FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS : COMPUTER SYSTEM

Introduction: The word computer has been originated from the Latin word ‘Computerae’ which means ‘to
Calculate’ or ‘to Compute” .Computers play a key role in individuals work and their life. Even the smallest
organizations have computers to help them operate more efficiently, and many individuals use computer at
home for educational, entertainment and business purposes.

Computer Generations:
The evolution of computer started from 16th century and resulted in the form that we see today. The present
day computer, however, has also undergone rapid change during the last fifty years. This period, during
which the evolution of computer took place, can be divided into five distinct phases known as Generations
of Computers. Each phase is distinguished from others on the basis of the type of switching circuits used.
First Generation Computers: First generation computers used Thermion valves. These computers were
large in size and writing programs on them was difficult. Some of the computers of this generation were:
ENIAC: Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator (ENIAC). It was the first electronic computer built
in 1946 at University of Pennsylvania, USA . EDVAC: It stands for Electronic Discrete Variable
Automatic Computer and was developed in 1950.
Second Generation Computers: It is in the second generation that the concept of Central Processing Unit
(CPU), memory, programming language and input and output units were developed. Some of the names of
the computer are: IBM 1620, IBM 1401, CDC 3600.
Third Generation Computers: The third generation computers were introduced in 1964. They used
Integrated Circuits (ICs). These ICs are popularly known as Chips. Some of the computers developed during
this period were IBM-360, ICL-1900, IBM-370, and VAX-750.
Fourth Generation Computers: The present day computers that you see today are the fourth generation
computers that started around 1975. It uses large scale Integrated Circuits (LSIC) built on a single silicon
chip called microprocessors. Due to the development of microprocessor it is possible to place computer’s
central processing unit (CPU) on single chip. These computers are called microcomputers. Later very large
scale Integrated Circuits (VLSIC) replaced LSICs.
Fifth Generation Computer: The computers of 1990s are said to be Fifth Generation computers. The
speed is extremely high in fifth generation computer. Apart from this it can perform parallel processing. The
concept of Artificial intelligence has been introduced to allow the computer to take its own decision. It is
still in a developmental stage.
A COMPUTER HAS FOUR FUNCTIONS: A. Accepts data Input
B. Processes data Processing
C. Produces output Output
D. Stores result Storage

Fig 1. Functions of
Computer

TYPES OF COMPUTER: Mainly three types of Computer. There are :

1. Analog Computer 2. Hybrid Computer 3. Digital Computer
 1. Analog Computer : An analog Computer computes by measuring changes in a continuous physical
phenomenon such as Length, etc.
2. Hybrid Computer : The Hybrid Computer uses both the analog and digital components. These
computers use digital memory for the storage and analog device for computational purpose.
3. Digital computer : The various classes of digital computer are –
Microcomputers: Microcomputer is at the lowest end of the computer range in terms of speed and storage
capacity. Its CPU is a microprocessor. The first microcomputers were built of 8-bit microprocessor chips.
The most common application of personal computers (PC) is in this category. Personal computers are
desktop computers designed for an individual’s use. They run programmes designed to help individuals
accomplish their work more productively. Example –, Desktop, Laptop, Tablet.
Mini Computers: Minicomputers are multi-user systems that can handle the computing needs of a smaller
corporation or organization. Many people use them simultaneously by means of remote terminals or
personal computers. Example – IBM 9375
Mainframe computers: Are large-sized, powerful multi-user computers that can support concurrent
programs. That means, they can perform different actions or ‘processes’ at the same time. Mainframe
computers can be used by as many as hundreds or thousands of users at the same time. Example – IBM 4300
Series.

Supercomputers: They are the fastest and most expensive machines. They have high processing speed
compared to other computers. They have also multiprocessing technique. One of the ways in which
supercomputers are built is by interconnecting hundreds of microprocessors. Supercomputers are mainly
being used for weather forecasting, biomedical research, remote sensing, aircraft design and other areas of
science and technology. Examples of supercomputers are CRAY YMP, CRAY2, NEC SX-3, CRAY XMP
and PARAM from India.

