Ancient Atomic Theory

One of the first atomic theorists was Democritus, a Greek

philosopher who lived in the fifth century BC. Democritus knew
that if a stone was divided in half, the two halves would have
essentially the same properties as the whole. Therefore, he reasoned
that if the stone were to be continually cut into smaller and smaller
pieces then; at some point, there would be a piece which would be
so small as to be indivisible. He called these small pieces of matter
"atomos," the Greek word for indivisible. Democritus, theorized
that atoms were specific to the material which they composed. In
addition, Democritus believed that the atoms differed in size and
shape, were in constant motion in a void, collided with each other; and during these
collisions, could rebound or stick together. Therefore, changes in matter were a result of
dissociations or combinations of the atoms as they moved throughout the void. Although
Democritus' theory was remarkable, it was rejected by Aristotle, one of the most influential
philosophers of Ancient Greece; and the atomic theory was ignored for nearly 2,000 years.

Early Atomic Theory

Although the idea of the atom was first suggested by Democritus in the
fourth century BC, his suppositions were not useful in explaining
chemical phenomena, because there was no experimental evidence to
support them. It was not until the late 1700's that early chemists began
to explain chemical behavior in terms of the atom. Joseph Priestly,
Antoine Lavoisier, and others set the stage for the foundation of
chemistry. They demonstrated that substances could combine to form
new materials. It was the English chemist, John Dalton, who put the
pieces of the puzzle together and developed an atomic theory in 1803.

Dalton's atomic theory contains five basic assumptions:

 All matter consists of tiny particles called atoms. Dalton and others imagined
the atoms that composed all matter as tiny, solid spheres in various stages of
motion.
 Atoms are indestructible and unchangeable. Atoms of an element cannot be
created, destroyed, divided into smaller pieces, or transformed into atoms of
another element. Dalton based this hypothesis on the law of conservation of
mass as stated by Antoine Lavoisier and others around 1785.
 Law of conservation of mass: Matter can be neither created nor destroyed in an
ordinary chemical or physical process.

 Elements are characterized by the weight of their atoms. Dalton suggested

that all atoms of the same element have identical weights. Therefore, every single
atom of an element such as oxygen is identical to every other oxygen atom.
However, atoms of different elements, such as oxygen and mercury, are different
from each other.

Elements: Substances that cannot be broken down into simpler substances

 In chemical reactions, atoms combine in small, whole-number ratios.

Experiments that Dalton and others performed indicated that chemical
reactions proceed according to atom to atom ratios which were precise and well-
defined.
 Chemical reactions: The changing of substances to other substances by the
breaking of old bonds and the formation of new bonds.
 When elements react, their atoms may combine in more than one whole-
number ratio. Dalton used this assumption to explain why the ratios of two
elements in various compounds, such as oxygen and nitrogen in nitrogen oxides,
differed by multiples of each other.

John Dalton's atomic theory was generally accepted because it explained the laws of
conservation of mass, definite proportions, multiple proportions, and other
observations. Although exceptions to Dalton's theory are now known, his theory has
endured reasonably well, with modifications, throughout the years.

Law of definite proportions: In any chemical compound, the elements are always
combined in the same proportion by mass.

Law of multiple proportions: Whenever two elements form more than one compound,
the different masses of one element that combine with the same mass of the other element
are in the ratio of small whole numbers.

Modern Atomic Theory: Electrically Charged Particles

Approximately fifty years after John Dalton's proposal of the atom, evidence began to
accumulate which suggested that the atom might not be the solid sphere that Dalton had
envisioned. This evidence came in the form of the discovery of electrically charged
particles and radioactive materials. Based on these new discoveries, Dalton's proposal of a
solid, indestructible atom became unacceptable. Listed below, are a few of the significant
discoveries that were clues that led to the development of the modern theory of the atom.

In the 1830's, Michael Faraday, a British physicist, made one of the most significant
discoveries that led to the idea that atoms had an electrical component. Faraday placed two
opposite electrodes in a solution of water containing a dissolved compound. He observed
that one of the elements of the dissolved compound accumulated on one electrode, and the
other element was deposited on the opposite electrode. It was clear to Faraday that
electrical forces were responsible for the joining of atoms in compounds.

Electrode: A conductor in a circuit that carries electrons to or from a substance other

than a metal

In 1879, Sir William Crookes studied the effects of sending an electric current through a
gas in a sealed tube. The tube had electrodes at either end and a flow of electrically charged
particles moved from one of electrodes. This electrode was called the cathode, and the
particles were known as cathode rays. The particles were first believed to be negatively
charged atoms or molecules. However, subsequent experiments showed that these particles
could penetrate thin sheets of material which would not be possible if the particles were as
large as atoms or molecules.

Cathode: The electrode at which reduction occurs.

Cathode rays: Streams of electrons produced at the negative electrode of a tube containing
a gas at low pressure

In 1895, Wilhelm Roentgen, experimenting with cathode rays, discovered new and
different kinds of rays. Roentgen discovered that if he directed these rays toward a paper
plate coated with barium platinocyanide, the plate became fluorescent. During subsequent
experiments, he found the rays created an image on a photographic plate. These "new" rays
were originally known as Roentgen rays. We know them today as x-rays which are part of
the electromagnetic spectrum.

Fluorescent: Emission of electromagnetic radiation, especially visible light,

resulting from the absorption of incident radiation.

X-rays: Form of electromagnetic radiation, similar to light but of shorter wavelength and
capable of penetrating solids and of ionizing gases.

Electromagnetic spectrum: The full range of light at different frequencies and

wavelengths
Modern Atomic Theory: Radioactive Materials

In 1896, Henri Bequerel was studying the

fluorescent properties of uranium salts and placed
a piece of the uranium salt on top of a photographic
plate wrapped in black paper. He discovered, upon
development, that the plate was exposed in the
shape of the uranium sample. Bequerel had
discovered radioactivity. The radiation emitted by
the uranium shared certain properties with x-rays
and light. Becquerel and two of his students, Marie
and Pierre Curie, shared the 1903 Nobel Prize in
Physics for their studies in spontaneous radiation.
Bequerel's photographic plate
Further experiments by other scientists showed
that when the beam from a radioactive ore was passed through a strong magnetic field,
there were three kinds of radiation emitted. These rays were
named alpha, beta, and gamma by Ernest Rutherford. Alpha radiation is a stream of
positive particles composed of two protons and two neutrons (helium nuclei), beta radiation
is a stream of particles with negative charges now known as electrons, and gamma radiation
is part of the electromagnetic spectrum.

Alpha particle: A positively charged particle emitted from certain radioactive nuclei;
It consists of two protons and two neutrons and is identical to the nucleus of a helium atom.

Beta particle: A fast-moving electron emitted from certain radioactive nuclei; It is formed
when a neutron decomposes.

Gamma rays: Very penetrating rays not appreciably deflected by a magnetic or electric
field, emitted by radioactive substances

Based on the evidence of experiments in the latter part of the 19th century, it became
apparent that the atom was not a solid sphere, and was far more complex than originally
thought by the early Greek philosophers and John Dalton. A new model of the atom would
have to be developed to incorporate these new findings.

Model: A visual, verbal and/or mathematical explanation of data collected from

many experiments.

Electron: A negatively charged subatomic particle.

Neutron: A subatomic particle with zero charge and a mass of one amu found in the
nucleus of the atom.
Quarks: Particles of which neutrons and protons are composed

Modern Atomic Theory: Models

In 1897, J.J. Thomson discovered the electron by experimenting with a Crookes, or

cathode ray, tube. He demonstrated that cathode rays were negatively charged. In addition,
he also studied positively charged particles in neon gas. Thomson realized that the accepted
model of an atom did not account for negatively or positively charged particles. Therefore,
he proposed a model of the atom which he likened to plum pudding. The negative electrons
represented the raisins in the pudding and the dough contained the positive charge.
Thomson's model of the atom did explain some of the electrical properties of the atom due
to the electrons, but failed to recognize the positive charges in the atom as particles.

In 1911, Ernest Rutherford, a former student of J.J. Thomson, proved Thomson's plum
pudding structure incorrect. Rutherford with the assistance of Ernest Marsden and Hans
Geiger performed a series of experiments using alpha particles. Rutherford aimed alpha
particles at solid substances such as gold foil and recorded the location of the alpha particle
"strikes" on a fluorescent screen as they passed through the foil. To the experimenters’
amazement, although most of the alpha particles passed unaffected through the gold foil as
expected, a small number of particles were deflected at an angle, and a few ricocheted
straight back. Rutherford concluded that the atom consisted of a small, dense, positively
charged nucleus in the center of the atom with negatively charged electrons surrounding it.
The discovery of the nucleus is considered to be Rutherford's greatest scientific work.

