Anaximenes of Miletus

Anaximenes of Miletus (/ˌænækˈsɪməˌniːz/; Greek: Ἀναξιμένης ὁ Μιλήσιος;

Anaximenes of Miletus
c. 586 – c. 526 BC) was an Ancient Greek Pre-Socratic philosopher active in the
latter half of the 6th century BC.[1][2] The details of his life are obscure and
undocumented because none of his work has been preserved. Anaximenes's
ideas and philosophies are known today because of comments made by Aristotle
and other writers on the history of Greek Philosophy.[3] Apollodurus noted the
dates Anaximander was alive in relation to defining historical events, and
estimated Anaximenes's lifespan to occur in same time period that Cyrus beat
Croesus in the Battle of Thymbra in 546 BCE.[2] Some of his writings survived
the Hellenistic Age, but no record of these documents currently exist.[2] As one
of the three Milesian philosophers that were considered the first revolutionary
thinkers of the Western world,[4] he is best known and identified as a younger
friend or student of Anaximander.[5][6] Much of his astronomical thought was
based on Anaximander's, but he altered Anaximander's astrological ideas to
better fit his own philosophical views on physics and the natural world.[2] The
Anaximenes of Miletus
Ionian school was the first school on record that encouraged their pupils to
constructively criticize their master's teachings,[7] which aptly demonstrated a Born c. 586 BC
tolerance toward new ideas and logic for their time. Thales taught Anaximander, Died c. 526 BC
and Anaximander taught Anaximenes.[4] Each philosopher developed a distinct
Era Pre-Socratic philosophy
system of cosmology without completely rejecting their teacher's view of
universe or creating major disagreement between them.[7] Anaximenes, like
Region Ancient Greek city of
others in his school of thought, practiced material monism.[8][6] This tendency to
Miletus (present-day
identify one specific underlying reality made up of a material thing is what
Turkey)
Anaximenes is principally known for today. Anaximenes was the last known
Inhabitant of the
Milesian philosopher, as Miletus was taken over by the Persian army in 494
Occidental World
BC.[7] Because none of his works contain theological references, there is no
School Ionian / Milesian
evidence as to whether or not he practiced religion or if he was an atheist.[9]
Focused on Naturalism
Main Metaphysics
Contents interests
Notable Air is the arche
Anaximenes and the Arche ideas
The Universe is in constant
Influence on Philosophy
motion
Anaximenes, Aristotle, and Plato
The origin of the Cosmos Matter changes through
Other phenomena rarefaction and
Legacy condensation
References Influences
Further reading Thales of Miletus
External links
Anaximander of Miletus
Anaximenes and the Arche
While his predecessors Thales and Anaximander proposed that the archai (singular: arche, meaning the underlying material of
the world) were water and the ambiguous substance apeiron, respectively, Anaximenes asserted that aer (“mist,” “vapor,” “air”)
was this primary substance of which all natural things are made.[2] By rejecting his teacher's theory based on the concept of
discontinuity, Anaximenes took a more empirical approach to understanding the underlying processes of genesis and change on
two assumptions: (1) origination retains properties of the apeiron, but it has an actually tangible state of existence as air that can
evolve other substances and (2) genesis and change depend on a cohesive, mechanistic process known as condensation and
rarefaction.[7] He believed that air was infinite and divine.[2] Anaximenes was first to use the word Pneuma (“breath of life”) as a
synonym with air.[7] One of the only surviving quotes by Anaximenes reads, “Just as our soul...being air holds us together, so
pneuma and air encompass [and guard] the whole world.”[7] The analogy compared atmospheric air as the divine and human air
as souls that animate people.[2] This relation of the macroscopic and microscopic suggested Anaximenes believed there was an
overarching principle that regulated all life and behavior.[4] Essentially, he thought air was the primary substance that held the
Universe together.[2] Interestingly, The Old Testament features a similar analogy to the founding of the world and creation of
man, but Anaximenes did not recognize a creator of the universe and did not think the pneuma as a creator to guide man.[7] The
choice of air may seem arbitrary, but Anaximenes based his conclusion on naturally observable phenomena in the processes of
rarefaction and condensation.[10] The primary difference in the forms of air as matter was the degree of condensation and
density.[4] When air condenses it becomes visible, and according to Anaximenes, the spread-out, invisible, infinite air was
condensed to wind, then formed into clouds, which condensed further to produce mist, rain, and other forms of precipitation.[4][7]
As the condensed air cooled, Anaximenes supposed that Earth itself was an early condensate of air—the process continued until
the air was condensed enough to form solids like the Earth and ultimately stones.[2] By contrast, Anaximenes was able to visually
see how water evaporates into air and based his concept of rarefaction on this observation. According to him, any object that held
light was made of fire, and fire was made from the rarefaction of air.[2] While other philosophers also recognized such transitions
in states of matter, Anaximenes was the first to associate the qualitative change in hot/dry and cold/wet pairings with the density
of a single material, effectively adding a quantitative dimension to the Milesian monistic system.[11][12] He attributed
condensation to cold/wet air and rarefaction to the interaction of hot/dry air.[2] This concept was the foundation for understanding
the existence of different substances, materials, and elements due to their arrangement of atoms and number of subatomic
particles.

