056, 0.0083, 0.0111 and 0.0139, respectively, at φ = 0.09, 0.20
and 0.32. As shown in the four figures, it can be seen that in general
the tip leakage flow has a potency to generate a clockwise vortex
behind the suction surface near the tip. The vortex becomes larger
as the flow coefficient increases, while the center of the vortex
tends to go away from the tip. It is interesting that at φ = 0.32
a vortex cannot be found for the case of TC ∗ = 0.0056 in which
the tip leakage flow is confined to the region close to the casing
wall so much so that it does not excite the vortex. On the other
hand, the vortex is still found for the cases of TC ∗ = 0.0083, 0.0111
and 0.0139, which seems to give an advantageous effect (counter-
acting) of reducing the separation near the tip. Therefore, the stall
for TC ∗ = 0.0083, 0.0111 and 0.0139 is more delayed than that
for TC ∗ = 0.0056. Furthermore, it can be observed clearly that at
φ = 0.09 and 0.20 the size of the vortex becomes larger as TC ∗
increases, while the centers of the vortex are nearer to the tip. In
contrast, the vortex that is larger and nearer to the tip, will be a
disadvantage. When the vortex exists relatively closer to the tip,
it may disturb the boundary layer near the tip, even provoking
separation. This is a possible explanation why at φ = 0.09 and
0.20 the performances of TC ∗ = 0.0056, 0.0083, 0.0111 and 0.0139
become lower, particularly in terms of the torque coefficient and
efficiency, see Fig. 6(a) and (c).
88 Z. Taha et al. / Applied Ocean Research 32 (2010) 83–90

0.8 6
TC* = 0.0056 TC* = 0.0056
0.7 TC* = 0.0083 TC* = 0.0083
TC* = 0.0111 5 TC* = 0.0111
0.6 TC* = 0.0139 TC* = 0.0139

0.5 4
cr

cA
0.4
3
0.3
0.2 2
0.1
1
0
-0.1 0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
φ φ
(a) Torque coefficient. (b) Input coefficient.

60
TC* = 0.0056
TC* = 0.0083
50 TC* = 0.0111
TC* = 0.0139

40
η(%)

30

20

10

0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
φ
(c) Efficiency.

Fig. 6. Computational results of turbine performance with various values of tip clearance to chord length ratio.

φ = 0.09

φ = 0.20

φ = 0.32

a b c d
Fig. 7. Contours of circumferential velocity on a plane of constant radius through 50% h: (a) TC ∗ = 0.0056; (b) TC ∗ = 0.0083; (c) TC ∗ = 0.0111; (d) TC ∗ = 0.0139.
 Z. Taha et al. / Applied Ocean Research 32 (2010) 83–90 89

a b c
Fig. 8. Contours of circumferential velocity on various planes of constant radius for TC ∗ = 0.0056, at φ = 0.32: (a) 5% h; (b) 50% h; (c) 95% h.

5%l

35%l

60%l

80%l

95%l

a b c d
Fig. 9. Contours of circumferential velocity on various planes perpendicular to blade chord line, at φ = 0.32: (a) TC ∗ = 0.0056; (b) TC ∗ = 0.0083; (c) TC ∗ = 0.0111;
(d) TC ∗ = 0.0139.

φ = 0.09

φ = 0.20

φ = 0.32

a b c d
Fig. 10. Velocity vector on a plane perpendicular to blade chord line through 35% l: (a) TC ∗ = 0.0056; (b) TC ∗ = 0.0083; (c) TC ∗ = 0.0111; (d) TC ∗ = 0.0139.

4. Conclusions steady flow condition. The computational results such as torque

An investigation on the performance of a Wells turbine with a
NACA0020 blade profile has been performed using computational
fluid dynamics (CFD). The investigation was carried out on
numerical models with various uniform tip clearances under
and power coefficients and efficiency have been compared with
experimental values, particularly for the cases of tip clearance
to chord length ratio of 0.0056 and 0.0111. It was shown that
good agreement has been achieved between the computational
and experimental results for both cases of tip clearance to
90 Z. Taha et al. / Applied Ocean Research 32 (2010) 83–90
chord length ratio. It was also shown clearly that the effect of
tip clearance significantly influences the turbine performance.
From the viewpoint of turbine efficiency it was found that the
peak efficiency of the turbine decreased and shifted towards a
higher flow coefficient as the tip clearance to chord length ratio
increased, while the stall margin became wider. Furthermore,
an investigation on the flow-field around the turbine blade was
performed. It was shown that the tip leakage flow constituted an
important factor which determines strongly the boundary layer
separation which later influences the process of turbine stall. The
vortex generated by the tip leakage flow had an advantage and a
disadvantage effect on the turbine performance.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank AUN/SEED–Net (JICA) for
the providing financial support. The authors would also like to
thank the Department of Engineering Design and Manufacture at
University of Malaya, the Department of Mechanical and Industrial
Engineering at Gadjah Mada University, and the Department of
Mechanical Engineering at Keio University.
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