Modern Atomic Theory: Models

In 1913, Neils Bohr, a student of Rutherford's,

developed a new model of the atom. He proposed
that electrons are arranged in concentric circular
orbits around the nucleus. This model is patterned on
the solar system and is known as the planetary model.
The Bohr model can be summarized by the following
four principles:

1. Electrons occupy only certain orbits around

the nucleus. Those orbits are stable and are
called "stationary" orbits.
2. Each orbit has an energy associated
with it. The orbit nearest the nucleus has an
energy of E1, the next orbit E2, etc. Bohr model
3. Energy is absorbed when an electron
jumps from a lower orbit to a higher one and energy is emitted when an electron
falls from a higher orbit to a lower orbit.
 4. The energy and frequency of light emitted or absorbed can be calculated by
using the difference between the two orbital energies.

In 1926 Erwin Schrödinger, an Austrian physicist, took the

Bohr atom model one step further. Schrödinger used
mathematical equations to describe the likelihood of finding
an electron in a certain position. This atomic model is known
as the quantum mechanical model of the atom. Unlike the
Bohr model, the quantum mechanical model does not define
the exact path of an electron, but rather, predicts the odds of
the location of the electron. This model can be portrayed as
a nucleus surrounded by an electron cloud. Where the cloud
is most dense, the probability of finding the electron is
greatest, and conversely, the electron is less likely to be in a Quantum mechanical model
less dense area of the cloud. Thus, this model introduced the
concept of sub-energy levels.

Until 1932, the atom was believed to be composed of a positively charged nucleus
surrounded by negatively charged electrons. In 1932, James Chadwick bombarded
beryllium atoms with alpha particles. An unknown radiation was produced. Chadwick
interpreted this radiation as being composed of particles with a neutral electrical charge
and the approximate mass of a proton. This particle became known as the neutron. With
the discovery of the neutron, an adequate model of the atom became available to chemists.

Since 1932, through continued experimentation, many additional particles have been
discovered in the atom. Also, new elements have been created by bombarding existing
nuclei with various subatomic particles. The atomic theory has been further enhanced by
the concept that protons and neutrons are made of even smaller units called quarks. The
quarks themselves are in turn made of vibrating strings of energy. The theory of the
composition of the atom continues to be an ongoing and exciting adventure.

Lesson Objective

In this lesson we will review how to balance chemical reactions and use mole ratios and
molar masses to determine theoretical yields

Previously we covered...

 The mole concept is used in chemistry as a way to count atoms and molecules
by weighing them.
 The number of moles of a substance can be determined from the amount and
the molar mass.
If the number of moles of a substance is known, the number of grams present can be
determined

Chemical Calculations

The coefficients in a balanced equation represent the number of molecules or atoms that
are reacting and are produced. For example, in the formation of water, 2 molecules of
hydrogen gas react with 1 molecule of oxygen producing 2 molecules of water. If 4
molecules of hydrogen gas are present, then 2 molecules of oxygen gas will be needed to
produce 4 molecules of water.

2H2(g) + O2(g) → 2H2O(l)

But what if there are 400 molecules of hydrogen gas? How much oxygen gas would be
required to use up all the hydrogen gas?

It can be seen that the ratio of hydrogen molecules to oxygen molecules required is always
2:1. But in the laboratory, when a measurable amount of reactants are necessary, it is
advantageous to use moles to count the molecules. So 2 moles of H2 (representing 1.20 ×
1024 molecules) would react with 1 mole of O2 (representing 6.02 ×1023 molecules) and
produce 2 moles of H2O (representing 1.20 × 1024 molecules).

In other words, all coefficients in a balanced equation represent the number of moles of
substances as well as the number of molecules, and can give a ratio between the compounds
and elements in a reaction. In the case of the reaction of sodium with chlorine to produce
sodium chloride:

2Na(s) + Cl2 (g) → 2NaCl(s)

The ratio of moles of Na to moles of Cl2 is 2:1, but the ratio of moles of Na to moles of
NaCl is 2:2, and the ratio of moles of Cl2 to moles of NaCl is 1:2. These mole ratios can be
developed for any balanced equation and can be used to determine how much product is
made from a given amount of starting material.

Sample Problem

How many moles of Cl2 would be required if 5.0 mol of Na was completely reacted?

The mole ratio of Na:Cl2 is 2:1, so we multiply the 5.0 reacted moles of Na by the mole
ratio:
Please note that the mole ratios used have an infinite number of significant figures and the
number of significant figures in the answer will be determined by the number in the starting
figure.

A chemist measures out molecules or moles not by counting, but by weighing. The molar
mass of a compound provides the connection between the mass of a sample of a substance
and the number of moles of that substance in the sample. The molar mass can be used to
set up more realistic calculations from equations.

For example, what if 46.0 g of sodium metal were put into a container of chlorine gas and
allowed to completely react? How many grams of sodium chloride would be produced?
Using a periodic table, the molar mass of sodium is found to be 23.0g/mol. The molar mass
of sodium chloride is 58.5g/mol. This additional information is used to complete the
calculation as before.

2Na(s) + Cl2 (g) → 2NaCl(s)

Furthermore, the amount of chlorine gas needed could be determined using a similar
calculation. Calculation of volumes of gases will be addressed in the chapter on gases, but
a similar calculation is used.

Question

How many grams of chlorine gas are needed to completely react with 46.0 g Na?

Answer

Calculate the molar mass of Cl2 as 71.0 g/mol. Then set up the problem as before:

Percent Yield

When calculating the expected amount of product from a given amount of one of the
starting materials, the calculated value is called the theoretical yield. That is the amount
that would be expected to be produced as calculated from the balanced equation. However,
in reality, many conditions may be present to prevent obtaining the theoretical yield. For
example the starting materials or product may have been impure, the recovery of the
product may have been incomplete, or the reaction may have reached equilibrium before it
was complete. When a reaction is finished, and the actual yield of product is determined,
that amount is called the experimental yield.

Theoretical yield: The amount of product that would be expected to be produced if all
conditions in the reaction were to be, in theory, perfect.

Experimental yield: The actual amount of product that is made during a chemical reaction
in the laboratory.

Percent yield: The percent of the expected amount (theoretical yield) that is obtained

In order to see how effective the experimental conditions were in obtaining the desired
amount of product, chemists calculate the percentage yield, or percent yield. The percent
yield is the percent of the expected amount that is obtained. Thus, the percentage yield is
calculated by taking the actual yield and dividing by the theoretical yield, then multiplying
by 100 to convert to percentage.

Often, the percent yield is less than 100%, but sometimes a perplexing percent yield of
over 100% is obtained. Closer examination usually reveals a product that is contaminated
with impurities or that is not completely dry.

Question

In the production of lime, CaO, from the heating of limestone, CaCO3, carbon dioxide gas
is also produced: CaCO3(s) → CaO(s)+ CO2(g). In an experiment using 2.00 kg of
limestone, 0.982 kg of lime was produced. What is the percentage yield?

Answer

The first step to getting the solution consists of calculating the theoretical yield using the
information given, 2.00 kg of CaCO3 and the correct mole ratio and molar masses.

But only 0.982 kg was produced, so the percentage yield is calculated by taking the actual
yield and dividing by the theoretical yield, then multiplying by 100 to convert to
percentage.

Limiting and Excess Reagents

So far the discussion of calculations of yields has been based on a given quantity of one
starting material, assuming that there is enough of the other reactant(s) to consume the
starting material in question. However, that is not always the case. Many times the amounts
of both reactants are given, and they are not stoichiometrically equivalent—that is, present
in the correct mole ratio for a complete reaction. In such a case, one is called the limiting
reactant and the other is called the excess reactant. The limiting reactant is the one which
is used up completely and thus limits the maximum amount of product that is formed. The
reactant left over is called the excess reactant.

Stoichiometric amount: The exact number of moles of each reactant to complete the
reaction according to mole ratio from the balanced equation.

Limiting reactant: Reactant which is totally consumed during a chemical reaction; It

limits the amount of product and the extent of the reaction.

Excess reactant: The reactant which remains after a reaction is completed.

To determine the maximum amount of product, a chemical calculation must be performed

as before. One of the easiest ways to determine the limiting reactant is to perform two
calculations, beginning each with the amount of given reactant, and comparing the amounts
of the desired product. The reactant which produced the least amount of product is the
limiting reactant and this amount is the maximum of the product that can be produced.

