Lec No.

Horticulture- Origin, definitions, Scope and importance of horticultural crops- Divisions of

horticulture and classification of horticultural crops

The term Horticulture first appeared in the writings of 17th century. The word is derived
from the latin word ‘Hortus’ meaning ‘garden’ and cultura meaning ‘cultivation’. According to
the modern world, horticulture is defined as the crop science which deals with the production,
utilization and improvement of fruits, vegetables, ornamental plants, spices and plantation crops
including medicinal and aromatic plants.
Horticultural science can be distinguished from agricultural or forestry science in one or
more of the following factors
 Horticulture produces are utilized in the fresh state and are highly perishable. In contrast,
agricultural field crops are often utilized in the dried state and they are usually high in dry
matter content.
 Horticultural crops generally require intensive cultivation warranting a large input,
capital, labour and technology per unit area of land whereas agricultural crops require
only extensive cultivation.
 Cultural operations such as propagation, fertilization, training pruning, harvesting and
post harvest handling and marketing are skilled operations and are specific to each and
every horticulture crops.
 Horticulture crops are rich in sources of vitamins and minerals where as agricultural
crops are generally rich in carbohydrates or protein.
 Aesthetic sense is an exclusive phenomenon for horticulture science.

Divisions of Horticulture
1. Pomology
Pomology is the horticultural science deals with the study of fruit crops. A fruit in
horticultural science represent a plant, the product of which is edible on ripening.
Fruit crops are classified as
1. Woody Plants (trees, shrub and vines)
2. Herbaceous plants
1. Woody plants
The woody plants may be either deciduous or evergreen
a. Deciduous
Plants which have distinct rest period during which all growth activities stop and
normally shed their leaves before entering into the rest period. This period of activity coincides
with winter. After the rest (at the end of winter) they produce new growth and flowers.
Under South Indian conditions, the plant produces new growth, flowers and fruits in
February to June. After July, there is a gradual stoppage of growth and leaves are shed by
October, November and the plants enter into rest.
Temperate - Deciduous – Pome - Apple, pear, Quince
Drupe (stone) - Peach, Plum, Apricot
Small fruits - Deciduous: Raspherry, Blackberry
Vine – grape
b. Evergreen
These plants do not have any distinct rest period. They retain leaves but in these plants,
there may be a period of comparative inactivity. The plants will not shed their leaves during this
period. It occurs just before flowering.
Based on the temperature requirements, the fruit crops can be classified into
Tropical fruits (Mango, sapota)
Sub tropical (Litchi, Mangosteen)
Temperate (Apple, peach, plum, pear)
Based on the tolerance to relative humidity of the atmosphere, the fruit crops can be
classified into
Arid, Semi Arid (Ber, Aonla, custard apple, date palm or phalsa)
Humid Zone (pine apple, jack).
2. Herbaceous perennial
a. Prostrate growth: Strawberry
b. Upright growth: Banana, Pineapple
Herbaceous perennials – Strawberry, Banana, Pineapple
2. Olericulture
Olericulture is the branch of horticultural science which deals with study of vegetables
like leafy vegetables, root, tuber, cole crops etc. A vegetable in horticultural science is an edible
herbaceous plant or part which is commonly used for culinary purposes or as salads.
3. Floriculture
It is the art of growing, selling, designing and arranging flowers and foliage plants. It
includes the following sub divisions.
i. Commercial floriculture
It deals with cultivation of economic flowers like jasmine, roses, chrysanthemum and
production of cut flowers and gift plants.
ii. Arboriculture: Growing of trees for aesthetic or scientific or educational purpose
iii. Landscape gardening
It consists of planning and arrangement of home grounds, public area and business
establishments. It involves not only the use and placement of horticultural plants, but also the
placement of buildings and other accessories in an aesthetic manner.
iv. Ornamental floriculture or gardening
It refers to the study of various groups of ornamental plants which are used to decorate
indoor and outdoor gardens.
4. Spices, Plantation, Medicinal and Aromatic crops
Spices are those plants, the products of which are made use of as food adjuncts to add
aroma and flavour (eg. pepper, cardamom, clove, nutmeg etc)
Condiments are also plants, products of which are used as food adjuncts to add taste only
(eg. coriander, cumin etc) . Both spices and condiments contain essential oils which provide the
flavour and taste. They are of little nutritive value
Plantation crops- The crops like coconut, arecanut, tea, coffee, rubber are known as
plantation crops which are grown in extensive scale
Medicinal plants
The plants yielding alkaloid and steroid principles which have got preventive and
curative properties are known as medicinal plants. eg. Senna, periwinkle, Aswagandha.
Aromatic crops are those plants, the part of which yields aromatic essential oils on steam
distillation or solvent extraction. Eg. Eucalyptus, Palmarosa, Citronella
 Other branches of Horticulture includes
1. Fruit nurseries
2. Vegetable/Flower seed production
3. Fruit/Vegetable processing
4. Medicinal plants extraction
5. Essential oil (oleoresin)

Scope and Importance of Horticulture

1. India is endowed with a wide variety of agroclimatic conditions and enjoys an enviable position
in the horticultural map of the world. Almost all types of horticultural crops can be grown in one
region or the other.
2. Horticulture crops occupy only 13 per cent of the total cropped area but their contribution to
national income is roughly 28 per cent of total value of agricultural produce. The value of the
horticultural produces has been also increasing steadily.
The contribution of horticultural crops to the national income is also perceptible by annual
foreign exchange earnings achieved through their export. The agriculture sector accounts for
about 25 per cent of our export. Of this, horticultural crops alone account for over 56 per cent.
These crops fetch 20- 30 times more foreign exchange per unit area than cereals due to higher
yields and higher prices available in the international market.
In India, horticultural products including fruits, vegetables, their processed products, spices
and plantation crops, cut flowers and live ornamental plants and the planting materials such as
seeds of vegetable crops and flowering plants are being exported. Since these horticultural crops
bring money / gold to farmers, the development in horticulture is often called as golden
revolution.
3. Fruits and Vegetables are regarded as ‘protective foods’ since they supply minerals such as
calcium, iron and phosphorus and vitamins like A, B complexes and C in adequate
quantities. They also contain a variety of polyphenols which are increasingly regarded as
protective agents against chronic diseases. Fruits and vegetables also serve as good
laxatives.
4. For the predominantly vegetarian Indians, the Nutrition Expert Group prescribes daily a
minimum of 2400-3900 calories of energy, 55g protein, 0.4-0.5 g calcium, and 20 mg of
 Iron, 3000 mg of beta carotene for the supply of Vitamin A, 1.2-2.0 mg thiamine, 1.3-2.2 mg
riboflavins, 16-26 mg nicotinic acid, 50 mg ascorbic acid, and 100 mg folic acid and 1 mg
vitamin B12.
To obtain this, dieticians recommended 300g of vegetables (ie.) 125 g of leafy vegetables,
100g of roots and tubers, 75 g of other vegetables,) and 90 g of fruits per day. But the per capital
availability works to about 30g fruits and 92 g vegetables only. This gap has to be bridged by
increasing the production and productivity of fruits and vegetables. Recent recommendation
from FAO/ WHO show that men and women should respectively consume at least 800 and 400 g
of fruits and vegetables daily to reduce the burden of diseases like diabetics, cardio vascular
diseases and obesity and even cancer.
5. Horticultural crops yield more produces per unit area compared to cereals.
Crops Yield(t/ha)
Fruits(average) 8.4
Banana 40-60
Pineapple 45
Grapes 40
Vegetables(average) 12.2
Potato 20-25
Tapioca 30-40
Tomato 10-14
Spices(average) 10
Paddy 5-6
Wheat 4-5

6. Horticultural crops generate more employment opportunities, especially in the rural sector,
uplifting the rural economy.
7. Fruits yield more calorific value. An adult normally requires 11, 00,000 calories per year
through the food he consumes 0.44 hectare of wheat, 0.03 hectare of fruits like banana or 0.06
hectare of mango.
8. Many horticultural produces and their by- products are the important raw materials for many
industries, thus providing more employment opportunities. Eg. Rubber, coir and sago industries.
Major developments are taking place in this direction since last few years involving several
multinational companies seeking collaboration for setting up fruit and vegetable processing units
in India.
9. Research and development in horticulture has received impressive support in the last 15
years. As a result, the research infrastructure has increased manifold with the setting up of
several new institutes and national research centres on several export- oriented crops. The
development activities received a boost with approximately 40-fold increase in budget from the
7th and 8th Plan. At present, 10 per cent of the total budget of ICAR and 18 per cent of the total
budget of DOAC is earmarked for the horticulture sector in the 9th Plan.
10. So far, Indian horticulture has been insulated from forces of outside world. Time- bound
removal of quantitative curbs on imports and other barriers to access to domestic market under
WTO, of which India is a signatory, will require Indian horticultural produce/product to be
competitive both in the domestic and export market. This would call for use of hi-tech
horticultural technologies. Such technologies can be defined as ‘those, which are modern, less-
environment dependent, capital intensive and have the capacity to improve productivity and
quality’. These will include, use of genetically modified crop varieties, micro-propagation,
integrated nutrient and water management, integrated pest management, protected cultivation,
organic farming, use of modern immuno-diagnostic techniques for quick detection of viral
diseases and hi-tech post-harvest technologies, including cold chain.
11. Social importance
It is a part of civilization, where civilization is highly advanced, horticulture is widely
developed. Flowers are being used for worshipping gods in temples. Every woman in our
country considers her adornment complete only when her hair is decorated with aromatic and
colourful flowers. Flower offering is a symbol of affection in other countries. Often in hotels and
business establishment, keeping the cut flowers in vases is becoming very common in India.
12. Horticultural therapy
In some parts of USA, people who are unhappy and do not have a mental power and
balance are given horticultural therapy , a treatment by means of which their attention is diverted
to ornamental gardening, flower decoration etc. and thus they are made free from their unhappy
mood. Also, by making them to be with flowers of particular colour, the mental stress or
depression can be removed.
13. Flower or aroma therapy is the art and science of using essential oils from plant sources for
keeping us healthy. It helps to eliminate stresses and improves overall health without using
chemical drugs. The essential oils found in petals, leaves, roots and heartwood of plant act as anti
bacterial, anti viral and anti fungal agents besides help to cure many ailments.
14. Orchard tourism
This new concept is slowly developing in many countries. Visiting orchards for recreation
has become an important tourist activity for urban citizens where the tourists are encouraged to
hands on involvement in activities like planting, pruning, grafting and harvesting fruits in order
to freely engage in horticultural production activities, which is now a different experience from
their urban life.
15. Government of India is also attaching much importance for development of horticulture by
allocating more funds now as evident below:
Plan Rs.(in millions)

Fifth (1973 -78) 76.3 (actual)

Sixth(1980-85) 91.3(actual)

Seventh(1985-90) 241.9(actual)

Eigth (1992-97) 10,000

Ninth(97-2002) 14,000

Recognizing the importance of horticulture sector in the growth of Indian agriculture,

Government of India has launched National Horticultural Mission with the objective of doubling
the horticulture production, i.e. to achieve a production of 300 million tonnes by 2011-2012
establishing convergence and synergy among various on going and planned programmes in the
field of horticulture development and to promote the development and dissemination of
technologies by blending traditional wisdom and frontiers knowledge. To meet this objective, a
sum of Rs.6500 crores has been allotted during X plan.
16. Fruit growing helps in the development of package, transport, reffrigeration, oil and wine
industries. Mulberry plantation is associated with sericulture and apiculture is dependent of fruit
crops
17. Wastelands can be utilized by growing hardy fruit crops like ber, aonla, bael, custard-
apple,etc.
18. Air-pollution can easily be minimized by massive planting of fruit species beacause trees are
know to be the best air purifire.
Lecture No 2.

