Fuels Lab

Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology
Department of Mechanical Engineering
ME 204
Engineering Thermodynamics Sessional
Contact Hour: 1.5, Credit Hour: 0.75
Experiments: (Fuel Testing Lab, 4th Floor, EME Building)
1. (a) Determination of HHeating Value of Coal

oal by Bomb Calorimeter
(b) Determination of Flash Point and Fire Point of Given Oil
2. (a) Proximate Analysis
nalysis of Coal
(b)) Study and Calibration of Thermocouple
(c) Calibration of a Bourdon Tube Pressure Gauge by Dead Weight Tester
3. (a) Measurement of Viscosity of an Oil by Saybolt Viscosimeter
(b)) Study of Sling Psychrometer and Determination of Humidity of Air
4. (a) Determination of Carbon Residue of Given Oil
(b) Study of Gas Calorimeter and Determination of Heating Value of
Natural Gas by Gas Calorimeter
ink to download: http://bit.ly/ME204FTL

Link
(Available
Available hardcopy in Fuel Testing Lab)
For Inquiry: Dr. Sumon Saha (Room #M413) Mobile: 01926197002
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Instructions for Students
Necessary points of report writing:

• Objectives
• Apparatus (write specification like type, dimensions, range, material, etc.)
• Schematic Diagram of the Experimental Setup (label properly)
• Data and Calculation sheets
• Plotting graphs if any
• Sample Calculation for a particular observation
• Results and Discussions (Result and graph analysis, sources of error, means of
improvement, question and answers if any)
• Conclusion
Important Instructions:
Submit the reports in plastic files of color specified for the group.
You must come to the class before the starting time (for example 2.30 pm). No
late attendance.
You must submit all the reports of a group together before the end of a lab
session.
You must come to the class with prior preparation (study the lab sheet supplied,
bring necessary graph papers, pages, calculator, reference books, etc.). You must
bring this lab instruction sheet during the sessional class.
You must prepare the format of the data and the calculation sheets before coming
to the class.
Viva on the individual experiments will depend on the concerned teacher.
Copying another student’s report will be severely dealt with.
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Bangladesh University of Engineering and
Technology
Course Number: Group Number:
Course Title:
Experiment Number:
Name of the Experiment(s):
Date of Performance:
Date of Submission:
SUBMITTED BY
Name:
Student ID:
Department:
Section:
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EXPERIMENT NO. 1(a)
Determination of Heating Value of Coal by Bomb Calorimeter
Introduction
Heating or calorific value of any fuel is defined as the amount of heat obtained when fuel or
some other substance of a specific unit quantity is completely combusted. It is usually
expressed in terms of kJ/kg of solid fuel. There are two types of heating value:
1. The lower heating value (net) is the difference between combustion and latent heat of
vaporization of the water vapors formed from combustion.
2. The higher heating value (gross) is the heat obtained from complete combustion of a
substance. Here, the products of its combustion are cooled down to the temperature of
supplied air.
Bomb Calorimeter
The bomb calorimeter is used to determine the heating value of fuel when burned at constant
volume. The fuel, whose heating value is desired, is placed in the fuel pan (crucible). A coil of
fine wire dips in the pan. The bomb is charged with oxygen under pressure. When an electric
current is passed through the wire, it ignites the fuel. Surrounding the bomb is a bucket
containing water to absorb the heat released as the fuel burn. The bomb has an outer jacket,
and a dead-air space surrounds the bucket to minimize heat losses to the surroundings.
Although the water in the bucket absorbs the major portion of the heat, this heat is not the
heating value of the fuel, for the following reasons:
1. The bomb itself absorbs some heat.
2. There is heat exchange with the outer jacket.
3. The ignition wire liberates some energy.
4. The products of combustion are not cooled to the original temperature.
5. Because combustion takes place in oxygen, high temperature is attained resulting in the
formation of nitric and sulfuric acid, which would not be formed in the normal
combustion process.
Although the products of combustion are not cooled to the original temperature, the final and
original temperatures are so close that the error is considered small. Furthermore, the error is
almost entirely offset when the bomb is standardized. The water equivalent of the bomb is
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furnished by the manufacturer. This is the amount of water having the same thermal capacity
as the bomb and its bucket (empty).
The exchange of heat with outer jacket is minimized by maintaining a minimum temperature
difference between the two. Corrections are made for small amount of heat transfer, which
occurs due to radiation. Corrections are also made for the heat liberated by the ignition wire
by determining the amount actually burned.
Objective
1. To find the heating value of coal using a bomb calorimeter.
Experimental Setup
A schematic diagram of the experimental setup is shown in Fig. 1. The setup consists of a
Bomb calorimeter (Model: Parr 1341 Plain Oxygen), digital thermometer, stopwatch, analytic
balance, fuse wire, water container, etc. The Parr 1341 plain Oxygen Bomb calorimeter
consists of an insulated jacket through which the leads for the ignition system run, a metal
bucket which will hold the water that serves as the medium through which we will monitor