Question 1

Magnesium ribbon will react with aqueous hydrogen chloride to produce hydrogen gas and
magnesium chloride. If 15.0 g Mg reacts with 0.25 mol of HCl(aq), how many moles of
hydrogen gas are produced?

Answer

This is a single replacement reaction which can be written as shown:

Mg(s) + 2HCl(aq) H2(g) + MgCl2(aq)

Comparing the amounts produced in each case indicates that no more than 0.125 mol of
hydrogen gas can be produced because there is not enough HCl present to produce any
more.
The hydrogen chloride is the limiting reactant and since the Mg will be in excess not all of
it will react. The amount left over can also be calculated.

Moles Mg in excess would be found by calculating the moles present (0.617) and
subtracting the amount reacted (0.125mol); 0.492 mole Mg will be left which corresponds
to 12.0g (rounded to three significant digits from 11.9556)

Question 2

What is the limiting reactant when 3.0 g of Al reacts with 5.6 g of Cl2(g) producing AlCl3?
And how much of the excess reactant will be left?

A LR Cl2, 0.057 mol Al in excess

B LR Cl2, 0.11 mol Al in excess
C LR Al, 0.052 mol Cl2 in excess
D LR Al, 0.165 mol Cl2 in excess

Answer

The correct answer is A. That’s because the moles of Al needed to react with 5.6 g of
chlorine is 0.053 mol:

The amount of aluminum available to react is 0.11 mol:

Since aluminum is present in a greater amount than needed, the chlorine must be the
limiting reactant.
To determine the amount of excess aluminum present, the amount of aluminum reacted
must be calculated and subtracted from the starting amount. The number of moles of
aluminum present is 0.11 moles. The amount required is 0.053 moles. The difference is
0.057 moles which is 1.5 g.

THE ATOMIC THEORY

Atomic theory is a scientific description of the nature of atoms and matter that combines
elements of physics, chemistry, and mathematics. According to modern theory, matter is
made of tiny particles called atoms, which are in turn made up of subatomic particles.
Atoms of a given element are identical in many respects and different from atoms of other
elements. Atoms combine in fixed proportions with other atoms to form molecules and
compounds.

The theory has evolved over time, from the philosophy of atomism to modern quantum
mechanics. Here's a brief history of atomic theory:

The Atom and Atomism

Atomic theory originated as a philosophical concept in ancient India and Greece. The word
"atom" comes from the ancient Greek word "atomos," which means "indivisible."
According to atomism, matter consists of discrete particles. However, the theory was one
of many explanations for matter and wasn't based on empirical data. In the fifth century
B.C., Democritus proposed that matter consists of indestructible, indivisible units called
atoms. The Roman poet Lucretius recorded the idea, so it survived through the Dark Ages
for later consideration.

Dalton's Atomic Theory

It took until the end of the 18th century for science to provide concrete evidence of the
existence of atoms. In 1789 Antoine Lavoisier formulated the law of conservation of mass,
which states that the mass of the products of a reaction is the same as the mass of reactants.
Ten years later Joseph Louis Proust proposed the law of definite proportions, which states
that the masses of elements in a compound always occur in the same proportion.

These theories didn't reference atoms, yet John Dalton built upon them to develop the law
of multiple proportions, which states that the ratios of masses of elements in a compound
are small whole numbers. Dalton's law of multiple proportions drew from experimental
data. He proposed that each chemical element consists of a single type of atom that could
not be destroyed by any chemical means. His oral presentation (1803) and publication
(1805) marked the beginning of the scientific atomic theory.
In 1811, Amedeo Avogadro corrected a problem with Dalton's theory when he proposed
that equal volumes of gases at equal temperature and pressure contain the same number of
particles. Avogadro's law made it possible to accurately estimate the atomic masses of
elements and made a clear distinction between atoms and molecules.

Another significant contribution to atomic theory was made in 1827 by botanist Robert
Brown, who noticed that dust particles floating in water seemed to move randomly for no
known reason. In 1905, Albert Einstein postulated that Brownian motion was due to the
movement of water molecules. The model and its validation in 1908 by Jean Perrin
supported atomic theory and particle theory.

Plum Pudding Model and Rutherford Model

Up to this point, atoms were believed to be the smallest units of matter. In 1897, J.J.
Thomson had discovered the electron. He believed atoms could be divided. Because the
electron carried a negative charge, he proposed a plum pudding model of the atom, in which
electrons were embedded in a mass of positive charge to yield an electrically neutral atom.

Ernest Rutherford, one of Thomson's students, disproved the plum pudding model in 1909.
Rutherford found that the positive charge of an atom and most of its mass were at the
center, or nucleus, of an atom. He described a planetary model in which electrons orbited
a small, positive-charged nucleus.

Bohr Model of the Atom

Rutherford was on the right track, but his model couldn't explain the emission and
absorption spectra of atoms, nor why the electrons didn't crash into the nucleus. In 1913,
Niels Bohr proposed the Bohr model, which states that electrons only orbit the nucleus at
specific distances from the nucleus. According to his model, electrons couldn't spiral into
the nucleus but could make quantum leaps between energy levels.

Quantum Atomic Theory

Bohr's model explained the spectral lines of hydrogen but didn't extend to the behavior of
atoms with multiple electrons. Several discoveries expanded the understanding of atoms.
In 1913, Frederick Soddy described isotopes, which were forms of an atom of one element
that contained different numbers of neutrons. Neutrons were discovered in 1932.
Louis de Broglie proposed a wave-like behavior of moving particles, which Erwin
Schrodinger described using Schrodinger's equation (1926). This, in turn, led to Werner
Heisenberg's uncertainty principle (1927), which states that it's not possible to
simultaneously know both the position and momentum of an electron.

Quantum mechanics led to an atomic theory in which atoms consist of smaller particles.
The electron can potentially be found anywhere in the atom but is found with the greatest
probability in an atomic orbital or energy level. Rather than the circular orbits of
Rutherford's model, modern atomic theory describes orbitals that may be spherical,
dumbbell shaped, etc. For atoms with a high number of electrons, relativistic effects come
into play, since the particles are moving at a fraction of the speed of light.

Modern scientists have found smaller particles that make up the protons, neutrons, and
electrons, although the atom remains the smallest unit of matter that can't be divided using
chemical means.

History of Atomic Structure

Early Ideas about Atoms

The concept of the atom as an indivisible building block of matter was recorded as early
as the 5th century BCE.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Describe the early developments leading to the modern concept of the atom

KEY TAKEAWAYS

Key Points

 The ancient Greek philosophers Democritus and Leucippus recorded the concept of
the atomos, an indivisible building block of matter, as early as the 5th century BCE.
 The idea of an indivisible particle was further elaborated upon and explored by a number
of scientists and philosophers, including Galileo, Newton, Boyle, Lavoisier, and Dalton.
 John Dalton, an English chemist and meteorologist, is credited with the first modern
atomic theory based on his experiments with atmospheric gases.
Key Terms

 atom: The smallest possible amount of matter that still retains its identity as a chemical
element, now known to consist of a nucleus surrounded by electrons.
 law of multiple proportions: The law stating that reactants will always combine in set
whole number ratios.

Early History of the Atom

Matter is composed of indivisible building blocks. This idea was recorded as early as the
fifth century BCE by Leucippus and Democritus. The Greeks called these
particles atomos, meaning indivisible, and the modern word “atom” is derived from this
term. Democritus proposed that different types and combinations of these particles were
responsible for the various forms of matter. However, these ideas were largely ignored
at the time, as most philosophers favored the Aristotelian perspective.

The concept of the atom was revisited and elaborated upon by many scientists and
philosophers, including Galileo, Newton, Boyle, and Lavoisier. In 1661, Boyle presented
a discussion of atoms in his The Sceptical Chymist. However, the English chemist and
meteorologist John Dalton is credited with the first modern atomic theory, as explained
in his A New System of Chemical Philosophy.
John Dalton’s A New System of Chemical Philosophy: Chemical structures from Dalton’s A New System of
Chemical Philosophy.

Dalton’s experiments with gases led to some of the earliest measurements of atomic
masses and a concept of atomic structure and reactivity. Dalton’s atomic theory
contained the following ideas:

 All atoms of a given element are identical.

 The atoms of different elements vary in mass and size.
 Atoms are indestructible. Chemical reactions may result in their rearrangement, but not
their creation or destruction.

