Академический Документы
Профессиональный Документы
Культура Документы
OPERATION, MAINTENANCE,
INSPECTION, AND OVERHAUL
INTRODUCTION
As a powerplant technician, you must be able to operate, maintain, inspect, and overhaul aircraft engines.
Performing those tasks requires you to develop the ability to determine when an engine is running normally and
when engine performance is deteriorating. In addition, you must acquire the knowledge to effectively troubleshoot
engine problems, then perform the necessary repair work. Furthermore, you are required to be proficient in spe-
cial skills and processes that are commonly used during an engine overhaul. Therefore, the following information
is provided as a foundation to your future experiences in the operation, maintenance, inspection, and overhaul of
reciprocating engines.
ENGINE OPERATION, MAINTENANCE,
AND INSPECTION
ENGINE INSTRUMENTATION
A basic understanding of how engine instruments
work is an important part of the knowledge you
must have as an engine operator and troubleshooter.
Part of this knowledge includes knowing how to
OPERATION interpret the instrument markings so you can com-
As an aviation maintenance technician, you must be prehend how an engine is performing. Instrument
thoroughly familiar with the procedures for operat- markings establish operational ranges as well as
ing a reciprocating engine from the cockpit. This minimum and maximum limits. In addition, the
includes understanding the engine instrumentation, markings allow you to distinguish between normal
ground run procedures, and safety items associated operation, time limited operation, and unauthorized
with starting and running an aircraft engine. A good operating conditions. Engine instrument range
place to begin is with the location and movement of markings are based on limits found in the engine's
the engine controls. To aid in this process, all mod- Type Certificate Data Sheet. Traditionally, instru-
ern aircraft are equipped with standardized engine ment markings consist of green, blue, yellow, and
controls. [Figure 2-1] red lines or arcs and intermediate blank spaces.
Once you are familiar with the engine controls, you Green arcs are the most widely used of all the
should locate each of the engine instruments. In instrument markings and usually indicate a safe, or
addition, you should locate and read all placards normal range of operation. Usually, the upper end of
and other markings on or near the instruments. a green arc indicates the maximum limit for contin-
Important engine operating information is displayed uous operation while the low end indicates the min-
by the engine instruments and must be monitored
continuously during an engine run. Therefore, you,
as an engine operator, must be skilled in the inter-
pretation of instrument readings to prevent engine
damage.
Figure 2-1. For standardization purposes, the primary engine controls are arranged from left to right beginning with the throttle,
propeller control, and mixture. In addition, each lever is color coded and uniquely shaped.
Reciprocating Engine Operation, Maintenance, Inspection, and Overhaul 2-3
FUEL PRESSURE
Some engines have a fuel pressure gauge that dis-
plays the pressure of fuel supplied to the carburetor
or fuel control unit. Most fuel pressure instruments
display fuel pressure in pounds per square inch (psi),
and provide indications to the pilot that the engine is
receiving the fuel needed for a given power setting. A
pilot also uses fuel pressure gauges to verify the oper-
ation of an auxiliary fuel pump. [Figure 2-3] Figure 2-4. As pressurized fuel enters a Bourdon tube, the
tube straightens and causes an indicator needle to move.
One type of fuel pressure gauge uses a Bourdon tube Since the amount a Bourdon tube straightens is propor-
tional to the pressure applied, they are often used to indi-
which is a metal tube that is formed in a circular cate pressure.
shape with a flattened cross section. One end of the
tube is open, while the other end is sealed. The open is used to move an indicating needle on the instru-
end of the Bourdon tube is connected to a capillary ment face. [Figure 2-4]
tube containing pressurized fuel. As the pressurized
fuel enters the Bourdon tube, the tube tends to Another type of fuel pressure indicator utilizes a
straighten. Through a series of gears, this movement pressure capsule, or diaphragm. Like the Bourdon
tube, a diaphragm type pressure indicator is
attached to a capillary tube, which attaches to the
fuel system and carries pressurized fuel to the
diaphragm. As the diaphragm becomes pressurized,
it expands, causing an indicator needle to rotate.
[Figure 2-5] ,- -,
A third type of fuel pressure indicator uses a bel- FUEL FLOW INDICATOR
lows that is attached to a capillary tube. The advan-
tage of bellows over a Bourdon tube or diaphragm is A fuel flow indicator measures the rate of fuel an
engine burns in gallons per hour or pounds per
its ability to provide a greater range of motion. The
hour. This provides the most accurate indication of
bellows inside the instrument case expands and
an engine's fuel consumption. In addition, when
moves an indicator needle as the fuel pressure
combined with other instrument indications, the
increases. [Figure 2-6]
amount of fuel an engine burns can be used to deter-
mine the power settings necessary to obtain maxi-
Electric fuel pressure indicating systems are used
mum power, speed, range, or economy. [Figure 2-7]
when the distances between the engine and cockpit
become prohibitive for the use of capillary tubing.
On aircraft with a continuous-flow fuel injection
Another reason for using electric fuel pressure indi-
system, the fuel flow indicator measures the pres-
cators is to avoid bringing fuel into the cockpit.
sure drop across the fuel injection nozzles to deter-
Aircraft with electric fuel pressure indicating sys-
mine fuel flow. This can be done because, as you
tems typically use pressure sensors, or transducers,
recall, fuel pressure in a direct fuel injection system
that transmit electrical signals proportional to the
is proportional to fuel flow. With this type of sys-
fuel pressure to the cockpit. An electric fuel pres-
tem, a higher fuel flow produces a greater pressure
sure gauge in the cockpit receives the signals and
differential across the injectors, and a correspond-
displays fuel pressure information.
ing increase in fuel flow is indicated in the cockpit.
However, if an injector nozzle becomes clogged, the
On aircraft with direct fuel injection or
pressure differential across that nozzle increases,
continuous-flow fuel injection systems, fuel
producing a false, or high fuel flow reading.
pressure is measured as a pressure drop across
the injection nozzles. The pressure drop at the
Another type of fuel flow measurement system
nozzles is proportional .to the amount of fuel
measures the volume of fuel flowing to an engine.
being supplied to the engine as well as engine
This type of system is commonly referred to as an
power output. Therefore, the gauges in this type of
autosyn system and incorporates a movable vane
fuel pressure indication system may also be
that is in the fuel line leading to the engine. As fuel
calibrated in percentages of power as well as psi.
flows through the fuel line, the vane is displaced an
amount proportional to the fuel flow. A spring force
opposes the fuel flow and returns the vane to neu-
tral when no fuel is flowing. The vane movement is
MANIFOLD PRESSURE
electrically transmitted to the flow indicator in the
cockpit where an indicator needle indicates the A manifold absolute pressure (MAP) gauge mea-
fuel flow. sures the absolute pressure of the fuel/air mixture
within the intake manifold. A MAP gauge is used on
all aircraft that have a constant-speed propeller to
The movement of the vane must he linear to get an indicate engine power output. Since MAP directly
accurate flow measurement. To do this, the restric- affects a cylinder's mean effective pressure (mep), a
tion created by the vane must get larger as the vane pilot uses MAP gauge indications to set the engine
increases its rotation. This increase is calibrated into power at a pressure level that will not damage the
the design of the flowmeter sender unit. engine. This is especially true for aircraft with
tur-bocharged engines because it helps the pilot
to avoid excessive manifold pressure. [Figure 2-8]
Because the volume of jet fuel changes dramatically
with temperature, the fuel flow on several turbine Before an engine is started, the manifold pressure
engines is measured in terms of mass rather than gauge displays the local ambient, or atmosphere
volume. A typical mass flow system works on the pressure. However, once the engine is started, the
magnesyn principle. The system consists of two manifold pressure drops significantly, sometimes to
cylinders, an impeller, and a turbine which are half the existing ambient air pressure. At full power,
mounted in the main fuel line leading to the engine. the manifold pressure in normally aspirated engines
The impeller is driven at a constant speed by a will not exceed ambient pressure, however, in
three-phase motor which is powered by the aircraft tur-bocharged engines the manifold pressure
electrical system. The impeller imparts an angular can exceed ambient pressure.
swirling motion to the fuel as it proceeds to the tur-
bine. As the fuel impacts the turbine, the turbine A manifold pressure gauge consists of a sealed
rotates until a calibrated restraining spring force diaphragm constructed from two discs of concentri-
balances the rotational force. The deflection of the cally corrugated thin metal which are soldered
turbine positions a permanent magnet in a trans- together at the edges to form a chamber. The cham-
mitter to a position corresponding to the fuel flow ber is evacuated, creating a partial vacuum which
in the line. The position of the permanent magnet is can be used as a reference point to measure absolute
then transmitted electrically to a permanent magnet pressure. Depending on the type of gauge,
in a receiver which positions the indicator needle the
in the cockpit. This system is by far the most accu-
rate means of monitoring fuel flow because it
accounts for changes in fuel viscosity and volume
caused by changes in temperature.
When power is applied to a Wheatstone bridge cir- magnetic forces are balanced. If the resistances of
cuit and all four resistances are equal, no difference the temperature probe and fixed resistor are equal,
in potential exists between the bridge junctions. current flow through each coil is the same and the
However, when the variable resistor is exposed to indicator pointer remains in the center position.
heat, its resistance increases, causing more current However, if the probe temperature increases, its
to flow through the fixed resistor R3 than the vari- resistance also increases, causing a decrease in cur-
able resistor. The disproportionate current flow pro- rent through the temperature sensing branch.
duces a voltage differential between the bridge Consequently, the electromagnetic force on the tem-
junctions, causing current to flow through the gal- perature sensing branch decreases, creating an
vanometer indicator. The greater the voltage differ- imbalance that allows the rotor to rotate until each
ential, the greater the current flow through the coil reaches a null, or balance. The pointer attached
indicator and the greater the needle deflection. to the rotor then indicates the oil temperature.
Since indicator current flow is directly proportional
to the oil temperature, an indicator calibrated in Ratiometer temperature measuring systems are
degrees provides an accurate means of registering especially useful in applications where accuracy is
oil temperature. critical or large variations of supply voltages are
encountered. Therefore, a ratiometer circuit type oil
A ratiometer circuit measures current ratios and is temperature sensing system is generally preferred
more reliable than a Wheatstone bridge, especially over Wheatstone bridge circuits by aircraft and
when the supply voltage varies. Typically, a simple engine manufacturers.
ratiometer circuit consists of two parallel branches
powered by the aircraft electrical system. One Some older oil temperature gauges used a vapor
branch consists of a fixed resistor and coil, and the pressure, or Bourdon tube type instrument. With
other branch consists of a variable resistor and coil. this type of instrument, a Bourdon tube is connected
The two coils are wound on a rotor that pivots by a capillary tube to a liquid filled temperature
between the poles of a permanent magnet, forming a sensing bulb. The bulb is installed in the engine's
meter movement in the gauge. [Figure 2-12] oil inlet line where the volatile liquid in the bulb is
heated by the oil. As the liquid in the sensing bulb
The shape of the permanent magnet provides a heats up, the capillary and Bourdon tubes also heat
larger air gap between the magnet and coils at the up. This causes the vapor pressure within the capil-
bottom than at the top. Therefore, the flux density, lary and Bourdon tubes to increase, which, in turn,
or magnetic field, is progressively stronger from the causes the Bourdon tube to straighten. The motion
bottom of the air gap to the top. Current flow of the Bourdon tube is then transmitted to an indi-
through each coil creates an electromagnet that cator through a mechanical linkage.
reacts with the polarity of the permanent magnet,
creating torque that repositions the rotor until the OIL PRESSURE
The engine lubrication system supplies oil under
pressure to the moving parts of the engine. To allow
a pilot to monitor the effectiveness of a given lubri-
cation system, all aircraft engines are equipped with
an oil pressure gauge that is calibrated in pounds
per square inch. Since inadequate oil pressure can
lead to oil starvation in engine bearings and exces-
sive pressure can rupture gaskets and seals, the oil
pressure in most reciprocating engines is typically
regulated over a fairly narrow operating range.
[Figure 2-13]
Figure 2-13. The oil pressure limits of 25 psi minimum and Figure 2-14. A typical cylinder head temperature gauge con-
90 psi maximum on this gauge are representative of a typi- sists of a relatively large green arc and a single red line. The
cal small aircraft engine. The normal operating range of 60 instrument above has a normal operating range that begins
to 90 psi ensures enough oil pressure to protect bearing sur- at 200蚌and peaks at a red line of 475蚌.
faces without rupturing engine seals and gaskets.
from occasional pressure surges, most gauges have a CYLINDER HEAD TEMPERATURE
small restriction at their inlet. In addition, most fit- The engine temperature can have a dramatic impact
tings that attach the oil line to the engine also have a on engine performance. Therefore, most reciprocat-
small restriction to limit oil loss in the event the oil ing engine powered aircraft are equipped with a
line breaks. cylinder head temperature (CHT) gauge that allows a
pilot to monitor engine temperatures. [Figure 2-14]
One disadvantage of this type of oil pressure indi-
cating system is that it does not work well in cold Most cylinder head temperature gauges are gal-
weather because the oil in the line between the vanometer-type meters that display temperatures in
engine and cockpit gauge tends to congeal. The con- degrees Fahrenheit. If you recall from your study of
gealed oil then causes false readings of either low or electricity, a galvanometer measures the amount of
no oil pressure. This error can be minimized by fill- electrical current produced by a thermocouple. A
ing the oil line with a very light oil. thermocouple is a circuit consisting of two dissimi-
lar metal wires connected together at two junctions
to form a loop. Anytime a temperature difference
The trend in larger more modern aircraft is to exists between the two junctions, a small electrical
replace Bourdon tube pressure instruments with current is generated that is proportional to the tem-
electrical transmitters. This allows long oil filled perature difference and measurable by the gal-
lines between engines and instruments to be vanometer. Typical dissimilar metal combinations
replaced with lightweight wire. In addition to sav- used are iron and constantan, or chromel and
ing weight, electrical transmitters also provide alumel. Since a thermocouple generates its own
greater accuracy. electrical current, it is capable of operating indepen-
dent of aircraft power.
Oil pressure instrument readings are a critical indi-
cator of engine operation and should be monitored The two junctions of a thermocouple circuit are
frequently, especially during engine starts. For commonly referred to as a hot junction and a cold
example, some aircraft manuals caution you to shut junction. The hot junction is installed in the cylin-
down an engine after 30 seconds in warm weather der head in one of two ways; the two dissimilar
or one minute in extremely cold weather if no sign wires may be joined inside a bayonet probe which is
of oil pressure is present. Engine shutdown in this then inserted into a special well in the top or rear of
case is a precaution taken to prevent possible dam- the hottest cylinder, or the wires may be imbedded
age to an engine until the reason for lack of oil pres- in a special copper spark plug gasket. The cold junc-
sure can be determined. On the other hand, tion, or reference junction, on the other hand, is typ-
excessive pointer oscillation typically indicates that ically located in the instrument case.
air is trapped in the oil line leading to the instru-
ment or that some unit in the oil system is function- Thermocouple instrument systems are polarized
ing improperly. In addition, low oil pressure or and extremely sensitive to resistance changes
fluctuations from zero to normal are often signs of within their electrical circuits. Therefore, several
low oil quantity. precautions must be observed when replacing or
2-70 Reciprocating Engine Operation, Maintenance, Inspection, and Overhaul
repairing them. First, be sure to observe all the best mixture setting for fuel efficiency. A typical
color-coding and polarity markings because EGT gauge is calibrated in degrees Fahrenheit with
accidentally reversing the wires causes the meter 25蚌divisions. [Figure 2-15]
to move off-scale on the zero side. In addition,
ensure that all electrical connections are clean and Like the cylinder head temperature gauge, EGT
torqued to the correct value. gauges also use thermocouples to sense tempera-
ture. However, the thermocouple wiring for an EGT
Thermocouple wiring leads are typically supplied is usually made from alumel and chromel. Alumel
in matched pairs and secured together by a common is typically used as the negative lead, and is
braid. Furthermore, the leads are a specified length, enclosed in green insulation, while chromel is the
matched to the system to provide accurate tempera- positive lead and is normally enclosed in white
ture indications. The length of the leads cannot be insulation. The hot junction of an EGT thermocou-
altered because doing so changes their resistance. In ple is usually mounted somewhere on the exhaust
some cases, the wiring leads are permanently manifold and is directly exposed to the exhaust gas
attached to a thermocouple, necessitating the stream. The cold junction, on the other hand, is
replacement of the entire wiring harness and ther- located in the instrument case.
mocouple if a wire breaks or becomes damaged.