HARDWARE
A computer consists of two broad categories of components: hardware and software. Any part of a
computer , which can be seen by the eyes and felt by touching is called its hardware.
 INPUT DEVICES: An input device lets you communicate with a computer. The input devices can be
used to enter information and issue commands. A keyboard, mouse, scanner, digital camera, touch pads
and joystick are examples of input devices.
Some Common Computer Input Devices:
Keyboard : It is used to type data into the computer. It has special keys for giving the computer commands.
These special keys are called command or function keys.
Mouse : A mouse is the most widely used pointing device with a GUI environment on personal computers.
It is user-friendly for computer beginners. But the problems are - Mouse usually requires a flat surface to
operate , It is not easy and convenient to input text with a mouse.
Touchpad : Is a small pressure- and motion-sensitive area on a portable computer that you can use to move
the mouse pointer.
When you move your finger across the pad, the mouse pointer on the screen moves in the same direction. A
touch pad is an
Alternative to a mouse.

Joystick : A joystick is a pointing device with a vertical lever mounted on a base. A joystick allows fast
interactions required in most games.
Bar Code Reader : A bar code reader uses laser beams to read bar codes. A bar code reader reads a bar
code by using light patterns that pass through the bar code lines. Bar code readers are widely used in
supermarkets, department stores, libraries, etc.

Scanner : A scanner is a light-sensing input device that converts printed text and graphics into a digital
form that can be further processed by the computer.

OMR : Optical mark recognition (OMR) readers can sense hand-drawn marks such as small circles or
rectangles made on pre-printed forms in certain places. The OMR reader first reads the answer key sheet to
record the correct answers based on the patterns of light, and then reads the remaining documents and
matches their patterns of light against the answer key sheet.

Light Pen: A light pen is a pointing device that can detect the presence of light. Using a light pen is more
direct and precise than using a mouse. Light pen is also convenient for applications with limited desktop
space.

Digital Camera : A digital camera takes pictures and stores the images digitally, rather than on traditional
film. The photo taken by a digital camera can be used directly by a computer.

OUT PUT DEVICES: An output device is a device that makes information available to the user. Popular
output devices include display screens (monitors), printers, television screens, and speakers. Some output
devices, such as a printer, produce output in hard copy (tangible) form, such as on paper or plastic. Other
output devices, such as a monitor, produce output in soft copy (intangible) form that can be viewed, but not
physically handled.
Some Common Computer Output Devices:
VDU: A visual Display Unit (VDU) or Monitors are the most popular output devices used for producing
soft-copy output. Monitors can display graphics, text and video. A color monitor can display from 16 to over
1 million different colors. There are many types of printer available. There are: CRT, LCD, LED etc.

Printer: A printer is an output device that produces a printout or hard copy of the output from a computer.
There are many types of printer available. There are :

 Dot Matrix Printer : A dot matrix printer forms characters and graphics on the paper by producing
pattern of dots. Dot matrix printers are relatively cheap and so is the stationery that they use. This
type of printers are generally noisy. Slow, with speeds usually ranging between 30 to 600 characters
per second.
 Inkjet Printers: Inkjet Printers are very quite to operate and can produce good quality printouts of
both graphics and text. Inkjet printers are generally quiet, can produce high quality color output.
 Laser printers: Laser printers can print text at speeds of four to over thirty pages per minute. The
cost per page of toner cartridges is lower than other printers. Laser printers are quiet and fast. Etc.

Speaker: A speaker or speaker system converts an electrical signal to sound. Loudspeakers are the most
variable elements in an audio system and are responsible for the greatest degree of audible differences
between sound systems. Example : Loudspeaker , Headphone.

SYSTEM UNIT:
CPU: CPU does all the mathematics, mainly addition and also does logical comparisons of values. It directs
the flow of data in a computer. It also controls the operation of the parts of the computer. It has three basic
units.
 Arithmetic-Logic Unit (ALU): All calculation are performed in the arithmetic section, Operations
like comparing takes place in the logic section of the CPU.
  Control Unit : The control section of the CPU controls and directs the operation of the entire
system. It acts like the central nervous system for all the components though; it does not process any
data.
 Registers: It is used to store data and instructions inside the processor.

Speed: The speed of CPUs is measured in hertzs. A hertzs is one cycle per second. Most computers have a
CPU that can do more than 400MHz.
MHz stands for megahertzs. A MHz
is 1,000.000 cycles per second.
Computers are now running of over
a gigahertz, 1,000.000,000
Hertzs.