the heat released by the reaction in the bomb, and a cover through which the temperature
probe and the stirring shaft run. The stirring shaft has a propeller at the bottom and a wheel at
the top, which is attached to the stirring motor mounted on the side of the calorimeter with a
rubber belt. Also on the calorimeter’s cover is a metal rod, which can be used to keep the
temperature probe in a vertical position not touching the metal bucket.
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Figure 1. Schematic Diagram of the Experimental Setup.
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Experimental Procedures
All operations required to test a sample or to standardize the plain calorimeter should proceed
step-wise in the following manner:
1. Prepare the sample and charge the oxygen bomb
2. Fill the calorimeter bucket by first taking the dry bucket on a solution or trip balance;
then add 2000(+/−0.5) g of water. Distilled water is preferred, but de-mineralized or tap
water containing less than 250 ppm of dissolved solid is satisfactory. The water
temperature should be approximately 1.5°C below room temperature, but this can be
varied to suit the operator’s preference. It is not necessary to use exactly 2000 g, but the
amount selected must be duplicated within +/−0.5 g for each run.
3. Set the bucket in the calorimeter. Attach the lifting handle to the two holes in the side of
the screw cap and partially lower the bomb in the water. Handle the bomb carefully
during this operation so that the sample will not be disturbed. Push the two ignition lead
wires into the terminal sockets on the bomb head. Orient the wires away from the stirrer
shaft so they do not become tangled in the stirring mechanism. Lower the bomb
completely into the water with its feet spanning the circular boss in the bottom of the
bucket. Remove the lifting handle and shake any drops of water into the bucket and
check for gas bubbles.
4. Set the cover on the jacket. Turn the stirrer by hand to be sure that it runs freely; then
slip the drive belt onto the pulleys and start the motor. Turn on the Digital Thermometer.
5. Let the stirrer run for 5 minutes to reach equilibrium before starting a measured run. At
the end of this period record the time on the timer of the Digital Thermometer and read
the temperature.
6. Read and record temperatures at one-minute intervals for 5 minutes. Then, at the start of
the 6th minute.
7. Stand back from the calorimeter and fire the bomb by pressing the ignition button and
holding it down until the indicator light goes out. Normally the light will glow for only
about ½ second but release the button within 5 seconds regardless of the light. Caution:
Do not have the head, hands or any parts of the body over the calorimeter when firing
the bomb; and continue to stand clear for 30 seconds after firing.
8. The bucket temperature will start to rise within 20 seconds after firing. This rise will be
rapid during the first few minutes; then it will become slower as the temperature
approaches a stable maximum as shown by the typical temperature rise curve.
9. Measure the time required to reach 60 percent of the total rise by estimating the
temperature at the 60% point and observing the time when the temperature reading
reaches that point.
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10. After the rapid rise period (about 4 or 5 minutes after ignition) record temperatures at
one minute intervals until the difference between successive readings has been constant
for five minutes. Usually the temperature will reach a maximum; then drop very slowly.
However, this is not always true since a low starting temperature may result in a slow
continuous rise without reaching a maximum. As stated above, the difference between
successive readings must be noted and the readings continued at one-minute intervals
until the rate of the temperature change becomes constant over a period of 5 minutes.
11. After the last temperature reading, stop the motor, remove the belt and lift the cover
from the calorimeter. Wipe the thermistor shaft and stirrer with a clean cloth and set the
cover on the support stand. Lift the bomb out of the bucket; remove the ignition leads
and wipe the bomb with a clean towel.
12. Open the knurled knob on the bomb head to release the gas pressure before attempting
to remove the cap. This release should proceed slowly over a period of not less than one
minute to avoid entrainment losses. After all pressure has been released, unscrew the
cap; lift the head out of the cylinder and place it on the support stand. Examine the
interior of the bomb for soot or other evidence of incomplete combustion. If such
evidence is found, the test will have to be discarded.
13. Wash all interior surfaces of the bomb with a jet of distilled water and collect the
washings in a beaker.
14. Remove all unburned pieces of fuse wire from the bomb electrodes; straighten them and
measure their combined length in centimeters. Subtract this length from the initial length
of 10 centimeters and enter this quantity on the data sheet as the net amount of wire
burned.
15. Titrate the bomb washings with a standard sodium carbonate solution using methyl
orange or methyl red indicator. A 0.0709N sodium carbonate solution is recommended
for this titration to simplify the calculation. This is prepared by dissolving 3.76 grams
Na2CO3 in water and diluting to one liter NaOH or KOH solutions of the same
normality may be used.
16. Analyze the bomb washings to determine the sulfur content of the sample if it exceeds
0.1%.
Correction for Heat Losses

