CH 02

Signals and Systems, 2/E by Simon Haykin and Barry Van Veen
Chapter 2. Time-Domain Representation of

Linear Time-Invariant System
What is Linear?
y( t ) = H{ax ( t ) + bz( t )} = aH{x ( t )} + bH{z( t )}
What is Time-Invariant?
y( t − a ) = H{x ( t − a )}
How to examine a LTI system?
∞
(a) Use impulse response: y[n ] = ∑ H{x[k ] ⋅ δ[n − k ]}
−∞
(b) Linear constant coefficient or difference equation.
(c) Check block diagram: The system is represented as an
interconnection of three elementary operations: scalar
multiplication, addition, and time-shift.
(d) State-variable description

2.1 Introduction
Objectives:
1. Impulse responses of LTI systems
2. Linear constant-coefficients differential or difference equations of LTI
systems
3. Block diagram representations of LTI systems
4. State-variable descriptions for LTI systems
2.2 Convolution Sum

1. An arbitrary signal is expressed as a weighted superposition of shifted
impulses.
Discrete-time signal x[n]: Fig. 2.1
x [ n ]δ [ n ] = x [0]δ [ n ] x[n] = entire signal; x[k] =
x [ n ]δ [ n − k ] = x [ k ]δ [ n − k ]
specific value of the signal x[n]
at time k.
x [ n ] = L + x [ −2]δ [ n + 2] + x [ −1]δ [ n + 1] + x [0]δ [ n ]

+ x [1]δ [ n − 1] + x [ 2]δ [ n − 2] + L

Figure 2.1 (p. 99)
Graphical example illustrating the representation of a
signal x[n] as a weighted sum of time-shifted impulses.
∞
x [n] = ∑ x [ k ]δ [ n − k ]
k =−∞
(2.1)
2. Impulse response of LTI system H:

Input x[n] Output y[n]
LTI system
H
Output:
⎧ ∞ ⎫
y [ n ] = H {x [ n ]} = H ⎨ ∑ x [ k ]δ [ n − k ]⎬
⎩ k =−∞ ⎭
∞
y [n] = ∑ H {x [ k ]δ [ n − k ]}
k =−∞
Linearity
∞
Linearity
y[n] = ∑ x[k]H{δ [n − k]}
k =−∞
(2.2)

♣ The system output is a weighted sum of the response of the system to time-
shifted impulses.
For time-invariant system: h[n] = H{δ [n]} ≡ impulse response
H{δ [n − k]} = h[n − k] (2.3) of the LTI system H
∞
y[n] = ∑ x[k]h[n − k]
k =−∞
(2.4) Convolution process:
Fig. 2.2.
2.2
3. Convolution sum:
∞
x [n] ∗ h [n] = ∑ x [k ] h [n − k ]
k =−∞
Figure 2.2a (p. 100) Illustration of the

convolution sum. (a) LTI system with
impulse response h[n] and input x[n].

Figure 2.2b
(p. 101)
(b) The
d≡δ
decomposition of
the input x[n] into
a weighted sum of
time-shifted
impulses results
in an output y[n]
given by a
weighted sum of
time-shifted
impulse
responses.

♣ The output associated with the kth input is expressed as:
H{x[k]δ [n − k]} = x[k]h[n − k]
∞
y [n] = ∑ x [k ] h [n − k ]
k =−∞
Example 2.1 Multipath Communication Channel: Direct Evaluation of the

Convolution Sum
Consider the discrete-time LTI system model representing a two-path
propagation channel described in Section 1.10. If the strength of the indirect
path is a = ½, then 1
y [n] = x [n] + x [ n − 1]
2
Letting x[n] = δ [n], we find that the impulse response is
⎧ 1, n=0
⎪⎪ 1
h [n] = ⎨ , n =1
⎪2
⎪⎩ 0, otherwise

Determine the output of this system in response to the input
⎧ 2, n=0
⎪ 4, n =1
⎪
x [n] = ⎨
⎪ −2, n=2
⎪⎩ 0, otherwise Input = 0 for n < 0 and n > 0
<Sol.>
1. Input: x [ n ] = 2δ [ n ] + 4δ [ n − 1] − 2δ [ n − 2]
2. Since time-shifted impulse input time-shifted impulse response output
γ δ [n − k] γ h [n − k]
3. Output: ⎧ 0, n<0
⎪ 2, n=0
y [ n ] = 2h [ n ] + 4h [ n − 1] − 2h [ n − 2] ⎪
⎪ 5, n =1
y [n] = ⎨
⎪ 0, n=2
⎪ −1, n=3
⎪
⎩ 0, n≥4

2.3 Convolution Sum Evaluation Procedure
1. Convolution sum:
∞
k = independent variable
y [n] = ∑
k =−∞
x [k ] h [n − k ]
2. Define the intermediate signal: ωn [k] = x[k]h[n − k] (2.5)

n is treated as a constant by writing n as a subscript on w.
h [n − k] = h [− (k − n)] is a reflected (because of − k) and time-shifted
(by − n) version of h [k].
3. Since ∞ The time shift n determines the
y[n] = ∑ ω [k]
k =−∞
n (2.6) time at which we evaluate the
output of the system.
Example 2.2 Convolution Sum Evaluation by using Intermediate Signal
n
⎛ 3⎞
Consider a system with impulse response h [ n ] = ⎜ ⎟ u [ n ]
⎝4⎠
Use Eq. (2.6) to determine the output of the system at time n = − 5, n = 5, and n =
10 when the input is x [n] = u [n].

<Sol.> Fig. 2.3 depicts x[k] superimposed on the reflected and time-shifted
impulse response h[n − k].
6
1. h [n − k]: ⎛4⎞
5 5 k 5 1− ⎜ ⎟
⎛ 3 ⎞ ⎛ 4 ⎞ ⎛ 3 ⎞ ⎝ ⎠ = 3.288
⎧⎛ 3 ⎞ y [5] = ⎜ ⎟ ∑ ⎜ ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟
n−k 3
⎪⎜ ⎟ , k≤n ⎝ 4 ⎠ k =0 ⎝ 3 ⎠ ⎝ 4 ⎠ ⎛4⎞
h [ n − k ] = ⎨⎝ 4 ⎠ 1 − ⎜ ⎟
⎪ ⎝ 3⎠
⎩ 0, otherwise
For n = 10:
2. Intermediate signal wn[k]:
⎧⎛ 3 ⎞10− k
For n = − 5: w−5 [ k ] = 0 ⎪ , 0 ≤ k ≤ 10
w10 [ k ] = ⎨⎝⎜ 4 ⎠⎟
Eq. (2.6) y[− 5] = 0 ⎪ 0,
⎩ otherwise
For n = 5:
Eq. (2.6)
⎧ ⎛ 3 ⎞5− k
⎪ , 0≤k ≤5
w5 [ k ] = ⎨⎜⎝ 4 ⎟⎠
11
⎛4⎞
10 − k 10 10 k 10 1 − ⎜ ⎟
⎪ 0,
10
⎛ 3⎞ ⎛ 3⎞ ⎛ 4⎞ ⎛ 3⎞ ⎝ 3⎠
⎩ otherwise y [10] = ∑ ⎜ ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟ ∑⎜ ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟
k =0 ⎝ 4 ⎠ ⎝ 4 ⎠ k =0 ⎝ 3 ⎠ ⎝ 4 ⎠ 1 − ⎛ 4 ⎞
5− k ⎜ ⎟
5
⎛ 3⎞ ⎝ 3⎠
Eq. (2.6) y [5] = ∑ ⎜ ⎟
k =0 ⎝ 4 ⎠
= 3.831

Figure 2.3 (p. 103) Evaluation of Eq. (2.6) in Example 2.2. (a) The input signal x[k]
above the reflected and time-shifted impulse response h[n – k], depicted as a function
of k. (b) The product signal w5[k] used to evaluate y [–5]. (c) The product signal w5[k]
used to evaluate y[5]. (d) The product signal w10[k] used to evaluate y[10].

⎧⎛ 3 ⎞ n − k
⎪ , 0≤k ≤n
wn [ k ] = ⎨⎜⎝ 4 ⎟⎠
⎪ 0,
⎩ otherwise
Procedure 2.1: Reflect and Shift Convolution Sum Evaluation
1. Graph both x[k] and h[n − k] as a function of the independent variable k. To
determine h[n − k] , first reflect h[k] about k = 0 to obtain h[− k]. Then shift by
n.
2. Begin with n large and negative. That is, shift h[ − k] to the far left on the time
axis.
3. Write the mathematical representation for the intermediate signal wn[k].
4. Increase the shift n (i.e., move h[n − k] toward the right) until the mathematical
representation for wn[k] changes. The value of n at which the change occurs
defines the end of the current interval and the beginning of a new interval.
5. Let n be in the new interval. Repeat step 3 and 4 until all intervals of times
shifts and the corresponding mathematical representations for wn[k] are
identified. This usually implies increasing n to a very large positive number.
6. For each interval of time shifts, sum all the values of the corresponding wn[k]
to obtain y[n] on that interval.
Chapter 2 Discrete-Time Signal and Systems

y[n] = x[n] ∗ h[n]

∞
y[n ] = ∑ x[k] ⋅ h[n − k]
An example of Convolution Sum
k = −∞
It is worthy to note that the term h[n-k] in convolution sum also can be
represented as h[-(k-n)]. Therefore, ∞ ∞
y[n ] = ∑ x[k] ⋅ h[n − k] = ∑ x[k ] ⋅ h[−(k − n)]
k = −∞ −∞
h[k]
h[-k] = h[0-k]
h[n-k] = h[-(k-n)]

Example 2.13 Analytical Evaluation of Convolution sum
Consider a system with impulse response
⎧1,0 ≤ n ≤ N − 1
h[n ] = u[n ] − u[n − N] = ⎨
⎩ 0, otherwise
0 N-1
The input is x[n ] = a n u[n ]
∞
y[n ] = ∑ x[k ] ⋅ h[−(k − n )]
−∞
Ans:

Example 2.3 Moving-Average System: Reflect-and-shift Convolution Sum
Evaluation
The output y[n] of the four-point moving-average system is related to the input
x[n] according to the formula
1 3
y [n] = ∑ x [n − k ]
4 k =0
The impulse response h[n] of this system is obtained by letting x[n] = δ[n], which
yields
h [ n ] = ( u [ n ] − u [ n − 4 ])
1
Fig. 2.4 (a).
4
Determine the output of the system when the input is the rectangular pulse
defined as
1’st interval: n < 0
x [ n ] = u [ n ] − u [ n − 10] Fig. 2.4 (b). 2’nd interval: 0 ≤ n ≤ 3
<Sol.> 1. Refer to Fig. 2.4. 2.4 Five intervals ! 3’rd interval: 3 < n ≤ 9
2. 1’st interval: wn[k] = 0 4th interval: 9 < n ≤ 12
5th interval: n > 12
3. 2’nd interval: ⎧1/ 4, k = 0
w0 [ k ] = ⎨
For n = 0: ⎩ 0, otherwise Fig. 2.4 (c).

Figure 2.4 (p. 106)

Evaluation of the convolution sum for Example 2.3.
(a) The system impulse response h[n].
(b) The input signal x[n].
(c) The input above the reflected and time-shifted impulse
response h[n – k], depicted as a function of k.
(d) The product signal wn[k] for the interval of shifts 0 ≤ n ≤ 3.
(e) The product signal wn[k] for the interval of shifts 3 < n ≤ 9.
(f) The product signal wn[k] for the interval of shifts 9 < n ≤ 12.
(g) The output y[n].

For n = 1: 6. 5th interval: n > 12 wn[k] = 0
k = 0,1 7. Output:
⎧1/ 4,
w1 [ k ] = ⎨ The output of the system on each interval n is
⎩ 0, otherwise obtained by summing the values of the
For general case: n ≥ 0: corresponding wn[k] according to Eq. (2.6).
⎧1/ 4, 0 ≤ k ≤ n N
wn [ k ] = ⎨ ∑ c = c ( N − M + 1)
⎩ 0, otherwise k=M
Fig. 2.4 (d). 1) For n < 0 and n > 12: y[n] = 0.