EGT readings are commonly used to set the fuel/air
Simple CHT systems use a single indicator that mixture for best economy and best power settings.
monitors the hottest cylinder. With this type of sys- For example, leaning the fuel/air mixture to obtain a
tem, overall engine temperature must be interpreted peak EGT value indicates a mixture that results in
in a general way. There are, however, more complex best economy and maximum endurance. However,
systems which monitor each cylinder and can be set most engine manufacturers caution against continu-
to warn you when a cylinder approaches its maxi- ous operation at peak EGT with high power settings.
mum temperature limit. Depending on the engine manufacturer's instruc-
tions, a common method of setting best power is to
EXHAUST GAS TEMPERATURE adjust the mixture to peak EGT, then enrichen it to
approximately 25蚌cooler than peak EGT.
Another performance monitoring instrument often
used in reciprocating engine installations is the
exhaust gas temperature (EGT) gauge. An EGT gauge ENGINE ANALYZERS
measures the temperature of the exhaust at some Many reciprocating engine-powered aircraft utilize
point past the exhaust port. Since the fuel/air mix- some form of analyzer to monitor engine perfor-
ture setting has a direct effect on the combustion mance. Cylinder head temperature gauges and
temperature, a pilot can use an EGT gauge to obtain exhaust gas temperature gauges are used as simple
engine analyzers. A more complex form of engine
analyzer is known as an exhaust gas analyzer
(EGA). An exhaust gas analyzer operates like auto-
motive tailpipe emissions testers in that it samples
an engine's exhaust gas and analyzes its chemical
composition. From the information provided by an
analyzer, a pilot can adjust the mixture for the most
efficient operation.
It is often difficult to detect small changes on engine
instrument indications, yet it is critical for a pilot to
know if a system is operating abnormally. Therefore,
in addition to an engine analyzer, many larger air-
craft may be equipped with a system of annunciator
lights to attract the operator's attention when a
gauge indication leaves its normal range.
TACHOMETER
An engine's crankshaft rpm is displayed by a
Figure 2-15. The fuel/air mixture can be set for best fuel effi- tachometer that is calibrated in hundreds of rpm.
ciency by using an EGT gauge and following the aircraft The tachometer is a primary engine instrument used
checklist instructions. extensively by a pilot to monitor engine condition
Reciprocating Engine Operation, Maintenance, Inspection, and Overhaul 2-11
Figure 2-16. The tachometer is a primary engine instrument tachometers were developed so instrument wiring
which provides engine rpm indications. A typical tachome- could be used in place of a drive shaft. A typical
ter instrument face is calibrated in hundreds of rpm and has three phase AC electric tachometer system consists
both a green arc and red line. of a two or four-pole generator, sometimes referred
to as a tachometer generator, or tach generator,
and verify that the engine is developing the appro- mounted on the engine accessory case and a syn-
priate rpm and power output for a given throttle set- chronous motor inside the indicator. As the engine
ting. Most tachometers are divided into 100 rpm runs, the tach generator produces an AC voltage
increments and have a red line that indicates a max- with a frequency that is directly proportional to
imum rpm setting. [Figure 2-16] engine rpm. The AC voltage produced drives the
synchronous motor in the indicator, causing it to
There are four common types of tachometers; turn at the same speed as the generator. The syn-
mechanical, magnetic, electric, and electronic. chronous motor spins a magnet and drag
Mechanical tachometers were used on early aircraft cup
and consisted of a set of flyweights driven by a flex-
ible drive shaft through a set of gears. The flexible
shaft extends from the instrument to the engine
where it attaches to a drive gear in the engine. As
the drive shaft rotates the flyweights in the instru-
ment, centrifugal force pulls the flyweights out-
ward. This outward movement is transferred to a
pointer through a gear mechanism. [Figure 2-17]
Magnetic tachometers also utilize a flexible drive
shaft, however, a cylindrical magnet inside a drag
cup takes the place of flyweights. As the drive shaft
rotates the magnet inside the drag cup, electromag-
netic forces are produced which cause the drag cup
to rotate in the same direction as the magnet.
However, the drag cup is attached to a spring which
opposes the magnetic force of the rotating magnet
and allows the cup to rotate an amount proportional
to the rotational speed of the magnet. [Figure 2-18]
Figure 2-19. A typical electric tachometer consists of a three phase AC generator mounted on the engine accessory case and a
synchronous motor in the indicator. The tach generator is driven by the accessory gearing in a running engine and produces an
AC voltage at a frequency directly proportional to engine rpm. The synchronous motor in the indicator is, in turn, driven by the
AC voltage from the tach generator at the same speed, or frequency. The motor spins a drag cup assembly to move the instru-
ment pointer.
assembly similar to that of the magnetic tachometer FAR Part 27 Airworthiness standards, on the other
to provide rpm indications. [Figure 2-19] hand, require that all helicopters have at least two
tachometer systems. One tachometer indicates
Electronic tachometers, on the other hand, produce engine rpm, while the second tachometer provides
engine rpm indications by counting electric pulses main rotor rpm.
from the magneto ignition system. A special pair of
breaker points in one of the engine magnetos sends SUCTION GAUGE
pulses to a module which uses digital circuitry to The suction gauge is not officially classified as an
convert the pulses to a voltage for powering the engine instrument since it does not indicate any
tachometer instrument in the cockpit. As engine engine performance information. However, as an avi-
rpm increases, pulse frequency and voltage ation maintenance technician, you will refer to the
increase, causing the meter movement to register suction gauge to adjust the suction regulator and to
increasing rpm. verify the operation of the vacuum pump. Most suc-
tion gauges are calibrated in inches of mercury and
A simple electronic tachometer is installed with two represent a reductionin pressure below atmospheric
electrical connections; one connection to ground pressure. The normal operating range on a typical
and one to a magneto. This type of system depends suction gauge is between 3 and 6 inches of mercury.
on magneto pulses strong enough to operate the
instrument without amplification. A more complex INSTRUMENT MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
version of the electronic tachometer has an internal As an aviation maintenance technician, there is lit-
solid state amplifier which requires a third connec- tle you can do in terms of making repairs to engine
tion for 12 volt power from the aircraft electrical sys- instruments. However, you can do some basic
tem. The internal amplifier amplifies weak magneto pre-ventative maintenance that does not require
pulses and provides a uniform pulse voltage to the you to disassemble an instrument. For example,
digital counter circuitry. tachometers that are mechanically driven with
flexible drive shafts require periodic maintenance
On multi-engine aircraft, each engine may have a to prevent erratic indications. The drive shaft
separate tachometer or a single tach may be used for must be lubricated with an approved lubricant
both engines. If a single tach is used, the indicating such as graphite. In addition, the hardware that
needle for the right engine is identified by an "R" attaches the drive shaft to the instrument, airframe,
while the indicating needle for the left engine is and engine should be secure. The drive shaft should
identified by an "L." [Figure 2-20]. be installed away from excessive heat or fluids
without sharp bends or
Reciprocating Engine Operation, Maintenance, Inspection, and Overhaul 2-13
GROUND OPERATIONS
Conducting an engine runup is a ground operation
that can present a safety hazard to personnel and
can damage an aircraft and surrounding equipment.
Therefore, certain precautions must be taken. For
example, all engine runups should be conducted in
an area specifically designated for that purpose.
Furthermore, the aircraft should be positioned on a
clean level surface and aimed so the blast from the
propeller does not blow dirt into any hangar or onto
another aircraft. Rather than relying solely on the
aircraft's brakes, chock the wheels securely, or tie
the aircraft down to prevent movement during
Figure 2-20. Multi-engine aircraft are sometimes equipped
engine power checks.
with a single tachometer that provides rpm indications for
both engines. The needle with an "R" represents the right Ground service equipment such as auxiliary power
engine while the needle with an "L" represents the left carts or hydraulic service units should be positioned
engine.
well away from the propeller arc with their wheels
chocked and brakes set. In addition, adequate fire
protection should be stationed nearby, being certain
kinks, and should not impose any strain on the that personnel and fire extinguishers are well clear
instrument. In addition, the drive shaft should be of the propeller area. Furthermore, a reliable means
secured at frequent intervals to prevent whipping, of communication between the engine operator and
which causes pointer oscillation. ground personnel should be established.
Electric and electronic tachometer installations
must be checked periodically to be sure the tach HYDRAULIC LOCK
generators and instruments are securely mounted
and do not vibrate when the engine is running. Hydraulic lock is a condition that can develop in a
Furthermore, the tachometer electrical wiring radial engine after shutdown, where oil or liquid
should be properly laced and clamped to prevent fuel accumulates and pools in the lower cylinders,
chafing caused by vibration and looseness. In addi- or lower intake pipes. Since fluids are not com-
tion, verify that the wiring bundle is not under ten- pressible, any attempt to start an engine with
sion from being clamped too tightly and is protected hydraulic lock can cause severe damage to the pis-
from corrosive fluids and excessive heat. ton, connecting rod, valves, or cylinder. Therefore,
before attempting to start any radial engine that has
During a 100-hour or annual inspection, FAR Part been shut down for more than 30 minutes, you
43 Appendix D requires you to check the instru- should check for hydraulic lock. To do this, make
ments for poor condition, mounting, marking, and sure the ignition switches are "off," then pull the
improper operation. As an A&P technician, you can propeller through in the direction of rotation a min-
correct minor discrepancies on instruments such as imum of two complete revolutions. Any liquid pre-
tightening mount screws and B nuts, repairing sent in a cylinder will be indicated by an abnormal
chipped paint on the instrument case, or replacing amount of effort required to rotate the propeller.
range markings on a glass instrument face. Chipped
paint on the case is a cosmetic flaw that has no bear- To eliminate a hydraulic lock, remove either the
ing on the proper operation of the instrument, there- front or rear spark plug and pull the propeller
fore the instrument is serviceable and does not through in the direction of rotation, allowing the
require immediate correction. However, any dis- piston to expel any liquid that is present. Never
crepancy that requires opening the instrument case attempt to clear the hydraulic lock by pulling the
such as a cracked or fogged glass, loose pointer, or propeller through in the opposite direction
of
2-74 Reciprocating Engine Operation, Maintenance, Inspection, and Overhaul
During warm-up, monitor the engine instruments to During the ground check, head the aircraft into
ensure normal operation. For example, the oil pres- the wind, if possible, to take advantage of the
sure gauge should indicate pressure within 30 sec- cooling airflow. A ground check may be per-
onds after a start. If that does not happen, the engine formed as follows:
should be shut down immediately.
1. Open the cowl flaps.
At warm-up rpm, the mixture control's effectiveness 2. Set the mixture in the full rich position.
in changing the fuel/air ratio is minimal between the 3. Verify that the propeller control is in the low
rich and lean positions. Control of the fuel/air ratio pitch, high rpm position.
in this rpm range is predominantly governed by 4. Place the carburetor heat control in the cold
throttle position. Therefore, you should set the mix- position.
ture control at the recommended position and 5. Open the throttle to the specified rpm and lean
refrain from attempts to try and hasten the warm-up the mixture as required.
by leaning the mixture. 6. If the engine is carbureted, apply carburetor
heat and observe a slight drop in rpm. Once
rpm stabilizes, return the carburetor heat to the
Carburetor heat can be used as required when icing cold position.
conditions are present. For engines equipped with a 7. Move the magneto switch from
float-type carburetor, it may be desirable to raise the "both" to
carburetor air temperature during warm-up to pre- "right" and back to "both." Then, switch from
vent ice formation and to ensure smooth operation. "both" to "left" and back to "both." You should
However, the warm air provided by the carburetor observe a slight rpm drop while operating on
heat system is not filtered and, therefore, should not the right and left magnetos. The drop on either
be used if dust and dirt may be ingested. magneto should be approximately the same,
and the maximum drop should not exceed that
A magneto safety check can be performed during specified by the engine manufacturer.
warm-up. The purpose of this check is to ensure that 8. If the aircraft is equipped with a constant-speed
all ignition connections are secure and that the igni- propeller, check the propeller operation accord
tion system will permit operation at the higher ing to propeller manufacturer's instructions.
power settings used during later phases of the 9. Check the fuel pressure and oil pressure. They
ground check. This test is accomplished at idle rpm must be within the established tolerances.
with the propeller in the high rpm, low pitch posi- 10. Check the ammeter and suction gauge
tion. To conduct the check, move the ignition switch for
from the "both" position to "right" then return to proper system operation.
"both," from "both" to "left" and return to "both," 11. Retard the throttle to the idle position.
from "both" to "off" momentarily, and return to
"both." While switching from the "both" position to In addition to the operations outlined above, check
a single magneto, a slight but noticeable drop in rpm the aircraft generator and hydraulic systems. The
should occur. This indicates that the opposite mag- test procedures for these systems are generally
neto is properly grounded out. Complete cutting out detailed on the aircraft checklist for runup.
of the engine when switching from "both" to "off"
indicates that both magnetos are properly grounded.
IGNITION OPERATION
Failure to obtain any drop in rpm while in a single
magneto position, or failure of the engine to cut out By comparing the rpm drop encountered when
while switching to "off" indicates that one or both checking the magnetos to a known standard, you
ground connections are incomplete. can determine if a magneto is properly timed and if
all the ignition leads are properly grounded. For
GROUND CHECK
example, a rapid rpm drop which occurs when you
switch to one magneto may indicate that the spark
After engine warm-up, a ground check is performed plugs or ignition harness is faulty because these
to verify the operation of the powerplant and acces- defects take effect immediately. Faulty spark plugs
sory equipment. This check typically requires you or a defective ignition harness is often manifested
to properly interpret instrument readings based on by dead cylinders or intermittent firing at the instant
established performance criteria. Generally, the the magneto switch is moved. On the other hand, a
ground check items are included in the preflight slow rpm drop is usually caused by incorrect igni-
runup checklist. tion timing or faulty valve adjustment. These condi-
tions result in a loss of power, but do not occur as
rapidly as a dead spark plug.
2-76 Reciprocating Engine Operation, Maintenance, Inspection, and Overhaul
An engine that quits firing completely when trol in the cockpit, you should conduct a mixture
switched to one magneto is definite evidence that check during the ground check to verify that the car-
the selected magneto ignition system is malfunc- buretor mixture screw is properly adjusted. To per-
tioning. On the other hand, an absence of an rpm form a mixture check, close the throttle and move
drop could indicate a defective ground connection the mixture control to the "idle cutoff" position.
on one side of the ignition system. Another indica- Observe the change in rpm just before it drops off
tion of a defective ignition system is an excessive dramatically and return the mixture control to the
rpm difference between the left and right switch "rich" position.
positions which may indicate a difference in timing
between the left and right magnetos. If the mixture is adjusted properly, engine rpm
should increase by an amount recommended by the
manufacturer (usually 20 rpm). If the increase in
POWER CHECK rpm is less than that recommended or if no increase
When conducting a ground check, most aircraft occurs, the idle mixture is too lean. However, if the
manufacturers also require a power check. The pur- rpm increases above the recommended value, the
pose of a power check is to measure an engine's per- mixture is too rich.
formance against an established standard. The
standard is determined by the manufacturer and ACCELERATION AND DECELERATION
represents the amount of power an engine can
develop at a given rpm and manifold pressure. With Aircraft engines must be capable of accelerating and
a constant air density, a given propeller and blade decelerating rapidly. Therefore, when conducting a
angle always requires the same rpm to absorb the ground check, you should conduct an acceleration
same horsepower from the engine. and deceleration check. To perform an acceleration
test, move the throttle from idle to full power
To conduct a power check, place the propeller in the smoothly and rapidly. The engine should accelerate
low pitch, high rpm position and advance the throt- without hesitation and with no evidence of engine
tle to obtain the target rpm established by the manu- backfiring. The deceleration check is made by
facturer. Under these conditions, the manifold retarding the throttle from full power back to idle.
pressure gauge should indicate the pressure speci- The rpm should decrease smoothly and evenly, with
fied by the manufacturer if all of the cylinders are little or no tendency for the engine to afterfire.
operating properly. However, if the engine is weak,
or if one or more cylinders are dead or intermittently An acceleration and deceleration check often
firing, the operating cylinders must provide more reveals borderline conditions that are not apparent
power for a given rpm. Consequently, the throttle during other checks. This is true because the high
must be opened further, resulting in higher mani- cylinder pressures developed during this check put
fold pressure. Therefore, a higher than normal man- added strain on both the ignition system and the
ifold pressure for a given rpm usually indicates a fuel metering system. This added strain is typically
dead cylinder or late ignition timing. On the other sufficient to point out certain defects that otherwise
hand, an excessively low manifold pressure indi- would go unnoticed.
cates that the ignition timing is early. In addition to
causing a low manifold pressure, early ignition tim- ENGINE STOPPING
ing can cause detonation and loss of power at high
power settings. The procedure used to shut down an engine varies
from engine to engine based on the type of carbure-
tor or fuel injection system installed. Therefore, the
IDLE SPEED AND MIXTURE
shutdown instructions provided by the manufac-
When an engine is operated at idle for long periods turer should be followed exactly. As a rule, most
of time, many pilots tend to use an excessively rich engines are shut down by placing the mixture con-
fuel/air mixture to aid in cylinder cooling. However, trol in the "idle cut off" position. This procedure
after prolonged operation, the excess fuel has a ten- helps ensure that all of the fuel in the cylinders and
dency to build up and foul out the spark plugs. With induction system is burned. If all the fuel is burned,
a properly adjusted idle mixture setting, it is possi- the chances of an accidental start caused by pro-
ble to run the engine at idle rpm for long periods. peller movement is minimized. Once the engine
Such a setting results in minimal plug fouling and quits, the ignition switch is turned off and the key is
exhaust smoking. taken out of the ignition.
