Some substances can pass into or out of a cell across the plasma membrane without any energy required because they are moving from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration. This type of transport is called passive transport as you learned in the last section. Other substances require energy to cross a plasma membrane often because they are moving from an area of lower concentration to an area of higher concentration. This type of transport is called active transport. The energy for active transport comes from the energy-carrying molecule called ATP (adenosine triphosphate). Active transport may also require transport proteins, such as carrier proteins, which are embedded in the plasma membrane. Two types of active transport are the sodium-potassium pump and vesicle transport.
The Sodium-Potassium Pump
The sodium-potassium pump is a mechanism of active transport that moves sodium ions out of the cell and potassium ions into the cells — in all the trillions of cells in the body! Both ions are moved from areas of lower to higher concentration, so energy is needed for this "uphill" process. The energy is provided by ATP. The sodium-potassium pump also requires carrier proteins. Carrier proteins bind with specific ions or molecules, and in doing so, they change shape. As carrier proteins change shape, they carry the ions or molecules across the membrane. The figure below shows in greater detail how the sodium-potassium pump works and the specific roles played by carrier proteins in this process.
Figure 5.7.25.7.2: The sodium-potassium pump. The sodium-potassium pump moves sodium ions (Na++) out of the cell and potassium ions (K++) into the cell. First, three sodium ions bind with a carrier protein in the cell membrane. Then, the carrier protein receives a phosphate group from ATP. When ATP loses a phosphate group, energy is released. The carrier protein changes shape, and as it does, it pumps the three sodium ions out of the cell. At that point, two potassium ions bind to the carrier protein. The process is reversed, and the potassium ions are pumped into the cell. (Mariana Ruiz Villarreal (User:LadyofHats/Wikimedia Commons), [public domain]; Scheme sodium-potassium pump-en.svg)
To appreciate the importance of the sodium-potassium pump, you need to know more about the roles of sodium and potassium in the body. Both are essential dietary minerals, meaning you have to obtain them in the foods you eat. Both sodium and potassium are also electrolytes, meaning that they dissociate into ions (charged particles) in solution, which allows them to conduct electricity. Normal body functions require a very narrow range of concentrations of sodium and potassium ions in body fluids, both inside and outside of cells. Sodium is the principal ion in the fluid outside of cells. Normal sodium concentrations are about 10 times higher outside than inside of cells. Potassium is the principal ion in the fluid inside of cells. Normal potassium concentrations are about 30 times higher inside than outside of cells. These differences in concentration create an electrical gradient across the cell membrane, called membrane potential. Tightly controlling the membrane potential is critical for vital body functions, including the transmission of nerve impulses and the contraction of muscles. A large percentage of the body's energy goes to maintaining this potential across the membranes of its trillions of cells with the sodium-potassium pump. Vesicle Transport Some molecules, such as proteins, are too large to pass through the plasma membrane, regardless of their concentration inside and outside the cell. Very large molecules cross the plasma membrane with a different sort of help, called vesicle transport. Vesicle transport requires energy, so it is also a form of active transport. There are two types of vesicle transport: endocytosis and exocytosis. Both types are shown in the figure below.
Endocytosis Figure 5.7.35.7.3. The image illustrates three types of Endocytosis cell transport: Phagocytosis, Pinocytosis, and Receptor-mediated endocytosis. Endocytosis is a process whereby cells absorb material (molecules such as proteins) from the outside by engulfing it with their cell membrane. It is used by all cells of the body because most substances important to them are polar and consist of big molecules, and thus cannot pass through the hydrophobic plasma membrane. (Mariana Ruiz Villarreal LadyofHats; [public domain]; via Wikimedia.org; Endocytosis types.svg)
Endocytosis is a type of vesicle transport that moves a substance into the cell. The plasma membrane completely engulfs the substance, a vesicle pinches off from the membrane, and the vesicle carries the substance into the cell. When an entire cell or other solid particle is engulfed, the process is called phagocytosis. When fluid is engulfed, the process is called pinocytosis. When the content is taken in specifically with the help of receptors on the plasma membrane, it is called receptor-mediated endocytosis.
Exocytosis Figure 5.7.45.7.4: Exocytosis is much like endocytosis in reverse. Material destined for export is packaged into a vesicle inside the cell. The membrane of the vesicle fuses with the cell membrane, and the contents are released into the extracellular space. (OpenStax [CC BY 4.0 ]; via Wikimedia.org; 0310 Exocytosis.jpg)
Exocytosis is a type of vesicle transport that moves a substance out of the cell. A vesicle containing the substance moves through the cytoplasm to the cell membrane. Then, the vesicle membrane fuses with the cell membrane, and the substance is released outside the cell.
Homeostasis and Cell Function
For a cell to function normally, a stable state must be maintained inside the cell. For example, the concentration of salts, nutrients, and other substances must be kept within a certain range. The process of maintaining stable conditions inside a cell (or an entire organism) is homeostasis. Homeostasis requires constant adjustments because conditions are always changing both inside and outside the cell. The processes described in this and previous lessons play important roles in homeostasis. By moving substances into and out of cells, they keep conditions within normal ranges inside the cells and the organism as a whole.