4. 3’rd interval: 3 < n ≤ 9 2) For 0 ≤ n ≤ 3:
n
n +1
⎧1/ 4, n − 3 ≤ k ≤ n y [ n ] = ∑1/ 4 =
wn [ k ] = ⎨ k =0 4
⎩ 0, otherwise Fig. 2.4 (g)
3) For 3 < n ≤ 9:
Fig. 2.4 (e). n
∑ 1/ 4 = 4 ( n − ( n − 3) + 1) = 1
1
5. 4th interval: 9 < n ≤ 12 y [n] =
k = n −3
⎧1/ 4, n − 3 ≤ k ≤ 9
wn [ k ] = ⎨ 4) For 9 < n ≤ 12:
⎩ 0, otherwise 9
13 − n
Fig. 2.4 (f).
y [n] = ∑ 1/ 4 =
1
4
( 9 − ( n − 3 ) + 1) 4
=
k = n−3

Example 2.4 First-order Recursive System: Reflect-and-shift Convolution Sum
Evaluation
The input-output relationship for the first-order recursive system is given by
y [ n ] − ρ y [ n − 1] = x [ n ]
y[n] = ρy[n −1] + x[n]
Let the input be given by x [ n ] = b u [ n + 4] = ρ y[n − 2] + ρy[n −1] + x[n]
n
2
We use convolution to find the output of this system, assuming that b ≠ ρ and
that the system is causal.
<Sol.> h[1]=ρ h[0]=1
1. Impulse response: h [ n ] = ρ h [ n − 1] + δ [ n ] (2.7)
Since the system is causal, we have h[n] = 0 for n < 0. For n = 0, 1, 2, …, we
find that h[0] = 1, h[1] = ρ, h[2] = ρ 2, …, or
h [ n ] = ρ nu [ n ]
2. Graph of x[k] and h[n − k]: Fig. 2.5 (a).
⎧bk , −4 ≤ k ⎧ ρ n−k , k≤n
x [k ] = ⎨ and h[n − k ] = ⎨
⎩ 0, otherwise ⎩ 0, otherwise
3. Intervals of time shifts: 1’st interval: n < − 4; 2’nd interval: n ≥ − 4

Figure 2.5a&b (p. 109) Evaluation of the convolution sum for Example 2.4. (a) The
input signal x[k] depicted above the reflected and time-shifted impulse response
h[n – k]. (b) The product signal wn[k] for –4 ≤ n.

4. For n < − 4: wn[k] = 0. Next, we apply the formula for summing a
5. For n ≥ − 4: geometric series of n + 5 terms to obtain
n +5
⎧ b k ρ n − k , −4 ≤ k ≤ n ⎛b⎞
wn [ k ] = ⎨ 1 − ⎜ρ⎟
ρ ⎛ ρ n +5 − b n +5 ⎞
4
⎩ 0, otherwise ⎛ ⎞ ⎝ ⎠
y [n] = ρ n ⎜ ⎟ −4
=b ⎜ ⎟
Fig. 2.5 (b). ⎝b⎠ 1−
b ⎝ ρ −b ⎠
ρ
6. Output:
1) For n < − 4: y[n] = 0. Combining the solutions for each interval of
2) For n ≥ − 4: time shifts gives the system output:
n
⎧ 0, n < −4
y [n] = ∑ bk ρ n − k
k =−4
⎪
y [ n ] = ⎨ −4 ⎛ ρ n + 5 − b n + 5 ⎞
⎪ b ⎜ ρ − b ⎟ , −4 ≤ n
⎩ ⎝ ⎠
k
n
⎛b⎞
y [n] = ρ n ∑ ⎜ ⎟
k =−4 ⎝ ρ ⎠ Fig. 2.5 (c).
Let m = k + 4, then
m− 4 m
⎛b⎞ ⎛ρ⎞ ⎛b⎞
n+4 4 n+4
y [n] = ρ n ∑ ⎜ ⎟ Assuming that ρ =

m=0 ⎝ ρ ⎠
= ρn ⎜ ⎟
⎝b⎠
∑ ⎜ ⎟
m=0 ⎝ ρ ⎠ 0.9 and b = 0.8.

Figure 2.5c (p. 110)

(c) The output y[n] assuming that p = 0.9 and b = 0.8.

Example 2.5 Investment Computation
The first-order recursive system is used to describe the value of an investment
earning compound interest at a fixed rate of r % per period if we set ρ = 1 +
(r/100). Let y[n] be the value of the investment at the start of period n. If there
are no deposits or withdrawals, then the value at time n is expressed in terms of
the value at the previous time as y[n] = ρ y[n − 1]. Now, suppose x[n] is the
amount deposited (x[n] > 0) or withdrawn (x[n] < 0) at the start of period n. In
this case, the value of the amount is expressed by the first-order recursive
equation
y [ n ] = ρ y [ n − 1] + x [ n ]
We use convolution to find the value of an investment earning 8 % per year if
$1000 is deposited at the start of each year for 10 years and then $1500 is
withdrawn at the start each year for 7 years.
<Sol.>
1. Prediction: Account balance to grow for the first 10 year, and to decrease
during next 7 years, and afterwards to continue growing.
2. By using the reflect-and-shift convolution sum evaluation procedure, we can
evaluate y[n] = x[n] ∗ h[n], where x[n] is depicted in Fig. 2.6 and h[n] = ρ n u[n]
is as shown in Example 2.4 with ρ = 1.08.

Figure 2.6 (p. 111)

Cash flow into an investment. Deposits of $1000 are made at the start of
each of the first 10 years, while withdrawals of $1500 are made at the start
of each of the second 10 years.
3. Graphs of x[k] and h[n − k]: Fig. 2.7(a).
4. Intervals of time shifts: 1’st interval: n < 0
2’nd interval: 0 ≤ n ≤ 9
3’rd interval: 10 ≤ n ≤ 16
4th interval: 17 ≤ n
5. Mathematical representations for wn[k] and y[n]:
1) For n < 0: wn[k] = 0 and y[n] = 0

Figure 2.7a-d (p. 111)Evaluation of
the convolution sum for Example 2.5. (a)
The input signal x[k] depicted above the
reflected and time-shifted impulse response
h(n – k). (b The product signal wn[k] for 0 ≤
n ≤ 9. (c) The product signal wn[k] for 10 ≤ n
≤ 16. (d) The product signal wn[k] for 17 ≤ n.

2) For 0 ≤ n ≤ 9:
⎪⎧1000 (1.08 )
n−k
, 0≤k ≤n
wn [ k ] = ⎨
⎪⎩ 0, otherwise
Fig. 2.7 (b).
k
Apply the formula for
n n
⎛ 1 ⎞
y [ n ] = ∑1000 (1.08 ) = 1000 (1.08 ) ∑
n−k n summing a geometric
⎜ ⎟
k =0 k = 0 ⎝ 1.08 ⎠ series
n +1
⎛ 1 ⎞
1− ⎜ ⎟
y [ n ] = 1000 (1.08 )
n ⎝ 1.08 ⎠
1
= 12,500 (1.08 )( n +1
)
−1
1−
1.08
3) For 10 ≤ n ≤ 16:
⎧ 1000 (1.08 )n − k , 0 ≤ k ≤ 9
⎪⎪
wn [ k ] = ⎨ −1500 (1.08 ) , 10 ≤ k ≤ n
n−k
Fig. 2.7 (c).
⎪ 0, otherwise
⎪⎩

9 n m = k − 10
y [ n ] = ∑1000 (1.08 ) − ∑1500 (1.08 )
n−k n−k
k =0 k =0
Apply the
k n −10 m
⎛ 1 ⎞
9
⎛ 1 ⎞ formula for
= 1000(1.08) ∑ ⎜ ⎟ − 1500(1.08) ∑ ⎜
n −10
⎟
n
⎝ 1.08 ⎠ ⎝ 1.08 ⎠ summing a

k =0 m =0
geometric
⎛ ⎛ 1 ⎞10 ⎞ ⎛ ⎛ 1 ⎞ n −9 ⎞ series
⎜1− ⎜ ⎟ ⎟ ⎜1− ⎜ ⎟ ⎟
n⎜ ⎝ 1.08 ⎠ ⎟ n −10 ⎜ ⎝ 1.08 ⎠ ⎟
y[n] = 1000(1.08) ⎜ ⎟ − 1500(1.08) ⎜ ⎟
1 1
⎜ 1− ⎟ ⎜ 1− ⎟
⎜ 1.08 ⎟ ⎜ 1.08 ⎟
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
= 7246.89 (1.08 ) − 18,750 (1.08 )
n
( n −9
)
− 1 , 10 ≤ n ≤ 16
4) For 17 ≤ n :
⎧ 1000 (1.08 )n − k , 0≤k ≤9
⎪⎪
wn [ k ] = ⎨ −1500 (1.08 ) , 10 ≤ k ≤ 16
n−k
Fig. 2.7 (d).
⎪ 0, otherwise
⎪⎩

9 16
y [ n ] = ∑1000 (1.08 ) − ∑ 1500 (1.08 )
n−k n−k
k =0 k =10
(1.08 ) −1 n −16 (1.08 ) − 1

10 7
y [ n ] = 1000 (1.08 ) − 1500 (1.08 )

n −9
1.08 − 1 1.08 − 1
= 3,340.17 (1.08 ) , 17 ≤ n
n
6. Fig. 2,7(e) depicts y[n], the value of

the investment at the start of each
period, by combining the results for
each of the four intervals.
Figure 2.7e (p. 113)

(e) The output y[n] representing the
value of the investment immediately
after the deposit or withdrawal at the
start of year n.

2.4 The Convolution Integral
1. A continuous-time signal can be expressed as a weighted superposition of
time-shifted impulses.
∞
The sifting property of the impulse !
∫
x(t) = x(τ )δ (t - τ )dτ (2.10)
-∞
2. Impulse response of LTI system H: Input x(t) Output y(t)

LTI system
Output: H
y ( t ) = H {x ( t )} = H {∫
−∞
∞
x (τ ) δ ( t − τ ) dτ } Linearity property
∞
y(t) = ∫ x(τ )H{δ (t - τ )}dτ (2.10)
-∞
3. h(t) = H{δ (t)} ≡ impulse response of the LTI system H
If the system is also time invariant, then
A time-shifted impulse
H{δ (t - τ )} = h(t - τ ) (2.11) generates a time-shifted
∞ impulse response output
y(t) = ∫ x(τ )h(t − τ )dτ (2.12)
-∞
Fig. 2.9.

♣ Convolution integral:
∞
x ( t ) ∗ h ( t ) = ∫ x (τ ) h ( t − τ ) dτ
−∞
2.5 Convolution Integral Evaluation Procedure

1. Convolution integral:
∞
y(t) = ∫ x(τ )h(t − τ )dτ (2.13)
-∞
2. Define the intermediate signal:
τ = independent
wt (τ ) = x (τ ) h ( t − τ ) variable, t = constant
h (t − τ) = h (− (τ − t)) is a reflected and shifted (by − t) version of h(τ).

3. Output:
∞ The time shift t determines the
y(t) = ∫ w t (τ )dτ (2.14) time at which we evaluate the
-∞
output of the system.