Influence on Philosophy
Since language and communication were very limited in his time, Anaximenes's analogies were key in explaining the uncertain
through the certain. For example, he knew for certain that blowing air on his hand with his mouth wide open produced hot air,
while blowing on his hand with half-closed lips produced cold air.[7] These observations were key in his postulate that the hot air
was due to rarefaction and expansion, whereas the cold air was due to condensation and compression. Although in modern times
it is known that this is actually the opposite, Anaximenes was key in arriving at this conclusion. His analogies often connected
parallels between man and the cosmos, insinuating that the same natural laws observable on earth applied to the heavens.[7] Over
2000 years later, Isaac Newton proved this to be true.[7] Throughout history, Anaximenes's observations proved helpful to
uncover powerful theories, such as quantum physics and chemical properties.[7] By the end of the Milesian philosophy era, there
were many questions left unanswered; this sparked the stimulation of Pre-socratic thought to continue through many other notable
philosophers such as Pythagoras, Parmenides, Heraclitus, and Democritus.[7]

Anaximenes greatest influence is not from his theories of matter, but instead it is from how he thought about these ideas. For
instance, his theory of air being the underlying substance was disproved, but when looking at his idea from a fundamental aspect,
in which a substance is capable of changing forms, his theory was the first of its kind.[13] This concept of changing of forms is
fundamental to scientific thought and shows how his ideas, although not correct, were helpful in the development of modern
views. In the time of Anaximenes, phenomena were usually explained with reference to religion and mythology. Anaximenes
explained events like rainbows with concrete ideas instead of saying they were the work of a goddess. The explanation
Anaximenes gave helped in the transition of attributing the cause of phenomena to scientific events, rather than mythology.

Anaximenes, Aristotle, and Plato

Many similarities to Anaximenes's theories are apparent in Plato’s theory. So
much so, that some scholars have said Plato has based his theory of matter on
Anaximenes's theory.[14] In Aristotle’s view on Anaximenes, he interprets the
theory as the one substance being air, and all other states of matter are different
condensations of air. In Plato's interpretation of Anaximenes's theory, he
considers the seven states of matter: fire, air, wind, clouds, earth and stone as
different densities.[14] Acknowledging that these seven states of matter are An artist's rendition of Anaximenes of
different densities shows how the intrinsic properties of the matter have changed, Miletus
and they are actually different substances. Anaximenes supports this conclusion
by his explanation using the concept of felting. Felting is a technological model
used to explain condensation, in which wool turns into felt and has new properties.[14] Just as how wind is compressed into
clouds in Anaximenes's theory. Without recognizing Anaximenes's influence on Plato, and simply focusing on Anaximenes's
influence on Aristotle, Anaximenes's contributions to scientific thought are not fully recognized. Aristotle interpreted
Anaximenes's theory as all substance being different manifestations of air. It was Plato's interpretation of Anaximenes's theory
that recognized the fundamental changes of air into other substances.[9][15] And even though Anaximenes's theory was not
correct, his influence is apparent in shaping Plato's theory, and it helped to shift the mindset of other thinkers into realizing that
fundamental change of substances is possible.