In addition to properly adjusting the mixture con- If an engine becomes excessively warm during taxi,
Reciprocating Engine Operation, Maintenance, Inspection, and Overhaul 2-17
ENGINE PERFORMANCE
A reciprocating engine consists of many parts that
must work properly if the engine is to operate effi-
ciently. If a component or system fails or operates
improperly, engine performance suffers. Therefore,
it is important that you understand the interrela-
tionships that exist among various engine systems,
and know that a given malfunction can have an
underlying cause that is seemingly unrelated.
induction manifold. Any fuel that does not vaporize addition, open circuits may result from broken
clings to the walls of the induction manifold. wires or poor connections. In some cases, a bare
Obviously, this affects the amount of fuel that wire could be exposed through chafed insulation
reaches the cylinders. This explains why an appar- and contact the shielding, or two wires could
ently rich mixture is often required to start a cold become shorted together.
engine. In a cold engine, some of the fuel in the
airstream condenses out and clings to the walls of Any serious defect in an individual lead prevents
the manifold. However, as the engine warms up and the high voltage impulse from reaching the spark
the airflow through the induction manifold plug. As a result, only one spark plug in the cylin-
increases, more fuel is vaporized, leaving less fuel der fires. This can lead to a substantial power loss
to condense out of the airstream. and a corresponding loss in aircraft performance.
Two bad leads to the same cylinder cause the cylin-
Any leak in an engine induction system has an der to go completely dead.
effect on the mixture reaching the cylinders. This
is particularly true of a leak at the cylinder end of Among the most common ignition harness defects,
an intake pipe. If a leak exists, excess air is intro- and the most difficult to detect, are high voltage
duced into the fuel/air mixture, causing the mix- leaks. However, a complete harness check typically
ture to become excessively lean to the point that reveals these and other defects.
normal combustion can not occur. This is espe-
cially true at low rpm settings since the total vol- Although the spark plug is simple both in construc-
ume of airflow is relatively low and the additional tion and in operation, it is, nevertheless, the direct
air coming in through a leak leans the fuel/air mix- or indirect cause of many malfunctions in aircraft
ture appreciably. engines. Therefore, you must make sure you install
the plug specified for a particular engine. One of the
reasons a particular plug is specified is its heat
IGNITION TIMING range. The heat range of a spark plug determines the
An ignition system consists of two magnetos, an temperature at which the nose of the plug operates.
ignition harness, and a set of spark plugs. The mag-
neto is a high voltage generating device that gener- MAINTENANCE
ates the electrical energy necessary to ignite the
fuel/air mixture. A magneto generates a series of As an aviation maintenance technician performing
peak voltages which are released by the opening of a engine maintenance, you should bear in mind that
set of breaker points. A distributor then routes these engine reliability is paramount in aircraft opera-
high voltage impulses to the cylinders in proper tions. The only way to maintain this reliability is to
order. In order for a magneto to operate correctly, it perform the appropriate engine maintenance on a
must be timed internally so the points open at the regularly scheduled basis. Airworthiness standards
correct time. In addition, a magneto must also be relating to the design, construction, maintenance,
timed to the engine. Magneto-to-engine timing is and overhaul of aircraft engines are listed in FAR
established when the number one firing position on Part 33, Airworthiness Standards: Aircraft Engines.
the distributor is set to fire cylinder number one at Appendix A of Part 33 requires engine manufactur-
the proper number of degrees before top center of ers to provide a set of instructions for continued air-
the compression stroke. Timing the magneto to any worthiness with each engine they produce.
cylinder other than the number one cylinder pro- Instructions for continued airworthiness include
duces severe backfiring. maintenance manuals, operating instructions,
inspection items and intervals, overhaul proce-
The ignition harness consists of a set of insulated dures, and Airworthiness Limitations. Therefore,
and shielded high tension lines which carry the engine maintenance tasks and overhaul operations
impulses from the magneto distributor to the spark are established by engine manufacturers to ensure
plugs. Each wire in an ignition harness is referred to reliable operation and are scheduled at specified
as a lead and each spark plug has its own lead. intervals based on accumulated hours of operation.
Although the ignition harness is simple, it is a criti-
cal part of the ignition system. A number of things ENGINE TROUBLESHOOTING
can cause failure of the ignition harness. For exam-
ple, insulation may break down on a wire inside the The need for troubleshooting is dictated by unsatis-
harness and allow some or all of the high voltage factory powerplant performance. Efficient trou-
energy to leak through the shielding to ground. In bleshooting is based on a systematic analysis of
Reciprocating Engine Operation, Maintenance, Inspection, and Overhaul 2-19
Figure 2-24. This trouble-cause-remedy chart lists some general conditions or troubles which may be encountered with recipro-
cating engines, such as "engine fails to start." The chart then goes on to give probable causes contributing to the condition.
Corrective actions are indicated in the "remedy" column.
Reciprocating Engine Operation, Maintenance, Inspection, and Overhaul 2-21
difficulties you want to analyze. Operate the engine a given airflow through a fixed opening, a constant
at its roughest speed until cylinder head tempera- pressure drop across the opening results. Any
tures reach approximately 300蚌, or until tempera- change in the speed of airflow past the opening
tures stabilize at a lower reading. Once this occurs, causes a corresponding change in pressure.
shut down the engine by moving the mixture to idle Therefore, if pressurized air is supplied to a cylin-
cut off. When the engine ceases firing, turn off the der through a pressure gauge with both intake and
ignition and master switches. exhaust valves closed, the amount of air that leaks
by the valves or piston rings will create a corre-
As soon as the engine is secured, check the temper- sponding pressure drop at the indicator. A perfect
ature of each cylinder using the cold cylinder tester. cylinder, of course, would have no leakage and no
Start with the number one cylinder and proceed in pressure drop would occur. [Figure 2-25]
numerical order around the engine as rapidly as
possible. Recheck any low readings. When performing a differential compression test,
you must follow the aircraft manufacturer's instruc-
In interpreting the results of a cold cylinder check, tions. However, there are some general guidelines
remember that the temperatures are relative and that apply to most tests. The following is a list of
cylinder temperature taken alone means little. common steps taken when performing a differential
However, when the temperature of one cylinder can compression test:
be compared with the temperatures of other cylin-
ders, cylinder problems can be identified. 1. Remove the most accessible spark plug from the
cylinder and install the compression
COMPRESSION TESTING
tester
adapter in the spark plug hole.
A cylinder compression test determines if the 2. By hand, rotate the engine in the direction of nor
valves, piston rings, and pistons are adequately seal- mal operation until the piston in the cylinder you
ing the combustion chamber. Cylinders with good are testing is at top dead center on the compres
compression provide the most power while cylin- sion stroke. If you pass top center, back the pro
ders with low compression provide minimal power. peller up at least 180 degrees prior to turning the
Low compression for the most part can be traced to propeller again in the direction of rotation. This
valves that leak because of incorrect valve clear- is necessary to eliminate the effect of backlash in
ances or because the valve timing is too early or too the valve operating mechanism and to keep the
late. Several other conditions can cause leaking piston rings seated on the lower ring lands.
valves such as carbon particles between the valve 3. Connect the compression tester to a 100 to 150-
face and seat or valves that have been burned or psi air supply. With the shutoff valve on the com
warped. In addition, low compression can result pression tester closed, adjust the regulator of the
from excessive wear of piston rings and cylinder compression tester to obtain 80 psi on the regu
walls or pistons that have become worn, scuffed, or lated pressure gauge.
damaged in some way.
4. Recheck the compression tester to verify that the 3. Install a tester in each cylinder and tighten the
shutoff valve on the tester is closed and connect recommended amount. If only one tester is avail
the tester to the spark plug adapter. Verify that the able, check each cylinder individually.
propeller path is clear of all objects and person 4. With the throttle open, rotate the engine at least
nel, then open the shutoff valve on the compres three complete revolutions by
sion tester. If the piston is past top dead center engaging the
when pressure is applied, the propeller will starter and record the compression readings. It is
rotate in the direction of engine rotation. advisable to use external power when cranking
5. With the regulated pressure at 80 psi, read the cylin the engine because a weak aircraft battery may
der pressure gauge. If the cylinder pressure gauge result in a slow engine-turning rate and lower
reading is below the minimum specified for the than expected compression readings.
engine being tested, move the propeller in the direc 5. Re-check any cylinder that registers a compres
tion of rotation to seat the piston rings in their sion value significantly lower than the other
grooves. However, if you move the propeller while cylinders to verify accuracy. A reading approxi
air pressure is applied to the cylinder, make sure you mately 15 psi lower than the others indicates a
have a tight grip on the propeller to prevent its rota cylinder leak that must be repaired. To be sure the
tion. Check all the cylinders and record the readings. low reading is not the result of a faulty tester,
repeat the compression check with a
If low compression is indicated on any cylinder, tester
turn the engine through with the starter or restart known to be accurate.
and run the engine to takeoff power and recheck the
low cylinder. When checking the compression, lis-
ten carefully to see if you can determine the source VALVE ADJUSTMENT
of the leakage. Air can leak from the cylinder in As you know, for an engine to produce its maximum
three places: past the intake valve, past the exhaust rated power, the valves must open and close prop-
valve, and past the piston rings. Leakage, or blow-by erly and seal tightly against their seats. One impor-
past the exhaust valve is typically identified by a tant aspect of making sure the valves operate
hissing or whistling heard at the exhaust stack. On properly is valve clearance. For example, when
the other hand, air leaking past the intake valve can valve clearance is excessive, the valves do not open
usually be heard through the carburetor. A hissing as wide or remain open as long as they should. This
sound in the crankcase breather indicates air leak- reduces valve duration and the valve overlap
ing past the piston rings. period. On the other hand, when valve clearance is
If the piston ring gaps on a piston happen to be less than it should be, the valve overlap period is
aligned when a compression test is done, a worn or lengthened.
defective ring indication will result. If this happens,
you should run the engine for a period of time so the When valve clearances are wrong, it is unlikely that
ring gaps have a chance to shift. all clearances are wrong in the same direction.
Instead, there is typically too much clearance on
A direct compression test indicates the actual pres- some cylinders and too little on others. Naturally,
sures within the cylinder. This method is less effec-
this results in a variation in valve overlap between
tive than the differential pressure method in
cylinders. When this happens, it is impossible to set
discerning a particular defective component within
the idle adjustment to give correct mixtures on all
the cylinder. However, the consistency of the read-
cylinders, and all cylinders produce differing
ings provided by a direct compression test indicate
amounts of power. Variations in valve clearance of
an engine's condition as a whole.
as little as 0.005 inch have a definite effect on mix-
In general, most engine maintenance manuals con- ture distribution between cylinders.
tain instructions on performing a direct compres-
sion test. However, some general guidelines apply Another aspect of valve clearance is its effect on vol-
to most tests and are presented here: umetric efficiency. For example, excessive intake
1. Remove the most accessible spark plug from each valve clearance results in the valve opening late and
cylinder. closing early. This produces a throttling effect on the
2. Clear the area around the prop arc and rotate the cylinder because the valve is not open long enough
engine with the starter to eject excess oil to admit a full charge of fuel and air. This cuts down
accu on power output, particularly at high power set-
mulations and loose carbon particles from the tings. Insufficient intake valve clearance has the
cylinders. opposite effect. In other words, the intake valve
opens early, closes late, and stays open longer than
Reciprocating Engine Operation, Maintenance, Inspection, and Overhaul 2-23
it should. At low power, early opening of the intake Accurate valve adjustment also establishes the
valve can cause backfiring. intended valve seating velocity. If valve clearances
are excessive, the valve seating velocity will be too
Improper exhaust valve clearance also affects engine high. The result is valve pounding and stem stretch-
performance, For example, excessive exhaust valve ing, either of which is conducive to valve failure.
clearance shortens the exhaust event and causes
poor scavenging. The late opening may also lead to The engine manufacturer specifies the valve
cylinder overheating because the hot exhaust gases inspection period for each engine. In addition to the
are held in the cylinder beyond the time specified regular inspection periods, inspect and adjust the
for their release. On the other hand, when exhaust valve mechanism any time there is rough engine
valve clearance is insufficient, the early opening operation, backfiring, loss of compression, or hard
causes a power loss by shortening the power event. starting. Because of variations in engine designs,
In other words, the pressure in the cylinder is various methods are required for setting valves to
released before all the useful expansion has worked obtain correct and consistent clearance. In all cases,
on the piston. In addition, the late valve closing follow the exact procedure described by the engine
causes the exhaust valve to remain open for a larger manufacturer, since obscure factors may be
portion of the intake stroke. This may result in a por- involved.
tion of the fuel/air mixture being lost through the
exhaust port.
INSPECTIONS
In order for a valve to seat, the valve must be in good As an aviation maintenance technician, you will
condition, with no significant pressure being probably spend the majority of your time inspecting
exerted against the end of the valve by the rocker various aircraft components. In fact, the Federal
arm. If the expansion of all parts of the engine were Aviation Regulations require specific inspections at
the same, the problem of ensuring valve seating set intervals in order for an aircraft to remain air-
would be very easy to solve. Practically no free worthy. When these inspections are done, impend-
space would be necessary in the valve system. ing problems are typically found before they become
However, since there is a great difference in the major. Some of the more common types of inspec-
amount of expansion of various parts of the engine, tions you will be involved in include the preflight
there is no way of providing a constant operating inspection, 50-hour inspection, 100-hour inspec-
clearance in the valve train on engines equipped tion, and annual inspection.
with solid lifters.
val, up to a maximum of 10 hours, to permit the air- if there is any additional maintenance
craft to fly to a place where the inspection can be recommended or required by the manufacturer.
accomplished. When this is done, the number of
hours in excess of the 100-hour interval are Once you have reviewed the aircraft paperwork,
deducted from the next inspection interval. For perform a conformity inspection to verify that all of
example, if a flight to a place where a 100-hour the accessories and equipment on the engine are
approveh.Tir an accessory Araes-iroi appear'm an
hours beyond the 100-hour inspection interval, the equipment list or Type Certificate Data Sheet, check
next 100-hour inspection would be due in 94 hours. to see if the item was installed according to a sup-
In other words, the next inspection interval is short- plemental type certificate. Check the total time on
ened by the same amount of time the previous the engine and propeller and compare it with the list
inspection was extended. of life-limited parts to see if any items are nearing
their retirement time. See if there are any Major
The following paragraphs examine the basic steps Repair and Alteration Forms (FAA 337) on the
required to complete a 100-hour or annual inspec- engine or propeller. If there are, check the work to
tion. However, like any other inspection, the manu- be sure that it was done as described on the form.
facturer's instructions must be followed at all times.