Procedure 2.2: Reflect and Shift Convolution Integral Evaluation
1. Graph both x(τ) and h(t − τ) as a function of the independent variable τ . To
obtain h(t − τ), reflect h(τ) about τ = 0 to obtain h( − τ ) and then h( − τ ) shift by
t.
2. Begin with the shift t large and negative. That is, shift h( − τ ) to the far left on
the time axis.
3. Write the mathematical representation for the intermediate signal wt (τ).
4. Increase the shift t (i.e., move h(t − τ) toward the right) until the mathematical
representation for wt (τ) changes. The value of t at which the change occurs
defines the end of the current set and the beginning of a new set.
5. Let t be in the new set. Repeat step 3 and 4 until all sets of shifts t and the
corresponding mathematical representations for wt (τ) are identified. This
usually implies increasing t to a very large positive number.
6. For each sets of shifts t, integrate wt (τ) from τ = − ∞ to τ = ∞ to obtain y(t).
Example 2.6 Reflect-and-shift Convolution Evaluation
Given x ( t ) = u ( t − 1) − u ( t − 3) and h ( t ) = u ( t ) − u ( t − 2 ) as depicted in Fig. 2-10,
10
Evaluate the convolution integral y(t) = x(t) ∗ h(t).

Figure 2.10 (p. 117)

Input signal and LTI system impulse response for Example 2.6.
<Sol.>
1. Graph of x(τ) and h(t − τ): Fig. 2.11 (a).
2. Intervals of time shifts: Four intervals
1’st interval: t < 1
2’nd interval: 1 ≤ t < 3
3’rd interval: 3 ≤ t < 5
4th interval: 5 ≤ t
3. First interval of time shifts: t < 1 wt(τ) = 0
4. Second interval of time shifts: 1 ≤ t < 3
⎧1, 1 < τ < t
wt (τ ) = ⎨ Fig. 2.11 (b).
⎩ 0, otherwise

Figure 2.11
t≡τ
(p. 118)
Evaluation of the
convolution integral
for Example 2.6. (a)
The input x(τ)
depicted above the
reflected and time-
shifted impulse
response. (b) The
product signal wt(τ)
for 1 ≤ t < 3. (c)
The product signal
wt(τ) for 3 ≤ t < 5.
(d) The system
output y(t).

5. Third interval: 3 ≤ t < 5
⎧1, t − 2 < τ < 3
wt (τ ) = ⎨ Fig. 2.11 (c).
⎩ 0, otherwise
6. Fourth interval: 5 ≤ t wt(τ) = 0
1) For t < 1 and t ≥ 5: y(t) = 0
2) For second interval 1 ≤ t < 3, y(t) = t − 1
3) For third interval 3 ≤ t < 5, y(t) = 3 − (t − 2)
⎧ 0, t <1
⎪ t − 1, 1 ≤ t < 3 Figure 2.12 (p. 119)
⎪
y (t ) = ⎨ RC circuit system with the
⎪5 − t , 3 ≤ t < 5 voltage source x(t) as input and
⎪⎩ 0, t ≥5 the voltage measured across the
capacitor y(t), as output.
Example 2.7 RC Circuit Output
For the RC circuit in Fig. 2.12,2.12 assume that the circuit’s time constant is RC = 1
sec. Ex. 1.21 shows that the impulse response of this circuit is h(t) = e − t u(t).
Use convolution to determine the capacitor voltage, y(t), resulting from an input
voltage x(t) = u(t) − u(t − 2).

<Sol.> RC circuit is LTI system, so y(t) = x(t) ∗ h(t).
⎧1, 0 < τ < 2 ⎧⎪ e −(t −τ ) , τ <t
x (τ ) = ⎨ and h (t − τ ) = e −( t −τ )
u (t − τ ) = ⎨
⎩0, otherwise ⎪⎩ 0, otherwise
2. Intervals of time shifts: Three intervals
3’rd interval: 2 ≤ t
⎧⎪ e−( t −τ ) , 0 < τ < t
For t > 0, wt (τ ) = ⎨ Fig. 2.13 (b).
⎪⎩ 0, otherwise
5. Third interval: 2 ≤ t
⎧⎪ e−( t −τ ) , 0 < τ < 2
wt (τ ) = ⎨ Fig. 2.13 (c).
⎪⎩ 0, otherwise

Figure 2.13 (p. 120)
Evaluation of the convolution integral for Example 2.7. (a)
The input x(τ) superimposed over the reflected and time-
shifted impulse response h(t – τ), depicted as a function of τ.
(b) The product signal wt(τ) for 0≤ t < 2. (c) The product
signal wt(τ) for t ≥ 2. (d) The system output y(t).
t≡τ

1) For t < 0: y(t) = 0
2) For second interval 0 ≤ t < 2:
y (t ) = ∫ e
t
0
− ( t −τ )
dτ = e −t
(e ) = 1 − e
τ t
0
−t
3) For third interval 2 ≤ t:

y ( t ) = ∫ e−( t −τ ) dτ = e− t eτ
2
0 ( ) 2
0
= ( e2 − 1) e− t
⎧ 0, t<0
⎪⎪
y ( t ) = ⎨ 1 − e− t , 0≤t <2 Fig. 2.13 (d).
⎪ 2
⎪⎩( e − 1) e ,
−t
t≥2
Example 2.8 Another Reflect-and-Shift Convolution Evaluation

Suppose that the input x(t) and impulse response h(t) of an LTI system are,
respectively, given by
x ( t ) = ( t − 1) ⎡⎣u ( t − 1) − u ( t − 3) ⎤⎦ and h ( t ) = u ( t + 1) − 2u ( t − 2 )
Find the output of the system.

<Sol.>
2. Intervals of time shifts: Five intervals
3’rd interval: 2 ≤ t < 3
4th interval: 3 ≤ t < 5
5th interval: t ≥ 5
⎧τ − 1, 1 < τ < t + 1
wt (τ ) = ⎨ Fig. 2.14 (b).
⎩ 0, otherwise
5. Third interval of time shifts: 2 ≤ t < 3
⎧τ − 1, 1 < τ < 3
wt (τ ) = ⎨ Fig. 2.14 (c).
⎩ 0, otherwise
6. Fourth interval of time shifts: 3 ≤ t < 5

Figure 2.14 (p. 121) Evaluation of the convolution integral for Example 2.8. (a) The
input x(τ) superimposed on the reflected and time-shifted impulse response h(t – τ),
depicted as a function of τ. (b) The product signal wt(τ) for 0 ≤ t < 2. (c) The product
signal wt(τ) for 2 ≤ t < 3. (d) The product signal wt(τ) for 3 ≤ t < 5. (e) The product
signal wt(τ) for t ≥ 5. The system output y(t).
t≡τ

⎧ − (τ − 1) , 1 < τ < t − 2
⎪
wt (τ ) = ⎨τ − 1, t − 2 <τ < 3 Fig. 2.14 (d).
⎪ 0,
⎩ otherwise
7. Fifth interval of time shifts: t ≥ 5
⎧ − (τ − 1) , 1 < τ < 3
wt (τ ) = ⎨ Fig. 2.14 (e).
⎩ 0, otherwise
1) For t < 0: y(t) = 0
2) For second interval 0 ≤ t < 2:
t +1 ⎛τ 2 t +1 ⎞ t2
y ( t ) = ∫ (τ − 1) dτ = ⎜ − τ 1 ⎟ =
1
⎝ 2 ⎠ 2
3) For third interval 2 ≤ t < 3: y(t) = 2
4) For third interval 3 ≤ t < 5:
t −2
y (t ) = −∫ (τ − 1) dτ + ∫ (τ − 1) dτ = − t 2 + 6t − 7
3
1 t −2
5) For third interval t ≥ 5: y(t) = − 2


⎧ 0, t<0
⎪ 2
⎪ t
, 0≤t <2
⎪ 2
∴ y (t ) = ⎨ Fig. 2.14 (f).
⎪ 2, 2≤t <3
⎪ −t 2 + 6t − 7, 3 ≤ t < 5
⎪
⎩ −2, t ≥5
Example 2.9 Radar range Measurement: Propagation Model
We identify an LTI system describing the propagation of the pulse. Let the
transmitted RF pulse be given by
⎧sin (ω c t ) , 0 ≤ t ≤ T0
x (t ) = ⎨
⎩ 0, otherwise
as shown in Fig. 2.16 (a).
Suppose we transmit an impulse from the radar to determine the impulse
response of the round-trip propagation to the target. The impulse is delay in
time and attenuated in amplitude, which results in the impulse response h(t) =
a δ (t − β ), where a represents the attenuation factor and β the round-trip time
delay. Use the convolution of x(t) with h(t) to verify this result.

<Sol.>
1. Find h(t − τ):
Reflecting h(t) = a δ (t − β ) about τ = 0 gives h( − τ) = a δ (τ + β ), since the
impulse has even symmetry.
2. Shift the independent variable τ by − t to obtain h(t −τ ) = a δ (τ − (t − β )).
3. Substitute this equation for h(t − τ ) into the convolution integral of Eq. (2.12),
and use the shifting property of the impulse to obtain the received signal as
r ( t ) = ∫ x (τ ) aδ (τ − ( t − β ) ) dτ = ax ( t − β )
∞
−∞
Figure 2.16 (p. 124)

Radar range measurement. (a) Transmitted RF pulse. (b) The received echo
is an attenuated and delayed version of the transmitted pulse.

Example 2.10 Radar range Measurement (continued): The Matched Filter
In Ex. 2.9, the received signal is contaminated with noise (e.g., the thermal noise,
discussed in section 1.9) and may weak. For these reasons, the time delay is
determined by passing the received signal through an LTI system commonly
referred to as a matched filter. An important property of this system is that it
optimally discriminates against certain types of noise in the received waveform.
The impulse response of the matched filter is a reflected, or time-reversed,
version of the transmitted signal x(t). That is, hm(t) = x(− t), so
⎧ − sin (ω c t ) , −T0 ≤ t ≤ 0
hm ( t ) = ⎨
⎩ 0, otherwise
As shown in Fig. 2.17 (a). The terminology “matched filter” refers to the fact
that the impulse response of the radar receiver is “matched” to the transmitted
signal.
To estimate the time delay from the matched filter output, we evaluate the
convolution y ( t ) = r ( t ) ∗ hm ( t )
<Sol.>
1. Intermediate signal: wt (τ ) = r (τ ) hm ( t − τ )

Figure 2.17a (p. 125)

(a) Impulse response of
the matched filter for
processing the received
signal. t≡τ
Figure 2.17b (p. 126)

(b) The received signal r(τ)
superimposed on the reflected
and time-shifted matched filter
impulse response hm(t – τ),
depicted as functions of τ. (c)
Matched filter output x(t).