Dalton also outlined a law of multiple proportions, which described how reactants will
combine in set ratios. Like the early philosophers, Dalton’s theories were not popularly
accepted for much of the 19th century, but his ideas have since been accepted, with
amendments addressing subatomic particles and the interconversion of energy and
mass.

Models of the Atom Timeline – YouTube: This video is about the different ways that
scientists have pictured the atoms over the years. It starts with Democritus and
Leucippus, the first philosophers to discuss atoms. The video also covers the work of
Dalton, Thompson, Rutherford, Niels Bohr, and Schrodinger.

The Law of Conservation of Mass

The law of conservation of mass states that mass in an isolated system is neither
created nor destroyed.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Define the law of conservation of mass

KEY TAKEAWAYS

Key Points

 The law of conservation of mass states that mass in an isolated system is neither created
nor destroyed by chemical reactions or physical transformations.
 According to the law of conservation of mass, the mass of the products in a chemical
reaction must equal the mass of the reactants.
 The law of conservation of mass is useful for a number of calculations and can be used to
solve for unknown masses, such the amount of gas consumed or produced during a
reaction.

Key Terms

 law of conservation of mass: A law that states that mass cannot be created or
destroyed; it is merely rearranged.
 product: A chemical substance formed as a result of a chemical reaction.
 reactant: Any of the participants present at the start of a chemical reaction. Also, a
molecule before it undergoes a chemical change.

History of the Law of the Conservation of Mass

Antoine Lavoisier: A portrait of Antoine Lavoisier, the scientist credited with the discovery of the law of
conservation of mass.

The ancient Greeks first proposed the idea that the total amount of matter in the
universe is constant. However, Antoine Lavoisier described the law of conservation of
mass (or the principle of mass/matter conservation) as a fundamental principle of
physics in 1789.

This law states that, despite chemical reactions or physical transformations, mass is
conserved—that is, it cannot be created or destroyed—within an isolated system. In
other words, in a chemical reaction, the mass of the products will always be equal to the
mass of the reactants.

The Law of Conservation of Mass- Energy

This law was later amended by Einstein in the law of conservation of mass-energy,
which describes the fact that the total mass and energy in a system remain constant.
This amendment incorporates the fact that mass and energy can be converted from one
to another. However, the law of conservation of mass remains a useful concept in
chemistry, since the energy produced or consumed in a typical chemical reaction
accounts for a minute amount of mass.
We can therefore visualize chemical reactions as the rearrangement of atoms and
bonds, while the number of atoms involved in a reaction remains unchanged. This
assumption allows us to represent a chemical reaction as a balanced equation, in which
the number of moles of any element involved is the same on both sides of the equation.
An additional useful application of this law is the determination of the masses of
gaseous reactants and products. If the sums of the solid or liquid reactants and
products are known, any remaining mass can be assigned to gas.

Conservation of Atoms – YouTube: This video explains how atoms are conserved in
a chemical reaction.

The Law of Definite Composition

The law of definite composition states that chemical compounds are composed of a
fixed ratio of elements as determined by mass.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Define the law of definite composition

KEY TAKEAWAYS

Key Points

 The law of definite composition was proposed by Joseph Proust based on his
observations on the composition of chemical compounds.
 Proust proposed that a compound is always composed of the same proportions of
elements by mass.
 Though initially controversial, the law of definite composition was supported by Dalton’s
atomic theory.

Key Terms

 element: Any one of the simplest chemical substances that cannot be decomposed in a
chemical reaction or by any chemical means, and are made up of atoms all having the
same number of protons.
 law of definite composition: A law that states that chemical compounds are formed of
constant and defined ratios of elements as determined by mass.

History of the Law of Definite Composition or Proportions

Joseph Proust: Portrait of Joseph Proust

French chemist Joseph Proust proposed the law of definite composition or proportions
based on his experiments conducted between 1798 and 1804 on the elemental
composition of water and copper carbonate.

In 1806, Proust summarized his observations in what is now called Proust’s Law. It
stated that chemical compounds are formed of constant and defined ratios of elements,
as determined by mass. For example, carbon dioxide is composed of one carbon atom
and two oxygen atoms. Therefore, by mass, carbon dioxide can be described by the
fixed ratio of 12 (mass of carbon):32 (mass of oxygen), or simplified as 3:8.

At the time, Proust’s theory was a controversial one and disputed by a number of
chemists, most notably another French chemist, Claude Louis Berthollet. Berthollet
supported the concept that elements could mix in any ratio. However, the English
chemist John Dalton’s formulation of atomic theory supported Proust’s idea at an atomic
level, as Dalton proposed that chemical compounds were composed of set formulations
of atoms from different elements. Dalton’s law of multiple proportions expanded on the
law of definite composition to postulate that, in situations in which elements can
combine to form multiple combinations, the ratio of the elements in those compounds
can be expressed as small whole numbers.

John Dalton and the Law of Definite Proportions – YouTube: This video examines
the law of definite proportions and the law of multiple proportions.
Applications of the Law of Definite Composition or Proportions

The law of definite composition has applications to both molecular compounds with a
fixed composition and ionic compounds as they require certain ratios to achieve
electrical neutrality. There are some exceptions to the law of definite composition.
These compounds are known as non-stoichometric compounds, and examples include
ferrous oxide. In addition, the law of definite composition does not account for isotopic
mixtures.

The Law of Multiple Proportions

The law of multiple proportions states that elements combine in small whole number
ratios to form compounds.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Define the law of multiple proportions.

KEY TAKEAWAYS

Key Points

 The law of multiple proportions is a rule of stoichiometry.

 John Dalton formulated the law of multiple proportions as part of his theory that atoms
formed the basic indivisible building block of matter.
 The law of multiple proportions says that when elements form compounds, the
proportions of the elements in those chemical compounds can be expressed in small
whole number ratios.
 The law of multiple proportions is an extension of the law of definite composition, which
states that compounds will consist of defined ratios of elements.

Key Terms

 law of multiple proportions: A law stating that if two elements form a compound, then
the ratio of the mass of the second element and the mass of the first element will be small
whole number ratios.
 atom: The smallest possible amount of matter that still retains its identity as a chemical
element, now known to consist of a nucleus surrounded by electrons.

Dalton’s Law

The law of multiple proportions, also known as Dalton’s law, was proposed by the
English chemist and meteorologist John Dalton in his 1804 work, A New System of
Chemical Philosophy. It is a rule of stoichiometry. The law, which was based on
Dalton’s observations of the reactions of atmospheric gases, states that when elements
form compounds, the proportions of the elements in those chemical compounds can be
expressed in small whole number ratios.

For example, the reaction of the elements carbon and oxygen can yield both carbon
monoxide (CO) and carbon dioxide (CO2). In CO2, the ratio of the amount of oxygen
compared to the amount of carbon is a fixed ratio of 1:2, a ratio of simple whole
numbers. In CO, the ratio is 1:1.

In his theory of atomic structure and composition, Dalton presented the concept that all
matter was composed of different combinations of atoms, which are the indivisible
building blocks of matter. Dalton’s law of multiple proportions is part of the basis for
modern atomic theory, along with Joseph Proust’s law of definite composition (which
states that compounds are formed by defined mass ratios of reacting elements) and the
law of conservation of mass that was proposed by Antoine Lavoisier. These laws paved
the way for our current understanding of atomic structure and composition, including
concepts like molecular or chemical formulas.

John Dalton and Atomic Theory

Dalton introduced a theory that proposed that elements differed due to the mass of their
atoms.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Identify the main points of Dalton’s atomic theory

KEY TAKEAWAYS

Key Points

 Dalton’s atomic theory proposed that all matter was composed of atoms, indivisible and
indestructible building blocks. While all atoms of an element were identical, different
elements had atoms of differing size and mass.
 Dalton’s atomic theory also stated that all compounds were composed of combinations of
these atoms in defined ratios.
 Dalton also postulated that chemical reactions resulted in the rearrangement of the
reacting atoms.

Key Terms

 atom: The smallest possible amount of matter that still retains its identity as a chemical
element, now known to consist of a nucleus surrounded by electrons.
 atomic mass unit: The standard unit that is used for indicating mass of an atom.
History of Dalton’s Atomic Theory

Although the concept of the atom dates back to the ideas of Democritus, the English
meteorologist and chemist John Dalton formulated the first modern description of it as
the fundamental building block of chemical structures. Dalton developed the law of
multiple proportions (first presented in 1803) by studying and expanding upon the works
of Antoine Lavoisier and Joseph Proust.