CLEANING
INSPECTION CHECKLISTS Once the paperwork is done you can move on to the
FAR 43.15 lists the performance criteria for per- actual inspection. According to FAR Part 43 the first
forming inspections. In addition, FAR 43.15 specifi- step in performing a 100-hour or annual inspection
cally states that a checklist which meets the is to open all necessary inspection plates, access
minimum requirements listed in FAR 43 Appendix doors, fairings, and cowling and clean the aircraft
D must be used for all annual and 100-hour inspec- and engine. The cleaning is done to remove any oil,
tions. This, however, does not preclude you from grease, or dirt that could hide cracks or other defects
developing a more extensive checklist or using one during the inspection. As you open a cowl, look for
prepared by a repair station or manufacturer. As accumulations of oil or other fluids that may indi-
long as the checklist covers the items listed in cate the presence of a leak. If no abnormal amounts
Appendix D it may be used. Most major aircraft of fluid are present, clean the engine and engine
manufacturers provide inspection checklists for compartment using stoddard solvent or a commer-
their aircraft by type and model number. These cial degreaser. To prevent damage to electrical com-
forms are readily available through the manufac- ponents, you should tape over all vent holes on the
turer's representatives and are highly recom- magnetos and alternator. In addition, avoid spilling
mended. They meet the minimum requirements of solvent or water directly onto any electrical compo-
Appendix D and contain many details covering spe- nent, vacuum pump, or starter.
cific items of equipment installed on a particular
aircraft. In addition, they often include references to
PRE-INSPECTION RUNUP
service bulletins and letters which could otherwise
be overlooked. [Figure 2-27] Once the engine is clean, perform a pre-inspection
runup to determine if the engine runs properly and
to heat the oil and coat the cylinder walls. During
PRELIMINARY PAPERWORK the runup, verify that the temperatures and pres-
One important aspect of conducting a 100-hour or sures are within the correct operating range. In addi-
annual inspection is the paperwork involved. Before tion, verify that the engine develops its proper static
starting the actual inspection, you should review all rpm and that the magneto drop is within an accept-
of the aircraft records including the Type Certificate able range. The drop must be the same or nearly so
Data Sheets. In addition, you should check and list on both magnetos. Check for any abnormal noises in
all of the Airworthiness Directives that apply to the the engine and for any vibrations that are not char-
engine and all of its components including the car- acteristic of that engine.
buretor, magnetos, alternator or generator, propeller,
and ignition switches. Check the General Aviation If the engine is equipped with a constant-speed pro-
Airworthiness Alerts to become familiar with the peller, cycle it several times to check for proper
types of problems other mechanics have found with operation. When a prop is cycled, it should respond
similar engines. And, finally, go through the manu- smoothly and the recovery should be within the
facturer's service bulletins and service letters to see time limit allowed.
Reciprocating Engine Operation, Maintenance, Inspection, and Overhaul 2-27
Figure 2-27. FAR Part 43 requires the use of a checklist when conducting either a 100-hour or annual inspection. The checklist must
include at least those items contained in FAR Part 43, Appendix D.
2-28 Reciprocating Engine Operation, Maintenance, Inspection, and Overhaul
IGNITION SYSTEM
When a spark occurs between the electrodes of a
spark plug, metal is taken from one electrode and
Remove the remaining spark plugs and examine all deposited onto another. Therefore, when a spark
of them. Once way of determining combustion plug fires positively, the ground electrodes wear
chamber problems is by examining the condition of more than the center electrode and when a spark
the spark plugs. For example, normal operation is plug fires negatively, the center electrode wears
indicated by a spark plug having a relatively small more than the ground electrode. Furthermore, lead
amount of light brown or tan deposit on the nose of and other impurities produced during the combus-
the center electrode insulator. However, if heavy tion process tend to precipitate to the lower spark
deposits are found, it is a good indication that the plugs, causing them to wear. To help equalize spark
rings or valve seals are worn allowing oil to seep plug wear, each time spark plugs are removed they
into the cylinder. If there is an excess of gray, should be replaced in the cylinder next in the firing
clinker-like deposits in a spark plug, lead fouling is order to the one from which they were removed and
occurring. One cause of lead fouling is using a fuel switched from top to bottom.
with a higher than recommended tetraethyl lead
content. Replacing the spark plug with one having a The threads in the spark plug bushing in a cylinder
hotter heat range may reduce the fouling, but be sure should he clean enough so a spark plug can be
the hotter plug is approved for the engine. screwed down against its gasket with finger pressure
only. Once finger tight, a spark plug must be torqued
Reciprocating Engine Operation, Maintenance, Inspection, and Overhaul 2-29
to the manufacturer's recommended torque value with deadly carbon monoxide gas. Be sure the cabin
using a torque wrench of known accuracy. heat valve operates freely and has no obstructions in
either the valve or the hose carrying heated air into
Before installing a lead on each spark plug, wipe the the cabin. Check all of the cylinder heads at the
lead terminal with a rag dampened with exhaust port for indication of blown gaskets and for
trichloreth-ylene. Once clean, insert the lead any indication of cracks or other leakage. Carefully
straight into the spark plug and tighten the lead nut check where the exhaust gas temperature probes
to the torque recommended by the manufacturer. enter the exhaust pipes, as this is a possible source
of leakage.
With all the plugs and leads installed, check the
magneto to engine timing using a timing light. In TURBOCHARGER
addition, inspect the condition of the breaker points
and the inside of the breaker compartment for any If the engine is equipped with a turbocharger, be
indication of moisture or oil. As a final check, make sure to follow the inspection procedure specified by
sure the magneto grounding or P-leads are secure the manufacturer. As a minimum, the exhaust por-
and show no signs of wear or chafing. tion of the turbocharger and waste gate should be
checked. In addition, the induction air section,
including all relief valves, intercoolers, and mani-
FUEL SYSTEM fold pressure sensors should be checked and tested.
Clean the main fuel strainer and screen along with The lubrication system and mounting should also
the screen in the carburetor or fuel injection unit. be carefully checked for leaks and security.
Replace the cleaned screens using a new gasket and,
after testing them under pressure for leaks, safety
COOLING SYSTEM
the screens in place. Check all of the controls and
lubricate them as specified by the airframe manu- Check all of the cooling fins and baffling for cracks
facturer, being sure to use an approved lubricant. or damage. In addition, inspect all of the baffles and
seals for general condition and security. If a cooling
If the engine is fuel injected, check the manufac- fin is cracked, check the manufacturer's specifica-
turer's recommendations for cleaning the injector tions for allowable limits. To repair a cracked fin,
nozzles. In addition, check all of the injection lines you should remove the damaged area of the fin then
for security and chafing. contour file the affected area. The cowl flaps should
be checked for security and for full travel, both in
their open and closed position.
INDUCTION SYSTEM
Remove and clean or replace the induction air filter ELECTRICAL SYSTEM
and check the entire system for leaks or deforma-
tion. Check the operation of the carburetor heat or As you know, electrical systems vary between air-
alternate air valve. Be sure the alternate air doors craft models and the manufacturer's recommenda-
open fully so the induction airflow into the engine tions must be followed in detail. The alternator and
will not be restricted. its mounting should be checked for security and for
any indication of vibration-induced cracks. The volt-
age regulator and any relays or solenoids in the sys-
All flexible induction tubing should be carefully
tem should be checked for security. In addition, all
inspected to be sure that there are no kinks and that
wires attached to electrical components should be
the tubing is in good condition. Furthermore, you
checked for security, proper support, and chafing.
should verify that the wire support within the tub-
ing is intact so the tubing cannot collapse.
ACCESSORIES AND CONTROLS
EXHAUST SYSTEM Check all of the air, fuel, and hydraulic pumps for
indications of leakage, and for the condition of their
Remove the shroud from the muffler and check it for seals. Check the vent and breather lines for security
any indication of leakage. In some cases, there is an and for proper positioning. Check the instrument air
AD or manufacturer's service bulletin requiring the system to be sure that all filters are changed accord-
muffler or exhaust system to be pressure tested. ing to the manufacturer's recommendations and the
Remember, even a pinhole leak can fill the cabin oil separator shows no sign of malfunctioning.
2-30 Reciprocating Engine Operation, Maintenance, Inspection, and Overhaul
Check all controls for freedom and for proper travel. It is important to note that, when a log entry is made
The stops on the engine component should be after maintenance is completed, the signature
reached just before the stop in the cockpit. Check consi-tutes the approval for return to service for the
the condition of the firewall to be sure that all con- work performed.
trols, lines, and wires passing through are properly
sealed and there is no corrosion or other indication The log entry for an inspection is somewhat differ-
of damage. Be sure that all of the engine shock ent from an entry for perfoming maintenance. The
mounts are in good condition and the mounting following is a list of items that must be included in
bolts are properly torqued. It is important that the
an inspection log entry.
electrical grounding strap between the engine and
the airframe be in good condition since the rubber
shock mounts will not allow starter current to return 1. The date the inspection is completed.
through the airframe. 2. The total time in service.
3. The type of inspection performed.
PROPELLER 4. A certification statement that is worded similarly
The extreme stress a propeller encounters dictates to "I certify that this aircraft has been inspected
the need for a thorough inspection. Any nicks, in accordance with a(n) (insert type) inspection
cracks, or scratches in the blade must be carefully and was determined to be in an airworthy condi
dressed and any questionable area must be checked tion."
using an approved non-destructive test method. Be 5. Your signature.
sure the blades are secure in the hubs and that there 6. Your certificate number.
is no oil leakage. Check the spinner and spinner 7. The rating or ratings you hold.
bulkhead for any indication of cracks or damage,
and check the governor for security and for full If an aircraft is not approved for return to service
travel of its control. ■ because of needed maintenance, noncompliance
with applicable specifications, airworthiness direc-
POST-INSPECTION RUNUP AND RECORDS tives, or other approved data, the certification state-
After an inspection is complete, recowl the engine ment should be worded to say; "I certify that this
and conduct a post-inspection runup. If the engine aircraft has been inspected in accordance with a(n)
checks out satisfactorily, complete the engine main- (insert type) inspection and a list of discrepancies
tenance records and fill out all of the shop records. dated (insert date) has been provided for the aircraft
owner."
Federal Aviation Regulations require you to make an
engine log entry whenever maintenance or an If either a major repair or major alteration is per-
inspection is performed. For example, when mainte- formed to an aircraft, you must make an appropriate
nance is performed, you must make a log entry that log entry and complete an FAA 337 form. Once com-
includes at least the following information. plete, the original 337 form is given to the aircraft
owner while a duplicate is sent to the local FAA
1. The date the work was completed. office within 48 hours of completing the work.
2. A description or reference to data acceptable to
the FAA of the work perfomed.
3. The name of the person performing the work if To help reduce paperwork, certified repair stations
you did not actually do it yourself. are permitted to substitute a work order for a 337
4. Your signature. form. In this case, the original work order is given to
5. Your certificate number the aircraft owner and a duplicate is retained by the
6. The rating or ratings you hold. repair station for at least two years.
ENGINE REMOVAL AND OVERHAUL
ENGINE REMOVAL
Engine removal is a major task and must be accom-
plished in an orderly fashion to prevent personal
injury or damage to the aircraft. Although the exact
steps involved in removing a reciprocating engine
vary from one make of aircraft model to another,
there are some general guidelines you can use. the maximum time in service established in their
However, these guidelines are no substitute for the operating manuals.
manufacturer's instructions.
When a manufacturer delivers a new engine, a per-
manent record of the engine's operating time is
REASONS FOR REMOVAL established in the powerplant logbook. Anytime
maintenance is done on that engine, a logbook entry
There are several reasons why an engine may have is made referencing the total time (TT) the engine
to be removed from an aircraft. For example, the has accumulated since it was new. After an engine
accumulation of the number of hours recommended reaches its TBO, an overhaul should be accom-
between overhauls or degradation in performance plished and total time records should be continued
are reasons for removal. Also, a sudden engine stop- without interruption. In addition, accumulated
page or excessive metal particles found in the oil are engine operation time should be referenced as the
certainly valid reasons for engine removal. In addi- amount of time since major overhaul (SMOH).
tion, some routine maintenance and repairs may Engine maintenance requirements are based on
require an engine to be removed from an aircraft. either time since new or time since the most recent
However, before you remove or replace an engine, major overhaul.
you should always consult the applicable manufac-
turer's instructions to determine if engine removal
is required. ATTRITION FACTORS
or a propeller blade striking an object. Whenever an should be checked at both the front and rear cone
engine is stopped suddenly, the inertia of the mov- seats. The amount a shaft is misaligned is referred to
ing parts creates high torque forces that can result as its runout. The runout tolerance must fall within
in cracked or broken flywheel gear teeth, timing the limits specified in the manufacturer's mainte-
gear damage, a bent or broken crankshaft, or dam- nance manual. If the runout is excessive, the crank-
aged crankshaft bearings. When a sudden stoppage shaft must be removed and replaced. However, if the
occurs, an engine manufacturer's instructions usu- crankshaft runout does not exceed the manufac-
ally require a complete engine teardown and turer's established limits, you should install a ser-
inspection. viceable propeller and check the propeller tracking.
If propeller tracking measurements are good, start
the engine to see if it operates smoothly with normal
SUDDEN SPEED REDUCTION power output. If operation is normal during the
A sudden reduction in engine speed occurs when ground check, shut the engine down and repeat the
one or more propeller blades strike a movable object inspection for metal particles in the oil system. The
such as a runway light, tool box, hangar, or another presence of metal indicates internal engine damage
aircraft. When this occurs, engine rpm drops rapidly requiring further inspection. However, if there are
until the object struck is cleared. However, the no heavy metal particles in the engine oil, the
engine continues to run and the rpm typically engine should be scheduled for a flight test. If
returns to its previous value. Whenever a sudden engine operation is within normal parameters dur-
reduction in engine speed occurs, the engine should ing the flight test, look again for metal in the oil sys-
be shut down as quickly as possible to prevent fur- tem. If no metal is found, continue the engine in
ther damage. Inspections of engines that experience service, but recheck the oil screens for the presence
a sudden speed reduction reveal varying amounts of of metal after 10 hours of operation, and again after
damage. For example, if the speed reduction occurs 20 hours. If no indication of internal failure is found
at a low rpm, very little internal damage typically after 20 hours of operation, the engine probably
results. The reason for this is that at low rpm, engine requires no further special inspections.
power output is also low and the propeller absorbs
most of the shock. However, when a sudden speed METAL PARTICLES IN OIL
reduction occurs at a high engine rpm, the potential
for severe internal engine damage is much greater. The presence of an excessive number of metal parti-
cles in an engine oil filter or screen or in the oil itself
When an engine is subjected to a sudden reduction generally indicates an internal failure. However, due
in speed, you must comply with the manufacturer's to the construction of aircraft oil systems, it is possi-
inspection procedures for that engine. As a mini- ble for metal particles to collect in the oil system
mum, you must make a thorough external inspec- sludge at the time of a previous engine failure.
tion of the engine mounts, crankcase, and, if Furthermore, carbon buildup can break loose from
applicable, the nose section. In addition, you should an engine's interior and may be mistaken for metal
remove the engine oil screens or filters and inspect particles. In any case, the source of any foreign par-
them for the presence of metal particles. Once this is ticles in an engine's oil must be identified and cor-
done, drain the oil, straining it through a clean rected before the aircraft is released for flight.
cloth, and check both the cloth and strained oil for One way to determine if a particle is metal or carbon
metal particles. Presence of heavy metal particles is to place the material on a flat metal object and
indicates a definite engine failure requiring engine strike it with a hammer. If the particle is carbon, it
removal. However, if the metal particles have the will disintegrate, however, if it is metal, it will
appearance of fine filings, continue the inspection remain intact or change shape, depending upon its
to determine serviceability. malleability. If you find some particles that are
metal, use a magnet to determine whether the parti-
Remove the propeller and check for misalignment cles are ferrous or nonferrous. Ferrous particles are
of the crankshaft, or propeller drive shaft on engines typically produced by wearing piston rings, whereas
using a propeller gear reduction. This task is per- nonferrous particles are typically produced by main
formed by attaching a dial indicator to the front of bearings.
the engine case and letting the indicator arm ride on
the crankshaft as it is turned. Engines with Another way to correctly identify the type and quan-
flange-type propeller shafts must be checked at the tity of foreign particles in an engine's oil is through
outside edge of the flange while spline-type regular participation in a spectrometric oil analysis
propeller shafts
Reciprocating Engine Operation, Maintenance, Inspection, and Overhaul 2-33
program or S.O.A.P., which requires an oil sample be compared. The baseline information, coupled
to be sent to a laboratory for analysis. When this is with trend analysis techniques, can help predict an
done, you are provided with a list of the type of engine failure before it occurs or pinpoint a problem
particles found along with possible sources of the requiring maintenance.
particles. In addition, if a laboratory observes a
sudden increase in the amounts of metal that the
test is designed to detect, they immediately contact PREPARATION FOR REMOVAL
the operator by telephone. When using When an engine is removed from an aircraft, flam-
spectromet-ric oil analysis, testing must occur on a mable fluids often leak from the engine and create a
regular basis to provide a baseline for comparison fire hazard. Therefore, an engine removal should be
so accurate information can be obtained. A closely done in a well ventilated area with a least one fire
followed oil analysis program can detect problems extinguisher nearby. Once the aircraft is parked,
before they become serious and prevent chock the main gear wheels to keep the aircraft from
catastrophic engine failure. [Figure 2-29] rolling during the removal operation. If the aircraft
has tricycle-type landing gear, the tail must be sup-
UNSTABLE ENGINE OPERATION ported to prevent the aircraft from tipping back
when the engine is removed. In addition, the land-
Engines must be removed for closer examination ing gear shock struts may need to be deflated to pre-
when unstable engine operation persists for a period vent damage from over-extension once the engine
of time. Excessive engine vibration, back firing, weight is removed from the aircraft.
afterfiring, cutting out while in flight, and low
power output are all symptoms of one or more prob-
lems that require removal of an engine. This is espe- MAGNETO, FUEL, AND BATTERY DISARMING
cially true with intermittent malfunctions if Before starting the engine removal process, make
previous troubleshooting attempts have not been sure that the magneto switch isin the OFF position.
successful. Duplication of an intermittent malfunc- In addition, once the engine c^W is removed, it is a
tion is sometimes easier if the engine is mounted on good idea to remove at least one spark plug from
a test stand with specialized test equipment. each cylinder. When these steps are taken, you elim-
inate the chance of the engine suddenly kicking
Many operators now utilize manual or computer- back or starting when the propeller is turned. To
ized engine condition monitoring that provides a help prevent fuel from spilling, make sure that all
base line to which unstable engine operations can fuel shutoff valves are closed. Fuel selector valves
are either manually or electrically operated. If an
electric solenoid-operated shutoff valve is installed,
it may be necessary to apply battery power to close
the valve. After ensuring that all fuel is shut off, dis-
connect the battery to reduce the possibility of elec-
trical sparks. If the aircraft will be out of service for
more than a few days, the battery is normally
removed and taken to a battery shop where it can be
cleaned, serviced, and charged.
