ID 63
Central or Local Compensation of Earth-Fault
Currents in Non-Effectively Earthed
Distribution Systems
A. Guldbrand, O. Samuelsson, Member, IEEE
 distribution overhead lines by cable was a part of the long
Abstract—Centralized Petersen coil earthing in networks with
extensive use of underground cable involves flow of large
quantities of reactive earth fault current. In networks with long
radial cable feeders this creates problems involving active losses
and active and reactive earth fault current. One possible solution
to the problem is the use of local compensation. This paper aims
at understanding the limitations of traditionally compensated
networks and compares these to networks that are locally
compensated. This is done through analytical calculations and
PSCAD simulations that are combined with results from a
project studying cables in Swedish distribution networks. In
addition, basic PSCAD simulations are used to clarify how the
rating and placing of the distributed compensation units affects
active earth fault current and investment costs
Index Terms—Fault current, Inductor compensated
distribution lines, Power cables, Power distribution planning,
Power transformers
I. INTRODUCTION
I N January 2005 the storm Gudrun hit the south of Sweden.
The storm reached wind speeds of about 45 meters per
second and caused large outages in the Swedish power
distribution systems. More than 20 000 kilometres of
distribution lines were damaged during the storm. Networks
consisting of a large part of underground cables were not as
badly affected by the storm as distribution networks with a
large amount of overhead lines [1].
To increase the incentive of network owners to build more
reliable power systems, the Swedish parliament in December
2005 passed a law regulating costumer compensation at power
outages. The law entitles consumers compensations up to
300 % of their estimated yearly network tariff. As a result of
the Gudrun experience and forced by the new compensation
regulations, several distribution network owners plan to,
during a near future, replace large amounts of rural overhead
lines by underground cables to increase the distribution
network reliability. Before the storm Gudrun, the replacing of
This work was financed in part by ELFORSK. Current project on the
subject of system earthing of distribution networks is financed by ELEKTRA
A. Guldbrand and O. Samuelsson are with the Department of Industrial
Electrical Engineering and Automation, Lund University, P.O. Box 118, SE-
221 00 Lund, Sweden
(e-mail: anna.guldbrand@iea.lth.se, olof.samuelsson@iea.lth.se)
978-1-4244-2190-9/07/$25.00 ©2007 IEEE 1129
term planning. After the storm the pace in which the overhead
lines are replaced has considerably increased. The resulting
new rural networks will have longer underground cable
radials than urban cable networks. This will bring new
challenges to the distribution companies.
The high pace in which the replacement of the overhead
lines now takes place, creates an urgent demand for practical
advise on how to use the, not yet well-established, distributed
earth fault compensation technique. In this paper results from
an ELFORSK project [2] are combined with analytical
calculations and a few additional simulations to help
understand the limitations of traditionally compensated
networks and to supply more hands-on guidelines for when to
consider distributed compensation. In addition basic PSCAD
simulations are used to clarify how the rating and placing of
the distributed compensation units affects active earth fault
current, earth fault detection and investment costs.
The Swedish distribution companies might be the first to
experience this extensive change in rural distribution network
design. Similar changes are however likely to take place in
other European countries, since the authorities tend to be more
and more restrictive in allowing overhead lines in distribution
networks.
II. NETWORKS WITH LONG CABLE FEEDERS
Two factors limit the possible size of a cable network:
First, the minimum active earth fault current must be
properly directed and large enough to ensure correct function
of the protection relays. This sometimes requires a neutral
point resistor.
Second, the maximum earth fault current may not cause the
voltage across the earthing resistance to exceed the regulated
value (100 V in Swedish networks).
An extensive use of underground cable significantly
increases the capacitive coupling of the network to earth, and
as a consequence the capacitive earth fault current. In urban
areas with high load density and short radial cable feeders the
problem with extensive capacitive earth fault current is often
solved by connecting a Petersen coil to the HV (High Voltage)
to MV (Medium Voltage) transformer neutral. The coil creates
a compensating inductive current.
Centralised Petersen coil earthing in networks with
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extensive use of underground cable involves flow of large MV