Proust had studied tin oxides and found that their masses were either 88.1% tin and
11.9% oxygen or 78.7% tin and 21.3% oxygen (these were tin(II) oxide and tin dioxide
respectively). Dalton noted from these percentages that 100g of tin will combine either
with 13.5g or 27g of oxygen; 13.5 and 27 form a ratio of 1:2. Dalton found an atomic
theory of matter could elegantly explain this common pattern in chemistry – in the case
of Proust’s tin oxides, one tin atom will combine with either one or two oxygen atoms.

Dalton also believed atomic theory could explain why water absorbed different gases in
different proportions: for example, he found that water absorbed carbon dioxide far
better than it absorbed nitrogen. Dalton hypothesized this was due to the differences in
the mass and complexity of the gases’ respective particles. Indeed, carbon dioxide
molecules (CO2) are heavier and larger than nitrogen molecules (N2).

Dalton proposed that each chemical element is composed of atoms of a single, unique
type, and though they cannot be altered or destroyed by chemical means, they can
combine to form more complex structures (chemical compounds). Since Dalton reached
his conclusions by experimentation and examination of the results in an empirical
fashion, this marked the first truly scientific theory of the atom.
John Dalton’s A New System of Chemical Philosophy: This image from Dalton’s A New System of Chemical
Philosophy, published in 1808, depicts various atoms and molecules.

Dalton’s Atomic Theory

The main points of Dalton’s atomic theory are:

1. Everything is composed of atoms, which are the indivisible building blocks of matter and
cannot be destroyed.
2. All atoms of an element are identical.
3. The atoms of different elements vary in size and mass.
4. Compounds are produced through different whole-number combinations of atoms.
5. A chemical reaction results in the rearrangement of atoms in the reactant and product
compounds.
 Atomic theory has been revised over the years to incorporate the existence of atomic
isotopes and the interconversion of mass and energy. In addition, the discovery of
subatomic particles has shown that atoms can be divided into smaller parts. However,
Dalton’s importance in the development of modern atomic theory has been recognized
by the designation of the atomic mass unit as a Dalton.

The History of the Atom 2:

Dalton
WHAT YOU NEED
 Dalton
ESHEET
 Pre-Dalton Scientists
STUDENT ACTIVITY SHEET
 Dalton
STUDENT ACTIVITY SHEET
 Pre-Dalton Scientists Teacher Sheet
TEACHER SHEET
 Dalton Teacher Sheet
TEACHER SHEET

By Henry Roscoe (author), William Henry Worthington (engraver), and Joseph Allen
(painter) [Public domain], via Wikimedia Commons

PURPOSE
To explore early milestones in the development of modern atomic theory and the role of John Dalton.
 CONTEXT
This lesson is the second of a five-part series that will broaden and enhance students’ understanding of
the atom and the history of its discovery and development from ancient to modern times.

The History of the Atom 1: The Ancient Greeks examines the ancient Greeks’ theories about the atom.
This lesson explores early milestones in atomic theory and the role of John Dalton. The History of the
Atom 3: The Periodic Table reviews the early development of the periodic table and its impact on atomic
thought. The History of the Atom 4: J.J. Thomson analyzes the evolution of modern ideas on the inner
workings of atoms and J.J. Thomson’s contributions. The History of the Atom 5: The Modern Theory
investigates the development of modern atomic theory.

Greek philosophers Leucippus and Democritus first developed the concept of the atom in the 5 th century
B.C.E. However, since Aristotle and other prominent thinkers of the time strongly opposed their idea of
the atom, their theory was overlooked and essentially buried until the 16 th and 17th centuries. In time,
Lavoisier’s groundbreaking 18th-century experiments accurately measured all substances involved in the
burning process, proving that “when substances burn, there is no net gain or loss of weight.” Lavoisier
established the science of modern chemistry, which gained greater acceptance because of the efforts of
John Dalton, who modernized the ancient Greek ideas of element, atom, compound, and molecule; and
provided a means of explaining chemical reactions in quantitative terms. (Science for All Americans, pp.
153–155.)
As this series of lessons explores further discoveries in the configuration, bonding, and inner structures of
atoms, students will come to realize how much more refined, modernized, and scientific atomic theory has
become since the critical breakthroughs of Lavoisier and Dalton three centuries ago.

It is important for students to understand that the study of matter continues to this day, and that
humankind’s millenniums-old effort to identify, understand, and document the nature of matter eventually
created modern sciences like chemistry and continues to lead to countless, purposeful technological
advancements and inventions—like the TVs and computers that make the quality of life for humankind
more and more fulfilling, convenient, and sometimes troubling. Students also should come to realize that,
over time, the ancients’ ideas of matter were often proven inaccurate through modern science.

In middle school, students should have become familiar with the early theories of matter and how they led
to the work of Lavoisier and the birth of modern chemistry. This awareness will help students better
understand the importance of John Dalton, and how he ultimately strengthened Lavoisier’s findings by
ushering in “the consistent use of language, scientific classification, and symbols in establishing the
modern science of chemistry.” (Benchmarks for Science Literacy, pp. 250–251.)
Ideas in this lesson are also related to concepts found in these Common Core State Standards:

 CCSS.ELA-Literacy.RST.9-10.1 Cite specific textual evidence to support analysis of science and

technical texts, attending to the precise details of explanations or descriptions.
 CCSS.ELA-Literacy.RST.9-10.2 Determine the central ideas or conclusions of a text; trace the text’s
explanation or depiction of a complex process, phenomenon, or concept; provide an accurate summary of
the text.
 CCSS.ELA-Literacy.RST.9-10.4 Determine the meaning of symbols, key terms, and other domain-specific
words and phrases as they are used in a specific scientific or technical context relevant togrades 9–10
texts and topics.
 CCSS.ELA-Literacy.RST.9-10.5 Analyze the structure of the relationships among concepts in a text,
including relationships among key terms (e.g., force, friction, reaction force, energy).
Periodic Table Timeline
Teacher Sheet

Photo Credit: Clipart.com

INTRODUCTION
The purpose of this lesson is to introduce and focus on the early history of the periodic table. Students
should use information from A Brief History of the Development of Periodic Table to complete a timeline.
This sheet provides key dates, facts, figures, and events for the timeline. The answers to the remaining
questions can be found in the body of the lesson.

Periodic Table Timeline

Students should fill in the blanks with the correct dates, facts, and figures.
1649 — Hennig Brand discovered phosphorus.
1829 — Johann Dobereiner discovered the halogen triad and the alkali metal triad.
1862 — The first periodic table was created by de Chancourtois. He assembled the table by
classifying chemical elements in an order based on their periodicity of chemical and
physical properties.
1864 — John Newlands published his own version of the periodic table and developed the
Law
of Octaves.
1869 — Dmitri Mendeleev published his periodic table, eventually becoming the “father of the
periodic table.”

1870 — Lothar Meyer published his version of the periodic table (after Mendeleev).
1895 — Lord Rayleigh discovered argon, a new gaseous element that was chemically inert.
1898 — William Ramsey helped to establish the “zero” group (for “zero valency”) and predicted
the future discovery of the element neon.
1911 — Ernest Rutherford established that “the nuclear charge on a nucleus was proportional
to the atomic weight of the element.”
1911 — A. van den Broek established that the atomic weight of an element was approximately
equal to the charge on an atom. This charge became the “atomic number” by which
periodic table elements are classified.
1913 — Henry Moseley discovered the isotopes of elements. This discovery established that
“the properties of the elements varied periodically with atomic number,” not atomic
weight, which had been previously accepted under periodic law.
1940 — Glenn Seaborg discovered plutonium and the transuranic elements from 94 to 102.
 His findings represented the last (and most recent) changes to the periodic table.

The History of the Atom 3:

The Periodic Table
WHAT YOU NEED
 The Periodic Table
ESHEET
 Periodic Table Timeline
STUDENT ACTIVITY SHEET
 Periodic Table Timeline Teacher Sheet
TEACHER SHEET
 Development of the Periodic Table
STUDENT ACTIVITY SHEET
 Development of the Periodic Table Teacher Sheet
TEACHER SHEET

Photo Credit: Clipart.com

PURPOSE
To explore the early history of the periodic table and how it contributed to the understanding of atoms.

CONTEXT
This lesson is the third of a five-part series that will broaden and enhance students’ understanding of the
atom and the history of its discovery and development from ancient to modern times.