Figure 2-30. Most of the engine oil in a typical horizontally SLEEVE AND NUT FITTING
opposed engine is drained by removing one or more oil
drain plugs or opening a drain valve.
PROPELLER REMOVAL
J
FLUID LINE DISCONNECTION
Once the oil is drained and the Figure 2-31. Fluid lines are typically connected to the fire-
wall or accessory by either a B-nut, a threaded fitting that
propeller is removed, you can begin threads into a receptacle, or by hose clamps.
disconnecting and draining
Reciprocating Engine Operation, Maintenance, Inspection, and Overhaul 2-35
ELECTRICAL DISCONNECTION
Depending on the type of engine and equipment
installed, electrical leads may be disconnected at
the accessory or at the engine firewall. When dis-
connected at the firewall, AN and MS connectors
are often used to simplify disconnections. A typical
AN or MS electrical connector consists of a plug and
receptacle assembly for one or more wires. To help
prevent accidental disconnection during aircraft
operation, the plug assembly screws to the recepta-
cle assembly and is secured with safety wire.
Figure 2-33. A typical control rod has a clevis attached to one end and a rod end bearing attached to the other end. To prevent dam-
aging a control rod, it is best to remove them completely from the aircraft before the engine is removed.
should either be removed completely or tied back to the case, a turnbuckle which joins the bellcrank
prevent them from being bent or broken when the actuating cable must be removed. However, before
engine is removed. [Figure 2-33] you remove the turnbuckle, it is a good idea to mark
the position of the control cable end threads at the
On engine installations that utilize a bellcrank to turnbuckle. The marks will assist you during
actuate a control rod, the bellcrank may have to be rein-stallation to roughly obtain the original
removed to allow removal of a control rod. If this is position before trimming the controls. [Figure 2-34]
Figure 2-34. Some control systems in use today consist of a cable and pulley arrangement to actuate engine controls. If this is the
case, the cable assembly may have to be separated at a turnbuckle in order to remove the control rod.
Reciprocating Engine Operation, Maintenance, Inspection, and Overhaul 2-37
OTHER DISCONNECTIONS
Air intake and exhaust system components must
also be disconnected to facilitate engine removal.
However, because the installation of these compo-
nents vary among different engines and aircraft, it is
best to refer to the manufacturer's instructions for
specific removal instructions.
ENGINE HOISTING
After all engine connections are free and clear, the
engine is ready for hoisting. If an engine has been
thoroughly prepared for removal, the actual removal
process is typically a simple task. One decision that
must be made is whether to remove only the engine,
or both the engine and engine mount. With a typical
overhaul the engine is removed without the engine
mount. However, if the engine is being replaced
with a quick engine change assembly (QECA), the
separation point is usually the firewall; therefore,
the mount must be removed with the engine. A Figure 2-35. When choosing a hoist and frame assembly,
QECA is essentially a powerplant with the neces- make sure the hoist can reach the engine with adequate
sary accessories already installed on the engine clearance and is rated for the weight of the engine being
mounting assembly. In addition, some radial engine lifted.
QECA's are supplied with nacelles, so removal in
this case would include the engine nacelle. order specified in the manufacturer's instructions.
Before the last nuts are removed, be sure that the
Before the engine can be freed from its attach points, engine is steadied and secure with no lateral load-
a sling must be installed so the engine's weight can ing. If everything is secure, remove the remaining
be supported with a hoist. Aircraft engines have engine mount hardware and gently move the engine
selected points for attaching a hoisting sling. The free of the mount attachments. If the engine binds at
location of these points and the type of sling any point, investigate the reason and maneuver the
arrangement used vary according to the engine's size engine as necessary until it slips free. Once the
and weight. Therefore, engine manufacturers typi- engine is moved clear of the airframe, carefully
cally provide information on where to support an lower the engine onto an engine stand and secure it
engine as well as the type of hoist apparatus to use. with the appropriate hardware.
As a matter of safety, the sling and hoist should be
carefully inspected and deemed safe for use before
installing it on an engine. In addition, make sure ENGINE COMPARTMENT
that the hoist has sufficient capacity to lift the Anytime an engine is removed from an aircraft the
engine safely, observing the change in capacity as opportunity exists to thoroughly inspect the engine
the hoist arm is extended. In most cases, when the compartment and make repairs as necessary. To
hoist arm is fully extended, lifting capacity is greatly begin, you should inspect the entire engine nacelle
reduced. [Figure 2-35] for corrosion, cracks, missing rivets, or any other
visible defects. Cracks in the cowling or ducts can
Some engine hoisting frames are fitted with power be stop-drilled or patched if they do not exceed lim-
operated hoists. Power hoists should be used with its specified in the manufacturer's structural repair
caution, since considerable damage can be done by manual.
an inexperienced operator.
Engine controls should be checked for integrity and
Before you actually begin lifting an engine, recheck freedom of movement. In addition, cables should be
the aircraft tail supports and wheel chocks. If every- inspected for broken wire strands while cable pul-
thing is set, raise the engine enough to remove the leys are checked for binding, flat spots, and chipped
engine weight from the engine mount. Next, remove edges. Furthermore, pulley bearings can be checked
the nuts from the engine mount attachments in the for excessive play. The anti-friction bearings in the
2-38 Reciprocating Engine Operation, Maintenance, Inspection, and Overhaul
control rods should move freely and the rods should elongated bolt holes. Typically, dye penetrants are
be free of deformities. Inspect areas where cables used to help reveal cracks, porous areas, or other
and rods pass through bulkheads or panels for evi- defects. Ferrous parts, such as the engine mounting
dence of chafing and misalignment. bolts, are usually checked by magnetic particle
inspection.
Check the outer surface of all exposed electrical
wiring for breaks, chafing, deteriorated insulation, Many types of engine mount structures are in use,
or other damage. In addition, inspect crimped and however, most are typically constructed from
soldered terminals for security and cleanliness. formed and riveted sheet metal rails, forged alloy fit-
Connector plugs must also be checked for damage, tings, welded alloy steel tubing, or a combination of
corrosion, and overall condition. Check bonding all three. Engine mount structures consisting of riv-
straps for fraying, loose attachments, and corrosion eted aluminum usually provide two mounting rails
at terminal ends. The electrical resistance of the to which the engine is mounted. These aluminum
complete bond must not exceed the resistance val- mount structures are typically used for mounting
ues specified in the applicable manufacturer's large horizontally opposed engines, especially on
instructions. Any damage found must be repaired multi-engine aircraft. Steel tube mount structures,
and defective parts should be replaced as specified on the other hand, are used on both large and small,
in the manufacturer's specifications and Federal horizontally opposed, and radial engines. Steel tube
Aviation Regulations. engine mounting structures bolt to the engine fire-
wall and their shape provides some separation
Hydraulic and pneumatic tubing should be free between an engine and firewall.
from dents, nicks, and kinks, and all connectors
should be checked for the correct tightness. Check Most modern reciprocating engine aircraft utilize
all air ducts for dents and the condition of the fabric dynafocal engine mounts. With a dynafocal engine
or rubber anti-chafing strips at their joints. Dents mount, the engine mounting points are turned
should be worked out, and anti-chafing strips inward so they point toward the engine's center of
should be replaced if they have pulled loose or no gravity. This design helps prevent the transmission
longer form a tight seal. of engine vibration to the airframe. [Figure 2-36]
A typical engine mounting structure incorporates
Thoroughly inspect all hoses and replace those vibration isolating shock mounts that help dampen
hoses that have been damaged by weather checking
engine vibrations and permit restricted
or cold flow. Weather checking is a cracking of the
outside covering of hoses that sometimes penetrates
to the reinforcement webbing. Cold flow, on the
other hand, refers to deep and permanent impres-
sions or cracks caused by hose clamps. Both types of
damage weaken hoses and could eventually cause
leaks to develop. In addition to the hoses, you
should inspect the exhaust assembly for security,
cracks, and excessive corrosion.
ENGINE MOUNTS
Before a new or overhauled engine can be installed
on an aircraft, an inspection of the engine mount
structure must be accomplished. The engine mount Figure 2-36. With a dynafocal engine mount, the mounting
should be checked for bends, dents, flat spots, or points are turned inward so they point toward the engine's
center of gravity.
engine
Reciprocating Engine Operation, Maintenance, Inspection, and Overhaul 2-39
movement. Shock mounts contain rubber compo- engine's cylinders, it is relatively inexpensive to
nents that are arranged so the engine weight rests on overhaul the rest of the engine. An alternative view,
the rubber. The rubber absorbs much of the engine however, is that since most crankcase assemblies are
vibration thereby reducing the amount of vibration relatively more durable than cylinders and valve
that is transmitted to the airframe. trains, a top overhaul is often the most economical
way to bring an engine back to original performance
levels in the short term. In many cases, the final
OVERHAUL decision on whether to perform a top overhaul or
Aircraft operators run the risk of premature engine major overhaul is up to the owner or operator.
or component failure if scheduled maintenance is
delayed or neglected. On the other hand, a MAJOR OVERHAUL
well-maintained engine can provide many hours of
reliable operation without failure up to the A major overhaul entails a complete engine recondi-
recommended TBO. After reaching TBO, however, tioning at periodic intervals. The exact interval is
the engine should be overhauled for continued air- based on manufacturer recommendations or an FAA
worthiness so that worn or damaged parts can be approved number of accumulated hours since new
detected and replaced. The best way to identify or last major overhaul.
parts that are defective or worn beyond airworthy
limits is to disassemble the engine and perform a During a major overhaul, an engine is completely
complete and thorough inspection. dismantled, cleaned, inspected, repaired as needed,
reassembled, and tested. Any engine part failing to
meet specified tolerances is rejected and either
Engine manufacturers provide overhaul instructions
that contain specific tolerances and general instruc- scrapped or repaired. Parts such as gaskets, seals,
tions to aid in determining the airworthiness of each and some hardware are used only once, and, there-
fore, are normally replaced regardless of their con-
part. Parts that do not meet the manufacturer's spec-
ifications must be replaced, while parts that do meet dition. Instructions provided by the manufacturer
tolerances are reinstalled in the engine. However, if specify the parts that must be replaced.
a part is near its airworthiness limits, you may want Furthermore, all accessories are removed for over-
haul or replacement.
to replace it since that part could eventually fail or
exceed the acceptable limits before the next sched- Engine manufacturers establish types of fits, toler-
uled overhaul. ances, and limits on production drawings when
designing and building their engines. This set of
TOP OVERHAUL measurements is the authoritative source of allow-
able tolerances for new engine parts. Additionally,
A top overhaul is defined as an overhaul of those the manufacturer establishes serviceable limits
parts associated with the engine cylinders. During which show the maximum amount of wear a part
a typical top overhaul, the cylinders, pistons, and can have and still be considered serviceable. When
valve operating mechanisms are reconditioned performing an overhaul, the serviceable part toler-
while the piston rings are replaced. In addition, the ance limits are typically used for parts diat are being
valve guides and seats are inspected and replaced reinstalled while the new part tolerances are used
if necessary. When performing a top overhaul, you on any new parts being installed.
should remove as few parts as necessary to gain
access to the cylinders. However, in most cases, It is important to note that the total time on an
you must remove the intake manifold, ignition har- engine must be continued when it is overhauled. In
ness, and exhaust collectors. Engine accessories addition, the amount of hours indicating the time
such as magnetos, starters, and alternators typi- since major overhaul should be added to the engine
cally receive normally scheduled maintenance log. Only new engines and rebuilt engines are
during a top overhaul. granted a zero time status. FAR Part 43 describes a
rebuilt engine as an engine that has been disassem-
Top overhauls are not performed as frequently in bled, cleaned, inspected, repaired as necessary,
modern aircraft engines as in earlier models because reassembled, and tested to the same tolerances and
more durable materials are now available. limits as a new engine. A rebuilt engine can contain
Furthermore, a top overhaul is not universally rec- either new or used parts that conform to new part
ommended because some engine manufacturers tolerances and limits or to approved oversized or
believe that if you are going to remove all of an undersized dimensions. In other words, the term
2-40 Reciprocating Engine Operation, Maintenance, Inspection, and Overhaul
Crankshaft bearings, oil seals, gaskets, and stressed oil foaming when the engine is returned to service.
bolts and nuts are normally replaced during an over- [Figure 2-39]
haul and should be discarded unless directed other-
wise by manufacturer instructions. In all cases, consult While degreasing removes dirt, grease, and soft car-
the applicable manufacturer's maintenance and over- bon, it is often inadequate for removing hard carbon
haul manuals or service bulletins for a complete list- deposits that sometimes build up on interior engine
ing of replacement items. Loose or damaged studs and surfaces. To remove hard carbon deposits, you can
other fittings should be tagged or marked for a closer use an approved decarbonizing solution; however,
examination during inspection because they could be you must exercise caution and follow the manufac-
evidence of more serious wear and damage. turer's recommendations. Decarbonizing solutions
are available in a water-soluble base or hydrocarbon
At this point, the engine can be completely disas- base. Of the two, the hydrocarbon base is preferable
sembled and laid out on a clean workbench for a pre- because water-soluble decarbonizing solutions carry
liminary inspection. A preliminary visual inspection the same corrosion dangers as water-soluble
must be done before cleaning the internal engine degreasers. Decarbonizer solution is usually quite
parts because indications of an impending failure are active, so you must adhere to several precautions. For
often detected from residual deposits of metallic par- example, you should always wear protective clothing
ticles in oil residue and sludge. Cleaning before and eye protection when using a decarbonizer. In
inspection could flush the particles from parts and addition, take care to avoid leaving engine parts in a
recesses in the engine, possibly preventing the detec- decarbonizing solution longer than the prescribed
tion of an engine problem. [Figure 2-38] time periods. Furthermore, be sure the solution is
safe for magnesium parts before immersing them, and
CLEANING avoid placing steel parts and magnesium parts in the
same container. The reason for this is the cleaning
After an engine is torn down and a preliminary solution could cause a chemical reaction between the
visual inspection has been done, the disassembled dissimilar metals that could corrode the magnesium.
parts must be cleaned by soaking or spraying each Be especially careful with accessory housings that
component with a degreaser or cleaning solvent. often have a high magnesium content.