Horticultural zones of India and Tamilnadu- Institutions involved in horticulture- Nutritive

value and neutraceuticals of horticultural crops

CLIMATIC ZONES OF INDIA FOR HORTICULTURAL CROP PRODUCTION

Advantages of classification

1. To expose the agricultural potentiality of an area

2. Location of homo climatic zones enables identification of soil + climatic problems
3. Helps in introduction of new crops eg. oil palms in Kerala
4. To develop crop production technologies specific for the regions.
5. To take up research work and to solve the regional problems.
6. To transfer the technology developed.

Our country can be broadly divided into seven zones for horticultural crops as given below

1. Temperate Northern region

This region includes Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh., hills of Uttar pradesh., West
Bengal.,

Suitable crops: Temperate fruits like apple, pear & cool season vegetables like cabbage ,
cauliflower etc

2. North Western arid region

Comprises of entire Rajasthan, Gujarat, parts of Punjab and Haryana

Suitable crops: Ber, Pomegranate, Aonla, Date palm, seed spices like coriander, fennel etc

3. North Easter sub-tropical-humid region

Includes Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland and

Tripura

Suitable crops: Banana, Pine apple, Citrus, Jack fruit, Tea and Cardamom
4. North Central sub-tropical region

Comprises of parts of Uttar pradesh. Bihar, entire Madhya Pradesh., and parts of
Maharashtra

Suitable crops: Mango, sapota, sweet oranges & guava,

5. South Central tropical region

Includes Western & Eastern Ghats of TamilNadu., Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka & part of
Maharashtra

Suitable crops: Mango, guava, sapota, Pine apple, turmeric

6. Coastal tropical humid region

Comprises of the entire coastal belt of Bay of Bengal & Arabian sea.

Suitable crops: Banana, Mango, Cashew, Coconut

7. Southern hilly zone

Includes Western & Eastern Ghats hills above 800 M MSL.

Suitable crops: Coffee, Tea, cardamom, pepper, oranges, Pine apple

AGROCLIMATIC ZONES OF TAMIL NADU

Based on rainfall distribution, irrigation pattern, soil characteristics, cropping pattern and
other physico-ecological and social characteristics, Tamil Nadu State is classified into seven
distinct agro-climatic zones delineated as follows:

i.North Eastern Zone: This zone covers the districts of Kancheepuram, Tiruvallur, Vellore,
Thiruvannamalai ,Cuddalore (excluding Chidambaram and Kattumannarkovil taluks) ,Ariyalur
and Perambalur taluks in Perambalur district and Villupuram districts.

ii. North Western Zone: This zone comprises Dharmapuri district (excluding hilly areas),
Krishnagiri, Salem and Namakkal districts (excluding Tiruchengode taluk) and Perambalur taluk
of Perambalur district.
iii. Western Zone: Comprising Erode and Coimbatore districts, Tiruchengode taluk of
Namakkal, Karur Taluk of Karur district , northern parts of Madurai district and Theni district.
iv. Cauvery Delta Zone: This zone covers the Cauvery Delta area in Thanjavur,
Nagapattinam,Thiruvarur districts and Musiri, Tiruchirappalli, Lalgudi, Thuraiyur and Kulithalai
taluks of Tiruchirappalli districts, Aranthangi taluk of Pudukottai and Chidambram and
Kattumannarkoil taluks of Cuddalore District.
v. Southern Zone: This zone includes Ramanathapuram, Virudhunagar, Sivaganga, Tuticorin
and Tirunelveli districts, Dindigul and Natham taluks of Dindigul district, Melur, Tirumangalam,
Madurai South and Madurai North taluks of Madurai district and Pudukottai district (excluding
Aranthangi taluk).
vi. High Rainfall zone: This zone includes Kanyakumari district.
vii. Hilly zone: This zone covers the hilly regions, the Nilgiris, Shevroys, Elagiri-Javadhu,
Kollimalai, Pachaimalai, Anamallais, Palanis and Podhigai malai.

AGRO-CLIMATIC ZONES
The seven agro climatic zones viz., Western, Southern, North Eastern, North Western,
Delta, High Rainfall, and Hilly and Tribal zones posses conductive climatic condition coupled
with monsoon rains.

Agroclimatic zones of Tamil Nadu (Source: TANHODA)

S.NO Agro-Climatic Zone District

1. Western zone 1. Coimbatore

2. Erode
3. Dindigul
4. Theni

2. Southern zone 1. Madurai

2. Ramanathapuram
3. Tirunelveli
4. Sivaganga
5. Virudhunagar
6. Thoothukudi
7. Pudukottai
 8. Karur

3. North Eastern zone 1. Kancheepuram

2. Thiruvallur
3. Vellore
4. Thiruvannamalai
5. Cuddalore
6. Villupuram

4. North Western zone 1. Dharmapuri

2. Krishnagiri
3. Salem
4. Namakkal
5. Perambalur

5. Delta zone 1. Thanjavur

2. Thiruvarur
3. Nagapattinam
4. Tiruchirapalli

6. High Rainfall zone 1. Kanyakumari

7. Hilly and Tribal zone 1. Nilgiris

The special feature of climatic condition in Tamil Nadu is that the four seasons are not
distinct and over lap with immediate next season. In the plains there is no winter seasons
and in the hills summer is not severe allowing continuous production of horticultural crops
in the state.
Institutes involved in Horticulture

Research Institutes under ICAR, New Delhi.

Deemed University:

 Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi

Institutions:

Central Institute of Arid Horticulture, Bikaner

1. Central Institute of Sub Tropical Horticulture, Lucknow

2. Central Institute of Temperate Horticulture, Srinagar
3. Central Institute on Post harvest Engineering and Technology, Ludhiana
4. Central Plantation Crops Research Institute, Kasargod
5. Central Potato Research Institute, Shimla
6. Central Research Institute for Jute and Allied Fibres, Barrackpore
7. Central Research Institute of Dryland Agriculture, Hyderabad
8. Central Tuber Crops Research Institute, Trivandrum
9. ICAR Research Complex for Eastern Region including Centre of Makhana, Patna
10. ICAR Research Complex for NEH Region, Barapani
11. ICAR Research Complex Goa
12. Indian Institute of Vegetable Research, Varanasi
13. Vivekananda Parvatiya Krishi Anusandhan Sansthan, Almora
14. Central Agricultural Research Institute, Port Blair
15. Central Arid Zone Research Institute, Jodhpur
16. Central Institute of Agricultural Engineering, Bhopal
17. Indian Institute of Horticultural Research, Hessarghatta, Bangalore

National Research Centre related to Horticulture

NRC for Citrus –Nagpur, Maharashtra

NRC for Banana- Trichirapalli, TamilNadu

NRC for Grapes – Pune, Maharashtra

NRC for Medicinal and aromatic plants – Anand ,Gujarat

NRC for onion and garlic- Rajgurunagar,Maharashtra,

NRC for pomegranate – Solapur

National Research Centre for Litchi, Muzaffarpur

National Research Centre on Orchids, Pakyong, Sikkim

National Research Centre on Plant Biotechnology, New Delhi

National Research Centre Seed Spices, Ajmer

National Bureau

1. National Bureau of Plant Genetics Resources, New Delhi

Directorates/Project Directorates
1. Directorate on Onion and Garlic Research, Pune
2. Directorate of Cashew Research, Puttur
3. Directorate of Oil Palm Research, Pedavegi, West Godawari
4. Directorate of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Research, Anand
5. Directorate of Floriculture Research, Pusa, New Delhi
Lec No.3

Growth and Development of horticultural plants- climatic factors influencing-

temperature, light, wind, humidity and rainfall

Growth

Growth refers to an irreversible increase in size and weight of the plant. It normally
reflects increase in protoplasm, which may occur through increase in cell size and number of
cells. Hence, the process of cell elongation and cell division provides the basis for growth. The
division and enlargement of cells are a complicated process involving synthesis of many organic
compounds such as protein, cellulose and nucleic acid. The growth of whole plant is
compartmentalized in to areas called meristem. The meristem cells undergo repeated division
via., mitosis, wherein DNA and nuclear materials replicate and cell masses increases. These are
shoot apex, root apex, cambium and intercalary zones.

The increase in protoplasm is brought about through a series of events in which water,
carbon di oxide and inorganic salts are transformed into living materials. These event include
a)photosynthesis(production of carbohydrates) b) nutrient absorption and translocation(up take
of water, nitrogen and other mineral elements) and c) anabolism(synthesis of various materials
produced in plant from the carbon fragments produced by photosynthesis and from inorganic
nutrients and water absorbed from the soil . The energy required for all these process is provided
by catabolic process viz., respiration (degradation of sugars and fats to release energy). The net
balance of anabolism and catabolism results in growth.

Development

In a plant, the development cycle begins with germination of seed followed by juvenility,
maturity, flowering and fruiting phase. The cycle of plant growth is completed with fruiting
phase and in annuals, it enters in last phase of growth ie senescence and death of plant. In
perennials, plant is ready to recycle after period of quiescence after fruiting. The growth and
development consists of two distinct phases viz., Vegetative phase (germination and subsequent
development of plant) and reproductive phase (formation and development of flower buds,
flowers, fruits and seeds or enlargement or maturation of storage organs- fleshy stem and fleshy
roots.

Vegetative phase
Germination includes all sequential steps from the time seed imbibes water till seedling is self
sustaining. During germination, complex reserve substances are converted enzymatically to
simple soluble substances which are translocated to the embryonic plant. From the stage of
germination until the first flower primordium is initiated, the plant is said to be in vegetative
phase of growth. During this phase , of a plant cannot produce flower, regardless of
environmental conditions imposed on it, then it is said to be in juvenile phase.

The juvenile phase is characterized by

A) Relatively most rapid rate of growth

B) Distinct morphological and physiological features in some plants.
For e.g. The juvenile leaves of eucalyptus are large and broad at the base and sessile
while matured leaves are elongated with distinct petioles.