Heat loss by radiation from the calorimeter is minimized by starting the determination with
the water in the calorimeter enough below room temperature so that the final temperature
after combustion will be slightly above room temperature. Thus, the radiation from the room
before ignition will tend to compensate that to the room after the temperature rise. Since an
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appreciable amount of time elapses before the rise in temperature is completed, there will be
some heat transfer.
The Dickinson method of correction for radiation is prescribed by the ASTM. The rate of
temperature change in degree per minute is determined over a 5 minute period just before
ignition, and again after ignition when the maximum temperature has been reached. The time
of ignition (time a), the temperature at ignition, the thermometer reading taken when the
temperature change has become uniform after attaining a maximum and the time at this
maximum temperature (time c) are recorded. Time b is defined as the time at which six-tenths
of the temperature rise from a to c has taken place. The ignition temperature is then corrected
by adding (b − a)r1, where r1 is the rate in degrees per minute at which the temperature was
rising before ignition. The final temperature is corrected by adding (c − b)r2, where r2 is the
rate of temperature decrease after the maximum was reached. The temperature rise used for
calculating the energy liberated is the difference between the corrected ignition and final
temperatures. The corrected temperature is to be indicated in Fig. 2.
Figure 2. Typical temperature rise curve for 1341 Plain Bomb Calorimeter.
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Because a portion of the fuse wire will be found to have burnt to the oxide, a correction for
the energy liberated by this reaction must be subtracted from the observed heating value of the
sample. This is best accomplished by knowing the heat of combustion of the fuse wire per
unit length and the length of the original and unburned portions of the wire.
When extreme accuracy is required, the ASTM test procedure should be consulted for the
method to be used in correcting the observed heating value for the formation of HNO3 and
H2SO4.
Since the water vapor resulting from the combustion of hydrogen in the fuel sample is
condensed because of the low bomb temperature, the heating value obtained is known as the
higher heating value. The lower heating value is determined by subtracting from the higher
heating value a quantity equal to the product of the weight of water vapor formed by
combustion and the latent heat of vaporization of the water.
Relevant Equations
Assembly of Data
The following data should be available at the completion of a test in a 1341 calorimeter:
a = time of firing.
b = time (to nearest 0.1 minute) when the temperature reaches 60 per cent of the total rise.
c = time at beginning of period (after the temperature rise) in which the rate of temperature
change has become constant.
ta = temperature at time of firing.
tc = temperature at time c.
r1 = rate (temperature units per minute) at which the temperature was rising during the 5-
minute period before firing.
r2 = rate (temperature units per minute) at which the temperature was rising during the 5-
minute period after time c. If the temperature was falling instead of rising after time c, r is
negative and the quantity –r2(c − b) becomes positive and must be added when computing the
corrected temperature rise.
c1 = milliliters of standard alkali solution used in the acid titration.
c2 = percentage of sulfur in the sample.
c3 = centimeters of fuse wire consumed in firing.
W = energy equivalent of the calorimeter, determined under standardization.
m = mass of sample in g.
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Temperature Rise
Compute the net corrected temperature rise (t), by substituting in the following equation:
t = tc − ta − r1 ( b − a ) − r2 ( c − b ) (1)
Thermo-chemical Corrections
Compute the following for each test:
e1 = correction in calories for heat of formation of nitric acid (HNO3).
= c1 if 0.0709N alkali was used for the titration.
e2 = correction in calories for heat of formation of sulfuric acid (H2SO4).
= (13.7) (c2) (m).
e3 = correction in calories for heat of combustion of fuse wire.
= (2.3) (c3) when using nickel chromium fuse wire, or
= (2.7) (c3) when using iron fuse wire.
Gross Heat of Combustion

Compute the gross heat of combustion (Hg), in calories per gram by substituting in the
following equation:
tW − e1 − e2 − e3
Hg = (2)
m
The following example is presented to clarify the method used in calculating the heating value
of a fuel.
Weight of coal fuel sample 0.9936 g
Length of fuse wire 10 cm
Length of fuse wire not burned 2.4 cm
Weight of calorimeter water 2000 gm
Water equivalent of calorimeter 432 gm
a = 1:44:00 = 1:44.0
b = 1:45:24 = 1:45.2
c = 1:52:00 = 1:52.0
ta = 24.428 + 0.004 = 24.432°C
tc = 27.654 + 0.008 = 27.662°C
r1 = +0.010°C /5 min. = +0.002°C /min.
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r2 = −0.004°C /5 min. = −0.001°C /min.
c1 = 23.9 ml.
c2 = 1.02% Sulfur
c3 = 7.6 cm wire
W = 2426 cal/°C
m = 0.9936 g
t = 27.662−24.432−(0.002) (1.4)−(−0.001) (6.6) = 3.234°C
e1 = 23.9 cal
e2 = (13.7) (1.02) (.9936) = 13.9 cal
e3 = (2.3) (7.6) = 17.5 cal
(3.234)(2426) − 23.9 − 13.9 − 17.5
Hg = = 7841 cal/g = (1.8) (7841) = 14114 Btu/lb
0.9936
Discussion
1. Briefly explain the limitations of the experimental setup, if any.
2. Explain the difference between LHV and HHV of the given coal.
3. How do the heat losses affect the reading of heating value obtained from the
experiment?
Conclusion
Write down the summary of key findings and observations as outlined in the objectives of this
experiment.
Sample Quiz Questions:

1. What are the reasons for the formation of Nitric acid and Sulfuric acid during the test?
2. Why there is an air gap between the calorimeter bucket and the calorimeter jacket?
3. Write down the criteria for complete combustion.
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Data Sheet
Determination of Heating Value of Coal by Bomb Calorimeter
Calorimeter: Parr 1341 Plain Oxygen Bomb Calorimeter

Thermometer: Parr 6775 Digital Thermometer, 0.0001°C
Weight of empty pan:__________ g Total length of fuse wire used :__________ cm

Weight of pan + coal:__________ g Unburned fuse wire :__________ cm
Weight of coal :__________ g Fuse wire actually burnt :__________ cm
Weight of water :__________ g Calorimeter value of used wire :________cal/cm
Water equivalent of calorimeter :_______ g Room Temperature :__________ °C
Table 1: Recording temperature of bomb calorimeter during experiment.

Time Digital Thermometer Reading Time Digital Thermometer Reading
(minute) (°C) (minute) (°C)
0 8.30
1 9.00
2 9.30
3 10.00
4 10.30
5 (Fire) 11.00
5.15 12
5.30 13
5.45 14
6.00 15
6.15 16
6.30 17
6.45 18
7.00 19
7.15 20
7.30 21
7.45 22
8.00 23
Please bring one normal mm graph paper for this experiment.
Calorific value of coal, HHV = ..............cal/g = ……………. Btu/lb
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EXPERIMENT NO. 1(b)
Determination of Flash Point and Fire Point of Given Oil
Introduction
Flash point is the lowest temperature of the test specimen at which the application of an
ignition source causes the vapor of the test specimen to ignite momentarily and the flame to
propagate across the surface of the liquid under the specified conditions of test.
All liquids have a specific vapor pressure, which is a function of that liquid’s temperature and
is subject to Boyle's Law. As temperature increases, vapor pressure increases. As vapor
pressure increases, the concentration of vapor of a flammable or combustible liquid in the air
increases. Hence, temperature determines the concentration of vapor of the flammable liquid
in the air. A certain concentration of a flammable or combustible vapor is necessary to sustain
combustion in air, the lower flammable limit, and that concentration is different and is
specific to each flammable or combustible liquid. The flash point is the lowest temperature at
which there will be enough flammable vapor to induce ignition when an ignition source is
applied.
It is important to realize that the value of the flash point is not a physical constant but is the
result of a flash point test and is dependent on the apparatus design, the condition of the
apparatus used, and the operational procedure carried out. Flash point can therefore only be
defined in terms of a standard test method, and no general valid correlation can be guaranteed
between results obtained by different test methods or with test apparatus different from that
specified.
Fire point is the lowest temperature at which application of an ignition source causes the
vapors of a test specimen of the sample to ignite and sustain burning for a minimum of 5 s
under specified conditions of test. A fire point happens when the heat produced is self-
sustaining, as it supplies enough vapors to combine with air and burn even after the removal
of the ignition source. Both flash and fire points are important in order to avoid any fire
within the oil.
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Importance of Flash Point Test
The fundamental reason for the requirement of flash point measurements is to assess the
safety hazard of a liquid or semi-solid with regard to its flammability and then classify the
liquid into a group. If the temperature of the liquid is above its flash point, there is a
possibility of getting fire through the liquid. The lower the flash point temperature, the greater
the risk. This classification is then used to warn of a risk and to enable the correct precautions
to be taken when using, storing or transporting the flammable liquid or oil.
Specifications quote flash point values for quality control purposes as well as for controlling
the flammability risk. A change in flash point can indicate the presence of potentially
dangerous volatile contaminants or the adulteration of one product by another.
Test Method
There are two basic types of flash point measurement: open cup and closed cup. In open cup
devices, the sample is contained in an open cup, which is heated, and, at intervals, a flame
brought over the surface. The measured flash point will actually vary with the height of the
flame above the liquid surface, and at sufficient height, the measured flash point temperature
will coincide with the fire point. The best-known example is the Cleveland open cup.
There are two types of closed cup testers: non-equilibrial, such as Pensky-Martens, where the
vapors above the liquid are not in temperature equilibrium with the liquid, and equilibrial,
such as Small Scale (commonly known as Setaflash), where the vapors are deemed to be in
temperature equilibrium with the liquid.
Objectives
1. To determine the flash point of the supplied oil.
2. To determine the fire point of the supplied oil.
Experimental Setup
Pensky-Martens closed cup flash and fire point tester, thermometer, Bunsen burner, etc. In the
setup, a brass test cup is filled with a test specimen. The cup is provided with a cover through
which a stirrer, provision to insert thermometer and slit to open and close. The thermometer is
inserted such that the thermometer bulb should measure oil temperature and should not touch
the wall of the cup. The sample is heated and stirred at specified rates. Pensky-Martens closed
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cup is sealed with a lid through which an ignition source can be introduced periodically with
simultaneous interruption of stirring until a flash that spreads throughout the inside of the cup
is seen. The corresponding temperature is its flash point.
1. Take an amount of the supplied oil in the crucible and put this in the flash point and fire
point apparatus.
2. Place a thermometer within the oil to measure its temperature through the hole in
apparatus.
3. Apply heat to the sample of oil using a gas burner.
4. Insert a flame within the oil vapor using the gas nozzle of the apparatus at every 2°C
temperature rise of the oil. Keep stirring the oil with the stirring mechanism.
5. Record the temperature at which the oil vapor gives flash of fire and then get away.
6. Keep on applying heat to the oil until it reaches the fire point and gives a continuous
flame when the gas nozzle inserted in to the oil vapor.
7. Record the fire point of the oil.
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Discussion
2. Explain the difference between flash and fire point of the given oil.
3. How does the atmospheric pressure affect the reading of flash and fire points during the
experiment?
Conclusion
experiment.