LV
quantities of reactive earth fault current. In networks with long
radial cable feeders, consequences of this are active losses and HV system
active and reactive earth fault current. Fig. 1 illustrates how
the active earth fault current contribution drastically increases
with the length of the cable radial in centrally compensated 12 LV
and 24 kV systems [2] [3].
Active Fault Current Contribution (A)

30 LV
25 Fig. 3 System with central and local compensation
12 kV
20 24 kV
The distributed reactors are not any more efficient than
15 those used for central compensation. The reactive current flow
and the related losses are however reduced. Consequently the
10
maximum size of a network using distributed compensation
5 will not depend so much on the reactive current transportation
but on the non-ideal central and distributed reactors. This
0
opens for the possibility to use longer cable radials.
0 20 30 40 50 60
There are additional advantages related to the use of
Radial Length (km)
distributed compensation. If the compensation coils are
properly located with respect to the disconnectors,
Fig. 1 Active earth fault contribution of 20, 30, 40, 50 and 60 km cable radials
in a 12 and 24 kV system. disconnection of part of the network will include
disconnection of corresponding amount of compensation.
Neutral point reactors are not ideal but have losses that Further, locally compensated networks can loose a
contribute to the active earth fault current. The active earth compensation coil without it having devastating consequences
fault current due to losses in the Petersen coils are to the network performance, as it would in a centrally
approximately 0.4 A and 0.6 A per 10 km of compensated compensated network.
cable, for 12 kV and 24 kV systems. In traditional overhead
B. The ELFORSK Project
line systems, active earth fault current associated with
Petersen coil losses and reactive current flow are small, Swedish distribution network owners have financed a
regardless of network size. In contrast to this, in networks project aiming at develop guidelines for how to use distributed
with long cable radials the earth fault current has an active Petersen compensation in distribution networks with
part that will depend on the size of the network and on the significant amount of power cable [2]. The project was
fault location. organized by ELFORSK, during the spring of 2006.
The Elforsk project report is based on a large number of
III. DISTRIBUTED EARTH FAULT COMPENSATION PSCAD simulations. Due to the complexity of the problem it
has proven difficult to present any general recommendations
A. Advantages of Distributed Compensation concerning distributed compensation, based on the
One possible solution to the problem with large active fault simulations.
current is the use of distributed compensation i.e. use both
central and local compensation coils. Fig. 2and Fig. 3 IV. DISTRIBUTED COMPENSATION COIL RATING
schematically illustrate a network with central and central and One important aspect of distributed compensation is the
local compensation. choice of the most favorable rating and placing of the
LV compensation units. A compensating unit is a MV to LV
MV
transformer with the MV side neutral point connected to earth
via a compensation coil. The total amount of inductive current
HV system
required in a specific system can be induced in an arbitrary
number of distributed Petersen coils. It is reasonable to
LV assume that the losses due to reactive current transportation
increase with the distance between the units. On the other
hand, a larger number of units gives higher investment and
maintenance costs.
LV Fig. 4 illustrates the constraints that decide the most
advantageous distance between the compensation coils in a
Fig. 2 System with central compensation network with distributed earth fault compensation.

