Theories of Intelligence by Michael K.

Gardner

 Four major theory types

o Psychometric Theories
 Studying indiv. differences in test performances on cognitive tests
o Cognitive theories
 Studying processes involved in intelligent performance
o Cognitive-contextual theories
 Processes that demonstrate intelligence within particular context (eg.
Cultural environment)
 Sternberg’s triarchic theory
 Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences
 Piaget’s theory of dvlpmt
o Biological theories
 Relationship b/w intelligence, the brain & its functions

A) Psychometric Theories
 Tested on a variety of tests of cognitive ability
o Ex- vocab, number series, perceptual speed, general knowledge, analogies
 Mathematical techniques used to find underlying dimensions of cognitive ability (ex.
Verbal ability, reasoning)
 Different selections of tests lead to uncovering different sets of abilities; different
selection of indivs may also result in diff abilities being discovered
 Results of psychometric approach are intertwined with the mathematical techniques
used to analyze the correlational data

 Spearman’s Two Factor Theory

o Universal Unity of Intellective Functions
 Performance on any intellectual task is determined by 2 factors: g
(general intelligence) & s (a specific ability related to the particular task in
question)
 g factor is necessary for all intellectual tasks; diff. tasks may call upon g in
diff. degrees
 “g loading” of a test: the degree to which g is responsible for test
performance
 there’s only 1 g; there’s a separate s for every imaginable task; ppl can
differ in the amnt of g they possess
 general intelligence (g) is something ppl are born with; possess it in
differing degrees (either “smart” or “dumb”)

 Bond Theory (Godrey Thomson)

o “the sampling theory”: each mental test called upon some sample of mental
operations, or bonds, for its solution
 correlations between mental tests arose due to overlap in bonds
necessary for each test’s solution
o Bond theory: presented an anarchistic view millions of bonds have some small
influence in individual’s mental ability

 Primary Mental Abilities (L. L. Thurstone)

o Disagreed about the existence of a single, overarching g factor
o He believes the mind is dominated by several “group” factors
 Factors responsible for certain aspects of mental activity (ex. Verbal or
numeric ability)
o Identified primary mental abilities
 V (verbal), ex- vocabulary
 N (number), ex- arithmetic reasoning
 S (spatial), ex- paper folding
 M (memory), ex- digit span
 R (reasoning), ex- number series
 W (word fluency), ex- rapid word finding
 P (perceptual speed), ex- comparing symbols quickly to detect differences
o Reasoning is also split into:
 D (deduction) & I (induction)
o Arithmetic is also split into:
 N (numerical) & arithmetic reasoning (R)

 British Hierarchical Model

o Psychologists in UK proposed combining Spearman’s & Thurstone’s approaches
into a single hierarchical description of human abilities
o Top of the hierarchy of abilities is a general factor (Spearman’s g)
o British hierarchical model considered as a “modal model”
 Combines & integrates many of the findings of human abilities that were
discovered during the first half of the 20th century

 Fluid & Crystallized Ability (Raymond B. Cattell / John L. Horn)

o Analyzes a set of ability tests into a group of correlated first order factors
 The extracted number of first order factors is large (on the order of 30-
40)
 Correlated first order factors are then factor analyzed to produce a
correlated second order factor solution (solution yielded b/w 5 & 9)
o Fluid intelligence
 Related to tasks like inductive reasoning, deductive reasoning,
understanding relations among stimuli, comprehending implications &
drawing inferences
o Crystallized intelligence
 Related to tasks like vocabulary & cultural knowledge
 Experience in a culture & exposure to formal schooling
  Knowledge acquired thru experience w/ one’s envi.
 Fluid & crystallized intelligences are correlated approx. 0.4-0.5
o Fluid intelligence: susceptible to decline due to CNS damage
 Peaks in early to mid-20’s & declines thereafter
o Crystallized intelligence: remains relatively intact after such damage
 Peaks much later (early 40’s); remains high even into late adulthood

 Three-Stratum Factor Analytic Theory of Cognitive Abilities (John B. Carroll)

o Top of this hierarchy: 8 broad group factors
 Fluid intelligence
 Crystallized intelligence
 General memory & learning
 Broad visual perception
 Broad auditory perception
 Broad retrieval ability
 Broad cognitive speediness
 Processing speed
o Bottom of hierarchy are 65 narrow abilities
o Carroll’s model based on reanalysis of factor analytic studies in the literature