The growth of the bud is not a continuous process but often associated with period of arrested
development. It is of two types. One is brought about by unfavorable environmental
conditions and another one is bud dormancy, in which growth is temporarily stopped,
even though all the external condition required for normal growth are provided. The later
one is more associated with internal factors, often due to the formation of growth
inhibiting substances. It is broken naturally with cold temperature endured during the
period of winter months.
Reproductive Phase
When a plant becomes potentially capable of reproduction, it is said to be mature
often indicated by the development of flowers. Just proceedings to this stage,
transformation of vegetative stem primordial into the floral primordial takes place. At this
stage, distinct biochemical changes take place which alter their pattern of differentiation
of vegetative bud (i.e., leaf bud and stem tissues) to the tissues that make up the
reproductive organs.
At this transition stage, growth of the central portion is reduced or inhibited and
the meristem becomes flattened in contrast to the conical shape characteristic of
vegetative bud. Thus, small protuberances develop in a spiral of whorl arrangements
around the meristem which subsequently develop into subsequent floral parts. This stage
of transition of vegetative buds to floral primordial is called as fruit bud initiation and
differentiation.
The time of fruit bud initiation is very important to the horticulturist to adopt
certain important horticultural practices such as pruning, application of fertilizers and
irrigation etc.,
Many perennial plants initiate the floral primordial from few to many months before
flowering as shown below

Crops Floral initiation

 Mango Flower bud differentiation takes place
between Aug- Oct while flowering takes
place between Dec- Feb.i.e. 5-6 months
before flowering

Banana Fruit bud initiation take place between 3-5

months from planting

Sweet Orange Flower bud differentiation takes place 3-4

months prior to flowering

Coconut Primordia of inflorescrence begins from in

the leaf axils about 32 months before opening
of spathe

This transition stage is influenced by the following factors

1. Carbohydyate: Nirogen ratio (C:N ratio)

It has been established in many plants that if C:N ratio is optimum, it favours the flower
induction, on the other hand, if N level is more, it will favour only vegetative growth and reduce
or delay flowering.

2. Photoperiodic effect

The growth response of a plant to the length of a day i.e., length of light and dark period
is called photoperiodism. Based on the response to the light, plants are classified into three
groups viz.,

Short day plants: It initiates flower when the day length is below 12 hours. E.g.
chrysanthemum, coffee

Long Day plants: It initiates flower only if day length exceeds 12 hours. E.g. beetroot, radish

Day neutral plants: It can initiate the flowers under any day length. E.g. tomato

Fruit development

The fruit development may be divided into the following phases:

1. Initiation of fruit tissues

2. Pre pollination development
3. Post pollination growth and
4. Ripening ,maturation and senescence
 The first two phases develop concomitantly with flowers as a result of cell division.
After pollination, cell enlargement is responsible for the major portion of size increase in most of
the fruits. However, in some large fruited plants like water melon, the cell division continues
even after pollination and hence, both increase in cell number and size contribute for final size.

Pollination plays two functions in growth and development of fruits

1. It helps in fruit setting.
2. It provides male gametes for fertilization
In many cases, pollen contains an auxin or an enzyme that converts auxin
precursors present in the stigma to auxin or provides a synergist that helps in fruit
set, but it need not result in fertilization in all cases. This is due to the fact that
pollen does not germinate or it does, the pollen tube may burst in the style. This
result in the development of fruits without seed .e.g. grapes

Ripening
Maturation may refer to the attainment of full size or the desired size for commercial
use, even though the fruit may not be ripe. Ripening, a stage immediately after maturation
includes the qualitative changes which occur after the fruit has reached full size, such as changes
in pigmentation, firmness and chemical constituents. Senescence consists of catabolic phase of
fruit development during which tissues deteriorate and organ dies.
Several processes characterize ripening.

1. In some fruits, a marked rise in the rate of respiration occurs during ripening. Such fruits
are called as climacteric e.g. apple, banana, tomato, peach, pear etc. In other fruits, such
sudden rise does not occur and are called non climacteric fruits.eg. cucumber, fig, grapes,
orange, pine apple, strawberry
2. Colour changes often company in ripening, this is either due to the degradation of
chlorophyll or production of new pigments or due to the both
3. Fruits soften as they ripen as a result of enzymatic breakdown of pectins which cement
the cell wall together
4. Starch content gets decreased and converted into sugar as ripening proceeds.
5. Ethylene gas rises prior to the onset of the climacteric to the threshold level which is a
pre requisite for ripening. Fruits must have reached certain stage of maturity before
ripening to produce ethylene, as immature fruits, which are unable to ripen lack the
capacity to produce ethylene.
6. Chemicals giving fruits their characteristic flavor, accumulates as fruits ripen. Such
chemicals are volatile in nature and present in minute quantities.
Senescence

Senescence is a erosive process that accompanies ageing prior to death. After ripening of
the fruit, its entire organ except the seed senesces. In the case of plant as a whole, the senescence
may be partial or complete.

Deterioration and death of plant organs such as leaves, stem, flowers and fruits as in
perennial plants, are known as partial senescence.

Complete senescence is the aging and death of the entire plant as in annuals and biennials as a
result of termination of life cycle.

Climatic factors affecting growth and development of horticultural crops

Temperature

Every plant requires temperature range at which all fundamental processes like
photosynthesis, respiration, water absorption and transpiration, cell differentiation proceed
favorably leading to the highest marketable yield. This optimum temperature range varies with
crops and based on the optimum temperature requirement, horticulture plants are broadly
classified into (a) temperate (b) sub-tropical (c) tropical plants. If tropical plants are grown in sub
tropical zone or vice versa, their growth and performance may not be good. However, there are
certain exception for instance, grape is a temperate crop but can be grown in subtropical and
tropical regions.

In a particular crop itself, the temperature requirement may vary with the stage of crop e.g.
tomato at early stages prefer higher night temperature ranges (180 C to 27 0 C) while the optimum
night temperature during fruit set ranges from 13 to 17 0 C. Temperature affects flowering in
certain horticultural crops. The optimum temperature for flowering in banana is 10 to 40 0 C and
if low temperature (10 0 C) prevails, it inhibits proper emergence of the bunch from the
pseudostem, a disorder commonly described as choking in banana. Temperature affects the
quality of fruits. Low temperature during ripening period favours high acid content in grapes
while high temperature favours sweetness.

Extremes in temperature often cause certain injury in plants. Temperature close to or

below the freezing point of water may cause permanent damage resulting in death. This is called
winter kill and some plants are found to be sensitive to temperature slightly above freezing point
and is called chilling injury , plants that are resistant to cold injury are known as hardy plants
(e.g. asparagus) as compared to those susceptible to cold injury are called tender plants (e.g.
cucumber). Cold injury in most of the herbaceous plant is due to the formation of ice crystals
which cause mechanical injury to the cells. Similarly, high temperature injury is often related to
desiccation, as a result of excessive water loss in transpiration compared to water uptake.
Light

The intensity of light, quality and its duration affect the growth and development of
horticultural plants. Light influences many development processes of the plant such as
germination, tuber and bulb formation, flowering and sex expression and is mainly related to the
length of light and dark period (photo period). For example, in cucurbits, long day conditions
favour production of female flowers. Certain horticultural crops like coffee cardamom, cocoa if
grown under full sunlight conditions experience reduced vegetative growth, die back and lower
yields and for their normal growth filtered shade is required fruits like apple and mango when
exposed to adequate light, obtain good colour and quality when compared to shaded fruits.

Atmospheric humidity

Humidity affects growth and development of horticultural crops. Based on the tolerance
to relative humidity of the atmosphere, the horticultural crops can be classified as humid, semi-
arid zone fruits. If a humid zone fruit crop is grown in an arid zone, its growth and development
significantly affected. High humidity during flowering and fruiting promotes the incidence of
pests and diseases especially in mango, grapes, potato and tea etc. propagation of many
horticultural crops through cuttings, layers and grafting are more successful is performed during
the period in which the atmospheric humidity is relatively more than during the dry months.

Rainfall

Total rainfall and its distribution decide the growth and development of horticultural crops
especially the rainfed crops. Horticultural crops require varying quantum of rainfall for their
successful growth and development (Table ) . However, continuous heavy rain for the period of
2-3 days during the peak flowering phase washes off pollen, hinder insect pollination, injure
pollen and dilute the stigmatic fluid. Timely receipt of summer showers (blossom showers) in
Feb - March decides the flowering and fruiting in coffee. Similarly, summer shower during Feb-
April is essential for panicle initiation in cardamom, otherwise it will affect the yield. Fruits
generally harvested during rainy months are inferior in quality than those harvested during other
months e.g., grapes

Rainfall requirement of certain horticultural crops

S.No Crop Quantity of rainfall required per year

1. Mango 25-250 cm
2. Pepper 125-200 cm
3. Cardamom, Rubber 200-250 cm
4. Dates 15-25 cm
Wind

Heavy wind cause physical damages by shedding of flowers and fruits, breaking of
branches and uproot the trees. Frequent and dry high winds cause rapid loss of moisture and
necesiate frequent irrigation.

Air pollutants

The air pollutants like ozone (O3) and photo chemical oxidants such as sulphur di oxide
and nitrogen reduce the assimilation rate, growth and development of plants leading to reduction
in yield and quality of the produce. Mangoes grown in Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and West
Bengal suffer from physiological disorder called Black tip’ wherever the orchards are situated
within a distance of 1.5 km from the brick kilns. The gases like carbon di oxide, sulphur dioxide
and acetylene which constitute the brick kilns fumes are reported to be responsible for this
disorder. Black tipped fruits fetch very low price.

Frost

Frost is a thin layer of ice crystals deposited on the soil and plant surface as a result of
freezing temperatures. It occurs commonly in the hill station during winter months especially on
clear sunny days above 2000 m MSL, more particularly in orchards located either at the bottom
of the slope or in the valley areas near water sources. In Nilgiris and Kodaikkanal frost normally
damage crops like tea, potato, cole crops during winter months in places above 2000 m.

Hail Storms Occurrence of hails during pre blooming or blooming period of apple, plum,
peaches generally affect the fruit set. In peaches prevalence of frequent hail storms can be
destructive to the fruits which impair its quality or completely destroy them if the stones are
large.

Altitude Altitude plays a critical role in affecting the various components of climate thereby
limiting the production of certain horticultural crops. Generally, altitude has a profound effect on
the temperature. For every increase in 100 m in elevation above MSL, a decrease of about 1-2 oC
is normally observed. Under South Indian hills, warm temperate fruits are successfully grown
above 1800 m MSL, humid zone fruits and plantation crops like coffee, tea are grown from 1000
m to 1800 m MSL and below that, mostly tropical fruits are grown. Altitude plays a critical role
in the flowering and yielding performance of certain horticultural crops. For example, coconut, a
tropical plant, if planted in the hills at an elevation of 1000-1200 m MSL, it takes nearly 10-12
years for flowering and after flowering also, their yield performance is relatively poor. Similarly
hill grown papaya fruits are relatively poor in taste than from those grown in plains. In case of
tea, altitude significantly affects productivity and quality of tea. High grown teas are superior in
quality than those grown at middle elevations but the productivity per unit area is more in tea
grown at middle elevations.

Lecture No.4

Soil factors- kind of soil, chemical composition and reaction, soil depth, texture and soil
fertility

Soil

The soil acts as substratum and provides nutrients and water necessary for plant growth.
The kind of soil, its fertility status, soil reaction and drainage influence the productivity of the
horticultural crops.

Kinds of soil

Soils are classified on the basis of particle size, the relative amount of various sizes and
the content of organic and inorganic matter. Inorganic soils generally have less than 10% of
organic matter in the surface layer. The inorganic portion consists of varying amounts of sand,
silt and clay.

Sandy soils are coarse textured and have large pore-spaces. They have poor water-
holding capacity and low nutrient retaining ability. This type of soil is suitable for vegetables to
obtain early crops and rapid root growth. It is the most common medium for propagating
cuttings. Horticulture crops when grown on sand needs to be supplied with considerable
quantities of nutrients for best production.