2. The received signal r(τ) and the reflected, time-shifted impulse response
hm(t − τ) are shown in Fig. 2.17(b).
♣ hm(τ) = reflected version of x(t) ⇒ hm(t − τ) = x( τ - t)
3. Intervals of time shifts: Three intervals
1’st interval: t < β − T0
2’nd interval: β − T0 < t ≤ β
3’rd interval: β < t ≤ β + T0
4th interval: t ≥ β + T0
4. First interval of time shifts: t < β − T0 wt(τ) = 0 and y(t) = 0
5. Second interval of time shifts: β − T0 < t ≤ β
⎪⎧ a sin ( wc (τ − β ) ) sin ( wc (τ − t ) ) , β < τ < t + T0
wt (τ ) = ⎨
⎪⎩ 0, otherwise
⎡⎣( a / 2 ) cos ( wc ( t − β ) ) + ( a / 2 ) cos ( wc ( 2τ − β − t ) ) ⎤⎦ dτ

t +T0
y (t ) = ∫
β
= (a / 2 ) cos (wc (− β ))[t + T0 − β ] + (a / 4ω c )sin (wc (2τ − β − t )) β

t + T0

∴ y (t ) = ( a / 2 ) cos ( wc ( t − β ) ) ⎡⎣t − ( β − T0 ) ⎤⎦ + ( a / 4ω c ) ⎡⎣sin ( wc ( t + 2T0 − β ) ) − sin ( wc ( β − t ) ) ⎤⎦
6. 3’rd interval of time shifts: β < t ≤ β + T0
⎧ a sin (ω c (τ − β ) ) sin (ω c (τ − t ) ) , t < τ < β + Τ0
wt (τ ) = ⎨
⎩ 0, otherwise
β +Τ0
y (t ) = ∫ [( a / 2)cos (ω c (t − β ) ) + ( a / 2)cos (ω c (2τ − β − t ) )]dτ
t
= (a / 2) cos (ωc (t − β ) ) [ β + Τ0 − t ] + (a / 4ωc ) sin (ωc (2τ − β − t ) ) β +Τ0

t
= (a / 2) cos (ωc (t − β ) ) [ β − t + Τ0 ] + (a / 4ωc ) ⎡⎣sin (ωc ( β + 2τ − t ) ) − sin (ωc (t − β ) ) ⎤⎦

7. 4th interval of time shifts: t ≥ β + T0 wt(τ) = 0 and y(t) = 0
8. The output of matched filter:
⎧( a / 2) [ t − ( β − Τ0 )] cos (ω c (t − β ) ) , β − Τ0 < t ≤ β
⎪
y (t ) = ⎨ ( a / 2) [ β − t + Τ0 )] cos (ω c (t − β ) ) , β < t < β + Τ0
⎪ 0, otherwise
⎩

2.6 Interconnection of LTI Systems
2.6.1 Parallel Connection of LTI Systems
Figure 2.18 (p. 128)
1. Two LTI systems: Fig. 2.18(a). Interconnection of two LTI systems. (a)
Parallel connection of two systems. (b)
Equivalent system.
2. Output: y (t ) = y (t ) + y (t )
1 2
= x(t ) ∗ h1 (t ) + x(t ) ∗ h2 (t )
∞ ∞
y (t ) = ∫ x(τ )h1 (t − τ )dτ + ∫ x(τ )h2 (t − τ )dτ
−∞ −∞
∞
y (t ) = ∫ x(τ ){h1 (t − τ ) + h2 (t − τ )} dτ where h(t) = h1(t) + h2(t)
−∞
∞
= ∫ x(τ )h(t − τ )dτ = x(t ) ∗ h(t ) Fig. 2.18(b)
−∞

♣ Distributive property for Continuous-time case:
x(t) ∗ h1(t) + x(t) ∗ h2 (t) = x(t) ∗ {h1(t) + h2 (t)} (2.15)
♣ Distributive property for Discrete-time case:
x[n] ∗ h1[n] + x[n] ∗ h2 [n] = x[n] ∗ {h1[n] + h2 [n]} (2.16)
2.6.2 Cascade Connection of LTI Systems
1. Two LTI systems: Fig. 2.19(a).
Figure 2.19 (p. 128)

Interconnection of two LTI systems. (a) Cascade connection of two systems.
(b) Equivalent system. (c) Equivalent system: Interchange system order.

2. The output is expressed in terms of z(t) as
y(t) = z(t) ∗ h2 (t) (2.17)
∞
y(t) = ∫ z(τ )h2 (t − τ )dτ (2.18)
-∞
Since z(t) is the output of the first system, so it can be expressed as

∞
z(τ ) = x(τ ) ∗ h1(τ ) = ∫ x(ν )h1(τ − ν )dν (2.19)
-∞
Substituting Eq. (2.19) for z(t) into Eq. (2.18) gives

∞ ∞
y (t ) = ∫ ∫ x ( v )h1 (τ − v )h2 (t − τ )dvdτ Change of variable
−∞ −∞
η=τ−ν
y(t) = ∫ x(ν ) ∫ h1(η )h2 (t − ν − η )dη ⎤dν
⎡ ∞ ∞
-∞ ⎢⎣ −∞ ⎥⎦ (2.20)
Define h(t) = h1(t) ∗ h2(t), then

∞
h(t − v) = ∫ h1 (η )h2 (t − v − η )dη
−∞
∞
y(t) = ∫ x(ν )h(t − ν )dν = x(t) ∗ h(t) (2.21) Fig. 2.19(b).
-∞
3. Associative property for continuous-time case:


{x(t) ∗ h1(t)} ∗ h2 (t) = x(t) ∗ {h1(t) ∗ h2 (t)} (2.22)
4. Commutative property:
Write h(t) = h1(t) ∗ h2(t) as the integral
∞ Change of variable
h(t ) = ∫ h1 (τ )h2 (t − τ )dτ ν=t−τ
−∞
∞
h(t) = ∫ h1(t − ν )h2 (ν )dν = h2 (t) ∗ h1(t) (2.23) Fig. 2.19(c).
-∞
Interchanging the order of the LTI systems in the cascade without affecting
the result:
x(t ) ∗ {h1 (t ) ∗ h2 (t )} = x(t ) ∗ {h2 (t ) ∗ h1 (t )} ,
Commutative property for continuous-time case:
h1(t) ∗ h2 (t) = h2 (t) ∗ h1(t) (2.24)
5. Associative property for discrete-time case:
{x[n] ∗ h1[n]} ∗ h2 [n] = x[n] ∗ {h1[n] ∗ h2 [n]} (2.25)
Commutative property for discrete-time case:
h1[n] ∗ h2 [n] = h2 [n] ∗ h1[n] (2.26)

Example 2.11 Equivalent System to Four Interconnected Systems
Consider the interconnection of four LTI systems, as depicted in Fig. 2.20. 2.20 The
impulse responses of the systems are
h1[n] = u[n], h2 [n] = u[n + 2] − u[n], h3 [n] = δ [n − 2], and h4 [n] = α nu[n].
Find the impulse response h[n] of the overall system.
Figure 2.20
(p. 131)
Interconnection of
systems for Example
2.11.
<Sol.>
1. Parallel combination of h1[n] and h2[n]:
h12[n] = h1[n] + h2[n] Fig. 2.21 (a).

Figure 2.21
(p. 131)
(a) Reduction of
parallel combination of
LTI systems in upper
branch of Fig. 2.20. (b)
Reduction of cascade
of systems in upper
branch of Fig. 2.21(a).
(c) Reduction of
parallel combination of
systems in Fig. 2.21(b)
to obtain an
equivalent system
for Fig. 2.20.

2. h12[n] is in series with h3[n]:
h123[n] = h12[n] ∗ h3[n]
h123[n] = (h1[n] + h2[n]) ∗ h3[n] Fig. 2.21 (b).
3. h123[n] is in parallel with h4[n]:
h[n] = h123[n] − h4[n]
h[n] = (h1[n] + h2 [n]) ∗ h3 [n] − h4 [n], Fig. 2.21 (c).
Thus, substitute the specified forms of h1[n] and h2[n] to obtain
h12 [n] = u[n] + u[n + 2] − u[n]
= u[n + 2]
Convolving h12[n] with h3[n] gives
h123[n] = u[n + 2] ∗ δ [n − 2]
= u[n]
{ }
h[n] = 1 − α n u[n].
♣ Table 2.1 summarizes the interconnection properties presented in this section.

2.7 Relation Between LTI System Properties and the

Impulse Response
2.7.1 Memoryless LTI Systems
1. The output of a discrete-time LTI system:
∞
y[n] = h[n] ∗ x[n] = ∑ h[k ]x[n − k ]
k =−∞
y[n] = L + h[ −2]x[n + 2] + h[ −1]x[n + 1] + h[0]x[n] + h[1]x[n − 1] + h[2]x[n − 2] + L

(2.27)

2. To be memoryless, y[n] must depend only on x[n] and therefore cannot
depend on x[n − k] for k ≠ 0.
A discrete-time LTI system is memoryless if and only if
h[k ] = cδ [k ] c is an arbitrary constant
♣ Continuous-time system:
1. Output:
∞
y (t ) = ∫ h(τ )x(t − τ )dτ ,
−∞
2. A continuous-time LTI system is memoryless if and only if

h(τ ) = cδ (τ ) c is an arbitrary constant
2.7.2 Causal LTI Systems
The output of a causal LTI system depends only on past or present values
of the input.
♣ Discrete-time system:
1. Convolution sum: y[n ] = L + h[−2]x[n + 2] + h[−1]x[n + 1] + h[0]x[n ]
+ h[1]x[n − 1] + h[2]x[n − 2] + L.

2. For a discrete-time causal LTI system,
h[k ] = 0 for k < 0
3. Convolution sum in new form:
∞
y[n] = ∑ h[k ]x[n − k ].
k =0
♣ Continuous-time system:
1. Convolution integral: 3. Convolution integral in new form:
∞ ∞
y (t ) = ∫ h(τ ) x(t − τ )dτ . y(t) = ∫ h(τ ) x(t −τ )dτ .
−∞ 0
2. For a continuous-time causal LTI system,

h(τ ) = 0 for τ < 0
2.7.3 Stable LTI Systems
A system is BIBO stable if the output is guaranteed to be bounded for every
bounded input.
♣ Discrete-time case: Input x[ n] ≤ M x ≤ ∞ Output: y[n] ≤ M y ≤ ∞

1. The magnitude of output:
∞
y[n] = h[n] ∗ x[n] = ∑ h[k ]x[n − k ]
k =−∞
∞
a+b ≤ a + b
y[n] ≤ ∑
k =−∞
h[k ]x[n − k ]
∞
ab = a b
y[n] ≤ ∑
k =−∞
h[k ] x[n − k ]
2. Assume that the input is bounded, i.e.,

x[n] ≤ M x ≤ ∞ x[n − k ] ≤ M x
and it follows that
∞
y[n] ≤ Mx ∑ h[k] (2.28)
k =−∞
Hence, the output is bounded, or |y[n]| ≤ ∞ for all n, provided that the impulse
response of the system is absolutely summable.
3. Condition for impulse response of a stable discrete-time LTI system:

∞
∑
k =−∞
h[k ] < ∞.
♣ Continuous-time case:
Condition for impulse response of a stable continuous-time LTI system:
∞
∫0
h(τ ) dτ < ∞.
Example 2.12 Properties of the First-Order Recursive System

The first-order system is described by the difference equation
y[n] = ρ y[n − 1] + x[n]
and has the impulse response
h[n] = ρ nu[n]
Is this system causal, memoryless, and BIBO stable?
<Sol.>
1. The system is causal, since h[n] = 0 for n < 0.
2. The system is not memoryless, since h[n] ≠ 0 for n > 0.
3. Stability: Checking whether the impulse response is absolutely summable?

∞ ∞ ∞
∑ h[k ] = ∑ ρ = ∑ ρ < ∞
k k
if and only if |ρ| < 1
k =−∞ k =0 k =0
◆ Special case:
A system can be unstable even though the impulse response has a finite value.
1. Ideal integrator:
t
y(t) = ∫ x(τ )dτ (2.29)
−∞
Input: x(τ) = δ (τ), then the output is y(t) = h(t) = u(t).

h(t) is not absolutely integrable
Ideal integrator is not stable!
2. Ideal accumulator:
n
y[n] = ∑ x[k ]
k =−∞
Impulse response: h[n] = u[n]

h[n] is not absolutely summable
Ideal accumulator is not stable!

2.7.4 Invertible Systems and Deconvolution
A system is invertible if the input to the system can be recovered from the
output except for a constant scale factor.
1. h(t) = impulse response of LTI system, Fig. 2.24.
2. hinv(t) = impulse response of LTI inverse system
Figure 2.24 (p. 137)

Cascade of LTI system with impulse response h(t) and inverse system with impulse response h-1(t).
3. The process of recovering x(t) from h(t) ∗ x(t) is termed deconvolution.