Because Plato's theory does not recognize Anaximenes's by name, some scholars have doubted that Plato's theory was actually
influenced by Anaximenes. The proponents of the influence have written that the uniqueness of Anaximenes's theory and obvious
similarities to Plato's theory prove the connection.[14] The opposing viewpoint attributes the similarities to mere coincidence.
Because none of Anaximenes's work exists today, there is controversy over the amount of influence Anaximenes's had on Plato.

The origin of the Cosmos

Having concluded that everything in the world is composed of air, Anaximenes used his theory to devise a scheme that explains
the origins and nature of the earth and the surrounding celestial bodies. Air felted to create the flat disk of the earth, which he said
was table-like and behaved like a leaf floating on air. Anaximenes did not think that stars were floating leaf-like bodies similar to
the earth and sun; instead, he thought of stars being similar to nails that are stuck in a transparent shell.[2] In keeping with the
prevailing view of celestial bodies as balls of fire in the sky, Anaximenes proposed that the earth let out an exhalation of air that
rarefied, ignited and became the stars. While the sun is similarly described as being aflame, it is not composed of rarefied air like
the stars, but rather of earth like the moon; its burning comes not from its composition but rather from its rapid motion.[16]
Similarly, he considered the moon and sun to be flat and floating on streams of air. In his theory, when the sun sets it does not
pass under the earth, but is merely obscured by higher parts of the earth as it circles around and becomes more distant.
Anaximenes likens the motion of the sun and the other celestial bodies around the earth to the way that a cap may be turned
around the head.[17][18] Anaximenes believed that the sky was a dome, and day and night are caused by celestial bodies being
carried North until they are no longer seen. There is evidence that suggests Anaximenes may have been the first person to
distinguish between planets and fixed stars.[2]

Other phenomena
Anaximenes used his observations and reasoning to provide causes for other natural phenomena on the earth as well.
Earthquakes, he asserted, were the result either of lack of moisture, which causes the earth to break apart because of how parched
it is, or of superabundance of water, which also causes cracks in the earth. In either case the earth becomes weakened by its
cracks, so that hills collapse and cause earthquakes. Lightning is similarly caused by the violent separation of clouds by the wind,
creating a bright, fire-like flash. Rainbows, on the other hand, are formed when densely compressed air is touched by the rays of
the sun.[19] These examples show how Anaximenes, like the other Milesian philosophers, looked for the broader picture in
nature. They sought unifying causes for diversely occurring events, rather than treating each one on a case-by-case basis, or
attributing them to gods or to a personified nature.[8]

Legacy
The Anaximenes crater on the Moon is named in his honor.