Loamy soils have significant amount of sand, slit and clay. Soil is described as sandy
loam or silty loam or clay loam depending upon the predominating component of the soil. Sandy
loams are the soils to get early crops than silt or clay loams. Loams of all types are highly
suitable for horticulture production.

Clay soils are fine textured and have very small pore spaces. They are not suitable for
raising of most of the horticultural crops, more so with root and tuber crops, unless they are
opened up improved by incorporation of large quantities of organic matter. But the clay soil
attracts, holds and release nutrients for plant growth in a better way than other type of soils.
Mangoes can be practically grown in rich clayey soil; it produces more of vegetative growth with
little fruit production.

Organic matter

The organic matter of the soil is derived not only from the decomposed plant and animal
tissues but also from the microorganisms themselves. The decomposition of plant and animal
material is accomplished by enzymatic digestion carried out by soil microorganisms. During
decomposition, certain substances such as lignin, fats, waxes, fats and some proteinaceous
materials resist decomposition, but through complex bio chemical processes, form a dark non
crystalline colloidal substance called humus. Humus has more absorbing properties for nutrients
and moisture that are even higher than those of clay. These organic matters are reservoirs of plant
nutrients and on decomposition they release the nutrients required for plant growth. A rapid
method of increasing the organic matter content in the soil may be achieved by growing two or
three manure crops by the addition of compost. Organic soils are high in organic matter, usually
20 % or more. They are found in swamps, bogs, shallow lake bottom and river beds. The organic
soils are classified as peat and mucks. The former type contains more than 50 % organic matter
and is sometimes as high as 95 % while the latter contains 320-50 % organic matter. The
decomposition of organic matter is advanced in peat soils and has got high water holding
capacity. Onion, potato, carrot, cabbage, cauliflower and lettuce prefers peat soils. Muck soils do
not have a high water holding capacity as that of peat soils and its period of productivity is
usually shorter.

Soil fertility

The capacity to nourish and sustain plant growth is known as soil fertility. Fertility of the
soil is low, if its mineral particles predominates the other constituents as seen from the fact that
the top layer of earth, 15-60 cm in thickness, is more fertile since it contains the largest quantity
of humus and soil microbial population. The fertility status of soil declines as it goes deeper and
deeper. Plantation crops like coffee, cardamom and spices like pepper, clove prefer fertile soils
rich in organic matter and humus content.

Depletion of soil fertility occurs as a result of four specific factors. These are

1. Crop removal

The crops remove nutrients from the soil and hence continuous cropping for generations
will deplete the soil nutrients.

2. Erosion

The washing off or blowing away of soil results in loss of large quantities of nutrients
from the top soil.

3. Leaching

Leaching of nutrients down through the soil profile by percolating water on its way to the
water table will reduce the fertility level.

4. Volatilization

Volatilization of soil nutrients is most common to occur. Volatilization of nitrogen, in the

ammonia form and also by denitrification process is evident.
 The soil fertility can be maintained in a good state by following judicious soil
management practices. Most of the horticultural crops prefer a good to moderate fertile soil for
higher productivity.

Chemical composition

The acid, alkaline or neutral reaction of a soil is expressed on the pH scale. A pH of 7 is neutral
and points below 7 are acidic and those above 7 are alkaline.

Optimum pH range for certain horticultural crops

Crops Optimum pH range

Mango 6.0-7.5
Citrus 5.5-7.5
Banana 5.5-8.0
Beetroot 6.0-7.5
Cabbage 6.0-7.3
Carrot 5.8-7.0
Rose, 6.0-6.5
Chrysanthemum
Tea 4.5-5.0

Some diseases are promoted in acidic or alkaline soils. Club root disease of cabbage is
more prevalent in acidic soils. The soils can be more acidic (or less alkaline) by applying acid
producing chemicals such as aluminium sulphate, sulphur and gypsum (calcium sulphate).
Similarly, soils can be made more alkaline (or less acidic) by applying hydrated lime , lime stone
or epsum (magnesium sulphate). In alkaline soils concentration of sodium salts (above 0.1 %) is
dangerous. Information on soil salinity is necessary to select tolerant varieties and to adopt
proper soil management practices. Relative tolerance of fruit trees to salinity is given below:

Tolerant 8m mhos/ cm Date, guava, fig and grapes

Moderately tolerant 3-6 m mhos/ cm Pomegranate, Apple, Pear, plums
Sensitive 1.5-3. m mhos / Orange, straw berry, peach
cm

Soil depth

Soil depth should be 2.0 m for most of the fruit crops for normal growth and
development. Shallow soils with hard, compact sub soil layers like kankar rock and heavy clay
should be avoided for fruit crops as in such soils, the roots grow in the top layer of soil parallel to
the surface. Such trees are easily uprooted by winds or pre mature death of trees may also occur.

Drainage

Apart from the kind of soil, fertility and its composition, soil drainage should also be
considered. Drainage depends upon the nature of sub soil. In a good sub soil, trees can stand
drought better because of deeper root penetration. On wet , heavy soils with impermeable sub
soil, poor performance is noticed due to poor aeration and inadequate drainage. Water table
should be below 2.0 m at all times of the year. High water table leads to poor aeration of sub
soils and water saturation. The decline of citrus orchards is favoured by poor aeration of the soil.
The success of citrus industry in Florida is due to the soil factor only where it is grown in coarse
sandy, well drained soils with a water table never exceeding above 1.2 m.

Biological properties of soil

Soil is very thickly populated with life of varied micro organisms. More than 2000
million of microbes are estimated to be contained in a teaspoonful of soil. Some of the micro
organisms are harmful and many are beneficial. The net result of their presence and activities has
an important bearing on the fertility of soil. The main groups of micro organisms are

Algae

These are simple microscopic chlorophyll plants living in the soil and trap the energy of sunlight
and leave their bodies when dead to accumulate as humus in the soil.

Fungi

These are minute plants without chlorophyll either living as parasites on other plants or thriving
on dead matter saphrophytically and thus helping in further breakdown of organic material by
bacteria.

Bacteria

Bacteria are unicellular organisms and less than1/ 10000 of a cm in diameter. They multiply
rapidly. There are hundred species of bacteria. The useful ones are classified under the following
groups

a) Those that cause organic matter to generate heat, decay and release the nitrogen
contained in them chiefly as ammonia
b) Those (Nitrosomonas)that converts ammonia into nitrous acid and nitrites
c) Those (Nitrobacter) that converts nitrites to nitrates
d) Those (rhizobium) which live in the nodules of leguminous plant and take nitrogen
directly from the air and fix it in those nodules to be built into nitrogen compound useful
to themselves and to plants.
Lec No.5

Physiology of flowering, pollination, fruit set, ripening and senescence- fruitfulness and
causes for unfruitfulness

Pollination

Transfer of pollen grains from anther to stigma of the flower. It is of two types viz.,

Self pollination

Transfer of pollen grains from stamen to stigma of same flower or stigma of another
flower of same plant. eg. Tomato, chilli. If it is effected without the aid of any outside agency,
such as wind or insect, then this process is known as autogamy.

Cross pollination

Transfer of pollen grains from stamen to stigma of the flower of another plant. eg. cucurbits

Cross pollination may be required for number of reasons in horticultural crops :

1. Due to dioecious nature (eg. Papaya, date palm and Nutmeg) or monoecious ( eg.
Cucurbits)

2. Due to peculiar flower nature (eg. brinjal, Delicious apples, vanilla)

3. Due to dichogamy nature (e.g. onion, carrot, sapota)

4. Due to behaviour of bisexual flowers as functionally unisexual. eg. Avocado, All spice

5. Self incompatibility or self sterility factors ( eg. apple)

Pollen may be transferred either through insects or winds. Sapota, jack and aonla and nut
crops like walnut, pecan nut are reported to be pollinated by wind .they normally produce large
quantity of pollen grains which are light in weight so they can be carried to distant places.

Honey bees, ants and many insects aid in cross pollination. Their activity is generally
affected by weather conditions especially low temperature and rains. Honey bee keeping is
reported to increase fruit set and yield in many horticultural crops (eg.apple, cardamom). In
apple orchards, each honey bee usually forages 2-3 trees and visit 50-100 flowers per trip, thus it
visits about 5000 flowers per day. Hence, 10-12 colonies per ha at a distance of 150 m are ideal
for temperate orchards. Recently, a chemical substance is used to attract the bees so as to
increase the fruit set. It has been estimated that nearly double the number of the flowers are
pollinated in cardamom if such chemical is used at the time of early and mid flowering phase
Artificial pollination

In emergent situation when adverse weather conditions prevail or the orchard has inadequate
pollinizers, hand pollination can be resorted to.

Artificially collecting the pollens, mixing it with lycopodium (fern) spores and applying to
the flowers with soft brush

Placement of bouquets – in this method, branches of flowers of pollinizers are hung in the
trees to be pollinated

Fruit trees do not bear equally or regularly, sometimes one fails to bear at the same time
another tree of similar kind under similar conditions produces a heavy crop. This problem may
be due to failure of fruit set, unfruitfulness and sterility

Fruit set

Initial setting of fruit at or just after the time of blossoming and to its remaining on the
plant until maturity

Fruitful

Plant not only blossom and set fruits but carries it through to maturity

Fertility

Ability of plant not only to set and mature fruit but to develop viable seeds

Self fruitfulness

Ability of plants to mature fruit without aid of pollen from some other flower

Self fertility

Ability of plants to mature viable seeds without aid of pollen from some other flower

Unfruitfulness associated with internal factors

I. Evolutionary tendencies

Production of imperfect flowers as a cause of evolution may lead to unfruitfulness

1.Diecious or monoecious nature

Monoecious forms like melons are self fruitful but in dioecious forms like Papaya and
Nut Meg, pollinizers have to be provided for fruit set.
2. Heterostyly

In certain cases, the structure and form of the flowers are peculiar in nature to prevent self
pollination and make cross pollination more certain.

In case of heterostyly, style and stamens are at different heights thus preventing self pollination

Eg. Brinjal- four types of flowers are present depending upon the length of style viz., long,
medium, pseudo short and true short styled flowers. The last do not produce any fruits at all.

3. Dichogamy

When the receptivity of the stigma and viability of pollen occur in different periods, it is
known as dichogamy. This result in low production of fruits. If stamens ripen before pistil, it is
known as protandry. Eg.Annona. If pistil ripens before stamen, it is known as protgyny. eg.
sapota.

In Avocado, each flower opens twice and closed in between. It behaves as a female
flower during the first time opening and during the second time, it behaves as a male flower
thus preventing self pollination

4. Abortive flowers or aborted pistils or ovules

In pecan nut the terminal portion of the pistillate clusters is almost defective and is shed at
pollination time. The late flowers of straw berry are always defective.

5. Impotence of pollen grains

Many varieties of grapes produce impotent or non viable pollens though they appear to have
perfect flower type.

B. Genetic influences

These types of causes are more directly due to the genetic factors and are inheritable

1. Sterility and unfruitfulness due to hybridity

More widely if parents for crossing are related, greater will be the degree of self sterility.
A hybrid between pear and quince viz., Purina flowers and set fruits freely but the fruits are
seedless. Commercial varieties of banana and pine apple are also seedless due to hybridity

2. Incompatability

Incompatibility between pollen and ovule of same plant or same variety. Pollen and ovule
are fertile but fail to effect conjugation. Pollinizers are to be provided for effective fruit set in
temperate fruit crops
 III.Physiological influences

1. Due to the slow growth of the pollen tube- eg.cole crops

2. Pre mature or delayed pollination eg. In Tobacco flowers if mature pollen grains are
applied to immature pistil, pollen germinates and enters the ovule but the flowers shed
immediately.