4. An inverse system performs deconvolution.
x(t ) ∗ (h(t ) ∗ hin v (t )) = x(t ). Continuous-time
case
h(t ) ∗ h inv (t ) = δ (t ) (2.30)
5. Discrete-time case: h[n] ∗ hinv [n] = δ [n] (2.31)

Example 2.13 Multipath Communication Channels: Compensation by means of
an Inverse System
Consider designing a discrete-time inverse system to eliminate the distortion
associated with multipath propagation in a data transmission problem. Assume
that a discrete-time model for a two-path communication channel is
y[n] = x[n] + ax[n − 1].
Find a causal inverse system that recovers x[n] from y[n]. Check whether this
inverse system is stable.
<Sol.>
1. Impulse response:
⎧1, n=0
⎪
h[n] = ⎨a, n =1
⎪ 0, otherwise
⎩
2. The inverse system hinv[n] must satisfy h[n] ∗ hinv[n] = δ[n].
hinv [n] + ahinv [n − 1] = δ [n]. (2.32)
1) For n < 0, we must have hinv[n] = 0 in order to obtain a causal inverse
system

2) For n = 0, δ[n] = 1, and eq. (2.32) implies that
hinv [n] + ahinv [n − 1] = 0,
hinv [n] = −ahinv [n − 1] (2.33)
3. Since hinv[0] = 1, Eq. (2.33) implies that hinv[1] = − a, hinv[2] = a2, hinv[3] = − a3,
and so on.
The inverse system has the impulse response
hinv [n] = (− a ) n u[n]
4. To check for stability, we determine whether hinv[n] is absolutely summable,
which will be the case if
∞ ∞
∑ h [k ] = ∑
inv k
a is finite.
k =−∞ k =−∞
♣ For |a| < 1, the system is stable.

★ Table 2.2 summarizes the relation between LTI system properties and
impulse response characteristics.

2.8 Step Response

1. The step response is defined as the output due to a unit step input signal.
2. Discrete-time LTI system:
Let h[n] = impulse response and s[n] = step response.
∞
s[n] = h[n]* u[n] = ∑ h[k ]u[n − k ].
k =−∞
3. Since u[n − k] = 0 for k > n and u[n − k] = 1 for k ≤ n, we have


n
s[n] = ∑ h[k ].
k =−∞
The step response is the running sum of the impulse response.

♣ Continuous-time LTI system:
t
s(t) = ∫ h(τ )dτ (2.34)
−∞
The step response s(t) is the running integral of the impulse response h(t).
◆ Express the impulse response in terms of the step response as
d
h[n] = s[n] − s[n − 1] and h(t ) = s (t )
dt
Example 2.14 RC Circuit: Step Response
The impulse response of the RC circuit depicted in Fig. 2.12 is Figure 2.12
(p. 119)
RC circuit system with the voltage
1 − RCt source x(t) as input and the
h(t ) = e u (t ) voltage measured across the

capacitor y(t), as output.
RC
Find the step response of the circuit.
<Sol.>

1. Step response:
τ
t 1 − RC
s (t ) = ∫ e u (τ )dτ .
−∞ RC
⎧ 0, t<0
⎪
s (t ) = ⎨ 1 t − τ
⎪ ∫
⎩ RC −∞
e RC u (τ )dτ t≥0
⎧ 0, t<0
⎪
s (t ) = ⎨ 1 t − τ
⎪
⎩ RC 0 ∫ e RC dτ t ≥ 0
⎧⎪ 0, t<0
=⎨ −
t
⎪⎩1 − e RC , t ≥ 0 Figure 2.25 (p. 140)
RC circuit step response for RC = 1 s.
Fig. 2.25

2.9 Differential and Difference Equation Representations of
LTI Systems
1. Linear constant-coefficient differential equation:
N
dk M
dk Input = x(t), output = y(t)
∑
k =0
ak k y(t) =∑ bk k x(t)
dt k =0 dt
(2.35)
2. Linear constant-coefficient difference equation:

N M
Input = x[n], output = y[n]
∑ ak y[n − k] =∑ bk x[n − k]
k =0 k =0
(2.36)
♣ The order of the differential or difference equation is (N, M), representing the
number of energy storage devices in the system.
Ex. RLC circuit depicted in Fig. 2.26.
2.26 Often, N ≥ M, and the
1. Input = voltage source x(t), output = loop current order is described
2. KVL Eq.: using only N.
d 1 t
Ry ( t ) + L y ( t ) + ∫ y (τ ) dτ = x ( t )
dt C −∞

Figure 2.26 (p. 141)

Example of an RLC circuit described by a differential equation.
1 d d2 d
y (t ) + R y (t ) + L 2 y (t ) = x (t ) N=2
C dt dt dt
Ex. Accelerator modeled in Section 1.10:
ωn d d2
ω y (t ) +
2
n y (t ) + 2 y (t ) = x (t ) N=2
Q dt dt
where y(t) = the position of the proof mass, x(t) = external acceleration.

Ex. Second-order difference equation:
1
y[n] + y[n − 1] +
y[n − 2] = x[n] + 2x[n − 1] (2.37) N=2
4
♣ Difference equations are easily rearranged to obtain recursive formulas for
computing the current output of the system from the input signal and the
past outputs.
Ex. Eq. (2.36) can be rewritten as
M N
1 1
y [ n] = ∑ bk [
x n − k ] − ∑ a y [n − k ]
k
a0 k =0 a0 k =1
Ex. Consider computing y[n] for n ≥ 0 from x[n] for the second-order difference
equation (2.37).
<Sol.>
1. Eq. (2.37) can be rewritten as
1
y[n] = x[n] + 2x[n − 1] − y[n − 1] − y[n − 2] (2.38)
4
2. Computing y[n] for n ≥ 0:

1
y[0] = x[0] + 2x[ −1] − y[ −1] − y[ −2] (2.39)
4
1
y[1] = x[1] + 2x[0] − y[0] − y[−1] (2.40)
4
1
y [ 2] = x [ 2] + 2 x [1] − y [1] − y [ 0]
4
1
y [3] = x [3] + 2 x [ 2] − y [ 2] − y [1]
4
♣ Initial conditions: y[ − 1] and y[ − 2].
◆ The initial conditions for Nth-order difference equation are the N values
y [ − N ] , y [ − N + 1] ,..., y [ −1] ,
◆ The initial conditions for Nth-order differential equation are the N values
d d2 d N −1
y (t ) t =0 −, y (t ) , 2 y (t ) , ..., N −1
y (t )
dt t =0− dt t = 0− dt t =0−

Example 2.15 Recursive Evaluation of a Difference Equation
Find the first two output values y[0] and y[1] for the system described by Eq.
(2.38), assuming that the input is x[n] = (1/2)nu[n] and the initial conditions are
y[ − 1] = 1 and y[ − 2] = − 2.
<Sol.>
1. Substitute the appropriate values into Eq. (2.39) to obtain
1 1
y [ 0 ] = 1 + 2 × 0 − 1 − × ( −2 ) =
4 2
2. Substitute for y[0] in Eq. (2.40) to find
1 1 1 3
y [1] = + 2 ×1 − − × (1) = 1
2 2 4 4
Example 2.16 Evaluation of a Difference Equation by means of a Computer
A system is described y the difference equation
y [ n ] − 1.143 y [ n − 1] + 0.4128 y [ n − 2] = 0.0675 x [ n ] + 0.1349 x [ n − 1] + 0.675 x [ n − 2]
Write a recursive formula that computes the present output from the past
outputs and the current inputs. Use a computer to determine the step response

of the system, the system output when the input is zero and the initial
conditions are y[− 1] = 1 and y[− 2] = 2, and the output in response to the
sinusoidal inputs x1[n] = cos(πn/10), x2[n] = cos(πn/5), and x3[n] = cos(7πn/10),
assuming zero initial conditions. Last, find the output of the system if the input
is the weekly closing price of Intel stock depicted in Fig. 2.27,
2.27 assuming zero
initial conditions.
<Sol.>
1. Recursive formula for y[n]:
y [ n ] = 1.143 y [ n − 1] − 0.4128 y [ n − 2] + 0.0675 x [ n ] + 0.1349 x [ n − 1] + 0.675 x [ n − 2]
2. Step response: Fig. 2.28 (a).
3. Zero input response: Fig. 2.28 (b).
4. The outputs due to the sinusoidal inputs x1[n], x2[n], and x3[n]: Fig. 2.28 (c),
(d), and (e).
5. Fig. 2.28(f) shows the system output for the Intel stock price unit.
A comparison of peaks in Figs. 2.27 and 2.28 (f) Slightly delay!

Figure 2.27 (p. 144)

Weekly closing price of Intel
stock.

Fig. 2.28 (a).


Fig. 2.28 (b).


Fig. 2.28 (c).
Fig. 2.28 (d).


Fig. 2.28 (e).
Figure 2.28a (p. 145)

Illustration of the solution to Example 2.16.
(a) Step response of system.
(b) Output due to nonzero initial conditions with zero input.
(c) Output due to x1[n] = cos (1/10πn).
(d) Output due to x2[n] = cos (1/5πn).
(e) Output due to x3[n] = cos(7/10πn).

Figure 2.28f (p. 146)

Output associated with the
weekly closing price of Intel
stock.

2.10 Solving Differential and Difference Equations
Complete solution: y = y (h) + y (p)
y (h) = homogeneous solution, y (p) = particular solution
2.10.1 The Homogeneous Solution
♣ Continuous-time case: N
d k ( h)
1. Homogeneous differential equation:
k =0 dt
∑
ak k y ( t ) = 0
2. Homogeneous solution:
N
Coefficients ci is
y (t) = ∑ c ierit
(h)
(2.41)
i=0
determined by I.C.
N
3. Characteristic eq.: ∑a r
k =0
k
k
=0 (2.42)
♣ Discrete-time case: N
1. Homogeneous differential equation: ∑ a y( ) [n − k ] = 0
k =0
k
h
N
Coefficients ci is
y [n] = ∑ c irin
(h)
(2.43)
i=1
determined by I.C.
N
3. Characteristic eq.: ∑a r
k =0
k
N−k
=0 (2.44)

♣ If a root rj is repeated p times in characteristic eqs., the corresponding
solutions are
Continuous-time case: e j t , te j t , ..., t p −1e j t
r r r
Discrete-time case: rjn , nrjn , ..., n p −1rjn

Example 2.17 RC Circuit: Homogeneous Solution
The RC circuit depicted in Fig. 2.30 is described by the differential equation
d
y ( t ) + RC y (t ) = x (t )
dt
Determine the homogeneous solution of this equation.
<Sol.>
d
1. Homogeneous Eq.: y ( t ) + RC y (t ) = 0
dt
Figure 2.30 (p. 148)
2. Homo. Sol.: y (h)
( t ) = c1e r1t
V RC circuit.
3. Characteristic eq.: 1 + RCr1 = 0 r1 = − 1/RC

4. Homogeneous solution: −t
y (h)
( t ) = c1e RC
V

Example 2.18 First-Order Recursive System: Homogeneous Solution
Find the homogeneous solution for the first-order recursive system described
by the difference equation
y [ n ] − ρ y [ n − 1] = x [ n ]
<Sol.>
1. Homogeneous Eq.: y [ n ] − ρ y [ n − 1] = 0
2. Homo. Sol.:
y ( h ) [ n ] = c1r1n
3. Characteristic eq.: r1 − ρ = 0 r1 = ρ
y(
h)
[ n] = c1ρ n
2.10.2 The Particular Solution
A particular solution is usually obtained by assuming an output of the same
general form as the input.
Table 2.3

Example 2.19 First-Order Recursive System (Continued): Particular Solution

Find a particular solution for the first-order recursive system described by the
difference equation
y [ n ] − ρ y [ n − 1] = x [ n ]
if the input is x[n] = (1/2)n.
<Sol.>
1. Particular solution form: y ( p ) [n] = c p ()
n
1
2
2. Substituting y(p)[n] and x[n] into the given difference Eq.:


Both sides of above eq. are
() () ()
n n −1 n
cp 1
2
− ρcp 1
2
= 1
2
multiplied by (1/2) −n
c p (1 − 2 ρ ) = 1 (2.45)
3. Particular solution:
n
1 ⎛1⎞
y( ) [ n] =
Figure 2.30 (p. 148)
p
⎜ ⎟
RC circuit.
1 − 2ρ ⎝ 2 ⎠
Example 2.20 RC Circuit (continued): Particular Solution
Consider the RC circuit of Example 2.17 and depicted in Fig. 2.30.
2.30 Find a
particular solution for this system with an input x(t) = cos(ω0t).
<Sol.>
d
1. Differential equation: y ( t ) + RC y (t ) = x (t )
dt
2. Particular solution form:
y ( p ) (t ) = c1 cos(ω t ) + c2 sin(ω t )
3. Substituting y(p)(t) and x(t) = cos(ω0t) into the given differential Eq.:

c1 cos(ω t ) + c2 sin(ω t ) − RCω0c1 sin(ω0t ) + RCω0c2 cos(ω0t ) = cos(ω0t )
c1 + RCω 0c2 = 1
− RCω0c1 + c2 = 0
4. Coefficients c1 and c2:
1 RCω 0
c1 = and c2 =
1 + ( RCω 0 ) 1 + ( RCω 0 )
2 2
1 RCω0
y( p) ( t ) = cos (ω 0t ) + sin (ω 0t ) V
1 + ( RCω 0 ) 1 + ( RCω 0 )
2 2
2.10.3 The Complete Solution

Complete solution: y = y (h) + y (p)
y (h) = homogeneous solution, y (p) = particular solution
The procedure for finding complete solution of differential or difference
equations is summarized as follows:

Procedure 2.3: Solving a Differential or Difference equation
1. Find the form of the homogeneous solution y(h) from the roots of the
characteristic equation.
2. Find a particular solution y(p) by assuming that it is of the same form as the
input, yet is independent of all terms in the homogeneous solution.
3. Determine the coefficients in the homogeneous solution so that the complete
solution y = y(h) + y(p) satisfies the initial conditions.
★ Note that the initial translation is needed in some cases.
Example 2.21 First-Order Recursive System (Continued): Complete Solution
Find the complete solution for the first-order recursive system described by
the difference equation
1
y[n] − y[n − 1] = x[n] (2.46)
4
if the input is x[n] = (1/2)n u[n] and the initial condition is y[ − 1] = 8.
<Sol.>
1. Homogeneous sol.: y ( h) [ n] = c1 1 ()
n
4

2. Particular solution: 3. Complete solution:
n 1 1
⎛1⎞ y[n] = 2( )n + c1( )n
y [ n] = 2 ⎜ ⎟
( p)
2 4
(2.47)
⎝2⎠
4. Coefficient c1 determined by I.C.:
I.C.: y [ 0] = x [ 0] + 1 4 y [ −1] y [0] = x [0] + (1 4) × 8 = 3
We substitute y[0] = 3 into Eq. (2.47), yielding
0 0
⎛1⎞ ⎛1⎞
3 = 2 ⎜ ⎟ + c1 ⎜ ⎟ c1 = 1
⎝2⎠ ⎝4⎠
5. Final solution: n n
⎛1⎞ ⎛1⎞
y [ n] = 2 ⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ ⎟ for n ≥ 0
⎝2⎠ ⎝4⎠
Example 2.22 RC Circuit (continued): Complete Response
Find the complete response of the RC circuit depicted in Fig. 2.30 to an input
x(t) = cos(t)u(t) V, assuming normalized values R = 1 Ω and C = 1 F and
assuming that the initial voltage across the capacitor is y(0−) = 2 V.

<Sol.> t
−
1. Homogeneous sol.: y (h)
( t ) = ce RC
V ω0 = 1
1 RC
y ( p)
(t ) = cos ( t ) + sin ( t ) V
1 + ( RC ) 1 + ( RC )
2 2
3. Complete solution:
R = 1 Ω, C = 1 F
1 1
y ( t ) = ce− t + cos t + sin t V
2 2
4. Coefficient c1 determined by I.C.: y(0−) = y(0+)
+ 1 1 1
2 = ce −0 + cos 0+ + sin 0+ = c + c = 3/2
2 2 2
5. Final solution:
3 1 1
y ( t ) = e − t + cos t + sin t V
2 2 2

Example 2.23 Financial Computations: Loan Repayment
The following difference equation describes the balance of a loan if x[n] < 0
represents the principal and interest payment made at the beginning of each
period and y[n] is the balance after the principal and interest payment is
credited. As before, if r % is the interest rate per period, then ρ = 1 + r/100.
y [ n ] = ρ y [ n − 1] + x [ n ]
Use the complete response of the first-order difference equation to find the
payment required to pay off a $20,000 loan in 10 periods. Assume equal
payments and a 10% interest rate.
<Sol.>
1. We have ρ = 1.1 and y[− 1] = 20,000, and we assume that x[n] = b is the
payment each period.
2. The first payment is made when n = 0. The loan balance is to be zero after 10
payments, thus we seek the payment b for which y[9] = 0.
3. Homogeneous sol.:
y ( h ) [ n ] = ch (1.1)
n

y(
p)
[ n] = c p
Substituting y(p)[n] = cp and x[n] = b into the difference equation y[n] − 1.1y[n − 1]
= x[n], we obtain
c p = −10b
3. Complete solution:
y[n] = ch (1.1)n − 10b, n ≥ 0 (2.48)
4. Coefficient ch determined by I.C.:
I.C.: y [ 0] = 1.1 y [ −1] + x [ 0] = 22, 000 + b
22,000 + b = ch (1.1) − 10b

0
ch = 22,000 + 11b
Fig. 2.31.
y [ n ] = ( 22, 000 + 11b )(1.1) − 10b
n
−22, 000 (1.1)

5. Payment b: By setting y[9] = 0, we have 9
b= = −3, 254.91
0 = ( 22, 000 + 11b )(1.1) − 10b
9
11(1.1) − 10
9

Figure 2.31 (p. 155)

Balance on a $20,000 loan for Example 2.23. Assuming 10% interest per period, the loan is paid off with 10 payments of $3,254.91.

2.11 Characteristics of Systems Described by Differential
and Difference Equations
Complete solution: y = y (n) + y (f)
y (n) = natural response, y (f) = forced response
2.11.1 The Natural Response
Example 2.24 RC Circuit (continued): Natural Response
The system In Example 2.17 is described by the differential equation
d
y ( t ) + RC y (t ) = x (t )
dt
Find the natural response of the this system, assuming that y(0) = 2 V, R = 1 Ω
and C = 1 F.
<Sol.>
y ( ) ( t ) = c1e− t V
h
1. Homogeneous sol.:
2. I.C.: y(0) = 2 V
y (n) (0) = 2 V c1 = 2
3. Natural Response: y(
n)
( t ) = 2e − t V

Example 2.25 First-Order Recursive System (Continued): Natural Response
The system in Example 2.21 is described by the difference equation
1
y [ n ] − y [ n − 1] = x [ n ]
4
Find the natural response of this system.
<Sol.> −n
⎛ 1⎞
1. Homogeneous sol.: y [ n ] = c1 ⎜ ⎟
(h)
⎝4⎠
2. I.C.: y[− 1] = 8
−1
⎛1⎞
8 = c1 ⎜ ⎟ c1 = 2
⎝4⎠
3. Natural Response:
n
⎛1⎞ The forced response is valid only
y [ n ] = 2 ⎜ ⎟ , n ≥ −1
(n)
for t ≥ 0 or n ≥ 0
⎝4⎠
2.11.2 The Forced Response
The forced response is the system output due to the input signal assuming
zero initial conditions.

♣ The at-rest conditions for a discrete-time system, y[− N] = 0, …, y[− 1] = 0,
must be translated forward to times n = 0, 1, …, N − 1 before solving for the
undetermined coefficients, such as when one is determining the complete
solution.
Example 2.26 First-Order Recursive System (Continued): Forced Response
The system in Example 2.21 is described by the difference equation
1
y [n] − y [ n − 1] = x [ n ]
4
Find the forced response of this system if the input is x[n] = (1/2)n u[n].
<Sol.> n n
⎛ 1⎞ ⎛ 1⎞
1. Complete solution: y [ n ] = 2 ⎜ ⎟ + c1 ⎜ ⎟ , n ≥ 0
⎝2⎠ ⎝4⎠
2. I.C.: Translate the at-rest condition y[− 1] to time n = 0
1
y [0] = x [0] + y [ −1] y[0] = 1 + (1/4) × 0 =1
4
3. Finding c1: 0 0
⎛1⎞ ⎛1⎞
1 = 2 ⎜ ⎟ + c1 ⎜ ⎟ c1 = − 1
⎝2⎠ ⎝4⎠

4. Forced response:
n n
⎛1⎞ ⎛1⎞
y( f ) [n] = 2 ⎜ ⎟ − ⎜ ⎟ , n ≥ 0
⎝2⎠ ⎝4⎠
Example 2.27 RC Circuit (continued): Forced Response
The system In Example 2.17 is described by the differential equation
d
y ( t ) + RC y ( t ) = x ( t )
dt
Find the forced response of the this system, assuming that x(t) = cos(t)u(t) V, R
= 1 Ω and C = 1 F.
From Example 2.22
<Sol.> 1 1
1. Complete solution: y ( t ) = ce + cos t + sin t V
−t
2 2
2. I.C.:
y(0−) = y(0+) = 0 c = − 1/2
3. Forced response:
1 −t 1 1
y(
f)
(t ) = − e + cos t + sin t V
2 2 2

2.11.3 The Impulse Response
♣ Relation between step response and impulse response
1. Continuous-time case: 2. Discrete-time case:
d h [ n ] = s[n] − s[n − 1]
h( t ) = s(t )
dt
2.11.4 Linearity and Time Invariance
♣ Forced response ⇒ Linearity ♣ Natural response ⇒ Linearity
Input Forced response Initial Cond. Natural response
x1 y1(f) I1 y1(n)
x2 y2(f) I2 y2(n)
α x1 + β x2 αy1(f) + β y2 (f) α I1 + β I2 αy1(n) + β y2 (n)
♣ The complete response of an LTI system is not time invariant.
Response due to initial condition will not shift with a time shift of the
input.
2.11.5 Roots of the Characteristic Equation

♣ Roots of characteristic equation
Forced response, natural response, stability, and response time.
★ BIBO Stable:
1. Discrete-time case: ri n bounded ri < 1, for all i
2. Continuous-time case: e i
rt
bounded ℜe{ri } < 0
ri = 1 and ℜe{ri } = 0 ⇒ The system is said to be on the verge of instability.
2.12 Block Diagram Representations

♣ A block diagram is an interconnection of the elementary operations that act
on the input signal.
♣ Three elementary operations for block diagram:
1. Scalar multiplication: y(t) = cx(t) or y[n] = cx[n], where c is a scalar.
2. Addition: y(t) = x(t) + w(t) or y[n] = x[n] + w[n].
3. Integration for continuous-time LTI system: t
; and a time shift for discrete-time LTI

y (t ) =
−∞
x (τ )dτ ∫
system: y[n] = x[n − 1].
Fig. 2.32.

∫
t
y (t ) = ∫ x (τ )dτ
−∞
(a)
(c)
Figure 2.32 (p. 162)

(b) Symbols for elementary operations in block diagram descriptions of systems. (a) Scalar multiplication. (b) Addition. (c)
Integration for continuous-time systems and time shifting for discrete-time systems.
Ex. A discrete-time LTI system: Fig. 2.33.

♣ Direct Form I:
1. In dashed box:
w[n] = b0 x[n] + b1x[n − 1] + b2 x[n − 2] (2.49)
2. y[n] in terms of w[n]:

y[n] = w[n] − a1y[n − 1] − a2 y[n − 2] (2.50)
3. System output y[n] in terms of input x[n]: Cascade Form
y[n] = −a1y[n − 1] − a2 y[n − 2] + b0 x[n] + b1x[n − 1] + b2 x[n − 2] (Direct Form I)
y[n] + a1y[n − 1] + a2 y[n − 2] = b0 x[n] + b1x[n − 1] + b2 x[n − 2] (2.51)
Figure 2.33
(p. 162)
Block diagram representation of a
discrete-time LTI system described
by a second-order difference
equation.