 Structure of Intellect (J.P Guilford)

o Proposes that human abilities can be defined as combination of 1 of the 5
mental operations operating on 1 of 4 types of contents to produce 1 of 6 kinds
of products
 Mental operations: Cognition, memory, divergent production,
convergent production, evaluation
 Contents: figural, symbolic, semantic, behavioural
 Products: units, classes, relations, systems, transformations, implications
o The model proposes 120 separate human abilities

 Conclusions
o Psychometric approach based on discovering underlying dimensions of
communality
 By inspecting indiv differences in test performance
o Distinction b/w fluid ability & crystallized ability: thought of as the distinction
b/w ability & achievement (realized potential)

B) Cognitive Theories
 Focuses on the processes involved in human intelligence
o Spans across a continuum from extremely simple to reasonably complex
 Simple Sensory Testing
o Believes that more intelligent indivs were better able to make fine sensory
discrimintions
 Ex- discrimination of pitches, shades of gray, weights of similar amount
o Francis Galton focused on individual differences in “natural ability”
 Felt those with greater natural ability would be eminent in their fields of
study, and those w/ lesser natural ability would fail to prosper
o Galton believed in role of genetics in intelligence; believe intelligence was
genetically transmitted by parents to children
 Believed races difference in intelligence; and that planned breeding could
improve “intelligence” of a nation

 Inspection Time
o Would end up seeing that the 2 vertical lines are not longer than the other

 Simple/Choice Reaction Time (Arthur Jensen)

o Subject places finger on a “home” button; have to watch for 1 of the lights to
become lit and remove finger from home button and press a switch just below to
turn off the light
o Response time (RT): represent decision time
o Movement time (MT): represent execution of intended response

 Working Memory (Baddeley)

o Emphasizes both the storage of info & the processing/transformation of info
being stored
o Working memory comprised a limited-capacity central executive that controlled
2 slave subsystems; both essential for learning, retrieval from long-term
memory, language comprehension & reasoning
 Articulatory loop (verbal material)
 Visuospatial sketch pad (visual & spatial material)
o Ppl high in reasoning ability have a more efficient central executive in working
memory system (due to their high reasoning ability?)
o Relationship b/w working memory & reasoning/intelligence is very strong

 Cognitive Correlates
o Verbal ability appears related to rapidity of processes in short-term memory
o Quantitative ability appears related to resistance to interference in memory

 Cognitive Components
  Processing Speed & Aging
o Timothy Salthouse proposed the decline in fluid ability (& similar intellectual
functions) is result of a slowing of processing speed for cognitive processes with
aging
o The slowing is related to 2 basic mechanisms (influences reduction in
performance in speed, accuracy as individuals age):
 The limited time mechanism
 The time to perform later operations is greatly restricted with
large proportion of available time is occupied by execution of
early operations
 The simultaneity mechanism
 Due to slowing, products of early processing may be lost by the
time that later processing is completed

 Conclusions
o Cognitive theories of intelligence attempted to understand intelligence in terms
of the cognitive processes that underlie it
 Cognitive theories are analytic: attempts to break intelligence into most
basic components
 Francis Galton & James McKeen Cattell: motor processes
 IT researchers (Nettelbeck): some aspects of visual/sensory apprehension
 Arthur Jensen: the ability to process increasingly greater amounts of info
& make a simple decision
 Kyllonen & Christal: processes involved in working memory
 Earl Hunt & colleagues: processes involved in STM (for verbal ability) &
ability to resist interference in memory (for quantitative ability)
 Sterberg & colleagues: info processes involved solving intelligence test
items

C) Cognitive-Contextual Theories
 These theories attempt to explain intelligence behaviour in terms of the context it is
displayed
 Take a more “big picture” view than previous cognitive theories; focuses more on
classes of processes/types of intelligence rather than indivi cognitive processes

 Triarchic Theory of Intelligence

o Three separate aspects
 Mechanics of intelligence
 Continuum of experience
 The fit of an individual to the environment
o Learning progresses from problems that are novel, to problems that are
uncommon, to problems that are common, to problems that are routine
o When problems are novel & are so routine, they involve automatic processing
 o When problems are novel
 More intelligent indivs will display faster & less error prone componential
processing
o Routine problems
 More intelligent indivs able to automate their componential processing
more quickly than less intelligent indivs
 Thus, they are likely to be fast & error free than less intelligent
indivs
 More intelligent indivi are more likely to be relying on automatic
processing
o More intelligent indivs fit into their environment better; optimum fit can be
accomplished by
 Adaptation: indiv changes to better fit their environment
 Selection: indiv may choose a new environment if unable to fit into
current environment
 Shaping: indiv attemps to chang environment to better match her/his
abilities