The History of the Atom 1: The Ancient Greeks examines the ancient Greeks’ theories about the atom.
The History of the Atom 2: Dalton explores early milestones in atomic theory and the role of John Dalton.
This lesson reviews the early development of the periodic table and its impact on atomic thought. The
History of the Atom 4: J.J. Thomson analyzes the evolution of modern ideas on the inner workings of
atoms and J.J. Thomson’s contributions. The History of the Atom 5: The Modern Theory investigates the
development of modern atomic theory.
 Greek philosophers Leucippus and Democritus first developed the concept of the atom in the 5 th century
B.C.E. However, since Aristotle and other prominent thinkers of the time strongly opposed their idea of
the atom, their theory was overlooked and essentially buried until the 16 th and 17th centuries. In time,
Lavoisier’s groundbreaking 18th-century experiments accurately measured all substances involved in the
burning process, proving that “when substances burn, there is no net gain or loss of weight.” Lavoisier
established the science of modern chemistry, which gained greater acceptance because of the efforts of
John Dalton, who modernized the ancient Greek ideas of element, atom, compound, and molecule and
provided a means of explaining chemical reactions in quantitative terms. (Science for All Americans, pp.
153–155.)
As this series of lessons explores further discoveries in the configuration, bonding, and inner structures of
atoms, students will come to realize how much more refined, modernized, and scientific atomic theory has
become since the critical breakthroughs of Lavoisier and Dalton three centuries ago.

It is important for students to understand that the study of matter continues to this day, and that
humankind’s millenniums-old effort to identify, understand, and document the nature of matter eventually
created modern sciences like chemistry and continues to lead to countless, purposeful technological
advancements and inventions—like the TVs and computers that make the quality of life for humankind
more and more fulfilling, convenient, and sometimes troubling. Students should also come to realize that,
over time, the ancients’ ideas of matter were often proven inaccurate through modern science.

In middle school, students should have become familiar with the early theories of matter and how they led
to the work of Lavoisier and the birth of modern chemistry. This awareness will help students better
understand the importance of John Dalton’s work, and how he ultimately ushered in “the consistent use of
language, scientific classification, and symbols in establishing the modern science of chemistry.”
(Benchmarks for Science Literacy, pp. 250–251.)
Ideas in this lesson are also related to concepts found in these Common Core State Standards:

 CCSS.ELA-Literacy.RST.9-10.1 Cite specific textual evidence to support analysis of science and

technical texts, attending to the precise details of explanations or descriptions.
 CCSS.ELA-Literacy.RST.9-10.2 Determine the central ideas or conclusions of a text; trace the text’s
explanation or depiction of a complex process, phenomenon, or concept; provide an accurate summary of
the text.

The History of the Atom 4:

J.J. Thomson
WHAT YOU NEED
 J.J. Thomson
ESHEET
 J.J. Thomson
STUDENT ACTIVITY SHEET
 J.J. Thomson Teacher Sheet
TEACHER SHEET
 By Nobel foundation [Public domain], via Wikimedia Commons

PURPOSE
To understand the development of modern ideas about the inner workings of atoms and the contributions
of J.J. Thomson.

CONTEXT
This lesson is the fourth of a five-part series that will broaden and enhance students’ understanding of the
atom and the history of its discovery and development from ancient to modern times.

The History of the Atom 1: The Ancient Greeks examines the ancient Greeks’ theories about the atom.
The History of the Atom 2: Dalton explores early milestones in atomic theory and the role of John Dalton.
The History of the Atom 3: The Periodic Table reviews the early development of the periodic table and its
impact on atomic thought. This lesson analyzes the evolution of modern ideas on the inner workings of
atoms and J.J. Thomson’s contributions. The History of the Atom 5: The Modern Theory investigates the
development of modern atomic theory.

Greek philosophers Leucippus and Democritus first developed the concept of the atom in the 5th century
B.C.E. However, since Aristotle and other prominent thinkers of the time strongly opposed their idea of
the atom, their theory was overlooked and essentially buried until the 16th and 17th centuries. In time,
Lavoisier’s groundbreaking 18th-century experiments accurately measured all substances involved in the
burning process, proving that “when substances burn, there is no net gain or loss of weight.” Lavoisier
established the science of modern chemistry, which gained greater acceptance because of the efforts of
John Dalton, who modernized the ancient Greek ideas of element, atom, compound, and molecule and
provided a means of explaining chemical reactions in quantitative terms. (Science for All Americans, pp.
153–155.)
As this series of lessons explores further discoveries in the configuration, bonding, and inner structures of
atoms, students will come to realize how much more refined, modernized, and scientific atomic theory has
become since the critical breakthroughs of Lavoisier and Dalton three centuries ago.
 It is important for students to understand that the study of matter continues to this day, and that
humankind’s millenniums-old effort to identify, understand, and document the nature of matter eventually
created modern sciences like chemistry and continues to lead to countless, purposeful technological
advancements and inventions—like the TVs and computers that make the quality of life for humankind
more and more fulfilling, convenient, and sometimes troubling. Students also should come to realize that,
over time, the ancients’ ideas of matter were often proven inaccurate through modern science.

In middle school, students should have become familiar with the early theories of matter and how they led
to the work of Lavoisier and the birth of modern chemistry. This awareness will help students better
understand the importance of John Dalton’s work, and how he ultimately ushered in “the consistent use of
language, scientific classification, and symbols in establishing the modern science of chemistry.”
(Benchmarks for Science Literacy, pp. 250–251.)
Ideas in this lesson are also related to concepts found in these Common Core State Standards:

 CCSS.ELA-Literacy.RST.9-10.1 Cite specific textual evidence to support analysis of science and

technical texts, attending to the precise details of explanations or descriptions.
 CCSS.ELA-Literacy.RST.9-10.2 Determine the central ideas or conclusions of a text; trace the text’s
explanation or depiction of a complex process, phenomenon, or concept; provide an accurate summary of
the text.

The Ancient Greeks

Photo Credit: Clipart.com.

INTRODUCTION
In this lesson, you begin your exploration of the history of the atom with the Ancient Greeks. Use the
resources linked to from this sheet to help you in your exploration.

EXPLORATION
To begin, go to The Greek Concept of Atomos: The Indivisible Atom. This paper should serve as a good
orientation about early Greek theories of the atom. As you read, take notes so you can answer these
questions on your Ancient Greeks student sheet:
 How has modern civilization come to learn about the ideas of Leucippus and Democritus?
 What are the five major points of their atomic theory?
 What is the significance of having a lower limit to which an atom can be divided?
 What is the purpose of a “void”?
 How do you think these philosophers were able to theorize to this level of specificity about the
characteristics of the (invisible) atom and the laws of nature?
 Why did their ideas “recede into the background” of atomic thought until the 17th century?
 Now, go to The Atomists: Leucippus of Miletus and Democritus of Abdera. As you read this resource,
think about your answers to these questions and record your answers on the student sheet:
 What specific contributions did Leucippus and Democritus make in the development of their atomic
theory?
 Why did Leucippus first develop the basic atomic theory in response to the Eleatics?
 How did the philosophers assess atoms in terms of the senses?
 According to Democritus, how are universes formed?
 How does modern atomic theory differ from the early Atomists?
Next, go to the third key reading of this lesson, Democritus of Abdera. As you examine his life and role in
atomic theory, answer these questions on your student sheet:
 What made Democritus “a man of great learning”?
 Was Leucippus the first to propose an atomic theory? Explain.
 In what ways did Democritus advance and broaden the atomic theory?
 How was this significant?
 What was unusual about Democritus’ theory on the origin of the universe?
 What is significant about Democritus’ wish to “remove the belief in gods”?

I continue to grow in my knowledge. Atomistic theory is prominent in some of

the Hindu teachings in India.

Around 440 BC, Leucippus of Miletus, in his lost book "The Greater World System,"
originated the atom concept. He and his pupil, Democritus (c460-371 BC) of Abdera,
refined and extended it in future years. There are five major points to their atomic
idea. Almost all of the original writings of Leucippus and Democritus are lost. About
the only sources we have for their atomistic ideas are found in quotations of other
writers.

Democritus is known as the "Laughing Philosopher" because of

his joyous spirit. He was a big man (relatively speaking) and
enjoyed life tremendously. He also was very widely traveled,
having reportedly visited Athens.

One point: teachers often think that Democritus developed

the atom concept. This is incorrect. In fact, Democritus
wrote his version in a (now lost) book called "Little World
System." More than likely, he titled it so out of deference to
his teacher.