♣ Direct Form II:
1. Interchange the order of Direct Form I.
2. Denote the output of the new first system as f[n].
f[n] = −a1f[n − 1] − a2 f[n − 2] + x[n] (2.52) Input: x[n]
3. The signal is also the input to the second system. The output of the second
system is
y[n] = b0 f[n] + b1f[n − 1] + b2 f[n − 2] (2.53)
Fig. 2.35.
Figure 2.35 (p. 164)

Direct form II representation of an LTI system described by a second-order
difference equation.

♣ Block diagram representation for continuous-time LTI system:
1. Differential Eq.:
N
dk M
dk
∑
k =0
ak k y(t) =∑ bk k x(t) (2.54)
dt k =0 dt
2. Let v(0)(t) = v(t) be an arbitrary signal, and set
(n)
( t ) = ∫−∞ν ( n −1) (τ )dτ ,
t
ν n = 1, 2, 3, ...
v(n)(t) is the n-fold integral of v(t) with respect to time
3. Integrator with initial condition:
(n)
( t ) = ∫0 ν ( n −1) (τ )dτ + ν ( n ) ( 0 ) ,
t
ν n = 1, 2, 3, ...
d (n)
ν ( t ) = ν ( n −1) ( t ) , t > 0 and n = 1, 2, 3, ...
dt Block diagram:
N M Fig. 2.37
∑ ak y (t) =∑ bk x
(N − k )
(N−k )
(t) (2.55)
k =0 k =0 (2.56)
Ex. Second-order system: y(t) = −a1y(1) (t) − a0 y(2) (t) + b2 x(t) + b1x(1) (t) + b0 x(2) (t)

∫ ∫
Figure 2.37 (p. 166)
Block diagram representations of a continuous-time LTI
system described by a second-order integral equation. (a)
Direct form I. (b) Direct form II.
∫ ∫
(a)
(b)

2.13 State-Variable Description of LTI Systems
♣ The state of a system may be defined as a minimal set of signals that
represent the system’s entire memory of the past.
Given initial point ni (or ti) and the input for time n ≥ ni (or t ≥ ti), we can
determine the output for all times n ≥ ni (or t ≥ ti).
2.13.1 The State-Variable Description
1. Direct form II of a second-order LTI system: Fig. 2.39.
2. Choose state variables: q1[n] and q2[n].
3. State equation:
q1[n + 1] = −a1q1[n] − a2q2 [n] + x[n] (2.57)
q2 [n + 1] = q1[n] (2.58)
4. Output equation:
y[n] = x[n] − a1q1[n] − a2q2 [n] + b1q1[n] + b2q2 [n],
y[n] = (b1 − a1 )q1[n] + (b2 − a2 )q2 [n] + x[n] (2.59)
5. Matrix Form of state equation: ⎡ q [n + 1] ⎤ ⎡ −a −a ⎤ ⎡ q [n] ⎤ ⎡ 1⎤
⎢q [n + 1]⎥ = ⎢ 1 ⎥ + ⎢0 ⎥ x[n]
1 1 2 1
⎥ ⎢ (2.60)
⎣ 2 ⎦ ⎣ 0 ⎦⎣ 2 ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
q [n]

Figure 2.39 (p. 167)

Direct form II representation of a second-order discrete-time LTI system depicting state variables q1[n] and q2[n].

6. Matrix form of output equation:
⎡ q1[n] ⎤
y[n] = [b1 − a1 b2 − a2 ] ⎢ ⎥ + [1]x[n] (2.61)
⎣ 2 ⎦
q [n]
Define state vector as the column vector
⎡ q [n] ⎤
q[n] = ⎢ 1 ⎥
⎣q2 [n]⎦
We can rewrite Eqs. (2.60) and (2.61) as
q[n + 1] = Aq[n] + bx[n] (2.62)
y[n] = cq[n] + Dx[n] (2.63)
where matrix A, vectors b and c, and scalar D are given by
⎛ − a1 − a2 ⎞ ⎡1 ⎤
A=⎜ ⎟ b=⎢ ⎥ c = [ b1 − a1 b2 − a2 ] D =1
⎝ 1 0 ⎠ ⎣0 ⎦
Example 2.28 State-Variable Description of a Second-Order System
Find the state-variable description corresponding to the system depicted in
Fig. 2.40 by choosing the state variable to be the outputs of the unit delays.
<Sol.>

Figure 2.40 (p. 169)

Block diagram of LTI system for Example 2.28.
1. State equation:
q1 [ n + 1] = α q1 [ n ] + δ1 x [ n ]
q2 [ n + 1] = γ q1 [ n ] + β q2 [ n ] + δ 2 x [ n ]

2. Output equation:
y [ n ] = η1q1 [ n ] + η2 q2 [ n ]
3. Define state vector as
⎡ q1 [ n ] ⎤
q[ n ] = ⎢ ⎥
⎣ 2 ⎦
q [ n ]
In standard form of dynamic equation:
q[n + 1] = Aq[n] + bx[n] (2.62)
y[n] = cq[n] + Dx[n] (2.63)
⎡α 0⎤ ⎡δ1 ⎤
A=⎢ b=⎢ ⎥ c = [η1 η2 ] D = [ 2]
⎣γ β ⎥⎦ ⎣δ 2 ⎦
♣ State-variable description for continuous-time systems:
d
q(t) = Aq(t) + bx(t) (2.64)
dt
y(t) = cq(t) + Dx(t) (2.65)

Example 2.29 State-Variable Description of an Electrical Circuit
Consider the electrical circuit depicted in Fig. 2.42.
2.42 Derive a state-variable
description of this system if the input is the applied voltage x(t) and the output
is the current y(t) through the resistor.
<Sol.>
Figure 2.42 (p. 171)

Circuit diagram of LTI system for Example 2.29.
1. State variables: The voltage across

each capacitor.
2. KVL Eq. for the loop involving x(t), R1, and C1:
x ( t ) = y ( t ) R1 + q1 ( t ) Output equation
1 1
y(t) = − q1(t) + x(t) (2.66)
R1 R1
3. KVL Eq. for the loop involving C1, R2, and C2:
q1 ( t ) = R2i2 (t ) + q2 (t )

1 1
i2 (t) = q1(t) − q2 (t) (2.67)
R2 R2 Use Eq. (2.67) to eliminate i2(t)
4. The current i2(t) through R2:
d 1 1
q2 ( t ) =
d
i2 ( t ) = C2 q2 (t ) q1 (t ) − q2 (t ) (2.68)
dt dt C2 R2 C2 R2
5. KCL Eq. between R1 and R2:
y ( t ) = i1 ( t ) + i2 ( t ) Current through C1 = i1(t)
where d
i1 ( t ) = C1 q1 ( t )
dt
d ⎛ 1 1 ⎞ 1 1
q1 ( t ) = − ⎜ + ⎟ 1
q ( t ) + q2 ( t ) + x (t ) (2.69)
dt ⎝ C1R1 C2 R2 ⎠ C1R2 C1R1
◆ Eqs. (2.66), (2.68), and (2.69) = State-Variable Description.
d
q(t) = Aq(t) + bx(t) (2.64)
dt
y(t) = cq(t) + Dx(t) (2.65)

⎡ ⎛ 1 1 ⎞ 1 ⎤
⎢− ⎜ + ⎟ ⎥ ⎡ 1 ⎤
⎡ 1 ⎤
A=⎢ ⎝ 1 1
C R C1R2 ⎠ C1R2 ⎥
, b = ⎢ C1R1 ⎥
1
c = ⎢− 0 ⎥ , and D =
⎢ 1 1 ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎣ R1 ⎦ R1
⎢ − ⎥ ⎢⎣ 0 ⎥⎦
⎣ C2 R2 C2 R2 ⎦
Example 2.30 State-Variable Description from a Block Diagram
Determine the state-variable description corresponding to the block diagram in
Fig. 2.44.
2.44 The choice of the state variables is indicated on the diagram.
∫ ∫
Figure 2.44 (p. 172)

Block diagram of LTI system for Example 2.30.
<Sol.>

1. State equation: 3. State-variable description:
d
q1 ( t ) = 2q1 ( t ) − q2 ( t ) + x ( t ) ⎡ 2 −1⎤ ⎡1 ⎤
dt A=⎢ ⎥ , b = ⎢ ⎥,
⎣1 0 ⎦ ⎣0 ⎦
d
q2 ( t ) = q1 ( t ) c = [3 1], D = [0]
dt
2. Output equation:
y ( t ) = 3q1 ( t ) + q2 ( t )
2.13.2 Transformations of The State
The transformation is accomplished by defining a new set of state variables
that are a weighted sum of the original ones.
The input-output characteristic of the system is not changed.
1. Original state-variable description:
q& = Aq + bx (2.70)
y = cq + Dx T = state-transformation matrix
(2.71)
2. Transformation: q’ = Tq q = T−1 q’

3. New state-variable description:
q& ′ = Tq&
& ′ = TAq + Tbx.
1) State equation: q
q& ′ = TAT−1q′ + Tbx. q = T−1 q’
2) Output equation:
y = cT−1q + Dx.
3) If we set
A′ = TAT−1 , b′ = Tb, c′ = cT−1 , and D′ = D
then
q& ′ = A ′q + b′x and y = c′q + D′x
Ex. Consider Example 2.30 again. Let us define new states
q2′ (t ) = q1 (t ) and q1′(t ) = q2 (t )
Find the state-variable description.
<Sol.>
d d
1. State equation: q1 (t ) = 2q1 (t ) − q2 (t ) + x (t ) ⇒ q2′ (t ) = 2q2′ (t ) − q1′(t ) + x (t )
dt
144444244444
3 dt
14444 4244444 3
old description New description

d d 3. State-variable description:
q2 (t ) = q1 (t ) ⇒ q1′(t ) = q2′ (t )
dt 4244 dt 4244 ⎡ 0 1⎤ ⎡0 ⎤
14 3 14 3 ′
A =⎢ ⎥, ′
b = ⎢ ⎥,
Old description New description
⎣ − 1 2 ⎦ ⎣1 ⎦
c′ = [1 3], D′ = [ 0 ] .
2. Output equation:
y = 3q1 (t ) + q2 (t ) ⇒ y = 3q2′ (t ) + q1′(t )
1442443 1442443
Old description New description
Example 2.31 Transforming The State

A discrete-time system has the state-variable description
1 ⎡ −1 4 ⎤ ⎡2⎤ 1
A= ⎢ ⎥ , b = ⎢ ⎥, c = [1 1] , and D = 2.
10 ⎣ 4 −1⎦ ⎣4⎦ 2
Find the state-variable description A′, b′, c′, D′ corresponding to the new states
q1′[n] = − 12 q1[n] + 12 q2 [n] and q2′ [n] = 12 q1[ n] + 12 q2 [n]
<Sol.>
1. Transformation: q′ = Tq, where
1 ⎡ −1 1⎤
T= ⎢ ⎥ .
2 ⎣ 1 1⎦

⎡ −1 1⎤
T−1 = ⎢ ⎥ .
⎣ 1 1⎦
2. New state-variable description:
⎡ − 12 0⎤ ⎡1 ⎤
A′ = ⎢ ⎥, b′ = ⎢ ⎥ , c′ = [0 1] , and D′ = 2.
⎣3⎦
3
⎢⎣ 0 10 ⎥
⎦
♣ This choice for T results in A′ being a diagonal matrix and thus separates
the state update into the two decoupled first-order difference equations
1 3
q1 [ n + 1] = − q1 [ n ] + x [ n ] and q2 [ n + 1] = q2 [ n ] + 3 x [ n ]
2 10
2.14 Exploring Concepts with MATLAB
♣ Two limitations:
1. MATLAB is not easily used in the continuous-time case.
2. Finite memory or storage capacity and nonzero computation times.
♣ Both the MATLAB Signal Processing Toolbox and Control System Toolbox
are use in this section.