3. Nutritive condition of the plant

It is an important factor to determine the per centage of flowers carrying for fruit set and
maturity. It depends upon pollen viability or fertility of pistils.

In Plums, exhaustion or weakening of trees in one season by over bearing, drought,

poverty of soil is associated with production of defective pistils in following year

External factors or environmental factors

1. Nutrient supply

Sterility occurs in certain families due to overfeeding. Eg.cruciferae, leguminaceae and

graminae.It has been observed that Jonathan apple is found to be self sterile in rich soil and
becomes self fertile in poor soil

2. Pollinizers

In temperate fruit crops, adequate pollinizers are to be provided for effective fruit set

3. Pruning and training

Pruning tends to produce hermaphrodite condition-. If it is not done, the variety tends to
remains sterile producing aborted pistils

4. Locality

Jonathan apple which is sterile in one location-is reported to be self fertile in another
location

5. Season

Ideal is a hybrid grape cultivar which is self impotent early in the season but turns to be
self potent later on

6. Temperature
 High temperature at flowering will dry up the stigmatic fluid and prevent pollination. Eg.
Tomato varieties do not produce any fruit when grown at high temperature (if day temperature
goes beyond 37 0C)

7. Light

Stamen and petal development occurs in straw berry if they exposed to long photoperiods

8. Pests and diseases

Hoppers in mango and mildews in mangoes and grapes affect fruit development leading
to poor fruit set

9. Spraying the trees when they are in bloom

Fungicides have inhibitory effect on pollen grains. Bordeaux mixture@ 200- 1000 ppm
prevents germination of pollen grains on the stigma

Parthenocarpy

It refers to the development of fruit without fertilization

Vegetative parthenocarpy

Fruit develops even without the stimulus of pollination. Eg. Banana and Japanese
persimonn

Stimulative parthenocarpy

Fruit develops from the mere stimulus of pollination but fertilization does not occur.
Eg. Black Corinth variety of grapes

Female flower of triploid water melon require pollen grains of diploid varieties to
produce seedless fruit. Diploid pollen grains give a stimulus for the ovary to develop into a
fruit without seed

Steno-spermocarpy

Pollination and fertilization occurs but embryo gets aborted subsequently resulting in
seedless fruits. Eg. Thompson seedless cultivar of grapes

Advantages

Greater preference among consumers for seedless fruits owing to its quality and hence
they fetch higher price in market than seeded fruits of same kind. Eg. Seedless grapes and
guava. Besides, problem of unfruitfulness may not arise if a fruit develops parthenocarpically
and the grower is assured of his crop.
Disadvantages

Small size (eg.grapes) and irregular in shape (eg.guava)

In citrus particularly in mandarin orange, less seeded varieties have been developed
through mutation breeding with gamma irradiation, where the isolated solid mutants
produce sterile pollen grains which when pollinate the flowers result in lesser seeded
fruits

Induction of seedlessness in fruits

1. Use of growth regulators

Application of GA in lanolin paste on cut end style of emasculated flowers of guava results
in seedless fruit. Spraying of GA @ 100-200 ppm in loquat results in seedless fruit

2. By changing the ploidy level

It was demonstrated first in Japan that triploid water melon developing by crossing
tetraploid x diploid varieties, seedlessness could be achieved

Parthenogenesis

In mangosteen and strawberry, fruit develops parthenocarpically but produce viable seed.

Fruit drop

Fruit trees bear large number of flowers but only a small percentage of flowers give rise
to a normal yield. Single inflorescence of mango contains 5000 flowers but an average of 5
fruits per inflorescence would provide a good to heavy crop, however, the actual percentage of
fruit set will be less

Fruit set is more than the trees can normally carry to maturity, there will be fruit drop at
various stages of development as an adjustment of tree to its resources. Such a drop is natural
and beneficial to the trees and it will prevents exhaustion of resources and breaking of branches
by over bearing

First drop

It occurs shortly after flower opening. Flowers with aborted pistils drop off at this stage.
Lack of pollination, low stigmatic receptivity, defective flowers, poor pollen transference and
occurrence of incompatibility are some of the causes attributed to this drop
Second drop

It occurs a fortnight later than first drop. This drop includes unfertilized and some
fertilized flowers. Fertilized flowers also drop off at this stage as a result of adjustment in tree
between nutritional factors and fruit set

Third drop

This drop occurs when the fruits are marble size due to formation of abscission layers in the
young fruit stalks. This is generally common in deciduous fruits and as its coincides with
june month, this drop is also known as june drop. This natural thinning of fruit helps the
trees to produce remaining fruits with good size.

Pre harvest drop

Another kind of fruit drop which is a loss to the grower is a pre- harvest drop .In this case,
dropping or shedding of fruits takes place before harvest. At this stage, half and three fourth
developed fruits- shed due to many causes. This is a loss to the growers and is a serious
problem confronted by them especially in apples, mango and citrus fruits. In all the above
cases, dropping of flowers, flower clusters or fruits are preceded by formation of layer or
several layers of cells at the base of the petiole or pedicel or peduncle or at right angle to this
axis. These cells are more or less rectangular in shape and are not cemented together firmly
and are not crossed by fibres or vascular tissues. Consequently breakage or abscission takes
place at that point. The formation of this layer is a natural phenomenon taking place as
natural maturity is reached. It may be hastened by certain environmental conditions.

Causes of fruit drop

Mechanical- Wind and hailstorms cause fruit drop

Climatic factors- High temperature, low humidity and very low temperature hasten the
formation of abscission layers, consequently the fruits drop. Eg. Mango

Physiological factors

Abnormal fluctuations of soil moisture favour heavy fruit drop

Nutritional

Lack of available nitrogen and similar other nutritional factors may cause fruit drop. The
shed is more in weak shoots than in the strong ones and also more in young trees than in
medium or old trees.

Cultural practices
 Deep digging or deep ploughing during the fruit development phase will injure the roots and
cause the fruits to be shed. Drought or lack of irrigation especially in mango during the third
drop stage increases the dropping per cent

Pathological causes

Incidence of pest and diseases will cause more shedding of fruits. For instance, high
incidence of diseases like powdery mildew and anthracnose and pests like hoppers and mealy
bugs in mango favour more fruit drops.

Varietal factor

Within a kind of fruit, the varieties differ among themselves in the extent of fruit drop.In one
study, it has been found that under similar conditions the extent of shed varies from 0.9 % in
Willard variety to 32.5 % in Jehangir variety of mango

Prevention

The pre harvest drop may be reduced by proper and timely culture such as irrigation and
manuring, plant protection chemicals, provision of pollinizers and wind breaks.

A definite relationship exists between auxin content and abscission of fruits during various
stages of development has been established in apple fruits. In the final stage of the fruit growth, a
rapid decline in auxin content is correlated to degeneration of endosperm causing pre harvest
fruit drop. This led to the thought that high concentration of auxins supplied exogenously may
inhibit fruit drop.

Pre harvest drop can be reduced by means of plant growth regulator sprays in most of the fruit
crops. NAA and its related compounds at rate of 10-20 ppm are very effective in pome fruits
such as apples, and pears. 2, 4- D at rate of < 20 ppm checks pre harvest fruit drop in citrus.2,4-
D and 2,4,5- T at rate of 5-10 ppm in Kodai orange decreases fruit drop and increases fruit
retention. NAA at rate of 10 ppm reduces fruit drop in litchi and GA 60 ppm was effective in
jamun

Alternate bearing

Alternate bearing or biennial bearing is an age old horticultural problem and is also
designated as irregular bearing. Trees carries optimum load of crop in one year but it fails to
flower and produces a satisfactory crop in the following year. eg. Mango, apple, coffee,
tamarind, plum, pear etc. In this type of bearing, the heavy crop year or season is referred as
‘on year’. If an ‘on year’ is regularly followed by an ‘off year’, then it is called as alternate
bearing or biennial bearing. Irregular bearing on the other hand refers to rhythm of a heavy
crop year followed by more than one year “off crops”.
 Disadvantages

 When compared to regular bearer, the average yield per tree in an alternate or
irregular bearer is always less.
 The quality of fruits may be inferior on year cropping as compared to regular bearer.
 More breakage of heavy loaded branches is likely to occur in an on year and the trees
become more sensitive to frost damage than a regular bearer

Causes for Alternate bearing

Genetic causes

Certain trees which belong to the particular species or genus or family express this
tendency always. For instance,apple(Malus domestica) , pear(Pyrus communis),
plum(Prunus domestica) and apricot(Prunus armeniaca) belongs to the family rosaceae
have a more tendency to express this phenomenon.Within a species also, distinct cultivar
differences exist for varying tendencies towards alternate bearing. In Mango, cultivars like
Banglora, Neelum, Rumani, Mallika and Amrapali are the regular bearers. Dashehari and
pairi are biennial bearers in habit.

Bearing habit

Terminal flower bud formation is often regarded as all explanation for alternate
bearing habit in apple. The formation of spurs (which is a terminal bearer) is strongly
stimulated in the off year hence in the following year(on year), the crop bears heavily.

Age of the tree or age and size of shoots.

In alternate bearing cultivars of apple, this tendency is found to be more in young

trees than in older trees. In mango, it has been found that the bearing shoots which attain
about 8-10 months maturity alone tend to produce the flower buds in those varieties
which tend to express this phenomenon.

Carbon / Nitrogen ratio

In mango, it has been found that higher starch reserve, total carbohydrate and Carbon/
Nitrogen ratio favour flower bud formation. Starch reserves and carbohydrates are
extensively used as a sink during heavy cropping year and hence bud formation is drastically
affected leading to an ‘off year’ immediately to follow ‘on year’.
 Lec No. 6-Growth regulators and growth hormones- classification and applications

Refer practical manual.

Lec No.7

Propagation- sexual and asexual propagation- seed propagation- dormancy and measures
to overcome seed dormancy, apomixes and polyembryony

Plant propagation

Multiplication or perpetuation of individual or group of plants which have specific value to

human kind

Two types

Sexual propagation

Asexual propagation or vegetative propagation

Sexual propagation

Sexual propagation of plants is by seeds. The seeds are fertilized ovule containing
embryos resulting from the union of male and female gametes during fertilization. The
embryo in the seed gives rise to the new plant during germination.

How male and female gametes are formed and how fertilization is effected?

Microsporogenesis

Pollen is produced in the anther. In early stages of development the anther consists of a
small group of meristematic cells. As it matures, four groups of microspore mother cell develop
with it. Each microspore mother cell divides meiotically to produce four microspores, each of
which contains the haploid (n) number of chromosomes. Each microspore develops into a pollen
grain after undergoing mitotic division producing two nuclei. The two nuclei of the pollen grain
are the ‘tube nucleus’ and the ‘generative nucleus’. The generative nucleus subsequently divides
and produces two male gametes or sperm cells before the pollen is shed.