1. How do you detect flash point during performing the experiment?
2. Why is it important to know both flash and fire point of any fuel?
3. Is flash point of a particular oil a constant parameter? What are the factors on which the
flash point of an oil depends?
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Data Sheet
Determination of Flash Point and Fire Point of Given Oil
Barometric Pressure, Patm = ……….. mm Hg

Type of Oil Used: ..................................
Table 1: Collection of oil temperature for different observations.

Oil Temperature, T Observation: (Yes/No)
No. of Observation
(°C) Flash Point Fire Point
1 200
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Flash point of given oil, Tflash = ..............°C

Fire point of given oil, Tfire = ...............°C
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EXPERIMENT NO. 2(a)
Proximate Analysis of Coal
Introduction
An analysis of a coal which may be made with the minimum of equipment is the proximate
analysis (sometimes referred to as an engineering analysis). The following four constituents
are determined by this type of analysis:
1. Moisture
2. Ash
3. Volatile matter
4. Fixed carbon.
Moisture Determination
Some of the moisture in the coal is known as inherent moisture, i.e., it is inherently a part of
the structure of the coal and cannot be readily separated from it. The rest of the moisture in
the coal is so called free moisture, which will be determined through gradual heating. This
process is dependent on the temperature to which it is heated and the length of time, it is held
at the elevated temperature. The heating of the coal has a tendency to produce two other
effects in addition to driving off the free moisture. It may drive off other volatile constituents
of the coal and it may cause some oxidation of the coal. Hence, it should be evident that there
is no way of determining exactly the true amount of free moisture in the coal.
Ash Determination
The ash originally present in the coal is quite difficult to exactly determine. During the
heating process, there may be oxidation of some of the material constituents of the coal. The
products of oxidation may or may not be driven off from the coal. In addition, there may be
some decomposition of mineral constituent, with some of the products being vaporized.
Although it is hard to determine the absolute value of the ash in the coal, qualitative results
may be obtained when the conditions of the ash determinations are duplicated.
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Volatile Matter Determination
In addition to moisture, coal contains volatile constituents, largely hydrocarbons, which will
be driven off by the application of heat. It should be recognize that the amount of volatile
matter found by this determination, is a function of the heating time as well as the temperature.
In order to obtain qualitative results, both of these variables must be controlled as specified.
Mechanical losses occur when some coals are heated very rapidly due to too rapid release of
volatile matter or steam. These mechanical losses are recognizable by the sparking that occurs
when the small fragments of the coals are heated to incandescence as they being expelled. If
any sparking occurs, the test results are worthless and the test procedure should be modified.
A new coal sample should be slowly lowered into the furnace and gradually heated for a
period of 5 to 10 minutes. Care should be taken to avoid sparking. The crucible may now be
lowered into the regular position and heated at the standard temperature for a period of
exactly 6 minutes.
Fixed Carbon Determination