So, be prepared for your teacher to want Democritus to be

the correct answer. Want some advice? Don't argue with
your teacher based on what some guy on the Internet said.
This map shows the important towns of Greece,
Turkey and Asia Minor around the time the
atom concept was developed. It is about 250
miles as the crow flies between the Abdera and
Miletus.

At this time Greek philosophy was about 150 years old, having emerged early in the
sixth century BC, centered in the city of Miletus on the Ionian coast in Asia Minor
(now Turkey). The earliest known Greek philosopher was Thales of Miletus.

The work of Leucippus and Democritus was further developed by Epicurus (341-270
BC) of Samos, who made the ideas more generally known. Aristotle (384-322 BC)
quotes both of them extensively in arguing against their ideas. Much of what we know
about their ideas comes to us in a poem titled "De Rerum Natura" (On the Nature of
Things) written by Lucretius (c95-55 BC). This poem, lost for over 1000 years, was
rediscovered in 1417.
 On the left is Aristotle and to the
right is Epicurus.

Point #1 - All matter is composed of atoms, which are bits of matter too small to be
seen. These atoms CANNOT be further split into smaller portions.

Democritus quotes Leucippus: "The atomists hold that splitting stops when it reaches
indivisible particles and does not go on infinitely."

In other words, there is a lower limit to the division of matter beyond which we
cannot go. Atoms were impenetrably hard, meaning they could not be divided. In
Greek, the prefix "a" means "not" and the word "tomos" means cut. Our word atom
therefore comes from atomos, a Greek word meaning uncuttable.

Democritus reasoned that if matter could be infinitely divided, it was also subject to
complete disintegration from which it can never be put back together. However,
matter can be reintegrated.

Even though matter can be destroyed by repeated splitting, new things can be made by
joining simpler pieces of matter together. The process of disintegration &
reintegration is reversible.

The idea of reversibility means that there must be a lower limit to the splitting of
matter. If matter can be split infinitely, there is nothing to stop it from going on
forever and destroying all matter.
Only with a definite and finite lower limit to splitting do we keep a permament
foundation of ultimate particles with which to build up everything we see. As
Epicurus says:

"Therefore, we must not only do away with division into smaller and smaller parts to
infinity, in order that we may not make all things weak, and so in the composition of
aggregate bodies be compelled to crush and squander the things that exist into the
non-existent...."

Epicurus also insisted on an upper limit for atoms - they are always invisible.
Although no reason is given, it seems obvious enough: all matter that can be seen by
humans is still divisible, therefore cannot be atoms.

Point #2 - There is a void, which is empty space between atoms.

Aristotle quotes Leucippus: "Unless there is a void with a separate being of its own,
'what is' cannot be moved-nor again can it be 'many', since there is nothing to keep
things apart."

In other words, there is empty space between atoms. In modern times, we would use
the word vacuum, although the Greeks did not.

Given that all matter is composed of atoms (the ultimate and unchanging particles),
then all changes must be as a result of the movement of atoms. However, in order to
move there must be a void--a space entirely empty of matter--through which atoms
can move from place to place.

Aristotle was opposed to the idea of the void and he based it on his concept of motion,
today called the Aristolelian law of motion. This law held that the velocity of a body
was directly proportional to the motive power and inversely proportional to the
resistance of the medium the body was moving through. Another way to express this:
the velocity of a body is proportional to the force acting on it divided by the resisting
force of the medium.

What this means is that, as the medium the body is passing through becomes more and
more "void-like," there is progressively less and less resisting force. Therefore, the
body moves faster and faster, because the resistance (remember, it is in the
denominator) becomes smaller and smaller. In this example, assume that the motive
force remains constant.
Since the void, as conceived by Leucippus and Democritus, was completely empty,
there was zero resistance and the moving speed of the body became infinite. Since, as
Aristotle maintained, an infinite speed was impossible, there could be no void. By the
way, Aristotle's ideas of motion were incorrect. It would not be until Issac Newton in
1687 that the correct laws of motion were given.

Point #3 - Atoms are completely solid.

It then follows that there can be no void inside an atom itself. Otherwise an atom
would be subject to changes from outside and could disintegrate. Then, it would not
be an atom.

We know this is incorrect. In 1911, Ernest Rutherford discovered the nucleus,

demonstrating in the process that a single atom is mostly empty space.

Point #4 - Atoms are homogeneous, with no internal structure.

The absolute solidity of the atoms also leads to the notion that atoms are
homogeneous, or the same all the way through. Another way to express this is that an
atom would have no internal structure.

Although there was speculation about sub-atomic structure in the 1800's after John
Dalton introduced the atom idea on a solid scientific basis, it was not until 1897 and
J.J. Thomson's discovery of the electron that the atom was shown to have an internal
structure.

Point #5 - Atoms are different in ...

1) ...their sizes. See the Democritus quote just below.

2) ...their shapes. According to Aristotle: "Democritus and Leucippus say that there
are indivisible bodies, infinite both in number and in the varieties of their shapes...."

Democritus says of atoms: "They have all sorts of shapes and appearences and
different sizes.... Some are rough, some hook-shaped, some concave, some convex
and some have other innumerable variations."
 3) ...their weight. Again from Aristotle: "Democritus recognized only two basic
properties of the atom: size and shape. But Epicurus added weight as a third. For,
according to him, the bodies move by necessity through the force of weight."

Concluding Remarks

The idea of the atom was strongly opposed by Aristotle and others. Because of this,
the atom receeded into the background. Although there is a fairly continuous pattern
of atomistic thought through the ages, only a relative few scholars gave it much
thought.

Due to complex circumstances beyond the scope of this lesson, the Catholic Church
accepted Aristotle's position and came to equate atomistic ideas with Godlessness. For
example, "Democritus of Abdera said that there is no end to the universe, since it was
not created by any outside power."

It was not until 1660 that Pierre Gassendi succeeded in separating the two and not
until 1803 that John Dalton put the atom on a solid scientific basis. The atom concept
is often presented as laying fallow between Democritus and Dalton. This is not
correct, as this next lesson demonstrates.

Return to Atomic structure menu.

The History of the Atom 1:

The Ancient Greeks
WHAT YOU NEED
 The Ancient Greeks
ESHEET
 The Ancient Greeks
STUDENT ACTIVITY SHEET

Photo Credit: Clipart.com.

PURPOSE
 To introduce students to the ancient theories of matter that led to the work of John Dalton.

CONTEXT
This lesson is the first of a five-part series that will broaden and enhance students’ understanding of the
atom and the history of its discovery and development from ancient to modern times.

This lesson examines the ancient Greeks’ theories about the atom. The History of the Atom 2: Dalton
explores early milestones in atomic theory and the role of John Dalton. The History of the Atom 3: The
Periodic Table reviews the early development of the periodic table and its impact on atomic thought. The
History of the Atom 4: J.J. Thomson analyzes the evolution of modern ideas on the inner workings of
atoms and J.J. Thomson’s contributions. The History of the Atom 5: The Modern Theory investigates the
development of modern atomic theory.

Greek philosophers Leucippus and Democritus first developed the concept of the atom in the 5 th century
B.C.E. However, since Aristotle and other prominent thinkers of the time strongly opposed their idea of
the atom, their theory was overlooked and essentially buried until the 16 th and 17th centuries. In time,
Lavoisier’s groundbreaking 18th-century experiments accurately measured all substances involved in the
burning process, proving that “when substances burn, there is no net gain or loss of weight.” Lavoisier
established the science of modern chemistry, which gained greater acceptance because of the efforts of
John Dalton, who modernized the ancient Greek ideas of element, atom, compound, and molecule; and
provided a means of explaining chemical reactions in quantitative terms. (Science for All Americans, pp.
153–155.)
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PLANNING AHEAD
This lesson should take two 45-minute class periods.

You may want to print out and make copies of these resources that students will read in the lesson if your
students don't have access to computers with Internet access:

 The Greek Concept of Atomos: The Indivisible Atom

 The Atomists: Leucippus of Miletus and Democritus of Abdera
 Democritus of Abdera

MOTIVATION
Before students begin their Internet exploration into the history of the atom, review their present
knowledge by asking questions like these:
 What is matter?
(Matter is anything that has mass and occupies space.)

 What is an atom?
(An atom is the smallest particle of an element.)

 What is an element?
(An element is a substance that cannot be broken down into simpler substances under ordinary
conditions.)

 Why do you think it is important to study the history of the atom?

(Answers will vary. Accept any answers.)

 In what ways do you think the study of matter has affected our lives?

(Answers will vary. Accept any answers.)