Megasporogenesis

The formation of seed begins with the development of an ovule. In the young ovule, all
the cells that compose the nucleus are identical. However, on of the nuclear cells, usually just
below the epidermis near the top, differentiates from the surrounding cells eventually forming
the embryo sac mother cells. Generally this is 2n or diploid tissue. The nucleus of this mother
cell undergoes two successive meiotic divisions, forming a row of four cells called megaspores.
They are genetically ‘n’ or haploid cells. Generally three of the four cells nearer the micropylar
end disintegrate and the remaining cell develops into the mature embryo sac. The nucleus of
remaining megaspore divides meiotically thrice to form the eight nucleated mature embryo sac.
Thus each mature embryo sac contains eight nuclei (each n) consisting of single egg cell, two
synergids and three antipodal cells and one primary endosperm with two nuclei.

During the pollination, pollen is transferred from the anther to the stigma where it
germinates and grows down the style until it reaches the embryo sac. The pollen tube penetrates
the tissue of the stigma, grows down the style and enters the ovary usually through micropyle.
The tip of pollen tube ruptures and the sperm nuclei move towards and fuse with the egg
effecting fertilization and form the zygote (2n). Second sperm nucleus unites with two polar
nuclei in double fertilization forming the primary endosperm (3n). After ovule fertilization, the
embryo and endosperm continue to grow and differentiate ultimately, forming the seed

Developed seed has three parts

 Embryo
 Food storage tissues( endosperm, perisperm or cotyledon)
 Seed coverings
Albuminous seed

Seeds in which endosperm is large and contains most of the stored food

Exalbuminous seed

Seeds which lacks endosperm or reduced to a thin layer surrounding the embryo

Apomixis

In some species, embryos are produced not as a result of meiosis and fertilization but by
certain asexual processes. The occurrence of asexual reproductive process in place of normal
seed reproductive process of reduction division and fertilization is known as apomixis. Such
seedling plants produced through apomixes is known as apomicts. Plants which produce only
apomictic embryos are known as obligate apomicts. Plants which produce apomictic embryos
and sexual embryos are known as facultative apomicts

Four types of apomixes were reported in horticultural crops.

Recurrent apomixis

Embryo develops from the diploid egg cell or from the diploid cells of the embryo sac
without fertilization. Eg. Malus , Allium
Non recurrent apomixis

Embryo develops directly from the haploid egg cell or some other haploid cells of the
embryo sac- haploid plants are produced. Solanum nigrum and Lilium sp

Nucellar embryony or adventitious embryony

Embryo arises from a cell or a group of cells in the nucleus or in the integuments and
hence they are diploid in nature having the genetic constitution of its mother plant. It differs from
recurrent apomixes in such that embryo develops outside the embryo sac besides a normal
embryo develops from the embryo sac. Eg. Citrus and certain varieties of mango

Vegetative apomixis

In some species, the flowers in an inflorescence are replaced by vegetative buds called
bulbils which sprout and produce new plants while still on another plants. Eg. Allium sativum,
Agave.

Significance of Apomixis

• Apomitic seedlings are identical with mother plants similar to those propagated
by vegetative means.
• Such seedlings when used as rootstocks provides uniformity to scions when
grafted
• Free from virus diseases
Polyembryony

The phenomenon in which more embryos are present within a single seed is called
polyembryony. It may result due to nucellar embryony eg. Citrus sp b) development of more
than one nucleus within the embryo sac leading to multiple embryos. eg. conifers

Occurrence of polyembryony is widespread in all citrus species- but the number of

embryos per seed varies from species to species. In rough lemon, it varies from 3-5. In mango,
certain cultivars- are reported to be polyembryonic with the number of embryos ranging from 2-
10, the seedlings (1-7) and germination % (40-87). If can be identified from its true seedling by
their uniformity and vigorous in growth. The greater vigour is probably due to elimination of
viruses

Advantages of Sexual propagation

• Long lived
• Hardy with deep root system
• Chance seedlings- performances better than their parents. Eg. Mango variety Chinna
suvarnarekha
 • Polyembryony produces true to type nucellar embryonic seedlings which could be used
as root stocks for uniform performance. Eg. Mango- vellaicolumban, olour, Bappakai.
Citrus – all species except Citrus grandis
• Seed propagation is necessary when vegetative propagation is unsuccessful or difficult or
expensive. Eg.papaya
• Exploitation of hybrid vigour is possible only when the hybrids multiplied in the first
instance through sexual propagation although subsequent fixing of heterosis is effected
through vegetative propagation. eg. Co-1 sapota (cricket ball x oval), PKM-1 mango
(Chinna swarnarekha x Neelum), PKM-2 ( Neelum x Mulgoa)

Disadvantages

• The progenies are not true to type and so they become inferior because in the commercial
orchards it is necessary to have uniform growth and yielding capacities besides the
quality attributes
• Seedlings have a long juvenile period. Oranges when raised by seedlings take 7-10 years
for bearing while a budded plants comes to bearing within 3-4 years
• Seeds lose viability in a short period. In crops like citrus, cocoa and rubber the seeds
must be sown fresh (ie. ) immediately after extraction
Importance of sexual propagation
• Sexual propagation is necessary when vegetative propagation is unsuccessful or difficult
or expensive. eg.papaya
• When seedlings are required in large number, seed propagation is the only mean. eg.
forest trees
• The root stocks used for grafting mango and sapota and for budding peaches and plums
are raised only by seed
• To take the advantage of polyembryony seedlings
Seed formation and maturity
Seed develops along with fruit and reaches full size and maturity when the fruit ripens.The
development of seeds in the fruit can be characterized by two distinct stages.
1. Ripening stage
Associated with rapid increase in dry weight as well as fresh weight resulting in an
increase in seed moisture content.
2.Maturation stage
Seed looses water but continues to increase in dry weight. Most of the seeds accumulate food
materials during both the stages. The embryo acquires a strong resistance to desiccation during
maturation stage so that it can tolerate desiccation efficiently with potentiality to resume growth
when hydrated during germination. Hence seed should be extracted only from ripe fruits. Seeds
gathered from immature fruits may not germinate under favourable conditions and may lose
viability quickly than mature seeds.

Seed storage
Seeds should be normally stored in dry conditions at low temperature. Some seeds such as
citrus, cocoa, rubber should be sown immediately after extraction as the seeds are short lived.
The storage conditions that maintain seed viability are those which slow respiration and other
metabolic processes without the injuring the embryo. The most important conditions for
achieving this are reduced moisture content of the seed, reduced storage temperature and
modification
Seed germination
A seed consists of an embryo and its stored food supply (endosperm) surrounded by
protective seed coverings. During germination, cell metabolism increases, the embryo resumes
active growth, seed coverings ruptures and the seedling emerges. The water that is imbibed
during germination-softens the seed covering and causes hydration of protoplasm. Enzymes
become active and begin to digest reserve substances like fats, proteins and carbohydrates in
storage tissues such as cotyledons, endosperm to simpler substances. These compounds are then
translocated to the growing points of embryonic axis to be used for growth and production of
new plant parts
As germination proceeds, seedling structure becomes evident. Embryo consists of an axis
bearing one or more seed leaves or cotyledons. Plumule is the growing point of shoot, is at the
upper end of embryo axis above the cotyledons. The seedling stem is divided into the sections
below the cotyledons as the hypocotyls and above the cotyledons as the epicotyl.The initial
growth of the seedlings follows one of the two patterns.
Epigeous germination, the hypocotyl elongates and raises the cotyledons above the ground.
Hypogeous germination, the hypocotyl does not raise the cotyledons above the ground and only
the epicotyl emerges.
Seed dormancy
Seed can germinate immediately upon absorption of water without a barrier to
germination, the embryo is said to be quiescent or non dormant. But in certain cases, seeds do
not germinate readily even when they are provided with all conditions required for germination.
Such seeds are known as dormant seeds. The dormant seed do not germinate because of any
condition associated with either seed itself or with existing environmental factors such as
temperature and moisture.
Types of dormancy
Seed coat dormancy
In certain plant species belonging to families like leguminaceae, malvaceae, cannaceae,
convolvulaceae, the seed coats or other tissues covering the embryo are hard and are
impermeable to soil and oxygen thus preventing the germination. In certain species, seed coats
are apparently permeable to water and gases but they are so hard to resist embryo expansion.
Germination does not occur. Eg. Shells of walnut
Dormancy due to rudimentary embryos
Plants shed their fruits before the embryo within the seed has attained the maturity stage
to germinate. Such embryos require several weeks to several months after harvest to attain its full
maturity so that it can germinates. Eg.Pinus sp, palms and orchids
Dormancy due to Chemical inhibitors
In certain species, specific chemical substances that prevent germination occur in seed coats,
endosperm or embryo. These are reduced or eliminated by leaching with water or adsorption by
soil.
Dormancy due to internal factors
It is due to physiologically dormant embryos. In this case, dormant embryos do not resume
active growth even though all environmental conditions are favourable unless the seeds are
subject to moist, chilling treatments. During this process, the level of endogenous growth
promoting substances (Gibberellins and cytokinins) increase whiles the level of growth
inhibiting hormone (eg. Abscissic acid) decreases, thus removing the block and permitting
germination.eg. Freshly harvested seeds of apple, pear, peaches etc.
Double dormancy-
It exhibits seed coat dormancy and embryo dormancy .eg.Cercis occidentalis
Seed viability and longevity
Presence of life in the embryo is known as seed viability. Length of the time up to which
the seeds will retain their viability is known as seed longevity
Based on longevity, seed moisture content and response to drying, seeds are classified into
Orthodox seeds
Seeds which can be safely dried to low moisture content and storability of such seeds
improve with lowering of seed moisture.eg. Seasonal vegetables and flowers
Recalcitrant seed
Seeds which lose viability when dried to moisture contents below a critical level as
irreversible ultra structural damages are caused to the seed.
Seed Longevity of various horticultural crops
 Crop Viability period
Mango 80 days
Jack 1 month
Mangosteen- 8 weeks
Cinnamon 1 week
Cocoa 4 months
Seed viability can be tested by germination test, excised embryo test and tetrazolium test
Among them, the tetrazolium test is more reliable and easy method to do.
1 % aqueous solution of 2,3,5- triphenyl tetrazolium chloride is taken in a Petri dish
and water soaked seeds are placed and kept in dark, warm place .A viable seed takes red
coloured stain while a non viable seed remains colourless
Pre treatment of seeds
Mechanical scarification
Breaking or scratching of seed coats mechanically to modify the hard or impervious seed
coats. This can be done by revolving the seeds in a drum lined with sand paper.
Soaking in water
Generally seeds will be soaked in hot water for a few seconds and then soaked for 24-48
hours in cold water which makes the seed coat soften and wash off the inhibitors. Eg.wattle seed.
In some case seeds are soaked in running cold water for a period of 8-12 hours which help in
removing the inhibitors.eg.beetroot
Acid treatment
Soaking the seeds for a few minutes (15-60 seconds) in concentrated Hydrochloric acid or
sulphuric acid modifies hard or impermeable seed coverings. At the end of treatment period, the
seeds are washed to remove the remnant acid.
Cold stratification
During stratification, seeds are exposed to abundant moisture, ample oxygen and cool
temperature. It consists of placing the seeds in a moist medium of sand, peat or vermiculite and
holding at a temperature slightly above freezing. The time varies between 1-4 months depending
upon the type of seeds. This permits the physiological changes within the embryo
Dry storage
Freshly harvested seeds of annuals and herbaceous plants fail to germinate until after a
period of dry storage. Such post harvest dormancy may last for few days to several months