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Maximum distance due to maximum
Total cost
Cost current through compensation coil
Investment cost
Losses
Optimum
Distance between compensation coils
Fig. 4. Constraints that decide the most advantageous distance between
compensation coils in network with distributed earth fault compensation
To limit the investment costs, Petersen coil earthed
transformers can be placed in already existing transformer
stations. The price of one single Petersen coil earthed MV to
LV transformer exceeds the price of two unearthed
transformer. The price difference of the entire substation
might, assuming a 1 to 4 conventional transformer to
substation cost ratio, differ with a 5 to 4 ratio.
To study how the losses in a power system, associated with
reactive current transportation, change when the distance
between the compensation coils increases, the active earth
fault current has been simulated using PSCAD. The
simulations show that the losses do not change much as long
as the distance between the compensation coils does not
exceed approximately 20 km. If only the costs of investments
and losses would decide the size of the compensation coils,
the distance between the coils should therefore be as long as
20 km. There is however a third constraint that further limits
the largest possible compensation coil size.
The use of distributed compensation is of most interest in
rural distribution networks. In these networks the size of the
MV to LV (Low Voltage) transformer is often limited to
100 kVA. The compensation current through the transformers
is proportional to the distance between the coils. The
transformer rating will therefore set a maximum limit for the
distance between the compensation coils.
Transfix ECOBLOC transformer is a new product designed
to be used in locally compensated distribution systems [5]. To
evaluate the performance of a ZNdyn transformer like
ECOBLOC, a number of different simulations have been run.
The three-legged ZNdyn transformer has four concentric
windings on each leg. The windings are schematically
illustrated in Fig. 5.
Simulations using a ZNdyn transformer model with each
core modelled individually indicate that the load on the LV
side does not influence the zero sequence impedance of the
transformer. Hence, the MV side zero sequence current will
not under any load condition be transformed to the LV side.
The function of the LV side fuses has therefore not to be taken
into consideration when selecting the compensation coil
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rating. This is necessary to verify in lab or tests on location.
Fig. 5 Schematic illustration of three-legged ZNdyn transformer
The MV side fuses are however a limiting factor for the
compensation coil rating. To keep the MMF (Magnetomotive
Force) balance of the transformers during a fault in the MV
network, the induced compensation current will divide equally
between the three MV phases. To ensure correct function of
the fuses protecting the MV to LV transformer the sum of the
compensation current and the load current must always be
sufficiently much lower than the lowest short-circuit current
that the fuses are dimensioned for. The maximum
compensation current through the transformers will be
reached with a shorter distance between the coils than 20 km,
and is consequently the factor that limits the distance between
the compensation units.
V. ZNDYN TRANSFORMER AND EARTHING
Table I gives the data of a ZNdyn transformer much like the
Transfix ECOBLOC transformer bought by Swedish
distribution network owners [5] [6].
TABLE I
DATA OF ZNdyn TRANSFORMER
Rated power 100 kVA
Short circuit impedance 0.04 pu
Primary voltage 22 kV
Secondary voltage 0.4 kV
No load losses 0.0023 pu
Load losses 0.015 pu
Zero sequence impedance, earthing reactor and
0.005 + j 0.175 pu
transformer
A. Fault Current Calculations
A transformer model based on the data in table I has been
used to simulate the MV side fault currents in case of a bolted
three, two or single phase LV fault. The simulated fault is
located close to the transformer. The fault current will
therefore depend solely on the impedance of the transformer.
The simulated fault currents are listed in Table II. IA, IB and IC
are the MV side currents. Ia, Ib and Ic are the LV side currents.
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phase angle.
TABLE II
FAULT CURRENTS FOR THREE, TWO AND SINGLE PHASE FAULT
I Max I Max Load  I L 3 Sn 3U n  I L 3
Three-phase short Two-phase short Single phase to
3 3
circuit circuit earth I Max 100 ˜ 10 3 ˜ 22 ˜ 10  I L 3 (1)
IA 58.7 A 29.33 A 31.66 A I Max 2.6  I L 3
IB 58.7 A 58.65 A 31.66 A
IC 58.7 A 29.33 A 0 The capacitive earth fault current in a 22 kV network
Ia 3228.5 A 2793 A 3015 A
consisting of underground cable is approximately 3 A per km,
i.e. the compensation current is 1 A per phase and km. If the
Ib 3228.5 A 2793 A 0
fuses are selected to withstand currents up to 20 A the
Ic 3228.5 A 0 0 distance between the Petersen coils could be as long as
20-3 km. In case of an 11 kV distribution network the possible
The three-phase short circuit current is symmetrical and distance is even longer.
will be transformed according to the ratio of the transformer. Some major Swedish distribution network owners plan to
A two-phase LV short circuit will induce flux in two of the use compensation coils of size 10 A in 12 kV systems and
transformer legs; consequently, because of the Z winding, all 15 A in 24 kV systems, which corresponds to compensation
three MV side phases will carry fault current. One of the every 5 km in both 12 and 24 kV system. One possible reason
phases will however experience flux through both the Z these sizes have been decided on is reluctance from
windings and carry a current that is twice of the current manufacturers to develop transformers with several different
carried by each of the other two phases. The current phasors compensation coil sizes. The pressed time limit has probably
are illustrated in Fig. 6. prevented thorough evaluation of the most economical
advantageous coil size. The network companies have had to
decide for a reasonable size, which at least ensures that the
technical constraints, as maximum compensation current
through the MV to LV transformers, are fulfilled. The
distribution network owners might find it advantageous to
keep the same distance between the compensation units in
Fig. 6 Current phasors illustrating the phase currents in case of a two-phase
fault on the LV side. both the 12 kV and 24 kV systems. In addition, with a
distance of approximately 5 km between the units instead of
In case of a single phase to earth fault the delta winding of 15 or 20, it might be possible to make more use of the fact that
the ZNdyn transformer will balance the one phase fault disconnection of part of the network will include
current of the LV side and hence induce flux in all three disconnection of corresponding amount of compensation.
transformer legs. The per unit value of the delta current is one-
third of the LV fault current. To keep MMF balance, two of VI. GUIDELINES
the MV side phases carry fault current that, in pu value, equals
the delta current. The current phasors are illustrated in Fig. 7. A. Results of Analytical Calculations
Approximate values of the possible size of a cable network
can be analytically calculated. Despite being rough estimates,
the calculations are helpful to understand the influence of
local compensation compared to central compensation.
Results of analytical calculations expressed as maximum
radial lengths are shown in Fig. 8 and Fig. 9. The calculations
Fig. 7 Current phasors illustrating the phase currents in case of a single phase
to earth fault on the LV side.
are based on equipment efficiency and earth fault current
contributions according to [2] and [4]. In case of only one
A single phase to earth fault on the LV side will not result single long cable radial a neutral resistance is necessary to
in any current through the earthing equipment on the MV side ensure correct function of the directional residual over current
of the transformer. This is one of the main advantages of the relay. In case of three cable radials of the same lengths a
ZNdyn transformer. The presence of a fault resistance will neutral resistance is not considered necessary. The maximum
influence all the fault currents. earth fault current and hence the radial length is limited by the
size of the earthing resistance. Considering Swedish
B. Maximum Load and Compensation Current
conditions the earthing resistance is taken to be approximately
The maximum MV side combination of load current and 7 ohm, i.e. the maximal fault current is set to approximately
compensation current in each of the three phases in a 22 kV 14 A.
network is calculated in (1). The maximum current is obtained
if the load current and compensation current have the same