Use a commercial safety solvent approved by the
engine manufacturer rather than water-soluble
degreasing solutions that contain soap or caustic
compounds. The reason for this is that water-solu-
ble solutions could be corrosive to aluminum or
magnesium. In addition, soap residues can become
trapped in relatively porous engine components
such as case halves, causing oil contamination and
together under considerable pressure. Found some- In addition to checking for cracks, it is important to
times between crankcase halves. Galling A closely inspect all lubrication channels and oil
severe condition of chafing or fretting in which a ports. Furthermore, you must check for loose or bent
transfer of metal from one part to another occurs. studs and examine hole threads with a flashlight. If
Galling is usually caused by slight movement stripped threads are encountered, mark the hole for
between mated parts under high loads. Gouging repairs later after completing the visual inspection.
A furrowing condition in which a displacement
of metal occurrs. Gouging is usually caused by
a piece of metal or foreign material becoming GEARS
trapped between moving parts. Grooving A The primary purpose of a gear is the transmission
recess or channel with rounded and smooth edges of force through motion; therefore, stress and wear
that usually results from improperly aligned parts. occur continually. For that reason, it is important
Inclusion Presence of foreign or extraneous to visually examine all gears for cracked or
material that is wholly confined within a portion chipped teeth and the presence of pitting or exces-
of metal. The included material is often sive wear. Deep pit marks or excessive wear on
introduced during the manufacture of rod, bar, or gear teeth are reasons for rejecting and replacing a
tubing by rolling or forging. gear. Minor scratches and abrasions on a gear's
Nick A sharp sided gouge or depression with a bearing surfaces can normally be dressed out with
"V" shaped bottom. Nicks are generally the result of a fine abrasive cloth, however, deep scratches or
careless handling of tools and parts. Peening A scoring is unacceptable.
series of blunt surface depressions. Scuffing or
Pick Up A buildup or rolling of metal from one
area to another which is usually caused by BEARINGS
insufficient lubrication, clearance, or foreign matter. Ball bearings and roller bearings should be closely
Pitting Small hollows of irregular shape in the examined for smoothness and freedom of move-
surface, usually caused by corrosion or minute ment. As you visually inspect a bearing, feel the
mechanical chipping of surfaces. Scoring A bearing parts carefully to detect any roughness, flat
series of deep scratches caused by foreign particles spots on balls or rollers, and dents or corrosion on
between moving parts, or careless assembly or the races. In addition, check for pitting, scoring, and
disassembly techniques. Scratches Shallow, galling on the outside surfaces of races. Pitting on a
thin lines or marks, varying in degree of depth and thrust bearing race that cannot be removed by pol-
width, caused by improper handling or the ishing with crocus cloth or other mild abrasive usu-
presence of fine foreign particles during ally requires part replacement. You must also check
operation. journal bearings for damage such as galling, burn-
Spailing A bearing defect in which chips of the ing, scoring, spalling, misalignment, or an
hardened bearing surface are broken out. Stain A out-of-round condition.
localized change in color that is noticeably
different in appearance from the surrounding area.
Bearing inserts such as bushings and plain bearings
Upsetting A displacement of material beyond
are usually replaced, however, looking at them
the normal surface contour commonly referred to
could help you detect wear on their mating surfaces
as a bulge or bump. When a part is upset, there is
or mounting bosses. Scratching and light scoring of
usually no metal loss.
aluminum bearing surfaces in the engine is usually
acceptable if the damage is within the limits stated
CRANKCASE in the engine manufacturer's overhaul manual.
Forces working in a crankcase produce highly However, the presence of other defects could require
stressed areas which can eventually develop cracks, rejection of the part even if it falls within specific
especially around mating and bearing surfaces, tolerance limits.
mounting bosses, threaded holes and studs, open-
ings, and structural fillet areas. Although more elab- CRANKSHAFT
orate methods for crack detection are available, a
thorough visual inspection can save wasted time A crankshaft is usually the heaviest and most highly
and effort by quickly detecting serious damage stressed part of an aircraft engine. Since very few
requiring replacement. repairs are approved for a crankshaft, a visual
inspection is done mainly to determine if the crank-
shaft falls within wear tolerance limits. Inspect the
2-44 Reciprocating Engine Operation, Maintenance, Inspection, and Overhaul
CAMSHAFT
camshaft. Additional defects that are cause for rejec- threaded fasteners, the parts should be carefully
tion include spalling, pitting, and surface cracks. examined for evidence of cracks or mutilated
threads. Cross-threading caused by improper instal-
lation, torn threads caused by trapped foreign mat-
VALVES AND VALVE MECHANISMS ter, and flattened threads caused by improper fit are
Most horizontally opposed engines operate with all typical examples of thread damage. Small defects
hydraulic valve lifters that must be disassembled, such as slight nicks or burrs can be dressed out with
cleaned, and visually inspected during an overhaul. a small file, fine abrasive cloth, or stone. However, if
The plunger and cylinder in a hydraulic lifter are the fastener shows damage caused by
matched units, therefore, take care to avoid inter- overtighten-ing or the use of improper tools,
changing parts of one lifter with parts from another replace it with a new one.
lifter. Lifter parts should be free from nicks,
scratches, and chipped shoulders. To verify that a
check valve is seating properly, quickly press the STRUCTURAL INSPECTION
plunger into the cylinder. The plunger should Once all engine parts have been visually inspected,
bounce back, indicating satisfactory operation. If the key components must be structurally inspected to
plunger does not bounce back satisfactorily, a leak- verify their integrity. If a structural inspection
age test can be done using specially designed test reveals a faulty part, the part is immediately
equipment before discarding the lifter as defective. removed from the overhaul process and replaced
with a new part. Some of the more common struc-
In addition to inspecting hydraulic lifters, you must tural inspections that are used include magnetic
also verify that all push rods are clean, especially particle, liquid penetrant, eddy current, ultrasonic,
the oil passage through each rod. Ball ends should and radiography inspection.
be smooth and free from nicks and scratches, and
must fit tightly in the rod ends. To check for
straightness, push rods are rolled across a flat, clean MAGNETIC PARTICLE INSPECTION
surface. The nondestructive inspection method most often
used for parts made of iron or iron alloys is magnetic
Inspect valve rockers for cracks and worn, pitted, or particle inspection. Magnetic particle inspection is
scored tips. In addition, visually verify that all oil useful for detecting cracks, splits, seams, and voids
passages are free from obstructions. If a rocker shaft that form when a metal ruptures. It is also useful for
turns excessively in a cylinder head, scoring typi- detecting cold shuts and inclusions of foreign mat-
cally results. Another problem often seen is bur- ter that occured when the metal was cast or rolled.
nishing and galling on a rocker shaft caused by the
bronze rocker bushing and the heat of friction. With magnetic particle inspection, a part is magne-
tized and an oxide containing magnetic particles is
Some engine overhaul manuals require valve poured or sprayed over the part's surface. If you
replacement, however, in cases where valves can be recall from your general studies, when a material
reused, a detailed inspection is required. containing large amounts of iron is subjected to a
Overheating, as well as nicks and scratches in the strong magnetic field, the magnetic domains within
valve stem near the spring retainer groove renders a the material align themselves and the part becomes
valve unserviceable. magnetized. When this happens, the part develops a
north and south pole and lines of flux flow in a con-
Valve springs are also subjected to a great deal of tinuous stream from the north pole to the south
wear and tear, and, therefore, must be checked visu- pole. If a break occurs within the part, another set of
ally for cracks, rust, and broken ends. If any corro- magnetic poles appears, one on either side of the
sion exists or if a valve spring shows signs of wear, break. Therefore, when conducting magnetic parti-
it must be discarded and replaced. cle inspection, the poles produced by a fault attract
the magnetic particles in the oxide, thereby giving
you an indication of the break.
THREADED FASTENERS
Depending on the particular component, replace- In order to detect a crack with magnetic particle
ment of threaded fasteners such as bolts, nuts, studs, inspection, the part must be magnetized so the lines
and screws may be required by the overhaul man- of flux are perpendicular to the fault. This is because
ual. However, in cases where it is allowable to reuse a flaw that is parallel to the lines of flux causes a
2-46 Reciprocating Engine Operation, Maintenance, Inspection, and Overhaul
Figure 2-41. When a part is magnetized in a coil, or solenoid, Figure 2-42. When current passes through a part, lines of
the lines of flux pass through the material longitudinally. As flux encircle the part, making it circularly magnetized. This
the flux lines pass through the part, faults that run across circular magnetization allows for the detection of faults
the part or at an angle are detected. extending lengthwise and at an angle along the part.
minimal disruption in the magnetic field. On the with current passed through them. The magnetic
other hand, a defect that is perpendicular to the field field is oriented perpendicular to current that flows
creates a large disruption and is relatively easy to between the probes. [Figure 2-43]
detect. To ensure that the flux lines are nearly per-
pendicular to a flaw, a part should be magnetized The medium used to indicate the presence of a fault
both longitudinally and circularly. by magnetic particle inspection is ferromagnetic. In
other words, the material is finely divided, has a
In longitudinal magnetization, the magnetizing cur- high permeability, and a low retentivity.
rent flows either through a coil that encircles the Furthermore, for operator safety it is nontoxic.
part being tested, or through a coil around a soft iron There is no one medium that is best for all applica-
yoke. In either method, the magnetic field is ori- tions. However, in general, a testing medium con-
ented along the material so that magnetic fields form sists of extremely fine iron oxides that are dyed
on either side of faults located across a material. gray, black, red, or treated with a dye that causes
[Figure 2-41] them to fluoresce when illuminated with an ultra-
violet lamp.
With circular magnetization, current flows through
the part being inspected, creating lines of magnetic The iron oxides may be used dry, or they can be
flux that encircle the part. When this occurs, flaws mixed with kerosene or some other light oil and
or faults located along the material are magnetized sprayed over a surface. Dry particles require no spe-
and, therefore, attract magnetic particles. Current is cial preparation, making them well suited for field
sent through the part by placing it between the applications where portable equipment is used. Dry
heads of the magnetizing equipment. However, if particles are typically applied with hand shakers,
the part is tubular, it is slipped over a conductive spray bulbs, or powder guns.
rod that is then placed between the heads of a mag-
netizing machine. [Figure 2-42] Wet particles are flowed over a part as a bath. The
wet method is typically used with stationary equip-
Large flat objects are circularly magnetized by using ment that continuously agitates the bath to keep the
test probes that are held firmly against the surface particles in suspension. Particles are either mixed
Reciprocating Engine Operation, Maintenance, Inspection, and Overhaul 2-47
PISTON PIN CIRCULAR AND 1000 SHEAR PLANES, ENDS, FATIGUE CRACKS
LONGITUDINAL CENTER
ROCKER ARMS CIRCULAR AND 800 PAD, SOCKET UNDER FATIGUE CRACKS
LONGITUDINAL SIDE ARMS AND BOSS
GEARSTO6INCH CIRCULAR OR 1000 TO TEETH, SPLINES, FATIGUE CRACKS
DIAMETER ON CENTER 1500 KEYWAYS
CONDUCTOR
GEARS OVER 6 INCH SHAFT CIRCULAR 1000 TO TEETH, SPLINES FATIGUE CRACKS
DIAMETER TEETH BETWEEN 1500
HEADS TWO TIMES 90°
THRU BOLTS CIRCULAR AND 500 THREADS UNDER HEAD FATIGUE CRACKS
ROD BOLTS LONGITUDINAL
Figure 2-44. A typical magnetic particle inspection schedule for aircraft engine parts provides details on method of magnetization,
current required, critical areas, and a list of possible defects. In this case, the fluorescent method is preferred and a wet continuous
procedure is required.
2-48 Reciprocating Engine Operation, Maintenance, Inspection, and Overhaul
otherwise be detected. After the part is clean, rinse types do the same job, the method of application
and dry it thoroughly. differs. One thing to keep in mind is that penetrant
begins to bleed out of any fault as soon as the sur-
Once clean, penetrant is typically applied to a sur- face penetrant is removed. Because of this, cover-
face by immersing the part in the liquid or by swab- ing the surface to be inspected with developer as
bing or brushing a penetrant solution onto a part's soon as possible helps to pinpoint the location of
surface. However, some manufacturer's do offer dye any fault.
penetrant in spray cans to allow application in small
areas for localized inspection. Whichever system is A dry developer consists of a loose powder material
used, the area inspected is completely covered with such as talcum that adheres to the part and acts as a
the penetrating liquid which is then allowed to blotter to draw the penetrant out of any surface
remain on the surface for the manufacturer's recom- faults. When using a dry developer, the part is typi-
mended length of time. cally placed in a bin of loose developer. For larger
components, dry powder is applied with a soft
The amount of time required for a penetrant to brush, or blown over the surface with a powder gun.
cure is called its dwell time and is determined by After the powder remains on the surface for the rec-
the size and shape of the discontinuities for which ommended time, the excess is removed with
you are looking. For example, small, thin cracks low-pressure air flow.
require a longer dwell time than large and more
open cracks. Dwell time is decreased if a part is The penetrant used with a dry developer is often
heated; however, if the part gets too hot the pene- treated with a fluorescent or colored dye. These
trant evaporates. parts are typically examined under black light so
faults appear as a green indication as the light
Once the appropriate dwell time passes, liquid causes the dye to fluoresce, or glow. Colored dye
pen-etrants are removed using either water, an penetrants are usually red and any faults appear as
emulsifying agent, or a solvent. Water-soluble red marks, clearly visible on the surface.
penetrants are the easiest to remove. Typically, this
type of penetrant is flushed away with water that is A wet developer is similar to a dry developer in that
sprayed at a pressure of 30 to 40 psi. The spray it is applied as soon as the surface penetrant is
nozzle is held at a 45 degree angle to the surface to rinsed off the part. However, a wet developer typi-
avoid washing the penetrant out of cracks or faults. cally consists of a white powder mixed with water
that is either flowed over the surface or a part is
Post-emulsifying penetrants are not water soluble. immersed in it. The part is then air-dried and
They must be treated with an emulsifying agent inspected in the same way as a part on which dry
before they can be washed from a part's surface. This developer was used. Wet developers are typically
allows you to control the amount of penetrant that is used with penetrants that are treated with either flu-
removed prior to cleaning. By varying the emulsifier orescent or colored dyes.
dwell time, surface penetrant can be emulsified
while the penetrant absorbed into cracks or other The most commonly used developer for field main-
defects is left untouched. As a result, the surface tenance is the nonaqueous type. Nonaqueous devel-
penetrant is rinsed off but the absorbed penetrant oper consists of a white, chalk-like powder
remains to expose the defect. suspended in a solvent that is normally applied
from a pressure spray can, or sprayed onto a surface
Some penetrants are neither water soluble nor with a paint gun. The part being inspected must be
emul-sifiable, but instead are solvent-removeable. thoroughly dry before a thin, moist coat of devel-
When using this type of penetrant, excess oper is applied. The developer dries rapidly and
penetrant is removed with an absorbent towel, and pulls out any penetrant that exists within a fault.
the part's surface is then wiped with clean towels The penetrant stains the developer and is easily
dampened with solvent. The solvent should not seen with a black light when a fluorescent pene-
be sprayed onto the surface nor should the part be trant is used. If a white light is desired, use a col-
immersed in solvent, since this will wash the ored dye.
penetrant out of faults or dilute it enough to
prevent proper indication in the developer.
EDDY CURRENT INSPECTION
Once the excess penetrant is removed, a developer Eddy current inspection is a testing method that
is applied. There are three kinds of developers requires little or no part preparation and can detect
used to draw penetrants from faults. While all three surface and subsurface flaws in most
metals.
2-50 Reciprocating Engine Operation, Maintenance, Inspection, and Overhaul
Figure 2-46. When doing a dimensional inspection on engine components, you must measure each component and compare the
dimensions to the limits in the overhaul manual.