References
1. Lindberg, David C. “The Greeks and the Cosmos.” The Beginnings of Western Science. Chicago: University of
Chicago Press, 2007. 28.
2. Dye, James (2014), "Anaximenes of Miletus", Biographical Encyclopedia of Astronomers, Springer New York,
pp. 74–75, doi:10.1007/978-1-4419-9917-7_49 (https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-1-4419-9917-7_49),
ISBN 9781441999160
3. Great lives from history. The ancient world, prehistory-476 C.E. Salowey, Christina A., Magill, Frank N. (Frank
Northen), 1907–1997. Pasadena, Calif.: Salem Press. 2004. ISBN 978-1587651526. OCLC 54082138 (https://w
ww.worldcat.org/oclc/54082138).
4. "Anaximenes Of Miletus | Greek philosopher" (https://www.britannica.com/biography/Anaximenes-of-Miletus).
Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 2018-11-30.
5. Kirk, G.S., J.E. Raven, and M. Schofield. "Anaximenes of Miletus." The Presocratic Philosophers. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 1984. 143.
6. Guthrie, W.K.C. "The Milesians: Anaximenes." A History of Greek Philosophy. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press, 1962. 115.
7. Vamvacas, Constantine J. (2009), "Anaximenes of Miletus (ca. 585–525 B.C.)", The Founders of Western
Thought – the Presocratics, Springer Netherlands, pp. 45–51, doi:10.1007/978-1-4020-9791-1_6 (https://doi.org/
10.1007%2F978-1-4020-9791-1_6), ISBN 9781402097904
8. Lindberg, David C. "The Greeks and the Cosmos." The Beginnings of Western Science. Chicago: University of
Chicago Press, 2007. 29.
9. Mark, Joshua. "Anaximenes" (https://www.ancient.eu/Anaximenes/). Ancient History Encyclopedia. Retrieved
2018-11-18.
10. Guthrie, W.K.C. "The Milesians: Anaximenes." A History of Greek Philosophy. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press, 1962. 116.
11. Guthrie, W.K.C. "The Milesians: Anaximenes." A History of Greek Philosophy. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press, 1962. 124–126.
12. Kirk, G.S., J.E. Raven, and M. Schofield. "Anaximenes of Miletus." The Presocratic Philosophers. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 1984. 146.
13. Ancient Greece. Sienkewicz, Thomas J. Pasadena, Calif.: Salem Press. 2007. ISBN 9781587654121.
OCLC 174134701 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/174134701).
14. Graham, Daniel W. (2015-12-30). "Plato and Anaximenes" (http://journals.openedition.org/etudesplatoniciennes/7
06). Études Platoniciennes (12). doi:10.4000/etudesplatoniciennes.706 (https://doi.org/10.4000%2Fetudesplatoni
ciennes.706). ISSN 2275-1785 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/2275-1785).
15. Graham, D. (2003). "A testimony of Anaximenes in Plato". The Classical Quarterly. 53 (2): 327–337.
doi:10.1093/cq/53.2.327 (https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fcq%2F53.2.327).
16. Kirk, G.S., J.E. Raven, and M. Schofield. "Anaximenes of Miletus." The Presocratic Philosophers. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 1984. 152–153.
17. Graham, Daniel W. "Anaximenes" (http://www.iep.utm.edu/anaximen). The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
18. Fairbanks, Arthur. "Anaximenes (http://people.cs.uchicago.edu/~simon/TEACH/28000/DavisUniversal.pdf)". The
First Philosophers of Greece. K. Paul, Trench, Trübner, 1898. 20.
19. Fairbanks, Arthur. "Anaximenes (http://people.cs.uchicago.edu/~simon/TEACH/28000/DavisUniversal.pdf)". The
First Philosophers of Greece. K. Paul, Trench, Trübner, 1898. 18;20–21.

Further reading
Barnes, Jonathan (1982). The Presocratic Philosophers. London: Routledge.
Burnet, John (1920). Early Greek Philosophy (http://classicpersuasion.org/pw/burnet/index.htm) (3rd ed.).
London: Black.
Freeman, Kathleen (1978). Ancilla to the Pre-Socratic Philosophers. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-
03500-3.
Guthrie, W.K.C. (1962). The Earlier Presocratics and the Pythagoreans. A History of Greek Philosophy. 1.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Hurwit, Jeffrey M. (1985). The Art and Culture of Early Greece, 1100–480 BC. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University
Press.
Kirk, G.S.; Raven, J.E. (1983). The Presocratic Philosophers (2nd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Luchte, James (2011). Early Greek Thought: Before the Dawn. London: Bloomsbury Publishing. ISBN 978-
0567353313.
Sandywell, Barry (1996). Presocratic Reflexivity: The Construction of Philosophical Discourse, c. 600-450 BC. 3.
London: Routledge.
Stokes, M. C. (1971). The One and Many in Presocratic Philosophy. Washington, DC: Center for Hellenic Studies
with Harvard University Press.
Sweeney, Leo (1972). Infinity in the Presocratics: A Bibliographical and Philosophical Study. The Hague:
Martinus Nijhoff.
Taran, L. (1970). "Anaximenes of Miletus". Dictionary of Scientific Biography. 1. New York: Charles Scribner's
Sons. pp. 151–152. ISBN 978-0-684-10114-9.
Wright, M.R. (1995). Cosmology in Antiquity. London: Routledge.

External links
Media related to Anaximenes at Wikimedia Commons

Works written by or about Anaximenes of Miletus at Wikisource

Anaximenes (http://www.iep.utm.edu/anaximen/) at the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Laërtius, Diogenes (1925). "Socrates, with predecessors and followers: Anaximenes" (https://en.wikisource.or
g/wiki/Lives_of_the_Eminent_Philosophers/Book_II#Anaximenes). Lives of the Eminent Philosophers. 1:2.
Translated by Hicks, Robert Drew (Two volume ed.). Loeb Classical Library.
Anaximenes Fragments (http://demonax.info/doku.php?id=text:anaximenes_fragments)

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