 Multiple Intelligences
o Seven intelligences
 Linguistic intelligence: “sensitivity to spoken & written language”
 Logical-mathematical intelligence: “capacity to analyze problems
logically, carry out mathematical operations, & investigate issues
scientifically”
 Musical intelligence: “skill in the performance, composition &
appreciation of musical patterns”
 Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence: “potential of using one’s whole
body/parts of the body to solve problems/fashion products”
 Spatial intelligence: “potential to recognize & manipulate patterns of
wide space… & patterns of more confined areas”
 Interpersonal intelligence: “capacity to understand the intentions,
motivations, and desires of other ppl, to work effectively with others
 Intrapersonal intelligence: “the capacity to understand oneself, to have
an effective working model of oneself, & use such info effectively in
regulating one’s own life”
o Gardner also added 3 new intelligences overtime:
 Naturalistic intelligence: “the ability to discern patterns in nature”
 Spiritual intelligence: “concern with cosmic/existential issues &
recognition of the spiritual as an ultimate state of being”
 Existential intelligence: “concern with ultimate issues”

 Piaget’s Stage Theory of Development

o It’s a theory of child development
 Is both cognitive & contextual
  Discusses thought process & emphasizes role of environment in
stimulating cognitive growth
 Theory is based in principles derived from biology
 Adaptation, assimilation, accommodation
o Schemes
 Child assimilates info from environment using current ways of thinking
about the world
 When there’s a mismatch b/w environmental stimuli & current schemes
 Child accommodates to the stimuli by creating new, more
advanced schemes (that are better matched to the environment)
o Child’s thought progressed through 4 basic stages
 Sensorimotor stage (birth-2 y.o)
 Children understand environment thru sensation & motor
operations
 Object permanence & mental representation around end of this
period
 Preoperational Stage (2-6 y.o)
 Child uses symbolic thinking to understand world (imagination)
 Begins this stage w/ egocentric p.o.v (think others see &
experience things as they do)
 Gradually decenter themselves
 Concrete Operational Stage (7-11 y.o)
 Learning to apply quantitative, logical operations to specific
experiences/perceptions
 Acquire concepts of conservation, number, classification &
seriation
 Formal Operational Stage (12 years+)
 Thinks about abstractions & hypothetical ideas
 Not all individuals achieve full, formal operation thought

 Conclusions
o Cognitive-contextual theories go beyond the type of test performance studied by
psychometricians
o These theories uses extensive evidence from many domains
o Piaget’s theory fails to predict who will reach a particular stage at a particular
time

D) Biological Theories
 Brain Size & Intelligence
o Clearly related; size of relationship increases when a more valid measure of
brain size is substitutes for a less valid one
 Suggested that genetics plays a role in the transmission of the brain size
& intelligence relationship
 o A study showed that brain size & intelligence exists within families & between
families
 May be result of environmental factors eg. Nutrition & socioeconomic
status

 EEG String Lenth & Intelligene

o Henderickson & Henderickson presented model that linked intelligence to the
EEG complexity
 More intelligent ppl have fewer errors in synaptic transmissions; thus,
will lead to more complex EEG wave pattern (which wil be longer string
lengths)

 Glucose Metabolic Rate & Intelligence

o Brain’s rate of glucose metabolism (GMR) is negatively correlated with
intelligence
o More intelligent indivs require less neuronal activity (thus, less glucose
metabolism) to solve intellectual problems
o Ex- the study on novice computer game players who underwent PET scan;
improvements in game play related to decrease in GMR
 Practice resulted in subjected learning what areas of brain not to use
(which is why GMR decreased)

 Jensen’s Neural Oscillation Model

o Proposed that reaction time (RT) in a simple/choice reaction time tasks
increases linearly w/ bits of information in the stimulus display
 Jensen hypothesized nervous system use hierarchial binary network to
process info in simple/choice reaction time task
 Brighter ppl have shorter neural oscillation cycles; thus able to return to
“firing” state quicker than less bright ppl