As you discuss these ideas, be aware of common misconceptions that students may have. For example,
students might consider matter to include “everything that exists is matter, including heat, light, and
electricity.” They also might think that “matter does not include liquids and gases or that they are
weightless materials.” Finally, they may consider the weight of matter as a “’felt weight’—something
whose weight they can’t feel is considered to have no weight at all.” (Benchmarks for Science
Literacy, pp. 336–337.) High-school students should be able to recognize these earlier misconceptions.
Activity—Time Travel: Greece, 5th century B.C.E.
As a way to pique students’ interest and focus the discussion, prompt students with the scenario below.
Displaying an old map of Greece might enhance this experience.
“Imagine now, if you will, that you are able to travel back in time to the 5 thcentury B.C.E.
You find yourselves in ancient Greece in the presence of Leucippus and Democritus,
the two philosophers credited with originating the concept of the atom. You have the
privilege to observe the two men as they work on and discuss their ideas about the
atom.”
Next, ask the following questions. It is not so important for students to come up with accurate answers as
to try to comprehend the era, circumstances, and particulars that might have occurred when the atomic
concept was first formed. Putting students in the sandals of the ancient Greeks also will help them better
understand the bare-bones human thought process that was involved in developing these truly profound
and otherwise unimaginable concepts.

Ask students:

 What do you see? What are these men like?

 Why are they talking about concepts?
 What do you think their specific ideas are about the atom?
 How do you think they have come to these conclusions? What tools, if any, are they using?
 What is remarkable about what they are doing?
(Accept all answers, but ask students to offer explanations to support their views.)

The purpose of these exercises is to set up the lesson and establish students' level of awareness
regarding the basic concepts and the critical early figures that first developed them.
 DEVELOPMENT
Class One
Following this warm-up discussion, students should use their The Ancient Greeks student esheet to go to
and read The Greek Concept of Atomos: The Indivisible Atom. This paper should serve as a good
orientation about early Greek theories of the atom. As students read the specifics about Leucippus and
Democritus, the five major points to their atomic concept, and the fate of their ideas until the 17 thcentury,
encourage them to take notes.
After students have read the article, ask them questions like these (listed on The Ancient Greeks student
sheet):
 How has modern civilization come to learn about the ideas of Leucippus and Democritus?
(Since nearly all of the original writings of Leucippus and Democritus were lost, the modern world has
learned of their ideas through the writings of Epicurus and Lucretius. Aristotle’s vocal stand against their
ideas also helped to suppress theories of the atom in his time.)

 What are the five major points of their atomic theory?

(They are that (1) all matter is composed of atoms that are too small to be seen and cannot be split into
further portions; (2) there is a void, which is empty space between atoms; (3) atoms are completely solid;
(4) atoms are homogeneous, with no internal structure; and (5) atoms are different in their sizes, shapes,
and weight.)

 What is the significance of having a lower limit to which an atom can be divided?
(Having a finite, lower limit to which an atom can be divided establishes “a permanent foundation of
ultimate particles with which to build up everything we see.”)

 What is the purpose of a “void”?

(For atoms to change, motion is necessary. Motion is only made possible by a void or “a space entirely
empty of matter through which atoms can move from place to place.”)

 How do you think these philosophers were able to theorize to this level of specificity about the
characteristics of the (invisible) atom and the laws of nature?
(Answers will vary.)

 Why did their ideas “recede into the background” of atomic thought until the 17 thcentury?
(Aristotle, a prominent philosopher of the time, disagreed with their concepts, as did the Catholic Church,
which disagreed with the atomic notion that the universe was endless and “not created by any outside
power” [God].)

While discussing the specific perspectives of each point, emphasize that modern science has proven the
early Greeks to be incorrect about atoms having no inside voids (Point #3, Rutherford) or internal
structure (Point #4, Thomson). The inaccurate notion that atomic theory laid buried between “Democritus
to Dalton” also needs to be addressed, since its evolution and discovery can be credited to numerous
important figures who added to its development in between.
Class Two
First, students should use their esheet to go to and read and take notes on The Atomists: Leucippus of
Miletus and Democritus of Abdera. While discussing the material, include these questions:
 What specific contributions did Leucippus and Democritus make in the development of their atomic
theory?
(In basic terms, Leucippus first developed the theory of atoms and void, and Democritus expanded upon
it.)

 Why did Leucippus first develop the basic atomic theory in response to the Eleatics?
(He felt their theory about the universe being made up of the infinitely motionless mass called “the One”
was inaccurate, since our senses tell us that motion occurs.)

 How did the philosophers assess atoms in terms of the senses?

 (They considered the senses to be “not completely reliable in what they report to the mind,” but that
whether something is hot, cold, or of a certain color, these characteristics are, in the end, determined by
“the type of atom and the quantity of void.”)

 According to Democritus, how are universes formed?

(His theory suggests that atoms join and form a whirl or a vortex. Heavier materials then gravitate to the
center of the vortex and form the earth. The lighter materials “go out to the edge of the vortex and
eventually ignite due to the intense speed of its revolutions. These lighter atoms would then form the
heavenly bodies.”)

 How does modern atomic theory differ from the early Atomists?
(Modern theorists hold that “the atom is almost completely void with a very dense center, instead of the
atom being completely solid without any void.”)

Students should come away from this reading with a better understanding of the separate contributions
Leucippus and Democritus made in the development of their theory, the opposing theories of the Eleatics,
the “basics” of their atomist theory, how the senses and universe were rationalized atomically, and how
figures like Epicurus and Lucretius would later add to the development of the theory that still evolves
today.

Next, students should read the third key reading of this lesson, Democritus of Abdera. As you examine
his life and role in atomic theory, include these questions in your discussion:
 What made Democritus “a man of great learning”?
(Democritus traveled extensively in search of knowledge and of learned men to engage. An expert
geometer, Democritus also contributed to the advancements of mathematics, physics, ethics, and poetry.)

 Was Leucippus the first to propose an atomic theory? Explain.

(No. Anaxagoras also came up with an atomic system, and atomic thought was said to date back to the
early Pythagorean concept that “regular solids played a fundamental role in the makeup of the universe.”)

 In what ways did Democritus advance and broaden the atomic theory?
(He made atomic theory a more “elaborate and systematic view of the physical world” than his
predecessors. He “asserted that space, or the Void, had an equal right with reality, or Being, to be
considered existent. He conceived of the Void as a vacuum, an infinite space in which moved an infinite
number of atoms that made up Being [i.e., the physical world]. These atoms are eternal and invisible;
absolutely small, so small that their size cannot be diminished . . . absolutely full and incompressible, as
they are without pores and entirely fill the space they occupy; and homogeneous, differing only in shape,
arrangement, position, and magnitude.”)

 How was this significant?

(By establishing a basis for the physical world, he could describe how things—atoms—change, move,
and are packed together. Further, he sought to explain “the whole of physics” and that the physical world
could ultimately be explained in quantitative terms and is “subject to mathematical laws.”)

 What was unusual about Democritus’ theory on the origin of the universe?
(It suggested that the world came about from the nature of atoms [necessity], and was not designed by
some “supernatural being.”)

 What is significant about Democritus’ wish to “remove the belief in gods”?

(He believed the gods were “only introduced to explain phenomena for which no scientific explanation
was then available.” This kind of perspective suggests that there is an alternative, non-religious way of
looking at and understanding the world: science.)
ASSESSMENT
Depending on your time availability, this assignment can be done in class and/or as homework.

It is important for students to understand the early theories of matter held by Leucippus and Democritus,
including the views of those who opposed them, like the Eleatics and Aristotle. To make better sense of
their readings and resources, students should create a chart in which they fill in characteristics of the
various theories. They also should write a very brief analysis of how the theories are alike and how they
differ. Their charts can serve as a very useful foundation as they head into the other lessons in this
series.

EXTENSIONS
Follow this lesson with the other lessons in the history of the atom series: The History of the Atom 2:
Dalton, The History of the Atom 3: The Periodic Table, The History of the Atom 4: J.J. Thomson, and The
History of the Atom 5: The Modern Theory.

For a deeper understanding of the development of atomic theory and its figures, have students
read Atomism, which details how early atomic theory fared over the centuries leading up to Galileo in the
1600s.

For greater insights and specifics on Aristotle’s agreement and opposition about the theories of Leucippus
and Democritus, encourage students to examine The Atomists into Aristotle.

Students may also be interested in reading and reporting on in-depth biographies of Leucippus of
Miletus and Aristotle.