Some of the carbon content of the coal is in the form of hydrocarbons, which will driven off
when the coal is heated. The reminder of the carbon, which cannot be driven off by the
application of heat is called fixed carbon.
There is no direct way of determining the fixed carbon in a coal, and hence, it must be
calculated by subtracting the summation of the moisture, ash and volatile matter weights from
the original weight of the coal.
Although fixed carbon cannot be vaporized, some of it will burn quite rapidly in the presence
of oxygen, particularly at the temperatures used during the determination of volatile matter.
Hence, care must be exercised to prevent oxygen from entering the crucible during the
determination of volatile matter. This is most readily done by using a close fitting cover on
the crucible.
Objectives
1. To determine the moisture content of the supplied coal.
2. To determine the ash content of the supplied coal.
3. To determine the volatile matter content of the supplied coal.
4. To determine the fixed carbon content of the supplied coal.
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Experimental Setup
The experimental setup consists of an electric oven, an electric muffle furnace, an electric
tube furnace, chemical balance, desiccators, porcelain capsule with flat aluminum cover,
platinum crucible with tightly fitting cover, platinum/nichrome wire, etc. The electric oven
should have a temperature regulation to 110°C (230°F) and a renewal of air at the rate of 2 to
4 times a minute, which has been dried by passing through sulfuric acid (S.G. 1.84). The
electric muffle furnace should have a temperature regulation between 700° and 750°C with
good air circulation. The electric tube furnace should have a temperature regulation to 950° +
20°C (1740° + 35°F). The coal sample should pass through a No. 60 sieves.
1. Transfer with a spoon or spatula about 1 g. of the coal sample to a porcelain capsule
which has been previously heated and dried in a desiccator.
2. Cover the capsule and record the weight from the chemical balance.
3. Then dry for 1 hour, uncovered, in the preheated electric oven at about 107° + 3°C.
4. Cool in a dissector over sulfuric acid and record the weight again from the chemical
balance.
5. Now the porcelain capsule containing the dried coal should be uncovered and placed in
the electric muffle furnace when the furnace is cold.
6. Gradually heat to redness.
7. Finish ignition in between 700 and 750°C, with occasional stirring with a platinum or
nichrome wire, until all carbon particles have disappeared.
8. Cool in a desiccator and record the weight from the chemical balance.
9. Then continue alternate heating and recording weight until the weight is constant.
Record the final weight.
10. Transfer with a spoon or spatula about 1 g. of the coal sample to a platinum crucible.
11. Cover the crucible and record the weight from the chemical balance.
12. Now place it in the electric tube furnace chamber, which has been preheated to 950° +
20°C (1740° + 35°F).
13. Heat exactly 7 minutes.
14. Remove and cool without disturbing the cover.
15. Record the weight from the chemical balance.
Relevant Equations
Determination of Moisture Content in the Coal
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The moisture content in the given coal is calculated as follows:
Wmois = Wbfdry − Wafdry (3)
where,
Wmois = Weight of the moisture content in the given coal (g),
Wbfdry = Weight of the capsule with cover containing coal before drying (g),
Wafdry = Weight of the capsule with cover containing coal after drying (g).
The percentage of moisture content in the given coal is calculated as follows:

Wmois Wmois
X mois = ×100 = ×100% (4)
W fcoal Wbfdry − Wpor
where,
Xmois = Percentage of the moisture content in the given coal (%),
Wfcoal = Wbfdry – Wpor = Weight of the first coal sample taken in the porcelain capsule (g),
Wpor = Weight of the empty porcelain capsule with aluminum cover (g).
Determination of Ash Content in the Coal

The ash content in the given coal is calculated as follows:
Wash = Wafdry − Wathnc (5)
where,
Wash = Weight of the ash content in the given coal (g),
Wathnc = Final weight of the capsule with cover containing coal after alternate heating and
cooling (g).
The percentage of ash content in the given coal is calculated as follows:

Wash
X ash = ×100% (6)
W fcoal
where,
Xmois = Percentage of the ash content in the given coal (%).
Determination of Volatile Matter Content in the Coal

The volatile matter content in the given coal is calculated as follows:
Wvolm = Wbfrh − Wafrh − Wmois (7)
where,
Wvolm = Weight of the volatile matter content in the given coal (g),
Wbfrh = Weight of the crucible with cover containing coal before rapid heating (g),
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Wafrh = Weight of the crucible with cover containing coal after rapid heating (g).
The percentage of volatile matter content in the given coal is calculated as follows:
Wvolm Wvolm
X volm = ×100 = ×100% (8)
Wscoal Wbfrh − Wplat
where,
Xvolm = Percentage of the volatile matter content in the given coal (%),
Wscoal = Wbfrh – Wplat = Weight of the second coal sample taken in the platinum crucible (g),
Wplat = Weight of the empty platinum crucible with cover (g).
Determination of Fixed Carbon Content in the Coal
The percentage of fixed carbon content in the given coal is calculated as follows:
X fc = (100 − X mois − X ash − X volm ) % (9)
where,
Xfc = Percentage of the moisture content in the given coal (%).
Discussion
2. Explain the importance of proximate analysis of coal.
3. How does the heating condition affect the determination of volatile matter and fixed
carbon content in the coal during the experiment?
4. Explain the necessity of cooling of the heated sample before recording the weight.
Conclusion
experiment.

1. What is the difference between inherent moisture and free moisture in the coal?
2. Why is it important to maintain the specified temperature and the time for determination
of moisture content in the coal?
3. Is it possible to obtain the absolute value of the ash in the coal by the present
experimental procedure?
4. What do you mean by qualitative result? How can one obtain those results?
23
Data Sheet
Proximate Analysis of Coal
Table 1: Collection of experimental data.