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140 80
120
Maximum Radial Length (km)

120 110 70
Central
60
100

Fault Current (A)

Local
Central 50
80
Local 40
60
40 30
40 30
20
20 10
0 0
12 24 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
System Voltage (kV) Radial Length (km)

Fig. 8 Analytically calculated maximum length of single radial, in only central Fig. 10 Simulated earth fault current for different lengths of single radial,
and in central and local compensated systems central and distributed compensation

60 80
50
Maximum Radial Length (km)

Central 70
50
Local 60 Central

Fault Current (A)

40 35 Local
50
30
30 25 40
30
20
20
10
10
0 0
12 24 20 25 30 35 40 45
System Voltage (kV) Radial Length (km)

Fig. 9 Analytically calculated maximum length of three radials of equal Fig. 11 Simulated earth fault current for different lengths of three radials of
length, in only central and in central and local compensated systems equal length, central and distributed compensation

B. Results of Simulations VII. FAULT DETECTION

During a bolted single phase to earth fault there will be
reactive current and hence real losses in the phase conductors
regardless of perfectly tuned Petersen coils and solely active
current at the fault location. During a single phase to earth
fault in the MV network the capacitive currents of the healthy
phases are shifted 120 degrees relative each other. The sum of
the capacitive currents is of the same size as the inductive
current. The inductive current will however divide equally
between the three phases. Consequently, in the individual
phases the inductive current will not fully compensate the
capacitive current. The simulated earth fault current differs
from the analytically calculated fault current, where the
inductive and capacitive currents are assumed to compensate
each other in all three phases.
The earth fault currents simulated in only centrally and in
locally and centrally compensated 22 kV systems are
illustrated in Fig. 10 and Fig. 11. Fig. 10 shows the fault
current in a system consisting of one long cable radial and one
short overhead line. This system has a 10 A neutral resistor.
Fig. 11 shows the fault current in a system consisting of three
cables of equal length. This system does not have a neutral
point resistor. The earth fault currents have been simulated
with tuned central Petersen coils.
Distributed compensation is likely to influence the function
of directional over current relays. The angle measured by the
relays indicates where the fault is located. A 22 kV system
consisting of a 50 km cable radial and a 10 km overhead line
has been modelled to investigate how the distance between
compensation units might influence the angle measured by the
relays. Apart from the influence of the distance between the
compensation units, relay protection is not studied in this
paper. A thorough analysis of the relay protection will be
necessary when planning distributed compensation.
Simulated values of the angle between the zero sequence
voltage and the zero sequence current of the cable radial close
to the bus bar is used to evaluate the influence of the distance
between the compensation units. Fig. 12 shows this angle,
measured on the cable radial close to the bus bar as single
phase to earth faults are simulated at different locations of the
system. Faults are modelled to take place at the end of the
cable radial 50 km from the bus bar, on the cable radial 20
from the bus bar and at the end of the overhead line 10 km
from the bus bar.