2.14.1 Convolution x and h are signal vectors.
1. MATLAB command: y = conv(x, h)
2. The number of elements in y is given by the sum of the number of elements in
x and h, minus one.
<pf.>
1) Elements in vector x: from time n = kx to n = lx
2) Elements in vector h: from time n = kh to n = lh
3) Elements in vector y: from time n = ky = kx + kh to n = ly = lx + ly
4) The length of x[n] and h[n] are Lx = lx − kx + 1 and Lh = lh − kh +1
5) The length of y[n] is Ly = Lx + Lh − 1
Ex. Repeat Example 2.1
Impulse and Input : From time n = kh = kx = 0 to n = lh = 1 and n = lx =2
Convolution sum: From time n = ky = kx + kh = 0 to n = ly = lx + lh = 3
The length of convolution sum: Ly = ly – ky + 1 = 4
MATLAB Program: >> h = [1, 0.5]; y=
>> x = [2, 4, -2];
>> y = conv(x,h) 2 5 0 -1

Repeat Example 2.3 Impulse response Input
Given h [ n ] = (1 4 ) ( u [ n ] − u [ n − 4]) and x [ n ] = u [ n ] − u [ n − 10] .

Find the convolution sum x[n] ∗ h[n].
<Sol.>
1. In this case, kh = 0, lh = 3, kx = 0 and lx = 9
2. y starts at time n = ky = 0, ends at time n = ly =12, and has length Ly = 13.
3. Generation for vector h with MATLAB:
>> h = 0.25*ones(1, 4);
>> x = ones(1, 10);
4. Output and its plot:
>> n = 0:12;
>> y = conv(x, h);
>> stem(n, y); xlabel('n'); ylabel('y[n]')
Fig. 2.45.

Figure 2.45 (p. 177)

Convolution sum computed using MATLAB.

2.14.2 The Step Response
1. Step response = the output of a system in response to a step input
2. In general, step response is infinite in duration.
3. We can evaluate the first p values of the step response using the conv
function if h[n] = 0 for n < kh by convolving the first p values of h[n] with a
finite-duration step of length p.
1) Vector h = the first p nonzero values of the impulse response.
2) Define step: u = ones(1, p).
3) convolution: s = conv(u, h).
Ex. Repeat Problem 2.12
Determine the first 50 values of the step response of the system with impulse
response given by
h [ n] = ( ρ ) u [ n]
n
with ρ = − 0.9, by using MATLAB program.

<Sol.>
1. MATLAB Commands:

>> h = (-0.9).^[0:49];
>> u = ones(1, 50);
>> s = conv(u, h);
>> stem([0:49], s(1:50))
2. Step response: Fig. 2.47.
Figure 2.47 (p. 178)

Step response computed using MATLAB.
2.14.3 Simulating Difference equations

N M
1. Difference equation:
∑ a y[n − k] =∑ b x[n − k]
k =0
k
k =0
k (2.36) Command:
filter

2. Procedure:
1) Define vectors a = [a0, a1, …, aN] and b =[b0, b1, …, bM] representing the
coefficients of Eq. (2.36).
2) Input vector: x
3) y = filter(b, a, x) results in a vector y representing the output of the system
for zero initial conditions.
4) y = filter(b, a, x, zi) results in a vector y representing the output of the
system for nonzero initial conditions zi.
♣ The initial conditions used by filter are not the past values of the output.
♣ Command zi = filtic(b, a, yi), where yi is a vector containing the initial
conditions in the order [y[−1], y[−2], …, y[−N]], generates the initial
conditions obtained from the knowledge of the past outputs.
Ex. Repeat Example 2.16
The system of interest is described by the difference equation
y[ n] −1.143y [ n − 1] + 0.4128 y [ n − 2] = 0.0675x[ n] + 0.1349x[ n − 1] + 0.675x[ n − 2]
Determine the output in response to zero input and initial condition (2.73)
y[−1] = 1 and y[−2] = 2.
<Sol.>

1. MATLAB Program:
>> a = [1, -1.143, 0.4128]; b = [0.0675, 0.1349, 0.675];
>> x = zeros(1, 50); 0.5
>> zi = filtic(b, a, [1, 2]);
>> y = filter(b, a, x, zi); 0.4
>> stem(y)
2. Output: Fig. 2.28(b). 0.3
3. System response to an
0.2
input consisting of the
Intel stock price data
0.1
Intc:
>> load Intc; 0
>> filtintc = filter(b, a, Intc);
-0.1
♣ We have assume that the
Intel stock price data are
-0.2
in the file Intc.mat. 0 10 20 30 40 50
♣ The command [h, t] = impz(b, a, n) evaluates n values of the impulse response
of a system described by a different equation.

2.14.4 State-Variable Descriptions
♣ MATLAB command: ss Representing the matices A,b,c, and D.
1. Input MATLAB arrays: a, b, c, d
2. Command: sys = ss(a, b, c, d, -1) produces an LTI object sys that represents
the discrete-time system in state-variable form.
★ Continuous-time case: sys = ss(a, b, c, d)
No − 1
♣ System manipulation:
1. sys = sys1 + sys2 Parallel combination of sys1 and sys2.
2. sys = sys1 ∗ sys2 Cascade combination of sys1 and sys2.
♣ MATLAB command: lsim
1. Command form: y = lsim(sys, x)
2. Output = y, input = x.
♣ MATLAB command: impulse
1. Command form: h = impulse(sys, N)
2. This command places the first N values of the impulse response in h.
♣ MATLAB routine: ss2ss Perform the state transformation
1. Command form: sysT = ss2ss(sys, T), where T = Transformation matrix

Ex. Repeat Example 2.31.
1. Original state-variable description:
1 ⎡ −1 4 ⎤ ⎡2⎤ 1
A= ⎢ ⎥ , b = ⎢ ⎥, c= [1 1], and D = 2,
10 ⎣ 4 −1⎦ ⎣4⎦ 2
2. State-transformation matrix:
1 ⎡ −1 1⎤
T= ⎢ ⎥ .
2 ⎣ 1 1⎦
3. MATLAB Program:
>> a = [-0.1, 0.4; 0.4, -0.1]; b = [2; 4];
>> c = [0.5, 0.5]; d = 2;
>> sys = ss(a, b, c, d, -1); % define the state-space object sys
>> T = 0.5*[-1, 1; 1, 1];
>> sysT = ss2ss(sys, T)
4. Result:

a= b=
x1 x2 u1 c= d=
x1 -0.5 0 x1 1 x1 x2 u1
x2 0 0.3 x2 3 y1 0 1 y1 2
Sampling time: unspecified
Discrete-time model.
Ex. Verify that the two systems represented by sys and sysT have identical
input-output characteristic by comparing their impulse responses .
<Sol.>
1. MATLAB Program: >> h = impulse(sys, 10); hT = impulse(sysT, 10);
>> subplot(2, 1, 1)
>> stem([0:9], h)
>> title ('Original System Impulse Response');
>> xlabel('Time'); ylabel('Amplitude')
>> subplot(2, 1, 2)
>> stem([0:9], hT)
>> title('Transformed System Impulse Response');
>> xlabel('Time'); ylabel('Amplitude')

Original System Impulse Response
2. Simulation results: 3
Fig. 2.48.
♣ We may verify that 2
Amplitude
the original and
transformed systems
1
have the (numerically)
identical impulse
response by computing 0
0 2 4 6 8 10
the error, err = h – hT. Time
Transformed System Impulse Response
3
2
Amplitude
Figure 2.48
(p. 181)
Impulse responses associated with the original 1
and transformed state-variable descriptions
computer using MATLAB.
0
0 2 4 6 8 10
Time

-17
x 10
1
-1
Amplitude err
-2
-3
-4
-5
-6
0 2 4 6 8 10
Time
Plot for err = h − hT

2.2 The convolution sum

:
:






x[n ] → x[k ]
h[n ] → h[k ] → h[−k ] → h[n − k ]




Appendix: Application of convolution sum

on Imaging Processing (I)
Averaging filters or lowpass filters


on Imaging Processing (I)

on Imaging Processing (II)
Laplacian Operator
Laplacian operator is an
isotropic filter (rotation
invariant)

g(x,y)


CH 02

Загружено:

Сведения о документе

Исходное описание:

Оригинальное название

Авторское право

Доступные форматы

Поделиться этим документом

Поделиться или встроить документ

Параметры публикации

Этот документ был вам полезен?

Это неприемлемый материал?

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

CH 02

Загружено:

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

Signals and Systems, 2/E by Simon Haykin and Barry Van Veen

Chapter 2. Time-Domain Representation of

Chapter 2. Time-Domain Representation of

2.2 Convolution Sum

x [ n ] = L + x [ −2]δ [ n + 2] + x [ −1]δ [ n + 1] + x [0]δ [ n ]

Chapter 2. Time-Domain Representation of

2. Impulse response of LTI system H:

Chapter 2. Time-Domain Representation of

Figure 2.2a (p. 100) Illustration of the

Chapter 2. Time-Domain Representation of

Chapter 2. Time-Domain Representation of

Example 2.1 Multipath Communication Channel: Direct Evaluation of the

Chapter 2. Time-Domain Representation of

Chapter 2. Time-Domain Representation of

2. Define the intermediate signal: ωn [k] = x[k]h[n − k] (2.5)

Chapter 2. Time-Domain Representation of

Chapter 2. Time-Domain Representation of

Chapter 2. Time-Domain Representation of

Chapter 2 Discrete-Time Signal and Systems

Chapter 2 Discrete-Time Signal and Systems

y[n] = x[n] ∗ h[n]

Chapter 2 Discrete-Time Signal and Systems

Chapter 2 Discrete-Time Signal and Systems

Chapter 2. Time-Domain Representation of

Chapter 2. Time-Domain Representation of

Figure 2.4 (p. 106)

Chapter 2. Time-Domain Representation of

Fig. 2.4 (d). 1) For n < 0 and n > 12: y[n] = 0.

Chapter 2. Time-Domain Representation of

Chapter 2. Time-Domain Representation of

Chapter 2. Time-Domain Representation of

y [n] = ρ n ∑ ⎜ ⎟ Assuming that ρ =

Chapter 2. Time-Domain Representation of

Figure 2.5c (p. 110)

Chapter 2. Time-Domain Representation of

Chapter 2. Time-Domain Representation of

Figure 2.6 (p. 111)

Chapter 2. Time-Domain Representation of

Chapter 2. Time-Domain Representation of

Chapter 2. Time-Domain Representation of

⎝ 1.08 ⎠ ⎝ 1.08 ⎠ summing a

Chapter 2. Time-Domain Representation of

(1.08 ) −1 n −16 (1.08 ) − 1

y [ n ] = 1000 (1.08 ) − 1500 (1.08 )

6. Fig. 2,7(e) depicts y[n], the value of

Figure 2.7e (p. 113)

Chapter 2. Time-Domain Representation of

2. Impulse response of LTI system H: Input x(t) Output y(t)

Chapter 2. Time-Domain Representation of

2.5 Convolution Integral Evaluation Procedure

h (t − τ) = h (− (τ − t)) is a reflected and shifted (by − t) version of h(τ).

Chapter 2. Time-Domain Representation of

Chapter 2. Time-Domain Representation of

Figure 2.10 (p. 117)

Chapter 2. Time-Domain Representation of

Chapter 2. Time-Domain Representation of

Chapter 2. Time-Domain Representation of

Chapter 2. Time-Domain Representation of

Chapter 2. Time-Domain Representation of

3) For third interval 2 ≤ t:

Example 2.8 Another Reflect-and-Shift Convolution Evaluation

Chapter 2. Time-Domain Representation of