2-52 Reciprocating Engine Operation, Maintenance, Inspection, and Overhaul
halves. For example, to check main bearing clear- is the sum of the over and under indications on the
ances, the main bearing inserts must be installed in dial indicator. If the total indicator reading exceeds
the crankcase halves and the case halves must be the dimensions given in the manufacturer's table of
reassembled and torqued. A telescoping gauge is limits, the crankshaft must be replaced. No attempt
then adjusted to the inside diameter of each bearing should be made to straighten a bent crankshaft
and measured with a micrometer caliper. The crank- because this will probably rupture the nitrated sur-
shaft journals are then carefully measured with the face of the bearing journals, leading to eventual
same micrometer. Once both dimensions are known, crankshaft failure.
the journal dimensions are subtracted from the main
bearing insert dimensions to obtain the clearance
between the inserts and the crankshaft journal. CONNECTING RODS
Connecting rods must be checked for twist and con-
With the crankcase halves assembled, the camshaft vergence. To check for twist, arbors are inserted into
bearing clearances must also be checked. Since the each end of a connecting rod. The arbors are then
camshaft bearings on many engines are machined laid across parallel blocks. Using a set of thickness
into the crankcase there is no need for camshaft bear- gauges, measure to see if there is any space between
ing inserts. To check the camshaft bearing clearances, the arbors and the parallel blocks. The amount of
use the same procedures discussed earlier for check- twist is determined by the thickness of the gauge
ing crankshaft bearing clearances. [Figure 2-47] that can be inserted. [Figure 2-48]
CRANKSHAFT
To check a connecting rod for convergence, you
must check the distance between the large and small
A crankshaft has a number of critical bearing sur- arbors on both sides of the connecting rod. To do
faces that require dimensional inspection. For this, attach a parallelism gauge to one end of the
example, the dimensions of main bearing journals large arbor. Adjust the gauge until it just touches the
are normally measured with a micrometer caliper to small arbor. Next, move the parallelism gauge to the
determine crankshaft journal to main bearing clear- other end of the large arbor. If the gauge does not
ances in the crankcase. In addition, rod bearing jour- touch the small arbor, determine the clearance
nals are checked with a micrometer caliper to between the gauge and arbor with a thickness gauge.
determine rod bearing to rod bearing journal clear- The difference in distance between the two arbors is
ances. the amount of convergence, or bend present in the
rod. [Figure 2-49]
Another crankshaft dimensional inspection requires
you to check a crankshaft's runout. To check for Any rods that are twisted or bent beyond serviceable
runout, a crankshaft is supported on vee-blocks at limits must be replaced. When replacement is nec-
locations specified in the overhaul manual. A dial essary, the weight of the new rod should be matched
indicator is then placed at points along the crank-
shaft and the crankshaft is rotated. The total runout
The end gap of piston rings is measured by placing a Figure 2-51. To check side clearance, use a straightedge to
ring into a cylinder barrel and squaring the ring with hold the piston rings squarely in their grooves and insert a
a piston. Once the ring is positioned, a thickness thickness gauge between each ring and ring land.
2-54 Reciprocating Engine Operation, Maintenance, Inspection, and Overhaul
Valve springs are checked for compression and wire the engine manufacturer or a certified repair sta
diameter. To check for compression, a valve spring tion. To repair a crack, a form of inert gas welding is
tester is used to compress each spring to a height used. Once a crack is welded, the bead is peened to
specified in the overhaul manual. The number of relieve stress and then machined to match the rest
pounds required to compress the spring is then read of the surface. Bearing cavity damage may also be
from a dial on the tester. To measure a spring's wire repaired by welding, then machining to the proper
diameter use a small caliper or micrometer. dimension. :,,.
Each rocker arm shaft bushing and rocker arm shaft Camshafts normally rotate in bearings cut into a
must be measured to determine the clearance crankcase with no bearing inserts. Therefore,
between the two. The inside diameter of each rocker camshaft bearings with excessive clearances can
arm shaft bushing is measured with a small T-gauge only be repaired by line-boring the bearings and
or hole gauge and micrometer. Next, the outside installing an oversized camshaft.
diameter of the rocker arm shaft is measured with a
micrometer. The difference between the dimensions If bent or loose studs were identified during inspec-
represents the shaft-to-bushing clearance. tion, they must be removed and replaced. If stan-
dard size studs will no longer work, oversize studs
may be used. Oversize studs are identified by color
OIL PUMP HOUSING coding and stamped identification marks to indicate
To help ensure proper oil pump operation, the dis- the amount of oversizing. [Figure 2-57]
tance between an oil pump's mating surface and the
pump gears must fall within limits. To measure the If internal case threads cannot be repaired using a
distance between the two, a depth gauge is used. To tap, Heli-Coil inserts may be used. Heli-Coils pro-
use a depth gauge, retract the spindle until it is flush vide new threads that allow standard studs to be
with the gauge's fixed bar. Then, lay the bar across installed. There is no decrease in strength when this
the oil pump housing and extend the spindle until it type of repair is made.
contacts the oil pump gear. Now, read the microme-
ter head to obtain the distance between the housing
CRANKSHAFT
and gear.
If slight roughness exists on any of a crankshaft's
main journals or crankpins, polish the surfaces
REPAIR with fine crocus cloth. To do this, place the crank-
Once you have completed the visual, structural, and shaft in a lathe and hold the crocus cloth against the
dimensional inspections, you may begin making surface to be polished while it rotates. If sludge
repairs. Damage such as burrs, nicks, scratches, chambers were removed for cleaning, reinstall them
scoring, or galling can be removed with a fine oil at this time.
stone, crocus cloth, or similar abrasive substance.
Swiss pattern files or small edged stones work well All major repairs made on a crankshaft must be done
for removing small nicks. Flanged surfaces that are by the manufacturer or certified repair station. For
bent, warped, or nicked can be repaired by lapping example, crankshaft main journals or crankpins that
on a surface plate. Defective threads can sometimes are out-of-round may be ground to an acceptable
be repaired with a suitable die or tap; however, undersize. However, once a crankshaft is ground, it
avoid tapping a hole too deep and creating an over- must be re-nitrided and undersized bearing inserts
sized tapped hole. If galling or scratches are must be installed in the crankcase.
removed from the bearing surface of a journal, the
surface should be buffed to a high finish with fine
crocus cloth. After completing repairs, parts should CONNECTING RODS
be thoroughly cleaned to remove all abrasives, then The only repairs you may do on connecting rods is
checked with mating parts for proper clearances. to replace the bushings and bearing inserts.
However, because of the interference fit between the
rod and bushing, rebushing a connecting rod
CRANKCASE
requires an arbor press and a special bushing instal-
Cracks, damaged studs or threads, and excessive lation drift. After pressing the new bushing into
bearing clearances are examples of repairable place it must be reamed to the dimensions specified
crankcase defects. Cracks can only be repaired by in the overhaul manual. Because of the extremely
Reciprocating Engine Operation, Maintenance, Inspection, and Overhaul 2-57
Figure 2-57. Oversize studs have color codes and stamped identification marks to show the degree of oversize.
close tolerances required, special equipment is gen- types of valve grinding machines are used for
erally required to ream connecting rod bushings. refac-ing valves. However, a wet valve grinder is
preferred because a mixture of soluble oil and water
PISTONS is used to keep the valve cool and carry away the
Most pistons are replaced during an overhaul; how- grinding chips.
ever, if a piston was installed shortly before an over-
haul and it is within limits, it may be reused. Like many machining tasks, it is important that you
Repairs to pistons are limited to the removal of light be familiar with the machine you are operating.
scoring. For example, scoring on a piston skirt is Valve grinding machines do vary depending on the
repairable only if very light because removal of deep manufacturer. Therefore, you should take time to
scores could inadvertently alter the piston's contour familiarize yourself with the grinding machine you
and exceed clearance limits. When removing scor- intend to use before you grind a valve. The follow-
ing on a piston skirt, use nothing more abrasive than ing discussion will look at some of the steps that are
crocus cloth. Scoring above a piston's top ring common to most grinding machines.
groove may be machined or sanded out as long as
the piston diameter is not reduced below its speci- Before you grind a valve, the stone must be trued.
fied minimum. This is usually done by drawing a diamond dresser
across the stone, cutting just deep enough to true
Whether reusing pistons or installing a new set, pis- and clean the stone. Using the overhaul manual
ton weights should be as close as possible to one specifications, set the machine's movable head to
another. The maximum allowable weight difference the correct valve face angle. Valves are usually
is listed in the manufacturer's table of limits. New ground to a standard angle of 30 or 45 .
pistons can often be purchased in matched sets However, in some instances an interference fit
whose weight differences are considerably below from 0.5 to 1.5 less than the standard angle
the manufacturer's maximum. may be required. An interference fit is used to
obtain a more positive seal by producing an
VALVES AND VALVE MECHANISMS extremely narrow contact surface. Theoretically,
If there is sufficient valve margin, a valve can be an interference fit provides a fine line contact
refaced by grinding to the proper angle. Various between the valve and seat. With this line contact,
all the load that the valve exerts
2-58 Reciprocating Engine Operation, Maintenance, Inspection, and Overhaul
Figure 2-59. Once a valve is locked into a chuck correctly, adjust the linf and iouti stops so the valve passes the stone completely
on both sides.
Reciprocating Engine Operation, Maintenance, Inspection, and Overhaul 2-59
valve guide hole and the chilled extraction tool to grind a cylinder and then apply chrome plating to
causes the guide to contract. The combination of build up the cylinder to its original diameter.
these two factors typically reduces the interference Because the process of grinding and chrome plating
fit enough to allow removal. requires specialized equipment, these repairs are
usually performed by certified repair stations.
Similar to valve guide replacement procedures,
valve seat inserts are removed and replaced by heat-
REFACING VALVE SEATS
ing a cylinder and chilling the valve seat inserts.
Some engine manufacturers supply special tools Modern reciprocating engines are equipped with
that simplify valve seat extraction and installation. either bronze or steel valve seats. Steel seats are
made of hard, heat resistant steel alloy and are com-
Spark plug thread inserts having missing or dam- monly used as exhaust seats. Bronze seats, on the
aged threads are usually replaced with Heli-Coil other hand, are made of aluminum bronze or phos-
inserts as specified by an engine manufacturer. You phor bronze alloys and are used for both intake and
should use special Heli-Coil tools and follow the exhaust seats.
overhaul manual instructions carefully to prevent
damaging the cylinder beyond repair. Valve seat inserts normally need to be refaced dur-
ing each overhaul. In addition, valve seats must be
The studs which secure the exhaust pipe to a cylin- ground anytime a corresponding valve or valve
der are subjected to extreme heat and highly corro- guide is replaced. Grinding equipment is used for
sive exhaust gases and, therefore, must be replaced refacing steel valve seats while cutters or reamers
occasionally. If a stud is still intact, a special stud are preferred for refacing bronze seats. However,
removing tool is used to remove the stud. However, bronze seats may be ground if cutters or reamers are
if a stud is broken, it must be drilled and removed not available. The disadvantage of using a stone on
with a screw extractor. Once an old stud is bronze is that bronze, a fairly soft metal, loads the
removed, install a new stud as per the manufac- grinding stone quickly. Therefore, much time is con-
turer's instructions. sumed in redressing the stone to keep it clean.
Typical repairs to a cylinder barrel include honing, Steel valve seats can be ground with either wet or
grinding, oversizing, and chroming. A cylinder bar- dry valve seat grinding equipment. However, a wet
rel that is structurally sound and within serviceable grinder is preferred because the continuous flow of
limits may only need to be deglazed. Cylinder walls oil and water washes away the chips and keeps the
become glazed, or very smooth after several hours of stone and seat cool. This produces a smoother, more
operation. The smooth walls prevent new rings from accurate surface than a dry grinder. The stones used
wearing or seating against the cylinder. Therefore, to grind a steel seat may be either silicon carbide or
in order to allow the rings to seat, you must remove aluminum oxide.
the glaze from a cylinder wall with a deglazing
hone. Most deglazing hones mount in a drill and are The three grades of stones used to resurface valve
turned at a relatively slow speed as they are moved seats are rough, finishing, and polishing stones. A
in and out of the cylinder. The combination of a cir- rough stone is used to make an initial rough cut and
cular and reciprocating motion produces a to remove all pits, scores, and burn marks as well as
cross-hatched pattern that promotes ring seating. align the valve seat with the valve guide. Once cut, a
finishing stone is used to remove any grinding
If a cylinder barrel is scored, scratched, or pitted to marks and produce a smooth finish. If the manufac-
an extent that deglazing is not enough to remove the turer requires a highly polished valve seat, a polish-
damage, the cylinder will probably have to be ing stone will produce the desired finish.
ground. However, you should compare the barrel
dimensions to the manufacturer's table of limits to Anytime a stone becomes grooved or loaded with
verify that there is enough material to permit grind- metal, it must be cleaned. To clean and dress a stone
ing. In some cases, an engine manufacturer permits prior to grinding operations, install the stone on a
a cylinder to be ground to a standard oversize. Since special stone holder and use a diamond dresser. A
aircraft cylinders are relatively thin, standard diamond dresser is also useful in cutting down a
over-sizes are typically 0.010, 0.015, or 0.020 inch. stone's diameter, when necessary. However, dress-
Furthermore, cylinders often have nitrided surfaces ing of a stone should be kept to a minimum when
which must not be ground away. Another option is possible.
Reciprocating Engine Operation, Maintenance, Inspection, and Overhaul 2-61
Figure 2-64. If a valve seat contacts the upper third of the valve face, the seat can be regrouped to a lesser angle. (B) Contact
with the bottom third of the valve face requires regrinding a valve seat's inner corner to a greater angle.
2-62 Reciprocating Engine Operation, Maintenance, Inspection, and Overhaul
CRANKSHAFT
Generally, a reconditioned crankshaft is supplied
fully assembled, however, if that is not the case,
reinstall all sludge chamber components and coun
terweights. If the crankshaft has hollow crankpins,
reinstall the sludge chamber tubes carefully, making
certain they are positioned correctly in the crank
shaft to avoid covering the ends of oil passages. In
addition, install all expansion plugs and secure any
gears that attach to the crankshaft as necessary. The
crankshaft is typically mounted vertically in a
buildup fixture while the connecting rods are lubri
cated and attached to the shaft. When attaching the
connecting rods to the crankshaft, make sure that
the numbers stamped on the rods are pointed in the
direction specified in the overhaul manual. Once
assembled, torque and safety the connecting rod
hardware in accordance with overhaul manual spec
ifications. . .
CRAIMKCASE
Figure 2-65. (A) To narrow the seat of a 30 valve seat, the Place the crankcase halves on a clean, flat work sur-
upper corner is reground with a 15 stone and the bottom
corner with a 45 stone. (B) For a 45 valve seat, use face and install the main bearing inserts, ensuring
a 30酒tone to grind the top corner and a 75 stone to that the tangs or dowels are properly placed. Next,
grind the bottom corner.
Reciprocating Engine Operation, Maintenance, Inspection, and Overhaul 2-63
lubricate and install the hydraulic lifter bodies in expander to install rings on a piston. Use of a ring
one of the crankcase halves and lay the camshaft in expander will help you avoid accidentally scratch-
place after lubricating its bearing journal surfaces. ing a piston or breaking a piston ring. In addition,
Once this is done, lubricate the main bearings and always install new rings with the part number on
install the crankshaft. Install the front oil seal the ring toward the top of the piston.
around the propeller shaft and apply a thin layer of
non-hardening gasket compound to the outside mat- Once the rings are installed, lubricate the pistons,
ing surface of each half of the crankcase. If the man- rings, and piston pins with a manufacturer
ufacturer recommends, a length of fine silk thread is approved lubricant. Stagger the ring gaps as speci-
embedded in the gasket compound on one of the fied in the overhaul manual and attach the pistons
crankcase halves. to their corresponding connecting rods with a pis-
ton pin. Compress the piston rings with an appro-
Install the remaining hydraulic lifter bodies in the priate ring compressor tool, then slip the piston into
other crankcase half, then while holding them in the cylinder up to the piston pin. Now, reposition
place with rubber bands or other suitable devices, the ring compressor on the lowest oil ring and slide
carefully lower the crankcase half onto the second the piston completely into the cylinder. At this
half. Be very careful to properly seat the front oil point, verify that all push rods, push rod housings,
seal and observe any special instructions regarding and oil seals are in place and then ease each cylin-
the seating of the main bearings. Install new nuts der onto its cylinder pad. With each cylinder
on all of the studs and through bolts and, using attached to the crankcase, lubricate and install the
hold-down plates over the cylinder pads, torque all rocker arm assemblies.
of the fasteners in the sequence recommended by
the manufacturer.
FINAL ASSEMBLY
The crankcase may now be mounted in a vertical Install the oil sump on the crankcase with a new gas-
position and the gears and accessory case installed. ket and tighten the attaching hardware. Next, follow
When installing the camshaft drive gear, it is vital the overhaul manual instructions carefully to prop-
that you align the timing marks properly. If this is erly time and install the magnetos on their mount
not done, the valves will not open at the correct time pads. Using new seals and gaskets, install the carbu-
in the combustion cycle and the engine will not run. retor or fuel injection system components and the
induction system. Other accessories such as the
engine-driven pumps, the alternator, and baffling
CYLINDERS are now installed and safetied.