Measured Parameters Symbol (unit) Value
Weight of the empty porcelain capsule with aluminum cover Wpor (g)
Weight of the capsule with cover containing coal before drying Wbfdry (g)
Weight of the capsule with cover containing coal after drying Wafdry (g)
Final weight of the capsule with cover containing coal after Wathnc (g)
alternate heating and cooling
Weight of the empty platinum crucible with cover Wplat (g)
Weight of the crucible with cover containing coal before rapid Wbfrh (g)
heating
Weight of the crucible with cover containing coal after rapid Wafrh (g)
heating
Table 2: Calculation of different constituents in the given coal.

Calculated Parameters Symbol (unit) Value
Weight of the first coal sample taken in the porcelain capsule Wfcoal (g)
Weight of the moisture content in the given coal Wmois (g)
Percentage of the moisture content in the given coal Xmois (%)
Weight of the ash content in the given coal Wash (g)
Percentage of the ash content in the given coal Xash (%)
Weight of the second coal sample taken in the platinum Wscoal (g)
crucible
Weight of the volatile matter content in the given coal Wvolm (g)
Percentage of the volatile matter content in the given coal Xvolm (%)
Percentage of the fixed carbon content in the given coal Xfc (%)
24
EXPERIMENT NO. 2(b)
Study and Calibration of Thermocouple
Introduction
The thermocouple is the most common type of temperature sensor, primarily because it is
inexpensive and easy to use. It is based on the observation that an EMF (Electromotive force)
is generated in a circuit of dissimilar materials if the junctions (connecting ends of dissimilar
materials) are kept at different temperature. This phenomenon is called the Seebeck Effect,
and this EMF is known as thermal EMF, which is proportional to the temperature difference
between two junctions of a particular thermocouple. Now, if one junction is kept at a fixed
temperature, the EMF will depend only on the temperature of the other junction. Usually, one
junction known as cold junction is kept at an ice bath (0°C or 32°F), while the other junction
called as hot junction is placed at variable temperature (T) which needs to measure. Hence,
the thermal EMF developed due to temperature difference between the two junctions becomes
a function of hot junction temperature, which can be expressed as,
V = f (T ) (10)
where,
V = Thermal EMF generated by thermocouple (mV),
T = Hot junction (unknown) temperature (°C or °F).
The above relation shows that thermal EMF can be obtained for a particular temperature.
Unfortunately, there is no simple functional relationship between V and T for thermocouples
in use. Hence, experiments are carried out to establish the relationship between V and T. This
relationship can be presented in either tabular or graphical chart form. One example of these
relationships is presented in Appendix A for Chromel-Alumel thermocouple.
Properties of Thermocouple Materials

Although any two dissimilar metals may be used for a thermocouple, certain combinations are
unsatisfactory for practical purposes, because of low EMF developed and because of the
reversal of the direction of EMF at certain temperature. Some desirable properties of
thermocouple materials are as follows:
(i) Capability of resisting oxidation and corrosion.
(ii) Development of a relatively large EMF.
25
(iii) A continuous increase of EMF with temperature over its entire range.
(iv) Stability of EMF with respect to temperature.
(v) Material must be reproducible.
Material combinations of some important thermocouples are presented in Table 1.
Table 1: List of thermocouple types, materials and working temperature range.
SL. No. ANSI Type Material Combinations Temperature Range (°F)

a
1 J Iron − Constantan 32 to 1400
a
2 T Copper − Constantan −300 to 700
3 E Chromelb − Constantana 32 to 1600
b c
4 K Chromel − Alumel 32 to 2300
5 S Platinum & Rhodiumd − Platinum 32 to 2700
a
Note: Nominal composition: 55% Cu, 45% Ni
b
Nominal composition: 10% Cr, 90% Ni
c
Nominal composition: 2% Mn, 95% Ni, 2% Al
d
Nominal composition: 10% Rh, 90% Pt
In order to achieve the traceability and reliability, measuring instruments and sensors should
be controlled by verification, validation and calibration. Calibration in measurement
technology is the process of comparison of measurement values delivered by a device under
test with a calibration standard of known accuracy. Calibration of the instrument can be
defined as finding the dependence between the input and output of the measuring instrument
and finding the deviation of measurements. The input for thermocouples is the measure
temperature and the output is the thermal EMF generated by thermocouple. The results can be
presented as a table, chart or formulas.
Objectives
1. To measure temperature of muffle furnace using thermocouple.
2. To plot the actual temperature of muffle furnace versus the observed EMF reading of
thermocouple.
3. To plot the actual temperature of muffle furnace versus the observed temperature
measured by thermocouple.
4. To plot percentage of error versus the actual temperature of muffle furnace.
26
Experimental Setup
A schematic diagram of the experimental setup is shown in Fig

Fig. 1. The setup consists of a box
type electric muffle furnace (temperature range: 0 to 2000°F or 0 to 1100°C, Power:
1440 W), whose temperature
mperature is shown by a dial placed at the top of the furnace. A hand
operated lever is attached on the bottom of the furnace to control the heating through variable
rheostat. Hot junction of the thermocouple will be placed inside the muffle furnace to measure
mea
the corresponding EMF change. Instead of putting inside an ice bath, the cold junction is kept
at room temperature, and a multimeter/mil
multimeter/millivoltmeter
ivoltmeter is used to record the EMF change of
thermocouple.
Furnace Door Temperature Dial