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research have been most useful.

120

100
X. REFERENCE
[1] Johansson J., Lindahl S., Samuelsson O. & Ottosson H.: ”The storm
Measured Angle (Deg)

80 Gudrun A seven-weeks power outage in Sweden” CRIS, Third

Conference on Critical Infrastructures, 2006
60 [2] ”Nätkonsekvenser vid kablifiering av luftledningsnät”, (Consequences
Cable radial 50 km to the distribution network when replacing overhead lines by
40 underground cable), (In Swedish), Project report, ELFORSK AB,
Cable radial 20 km
Stockholm, 2006
20 Overhead line 10 km [3] Norberg P.: ”Kompensering av långa kablar”, (Compensation of long
cable radials), (In Swedish), Notes, 2006
0
[4] Lindahl S., Messing L., Östlund S., Olsson B. & Petterson A.: ”Känsliga
5km 10 km 15 km
jordfelsskydd. Bortkoppling av högresistiva jordslutningar i icke direkt
Distance Between Units (km) jordade distributions- och transmissionssystem”, Svenska
Elverksföreningen, Stockholm, 1990.
Fig. 12 Angle between zero sequence voltage and current on the cable radial [5] ”ECOBLOC-SVEA Drift och Instruktionsmanual broschyr”, Operation
close to the bus bar as single phase to earth faults are simulated on the cable and Instruction Manual brochure, (In Swedish), Helmer Verken,
radial 50 and 20 km from the bus bar and on the overhead radial 10 km from Göteborg, 2006
the bus bar [6] Akke M.: ”E.ON projekt Ic”, (In Swedish), Test Report, Department of
Industrial Electrical Engineering and Automation, Lund University,
CODEN:LUTEDX/(TEIE-7213)/1-37/(2006), Lund, 2006
The fault location dependence of the simulated angles is
limited. It does however not decrease when the distance
between the units increase. The angle measured by directional
zero sequence over current relays does not seem to be a reason
to keep the distance between the units short.

VIII. DISCUSSION
The active earth fault current drastically increases with the
length of the cable radials in centrally compensated networks.
As seen from simulations and analytical calculations presented
in this paper the use of distributed compensation significantly
decrease the active earth fault current. Local compensation of
radials longer than 20 km can influence the earth fault current.
Some major Swedish distribution network owners plan to
have a distance of approximately 5 km between the Petersen
coils in locally compensated networks. The simulated results
demonstrate that investment costs and losses alone do not
motivate a distance of 5 km between the compensation coils
since a distance of 20 km between the coils would create
approximately the same losses. In addition to investment cost
and losses, maximum earth fault current on the MV side of the
transformer and proper location with respect to disconnectors
are factors that influence the rating of compensation coils.
This paper describes a number of analytical calculations
and PSCAD simulations. Actual test on the ZNdyn
transformer and distribution network system has not been
carried out as a part of this work. This shall be taken in to
consideration when reading the paper.
The references used in this paper are all published in
Sweden. This is a consequence of the fact that Swedish
distribution companies are the first to experience the extensive
change in rural distribution network design. Up till now it has
not been urgent to analyse this problem in other parts of
Europe.

IX. ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors gratefully acknowledge the contributions of S.
Lindahl. His advice and his previous work in this field of

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