Fig 2. Basic computer Operations

COMPUTER MEMORY
Memory: There are two forms of primary memory-There are two kinds of computer memory: primary and
secondary. Primary memory is accessible directly by the processing unit. RAM is an example of primary
memory. As soon as the computer is switched off the contents of the primary memory is lost. Secondary
memory such as floppy disks, magnetic disk, etc., is located outside the computer. Primary memory is more
expensive than secondary memory. Because of this the size of primary memory is less than that of secondary
memory.
 1. RAM (Random Access Memory) :
It is a read/write memory. Data can be stored by addressing one RAM cell. The data and
programming instructions fed via the input device are stored in the RAM temporarily until that
program is used. RAM may be updated. RAM is volatile memory. There are 2 types of RAM.
a. Static RAM – It retains the stored information until the computer is working.
b. Dynamic RAM – It retains stored information only until the program is working and loses the
information once the program execution is completed.

2. ROM (Read Only Memory) :

The instructions can only be read by the computer. The instructions related to system operations are
stored here. These instructions are written by the manufacturer and cannot be edited by the user.
RAM is non volatile memory
There are 3 types of ROM
a. PROM - Programmable Read Only Memory It is a non-volatile memory. Instructions can be
written once by the programmer and then subsequently read.
b. EPROM – Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory. Instructions can be rewritten by the
programmer using special techniques. The instructions are erased using UV light and rewritten.
c. EEPROM – Electronic Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory It is advancement over
EPROM, and the chip need not be taken out from the machine.

3. CACHE MEMORY : CACHE memories are accessed much faster than conventional RAM.

SOME UNIT WITH THEIR SIZE

UNIT SIZE
STORAGE Bit One Binary Digit DEVICES:
Byte 8 Bits
STORAGE DEVICES:
Kilo Byte 1024 Bytes
The computer stores
information as Mega Byte 1024 Kilo Byte a string of
Zeros (0) and Giga Byte 1024 Mega Byte Ones (1). The
standard string Tera Byte 1024 Giga Byte length is eight
0’s or 1’s in a row. The standard length is called a byte. A byte equals one character. A character is a letter,
number or symbol. There are 256 standard characters used by almost all computers.
Some Common Storage Devices:
Floppy Disk : It is the most common storage media and it helps transferring the data from one computer to
another. Capacity : 1.44 MB.
Hard Disk : The capacity of a hard disk is higher than that of a floppy. The most significant difference
between a floppy disk and a hard disk is that the hard disk is completely sealed and is protected from dust
and airborne particles. Capacity: 500 GB, 1TB etc.

Compact Disk : A type of disk drive that can create CD-ROMs and audio CDs. A feature of many CD-R
drives, called multisession recording, enables you to keep adding data to a CD-ROM over time. Capacity:
700 MB.

Digital Versatile Disk: A DVD can hold more than 4 times as much data as a CD. Capacity: 4.7 GB

Pen Drive:
Pen Drives are typically removable and rewritable. Pen Drives offer potential advantages over other portable
storage devices. They have a more compact shape, operate faster, hold much more data, have a more durable
design, and operate more reliably due to their lack of moving parts. Capacity: 64 MB – 64 GB.

SOFTWARE
Software: It requires a set of instructions that tells the computer what is to be done with the input data. In
computer terminology, this set of instructions is called a program and one or more programs is termed as
software. There are three main types of soft ware- a) System Software, b) Application Software, c) Utilities
Software.
System Software :
It is a type of programme that acts like a conductor in an orchestra. It directs all the activities and sets all the
rules for how the hardware and software work together. MSDOS and Microsoft Windows are examples of
system software or operating system software. Some system software is built into the computer in ROM
chips and BIOS. The system software helps to setup the computer and start it.
Application Software:
Application software programmes work with the operating system software to help the user to use the
computer to do specific types of work such as word processing to type a letter. Examples of general purpose
application software: Word Processing Software, Spreadsheet Software, Database software, Paint and draw
software, Desktop Publishing Software etc.
Utilities Software:
It is used to debug the software errors, correct the data through the editor, soft data etc. Example: PkZip,
Antivirus etc.