When installing a set of valves in a cylinder, lubri-
cate the valve stems with a lubricant specified by
BLOCK TESTING
the manufacturer and insert the valves in the valve
guides. Place the cylinder over a post-type fixture to The final step in the overhaul process is to test the
hold the valves in place while you slip the valve engine. A block test accomplishes piston ring seat-
springs and retainers over each valve stem. Using a ing, bearing burnishing, and provides valuable
spring compressor, compress the valve springs and information that is used to evaluate engine perfor-
install the valve keeper keys. Once both valves are mance. Piston ring seating is accomplished chiefly
installed, slip a cylinder base seal around each by controlled engine operation in the high speed
cylinder skirt and install any intercylinder baffles or range. On the other hand, bearing burnishing cre-
fin stabilizers that can be attached without getting ates a highly polished surface on new bearings and
in the way of further assembly. bushings and is completed at low engine speeds.
result in the starter electrical current seeking a installing these clamps, examine them carefully and
return path through engine controls or metal fuel replace any that are badly distorted or defective.
lines. If this should happen, resulting sparks or heat After a hose is installed, it must be adequately sup-
could start a fire or cause extensive damage to ported and routed away from engine or airframe
engine connections. parts that could cause damage. Usually, rubber lined
supporting clamps called Adel clamps are installed
at specified intervals to provide the protection and
CONNECTIONS AND ADJUSTMENTS support needed.
After an engine is mounted, the electrical leads and
fluid lines necessary for operation should be con- Before installing metal tubing with threaded fittings,
nected to the engine and accessories. Typically, make sure that the threads are clean and in good
there are no rules that govern the order in which the condition. If specified in the instructions, apply a
accessories should be connected. However, you thread sealing compound to the fitting before instal-
should always follow the manufacturer's instruc- lation. Exercise care to prevent cross-threading any
tions to ensure an efficient installation. fittings and to ensure correct torque. Remember,
over torquing a fitting increases the likelihood of
As you know, engine induction systems vary with leaks and failures.
aircraft/engine combinations. However, all induc-
tion systems must be leak-free. You must install the When connecting electrical leads to the starter, gen-
induction system components carefully using the erator, or other electrical units, make sure that all
proper clamps and hardware and, in some cases, the connections are clean and secure. When leads are
induction system must be pressure checked for secured on a threaded terminal post with a nut, a
leaks. Pressure checks usually require blocking the lock washer is usually inserted under the nut to pre-
system at one end, and supplying compressed air at vent the nut from backing off. When required,
a specified pressure at the other end. The leakage knurled connector plugs are secured with steel
rate is then measured to verify that it falls within safety wire to prevent accidental disconnection. To
acceptable limits. help prevent electrical leads within the engine
nacelle from chafing, all wiring must be anchored as
In addition to ensuring a leak-free system, air induc- necessary to provide a secure installation.
tion filters must be cleaned to ensure an unrestricted
flow of clean air. Since the materials used in air fil- Each aircraft model has an engine control system
ters varies, you must follow the manufacturer's specifically designed for a particular
cleaning and replacement instructions. airframe/engine combination. Typical engine con-
trols consist of rigid push-pull rods, flexible
The exhaust system must also be carefully con- push-pull wire encased in a coiled wire sheath,
nected to prevent exhaust gas leakage. When assem- cables and pulleys, or any combination of the three.
bling the exhaust system, carefully examine the Regardless of type, all engine controls must be
entire system and repair or replace any damaged accurately adjusted to ensure instantaneous
components as necessary. During assembly, all response to a control input. Therefore, all
clamps and nuts should be gradually and progres- adjustments must be made in accordance with the
sively tightened to the correct torque. In addition, procedures outlined in the manufacturer's
all clamps should be tapped with a rawhide mallet instructions.
as they are tightened to reduce the chance of bind-
ing. On some systems, a ball joint connects a sta- Most light aircraft utilize flexible push-pull controls
tionary portion of the exhaust system to another for the engine throttle, mixture, and carburetor heat
portion that is attached to the engine. This ball joint or alternate air. When installing flexible controls,
compensates for slight misalignments, normal there are a few general rules that should be fol-
engine movement, and vibration caused by engine lowed. For example, in order for a flexible control
operation. Ball joints must be installed with the line to operate properly, it must be adequately sup-
specified clearance to prevent binding when the hot ported. Support is typically provided by a terminal
exhaust gases cause the system to expand. mounting clamp at the cockpit end and another ter-
minal mounting clamp at the engine end. Sections
Hoses used with low pressure systems, such as vac- of the control line between the cockpit and engine
uum and instrument air, are generally attached and are supported by intermediate clamps spaced every
held in place with clamps. However, three to four feet along straight sections and on both
before sides of bends. All bends should have a minimum
2-66 Reciprocating Engine Operation, Maintenance, Inspection, and Overhaul
Figure 2-69. When adjusting a throttle control system that utilizes cables, pulleys, and a drum, it is important that you follow the
manufacturer's instructions.
Pre-oiling engines equipped with a wet sump is sim- POST-RUN CHECKS AND ADJUSTMENTS
ilar except the pre-oiler is connected at the oil tem-
perature fitting. With the pre-oiler connected and After the initial ground run and flight test, an engine
pumping oil, the engine is turned over with the must receive final adjustments and a thorough
starter until an indication of oil pressure appears on visual inspection. Exercise caution to avoid burns
the oil pressure gauge. Once this occurs, discon- from the hot engine as you examine various items.
tinue cranking the engine, disconnect the pre-oiler Fuel pressure and oil pressure adjustments could be
tank, and check the oil level to make sure the engine needed, as well as rechecks of ignition timing, valve
was not inadvertently overfilled. clearances, and idle speed and mixture. Remove the
oil sump plugs and screens so they can be examined
for the presence of any metal particles, then clean
Another way you can pre-oil an engine is with the and reinstall them.
engine driven oil pump. To do this, remove one
spark plug from each cylinder and fill the engine oil
sump to the proper level. Once this is done, place Visually inspect all lines for leakage and tight con-
the mixture in the idle-cutoff position, the fuel nections, correcting any discrepancies found. Check
shut-off valve and ignition switch in the off position, hose clamps to see if any of them need to be re-tight-
and the throttle in the idle position. Now, crank ened, especially if the hoses are new. Scrutinize oil
the engine with the starter until the oil pressure system connections for oil leakage and inspect
gauge indicates oil pressure. cylinder hold down nuts or cap screws for security.
Press gently on safety-wired items checking for
After the engine has been pre-oiled, replace the looseness and broken safety wire.
spark plugs and reconnect the oil system lines.
Generally, the engine should be operated within ENGINE PRESERVATION
four hours after it has been pre-oiled. If this is not
possible, it may be necessary to repeat the pre-oiling Engines that are going to be put in storage or trans-
procedure. ported to an overhaul facility must be preserved and
protected to prevent corrosion and other forms of
damage. Regardless of whether an engine is waiting
FUEL SYSTEM BLEEDING to be overhauled or is newly overhauled, damaging
Before you attempt to start a newly installed engine, rust and other forms of corrosion will occur unless
the fuel system should be bled to purge any air bub- the engine is protected. Preservation is also recom-
bles from the fuel lines and pumps and to help flush mended when an engine remains on the aircraft if
any preservative oil from the fuel system. The pro- engine operation is limited or suspended for an
cedure used to bleed a fuel system varies with the extended period of time. The following discussion
type of carburetor or fuel injection unit installed, so centers on engines that have been removed from an
you must consult the manufacturer's maintenance aircraft, however, the preservation materials and
instructions for specific directions. methods discussed are used for all types of engine
storage.
preventive compounds are typically mixed with bright blue color with a low relative humidity.
engine oil to form a protective barrier for short term However, as humidity increases, the shade of blue
preservation. Light compounds can also be sprayed grows progressively lighter, becoming lavender at
into a cylinder or other components. Short term cor- 30 percent relative humidity. If the relative humid-
rosion preventive compounds are intended for use ity exceeds 30 percent, the color changes from
in engines that remain inactive for less than 30 days. lavender to various shades of pink, becoming com-
Light compounds typically meet MIL-C-6529 Type I, pletely white at 60 percent relative humidity. When
Type II, or Type III specifications. A Type I com- the relative humidity is less than 30 percent, corro-
pound is a concentrate that must be blended with sion does not normally take place. Therefore, if the
three parts of MIL-L-22851 or MIL-L-6082 grade dehydrator plugs are bright blue, the air in the
1100 oil to one part concentrate. On the other hand, engine has a relatively low moisture content and
a Type II compound is ready-mixed with internal corrosion is kept to a minimum.
MIL-L-22851 oil and needs no dilution. A Type
III compound is used only in turbine engines and Cobalt chloride-treated silica gel is also used in
consists of a preservative material ready-mixed humidity indicator envelopes. These envelopes can
with 1010 grade oil. An important point to bear in be fastened to a stored engine in a manner that
mind is that the correct proportions of lubricating allows inspection through a small window in the
oil and corrosion preventive compounds must be sealed engine container. Desiccants in storage
mixed externally, then added to the engine. should be sealed in containers to keep them from
Adding the preservative mixture to the oil already becoming saturated with moisture before they are
in the engine is not good maintenance practice used. Avoid leaving the container open or inade-
and must be avoided. quately sealed.
Although corrosion preventive compounds act as Any engine taken out of service and prepared for
moisture barriers, they eventually break down over storage must receive a thorough corrosion preven-
a period of time in the presence of excessive mois- tive treatment around the exhaust ports. This is nec-
ture. Furthermore, the compounds can eventually essary because exhaust gas residue is potentially
dry out as their oil base gradually evaporates. If this corrosive. A corrosion preventive compound should
should happen, moisture can come in contact with be sprayed into each exhaust port to coat the
the metal allowing corrosion to begin. exhaust port interior and exhaust valve. Next, a
moisture-proof and oil-proof gasket should be
placed over each exhaust port, held in place by a
DEHYDRATING AGENTS metal or wooden plate. These covers form a seal that
Dehydrating agents, often referred to as desiccants, helps keep moisture from entering the engine
are often used during engine preservation because through the exhaust ports.
they absorb moisture from the atmosphere. Silica
gel is a common desiccant and is an ideal dehydrat- Once the engine is removed, each cylinder interior
ing agent since it does not dissolve when saturated. should be sprayed with a corrosion preventive com-
As a corrosion preventive measure, bags of silica gel pound. This is done to prevent moisture and oxygen
are placed around and inside the accessible parts of from reacting with the deposits left by combustion.
a stored engine. Silica gel is also used in clear plas- To do this, each cylinder should be sprayed with the
tic plugs called dehydrator plugs which are screwed piston at bottom dead center, allowing the entire
into an engine's spark plug holes. The silica gel in cylinder interior to be coated. Rotate the engine
the dehydrator plugs is typically treated with Cobalt until one piston is at bottom dead center and then
chloride to provide a visual indication of the mois- apply the compound by inserting a spray nozzle into
ture content in the air inside an engine. For exam- the spark plug opening. Once that cylinder is
ple, cobalt chloride treated silica gel remains a sprayed, rotate the engine again until the next pis-
2-70 Reciprocating Engine Operation, Maintenance, Inspection, and Overhaul
ton is at bottom dead center and spray the cylinder. that all openings are sealed, and that only the
After spraying each cylinder with its piston at bot- proper accessories have been included for storage
tom dead center, respray each cylinder without or shipping.
rotating the crankshaft. Once this is done, the crank-
shaft must not be moved, or the corrosion preven-
tive seal will be broken. Immediately after the STORAGE
corrosion preventive compound dries, a dehydrator Once preserved, engines sent out for overhaul or
plug should be inserted in each spark plug opening. newly overhauled engines put into storage should
In addition, each ignition harness lead should be be protected by a shipping container. Metal or
attached to a dehydrator plug with lead supports. wooden containers are constructed with mounts for
[Figure 2-71] holding and protecting an engine.
The intake manifold must also be sealed when plac- When storing an engine horizontally in a metal
ing an engine in storage. If the carburetor is going to shipping container, special ventilatory plugs are
remain on the engine during storage, the throttle normally installed. If stored vertically, only the
valve should be wired open and a seal installed over upper spark plug holes in each cylinder receive a
the air inlet. On the other hand, if the carburetor is ventilatory plug while the lower spark plug holes
removed, install the seal at the carburetor mounting are fitted with non-ventilatory plugs. Dehydrator
pad. In either case, the seal should be an oil-proof plugs with the dessicant removed work well as
and moisture-proof gasket backed by a wooden or non-ventilatory plugs.
metal plate securely bolted into place. To help
remove excess moisture, silica gel should be placed
in the intake manifold. Normally, the silica gel bags ENGINE SHIPPING CONTAINERS
are suspended from the cover plate to reduce the
Engines that are being shipped out for maintenance
possibility of overlooking their removal when the
or overhaul must be protected from damage.
engine is removed from storage.
Therefore, most engines are packed in wooden
crates or metal shipping containers. Some over-
Just before an engine is boxed up, the engine exte-
hauled engines are sealed in pressurized containers
rior should be sprayed with a heavy corrosion pre-
with an inert gas such as nitrogen.
ventive coating. If this cannot be done, you should
at least apply a corrosion preventive compound to
the propeller shaft. Follow up by securing a plastic After an engine is carefully lowered into a shipping
sleeve, or moisture-proof paper around the shaft. A container, it is secured with the same type of hard-
final inspection should be performed to be certain ware and mounting fixtures used to mount the
engine to the aircraft. Some containers provide a
special mounting area for accessories that have been
detached from the engine but are also being sent
back for overhaul. Wooden crates and metal con-
tainers are available for horizontal mounting or ver-
tical mounting of the engine.
tion dates and indicate whether the engine is plug openings indicate the presence of excessive
repairable or serviceable. [Figure 2-72] moisture, the cylinder interiors should be re-sprayed
with corrosion preventive compound. A metal con-
tainer with a humidity indicator showing a safe blue
INSPECTION OF STORED ENGINES color and air pressure below 1 p.s.i. needs only to be
Most maintenance shops provide a scheduled repressurized. An indicator with a pink condition, on
inspection system for engines in storage. The the other hand, indicates that the engine should be
humidity indicators on engines stored in shipping re-preserved if it is to remain in storage.
cases are normally inspected every 30 days. When
the protective envelope must be opened to inspect ENGINE DEPRESERVATION
the humidity indicator, the inspection period may
be extended to once every 90 days, if local condi- Engines that have been preserved for storage must
tions permit. The humidity indicator of a metal con- undergo depreservation before they are put into ser-
tainer is inspected every 180 days under normal vice. Depreservation procedures are typically
conditions. included in the engine manufacturer's overhaul
manual or provided by the overhauler who pre-
Humidity indicator colors in wooden shipping crates served the engine. The information presented here
showing the presence of more than 30 percent relative provides a general overview of these procedures
humidity require the replacement of all dessicants. since they vary with the type of engine and the
When more than half the dehydrator plugs in spark degree of preservation.
Once you are done with the engine interior, remove engine malfunction or possibly irreparable damage.
the protective covering from the propeller shaft. Therefore, follow recommended procedures in the
Lightly coat the propeller shaft with engine oil or overhaul manual or the instructions that come with
whatever lubricant the engine manufacturer recom- overhauled or new accessories regarding
mends. To complete the de-preservation procedure depreser-vation and preparation for operation.
verify that the engine exterior is clean. Often a
quantity of compound runs out of the engine when Before depreserving any of the accessories enclosed
the dehydrator plugs and oil screens are removed. with the engine, refer to the accessory records to
Spray engine areas in need of cleaning with a rec- determine how long the engine and accessories have
ommended solvent that does not leave any residue been in storage. Some accessories are life-limited and
or interfere with the proper functioning of the acces- are considered unsafe for use if their storage time
sories. exceeds the manufacturer's time limits. Before
installing any replacement accessory, check it visu-
ally for signs of corrosion and for freedom of opera-
ACCESSORY DEPRESERVATION tion. Remove any plastic plugs and movement
Good engine performance depends, in part, on the restraints placed on the accessory for shipment. In
condition of the engine accessories. Although an addition, lubricate the accessory drive shaft and
engine is in a condition to give top performance clean the mounting pad and flange prior to installa-
after being completely overhauled, any oversight or tion. Always install an accessory with new O-rings or
error in reinstalling the accessories can result in an gaskets between the mounting pad and the accessory.