Treatment with chemicals

 Soaking in potassium nitrate (0.2 %), GA (200-500 ppm) or thio urea (0.2 %) solution
prior to sowing has been found to stimulate the germination of many citrus species. Cardamom
seeds when presoaked for 10 minutes in 25 % acetic acid, 25 % nitric acid or 50 % hydrochloric
acid show improvement in the germination from 18 to more than 90 % in all the cases
Seed sowing
The seeds may be sown in raised beds in open or in containers like seed pan or seed
boxes. The soil in the bed must be porous and light and may be made by incorporating one part
of loamy soil, sand and two parts of fine cattle manure. Proper spacing and maintaining optimum
moisture level in the soil media are essential to produce healthy seedlings
Asexual propagation
Multiplication or perpetuation of any plant from any vegetative parts of plants other than
seed. Vegetative propagation is possible as the vegetative organs of many plants have the
capacity for regeneration. For instance, stem cuttings have the ability to form adventitious roots.
Root cuttings can generate new shoot system while leaves can regenerate new roots and shoots
Vegetative propagation is also known as clonal propagation since this kind of propagation is the
rule to maintain a clone.
Clone- may be defined as a genetically uniform materials derived from single individual and
propagated exclusively by vegetative means such as cuttings, divisions or grafts, etc
Bartlett pear- a clone originated as seedling in England during 1770 has been propagated ever
since by vegetative means. The leading cultivars of Tea namely sundaram and pandian have been
exclusively propagated by cuttings ever since they were identified as superior seedling in
plantation
Advantages
• The progenies are true to type in nature
• Vegetative propagation is the only rule where no seed is formed or germination of seed is
very slow or no viable seed is formed. Eg. Banana, pine apple and roses
• Certain rootstocks have the capacity of resisting or tolerating adverse environmental
factors such as frost and adverse soil factors like salinity and alkalinity.eg. frost resistance
– Poncirus trifoliate (Trifoliate orange)
• The ability of certain root stocks to resist pest and diseases can be advantageously
exploited. Apples when grafted on rootstocks like Merton 778,793 and 779 are resistant
to wooly aphids
• Vegetative propagated plants are generally dwarf in nature than the seedlings which
facilitates easy pruning, spraying, harvesting besides more number of plants can be
accommodated per unit area
 • Many plants are propagated by vegetative means because of the speed and ease of
multiplication
Disadvantages
• More expensive than seed propagation
• Comparatively they are short lived
• The chance of carrying virus from one generation to subsequent generation are more

Genetic variation
Genetic variation in clonally propagated plants occurs due to gene and or chromosome
(mutational) changes which can occur within somatic cells and if followed by mitotic division,
may lead to permanent change in the clone. When mutations occur within a plant often affect
only a segment of the meristem and as a result, give rise to sectors or layers of the mutated
tissues. Thus, a plant propagated from such meristem is composed of two or more genetically
distinct tissues growing adjacent to each other and such plants are called chimeras. eg. Coleus,
crotons
Depending upon the extent of mutated cells lying adjacent to non mutated cells in a
meristem- three types are recognized
Sectorial
Growing point of the shoot is composed of two genetically different tissues situated side by
side occupying distinct sectors of the stem. Leaves and lateral buds arising from such a shoot
composed of two tissues combined in various ways, depending upon their location
Periclinal
Tissue of one genetic composition occurs as relatively thin skin, usually with one or
several cell layers in thickness over a genetically different core. This is the most common and
stable type. Such chimeras will revert back if they are propagated through seed or root cuttings
arising from adventitious roots which originally arise from non mutated layer.
Mericlinal
Similar to periclinal chimera except that outer layer of a different tissue does not extend
completely around the shoot occupying the segment of the circumference.
Budsport
If a branch which shows changes from rest of the plant in one or more inheritable
characters and that can be perpetuated by vegetative means is called a budsport. Eg. Deep red
coloured “Starking and Richa Red apple cultivar are sports of the original Delecious apple
cultivar only

Lec No.8
Vegetative propagation methods-merits and demerits- cutting, layering, grafting and
budding- rootstock influence- stock- scion relationship
Cuttings
• Root cuttings
• Stem cuttings
• Hardwood cuttings
• Semi hard wood cuttings
• Soft wood cuttings
• Herbaceous cuttings
• Leaf and leaf bud cuttings

Regeneration of plants from cuttings

Great differences exist among spices and cultivars in the rooting ability of cuttings. The
following are some important factors affecting the regeneration of cuttings
1.Food supply:
Ratio of carbohydrate to nitrogen in the stems at time of collection of cutting is directly
related to rooting ability. High carbohydrate with low nitrogen level will aid easy and copious
rooting.

2.Sex of the plant:

Cuttings taken from the male trees root better than the female trees (eg. Red maple).
3.Age of stock plant:
Rate of formation of adventitious roots increase with increasing age of cuttings (e.g Apple,
Pear, Eucalyptus). This is mainly due to the accumulation of rooting inhibitors as the plants grow
older. The rooting ability in such old plants can be induced by severe pruning which tends to
produce juvenile shoots
4.Time of year in which cuttings are taken
Broad leaved evergreen plants usually root most readily if the cuttings are taken after a
flush of growth has been completed and this occurs during spring to late fall. Eg.scented
geranium. In this case, the cuttings root readily during summer and autumn months but they root
poorly during winter months.
5.Presence of foliage on cuttings
The amount of leaf area left on a cutting will determine the extent of root production. The
retention of large photosynthetic leaf area will not only reduce losses of cuttings but produce
more strongly rooted cuttings in a shorter period of time.

6. Flowering or vegetative wood

 In most plants, cuttings could be made from shoots that are either in a flowering
or vegetative condition. Cuttings will root easily and more in number when they are taken
from the vegetative shoot than from the flowering shoot. eg.jasmine
7.Type of cuttings
Soft wood cuttings root well better than hard wood or semi hard wood cuttings. Eg.
Geranium
8.Treatment of cuttings with growth regulators and other chemicals
Treatment of stem cuttings with synthetic auxin compounds viz., NAA, IBA and 2,4-D at
appropriate concentration have resulted in improved rooting .Addition of several nitrogen
compounds both organic and inorganic improves rooting in Rhododendron sp
9.Wounding
Root production on stem cuttings can be promoted by wounding the base of the cuttings.
Eg. Magnolia

Environmental condition during rooting

1.Water
The Softwood and herbaceous cuttings which retain more number of leaves have to be
kept without withering or wilting by reducing its transpiration rate. This is possible by
maintaining the vapour pressure of water in the atmosphere surrounding the leaves equal to the
water vapour pressure in the intercellular spaces within the leaf. High amount of rooting in the
above kind of cuttings is achieved in mist propagation by following the above principle.-Such
cuttings may not give adequate rooting or may fail to root under outside condition.
2.Temperature
For most of the cuttings, it has been established that day air temperature of 21-27 0C and
night temperature about 150C are satisfactory for rooting. Any high temperature tends to
promotes bud development in advance of root development and increases water loss from the
leaves
3.Light
The basic principle of a cutting responding to light may be attributed to its effect of auxin
production in plants. In rooting leafy cuttings products of photosynthesis are more important for
root initiation growth, the synthesis of which depends on light.

4.Rooting media
 The kind of rooting media can affect the type of root system arising from the cuttings.
Cutting of some species when rooted in sand produce long unbranched coarse and brittle roots
but they developed well branched roots when rooted in a mixture of peat moss and sand

Layering
Development of roots on a stem while it is still attached to the parent plant
Types
• Air layering
• Ground layering
• Simple layering
• Compound or serpentine layering
• Tip layering
• Trench layering or etiolation method
• Mound layering or stooling

Advantages
• Easy to perform
• Clone which cannot be easily rooted by stem cuttings may be made to root through
layers
Disadvantages
• Limited to certain plant species which produce low lying branches
• Number of new plants produced by layering from mother stock plant is low compared to
cuttings
• Although operation is simple, after care of layers is essential- daily watering to maintain
a very good growth
Anatomical and physiological basis of rooting
The formation of adventitious roots in cuttings or layering can be divided into two phases. s.
First phase is the initiation which is characterized by cell division and the differentiation of
certain cells into root initials and then into recognizable root primordia .The second phase is the
growth and emergence of new roots, by a combination of cell division and cell elongation
including rupturing of other stem tissues and formation of vascular connection with conducting
tissue of the cutting. These root initials are formed adjacent to vascular tissue. In herbaceous
plants which lack a cambium, the root initials are formed near the vascular bundle close to the
phloem. In woody perennials, the adventitious rootsin stem cuttings usually originate in the
young secondary phloem although this may also arise from other tissues such as vascular layer,
cambium or piths.
In some cases, adventitious root initials form during early stages of intact stem development
and are already present at the time of preparation of cuttings. These are termed as preformed or
latent root initials. These generally lie dormant until the stems are made into cuttings and
placed under environmental conditions favorable for further development and emergence of the
primordia.eg. Willow, Hydrangea
Physiological basis of rooting
• Auxin level is closely associated with adventitious rooting of stem cuttings
• High carbohydrate levels with optimum nitrogen are associated with vigorous root
growth.
• Few organic compounds interact with auxin to affect rooting, are called rooting
cofactors
Grafting
It is the process of operation of inserting a part of one plant into an or placing it upon,
another in such a way that a union will be formed and the combination will continue to grow as
one plant.
The part of the graft combination which is to becomes the upper portion is termed as
scion(cion) and the part which is to become the lower portion is termed root stock or
understock or the stock. Rootstocks are commonly grown from seeds, cuttings or layers
All methods of joining plants are popularly termed as grafting but when scion part is
only a small piece of bark ( and sometimes wood) containing a single bud, the operation is
termed as budding
Reasons for grafting and budding
• When other methods of asexual propagation are unsuccessful in perpetuating a clone-eg.
Mango and sapota can be successfully propagated in commercial scale only by grafting
• Plants propagated on their own roots may be weak, susceptible to pest and diseases or to
any adverse environmental condition or not adaptable to a particular soil or climate. For
many plant species, rootstocks are available which tolerate all above cases and hence they
may be exploited as a rootstock through grafting or budding.
• For converting poor trees in to more desirable ones by top working
• For overcoming pollination problem, self fertile varieties may be grafted over self sterile
varieties
• To modify the growth of plant as dwarf one by employing suitable dwarfing rootstocks.
• Occasionally, the roots, trunk or large limbs of trees are severely damaged by winter
injury, cultivation implements, certain diseases or rodents. But use of bridge grafting or
inarching can be repaired and tree can be saved
• For fancy purpose, different type of scions may be grafted in the same plant

Rootstocks
Rootstocks also influence the growth and productivity of scion. Rootstocks can be divided
into
Seedling rootstocks
 Variation among seedlings can possibly make them undesirable as rootstocks.
Variation in rootstock seedlings may cause variability in the growth and performance of
the grafted trees. Seedlings of 1 ½- 2years old with pencil thickness are considered
optimum. Seedling rootstocks are employed for mango, plums and peaches.
Clonal rootstocks
To avoid variation in rootstocks and thus to improve uniformity in the scion, often
rootstocks are propagated by cutting or layers. Such rootstocks which are perpetuated
asexually are termed as clonal rootstocks.
Nucellar seedlings(polyembryony) in certain varieties of mango and all the species in
citrus except (Citrus grandis) can also considered as clonal rootstocks as they arise from the
tissue other than true sexual embryo. Clonal rootstocks are used in the propagation of Apple
and Pear

Factors for successful graft union

• Botanically closer a rootstock and scion, the more will be the compatibility between them
• Proper season of grafting is essential. For deciduous plants, grafting is done at winter or
early spring season and for evergreen trees it should be done during active growing
season
• Any grafting or budding method should ensure intimate contact between the cambium of
stock and scion
• Immediately after grafting operation is completed all the cut surfaces must be carefully
protected from desiccation
• Proper care should be given to the grafts for a period of time after grafting

Formation of graft union

Freshly cut scion tissues capable of meristematic activity- brought in close, intimate contact
with similar freshly cut stock tissue - cambial regions of both are in close proximity. Healing of
graft union takes place in sequential steps as follows
• Production of callus tissues ( parenchyma cells) by the cambium regions
• Intermingling and interlocking of parenchyma cells of both
graft components
• Differentiation of certain parenchyma cells of the callus into new cambium cells
connecting with the original cambium in the stock and scion
• Production of new vascular tissues by the new cambium permitting passage of nutrients
and water between the stock and scion
Grafting methods
 Grafting techniques may be employed for production of new plants, top working or for
rejuvenation of the existing trees
Types
• Inarching or approach grafting
• Tongue grafting
• Side grafting
• Cleft grafting
• Whip and Splice grafting
• whip and tongue grafting
• veneer grafting
• Epicotyl grafting
Top working
This is also known as top grafting or top budding if we adopt any one of the grafting or
budding techniques. Top working aimed at changing the established plant, tree, shrub or vine
with a desirable cultivar. For top working, one has to select three to five well spaced scaffold
branches which are not larger than about cm in diameter and are cut conveniently close to the
ground level. The selected branches are given a smooth cut without tearing the bark from the
trunk. Thus, these branches may be utilized as rootstocks and grafting may be done by any one of
the following grafting methods.
• Inarching
• bark grafting
• side grafting
• veneer grafting
• Cleft grafting
Renovation and rejuvenation
• Bridge grafting
• Buttress grafting
Budding
Budding is an art of inserting a bud on the rootstock plant in such a manner that both will
unite and continue to grow as a single individual plant.
Advantage over grafting –
• economy in the use of scion material
Methods of Budding
• Shield or T budding. Eg. Sweet oranges, roses, plums, peaches
• Patch budding. Eg.citrus, mango, rubber and annona
• Flap or forket budding.
• Ring budding-Eg.cinchona
• Flute budding
• Chip budding. eg.grapes
Limitations of grafting or budding
For a successful graft union, close matching of callus producing tissues near the cambial layers.
Grafting is generally confined to dicotyledonous plants. Vascular cambium layer existing as a
continuous tissue between the xylem and phloem.
1.Inter varietal grafting
When different varieties of a species employed as graft parents (eg. Mango).
2.Intra varietal
When a scion can be grafted back on the same plant or a scion from a plant given clone
can be grafted to any other plant of the same clone. Eg. Elberta peach on Elberta peach
3.Inter specific
Grafting between two species of same genus is done. Usually difficult but widely practiced
between species in the genus citrus.eg. Japanese plum (Prunus salicina) is grafted commercially
on peach (Prunus persica)
4.Inter generic
Grafting between two different genera but in same family, chance of union are more remote.
But successful union has been reported in
• Citrus spp on trifoliate orange (Poncirus trifoliata)
• Sapota (Achras sapota) on pala (Manikara hexandra)

Graft incompatibility
The ability of two different plants when grafted together to produce a successful union and
also to develop satisfactorily into one composite plant is termed as compatibility. The inability
of two different plants to do so when grafted together is often termed as graft incompatibility
Partial incompatibility
 ‘Partial incompatibility’ where the stocks outgrow the scion has been reported in certain fruit
crops. For instance, mandarin when grafted on trifoliate orange rootstock outgrew the scions but
the tree grew well and produces plenty of fruits of good quality.
Translocated incompatibility
Incompatibility cannot be overcome by insertion of a mutually a compatible interstock. This
is due to some labile influence moving across it. This type involves phloem degeneration and
development of brown line or necrotic area in the bark. Eg. Hale’s Early Peach develops
incompatibility when grafted on Myrobolan plum B rootstock. But when a mutually compatible
interstock Brompton plum is introduced, incompatibility still persists, indicating incompatibility
is due to some factors translocated from the rootstock to the scion through the phloem causing
phloem degeneration
Localized incompatibility
Incompatibility reaction apparently depends upon the actual contact between stock and scion.
Introduction of mutually compatible interstock will normally overcome it. Incompatibility is due
to graft which is often mechanically weak with discontinuity in cambium and vascular tissues.
Eg. Bartlett pear is grafted directly on quince rootstock, it is incompatible. If Old Home
interstock is introduced, three part combination is completely compatible and grows
satisfactorily.
Eureka lemon on trifoliate stocks, incompatible occurs due to the toxic substance produced
by scion which damages the conducting tissues of the stock. When the interstock Valencia orange
was introduced, combination proved successful
Delayed incompatibility
In some cases, the stock -scion combination grows in a normal fashion for varying periods,
ie. for many years and then difficulties arise. Eg. Cultivars of Juglens regia when grafted on
seedling rootstocks of J.hindsii, trees grow satisfactorily for 15-20 years or even more years,
then a thin layer of cambium and phloem and the dead tissues develop at one joint and gradually
extend around the tree at the graft union, until the trees become girdled. Vertical width of dead
area may reach 30 cm. Such type may kill the plants above graft union but the stock remains
alive and sprout.
Symptoms of Incompatibility
• Failure to form successful graft or bud union with high per centage of success
• Yellowing of leaves in the latter part of the growing season followed by early defoliation
accompanied by decline in vegetative appearance of shoot, die back and general ill
health of the tree
• Marked differences in the growth rate or vigour of scion and stock
• Overgrowth at, above or below the graft union
Causes for graft incompatibility
Virus infection
One component of the graft combination may carry a virus and be symptomless but other
component may be susceptible to it.eg. Bartlett pear when grafted on Pyrus pyrifolia, tree
declines due to virus infection of the susceptible rootstock, while Bartlett on Pyrus communis
remains healthy, because Pyrus communis is a virus resistant species
Growth differences
In certain graft combination, the differences in the time of resumption of cambium activity of
the stock and scion or differential growth characteristics of the stock and scion are reported to be
the causes for graft incompatibility.
Physiological causes
It is due to the inability of the stock or scion to supply the other components with necessary
amount or quality of materials for normal functioning. There is some evidence that in certain
graft combinations one component produces chemicals that are toxic to the other, killing the
entire plant.
Eg. When pear is grafted on quince rootstock, a cyanogenic glucoside, prunasin, normally found
in the quince is translocated into the phloem of the pear where its gets broken down in the region
of graft union into hydrocyanic acid. The presence of this acid leads to lack of cambial activity at
the graft union, leading to graft incompatibility.
Stock -scion relationship
Grafted or budded plant can produce unusual growth patterns which may be different from
what would have occurred if each component part of a graftage viz., rootstock and scion was
grown separately or when it is grafted or budded on other type of rootstocks. This varying aspect
of rootstocks in the performance of a scion cultivar or vice versa is known as stock -scion
relationship.
Effect of stocks on scion cultivars
Size and growth habit
In apple, rootstocks can be classified as dwarf, semi dwarf, vigorous and very vigourous
rootstocks based on their effect on a scion cultivar. If a scion is grafted on dwarf rootstocks (eg.
Malling IX), the scion grows less vigorously and remains dwarf only. If the same scion is grafted
on a very vigorous rootstock (eg.Malling II), the scion grow vigorously.
In citrus, trifoliate orange is considered to be the most dwarfing rootstock for grape fruit and
sweet oranges.

Precocity in flowering and fruiting

The time taken from planting to fruiting is known as precocity. Generally fruiting precocity is
associated with dwarfing rootstocks and slowness to fruiting with vigourous rootstocks. Eg.
Mandarin when grafted on Jambhiri rootstocks, are precocious than those grafted on sweet
orange or acid lime rootstocks.
Fruit set and yield
The rootstock directly influence on the production of flower and setting of fruits in
oriental persimonn ( Diospyrous kaki cv. Hachiya. When it is grafted on D.lotus ,it produces
more flowers but few will mature. When D.kaki is used as rootstock, fruit set will be more.
Acid lime budded on rough lemon registers nearly 70 per cent increased yield than those
budded on troyer citrange, Rangpur lime or its own rootstocks
Fruit size and quality
Sathugudi sweet oranges grafted on Ganjanimma rootstocks produced large but poor quality
fruits when it is grafted on its own rootstock produced fruits with high juice content and quality
Nutrient status of scion
Sathugudi orange trees have a better status of all nutrients in the leaves when it is budded on
C.volkarimariana stock than on its own rootstock
Winter hardiness
Young grape fruit trees on Rangpur lime withstand winter injury better than on rough
lemon or sour orange
Disease resistance
Considerable variability exists among the rootstocks in their response to diseases and
nematodes. Guava varieties grafted on chinese guava (Psidium friedrichsthalianum) resist wilt
diseases and nematodes.
Ability to resist soil adverse conditions
Among the citrus rootstocks, trifoliate orange exhibits poor ability, while sweet oranges,
sour orange, rangpur lime rootstocks exhibit moderate ability to resist excess salts in the soil.

Effect of scion on rootstock

Vigour of the rootstocks
In apple, apple seedlings were budded with Red Astrochan apple, the rootstock produces
fibrous root system with few tap roots. If scion Golden burg was budded on the seedlings, they
produce two or three prolonged deep roots without fibrous root system.
Cold hardiness
 Sour orange seedlings budded to Eureka suffered from winter injury than unbudded
seedlings.
Precocity in flowering
Young mango rootstock seedlings (6 months to one year old) were found to put forth
inflorescence when the branches from old trees are inarched, which can be attributed to the
influence of scion on rootstock
Factors influencing the healing of graft union
1. Incompatibility
Certain rootstocks and scions are incompatible, therefore the graft union will not
normally take place
Kind of plant
Some species like oaks are difficult to graft, but apple and pears are very easy in producing a
successful graft union
Environmental factors
There are certain environmental requirements which must be met for callus tissue
development and healing of graft union.
a.Temperature
Temperature has pronounced effect on the production of callus issues. An optimum
temperature is essential for production of callus tissues. In most temperate fruit crops, callus
production is retarded after 42.5 0C
b.Relative Humidity
This must be high in maintaining a film of water against the callusing surface to prevent
these delicate thin walled parenchymatous cells from drying.
C.Presence of high oxygen content near this surface is essential.

Growth activity of the stock plants

Some propagation methods like T budding or bark grafting depends upon the bark slipping
(cambial cells are actively dividing and producing young thin walled cells on the side of the
cambium. These newly formed cells separate readily from one another as the bark slips
Propagation techniques
 Sometimes the techniques used in grafting are so poor that only a small portion of the
cambial regions of the stock and scion are brought together. This may result in failure of the graft
union.