Muffle furnace
T∞ Ceramic
Fiber
Control lever
K-Type
Thermocouple
1. At first, place the hot junction of the thermocouple inside the muffle furnace.
2. Connect the cold junction with the multimeter terminals.
3. Switch on the muffle furnace to provide heating and start recording the temperature of
the furnace from the dial when it shows 200°F.
4. Take the reading of the multimeter at the same time.
5. Continue recording
ording the temperatures of muffle furnace with an interval of 50°F up to
1100°F.
27
Relevant Equations
Room Temperature Correction
The thermocouple is constructed in such a way that the cold junction should be placed at 0°C
or 32°F. However, the cold junction will keep at room temperature during the experiment.
Hence, a correction is necessary to get the (corrected) observed EMF reading while measuring
the temperature of hot junction of thermocouple. This is called room temperature correction.
If the room temperature during the experiment is T∞ (°F), the corresponding room temperature
correction, Vcorr (mV) can be determined from the supplied thermocouple chart given in
Appendix A.
Determination of Corrected Observed EMF Reading
If the cold junction is not placed at 0°C or 32°F, the observed EMF reading of thermocouple
is calculated using the room temperature correction as follows:
Vobs = Vmea + Vcorr , T > T∞
(11)
Vobs = Vcorr − Vmea , T < T∞
where,
Vobs = Observed EMF reading of thermocouple (mV),
Vmea = Measured EMF reading of thermocouple (mV),
Vcorr = Room temperature correction (mV),
T = Hot junction temperature of thermocouple (°F),
T∞ = Room temperature (°F).
Determination of Percentage Error

Error is the difference between the actual temperature reading and the observed temperature
reading using thermocouple relative to the actual temperature reading. Percentage of error is
expressed as follows:
Tact − Tobs
E= × 100% (12)
Tact
where,
E = Error (%),
Tact = Actual temperature of the muffle furnace (°F),
Tobs = Observed temperature of the muffle furnace measured by thermocouple (°F).
28
Discussions
1. Briefly explain the limitations of the experimental setup and possible sources of errors.
2. What is the necessity of room temperature correction?
3. Explain the nature of the variation of the actual versus the observed temperature graph.
4. Explain the benefit of using the calibration curve of the actual temperature versus the
observed EMF reading.
5. How does the error in the reading change with the actual temperature during the
experiment?
Conclusions
experiment.
Sample Quiz Questions

1. Define calibration. How is it presented?
2. What are the desirable properties of thermocouple materials?
3. Write down the materials combination and working temperature range for the
thermocouple used in the experiment.
4. Why usage of thermocouples beyond the prescribed range is unsatisfactory?
29
Data Sheet
Study and Calibration of Thermocouple
Thermocouple used:
Type:_______, Material: _________________________, Range: ______________________
Room temperature, T∞ = ………..°C = ……..…..°F

Corresponding room temperature correction, Vcorr = …………… mV [Use Appendix A]
Table 1: Measurement of muffle furnace temperature for different observations.
Actual Measured EMF Observed EMF Observed

Error,
No. of Temperature, Reading, Reading, Temperature,
E
Observations Tact Vmea Vobs Tobs
(%)
(°F) (mV) (mV) (°F)
1 200
2 250
3 300
4 350
5 400
6
7
8
9
10
.
.
.
Please bring three normal mm graph papers for this experiment.

_______________________
30
Appendix A
K Type (Chromel-Alumel) Thermocouple Data (Cold Junction at 32°F)

Voltages are in mV
Temperature
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
(°F)
0 −0.68 −0.47 −0.26 −0.04 0.18 0.40 0.62 0.84 1.04 1.29
100 1.52 1.74 1.95 2.20 2.43 2.66 2.89 3.12 3.36 3.59
200 3.82 4.05 4.28 4.51 4.74 4.97 5.19 5.42 5.64 5.87
300 6.09 6.31 6.53 6.75 6.98 7.20 7.42 7.64 7.87 8.09
400 8.31 8.53 8.76 8.98 9.20 9.43 9.66 9.88 10.11 10.33
500 10.56 10.79 11.02 11.25 11.47 11.70 11.93 12.16 12.39 12.62
600 12.85 13.08 13.31 13.55 13.78 14.01 14.24 14.48 14.71 14.94
700 15.18 15.41 15.64 15.85 16.11 16.35 16.58 16.82 17.05 17.29
800 17.52 17.75 17.99 18.22 18.46 18.70 18.93 19.17 19.41 19.64
900 19.88 20.12 20.36 20.59 20.83 21.07 21.30 21.54 21.78 22.01
1000 22.25 22.49 22.72 22.96 23.20 23.43 23.67 23.91 24.14 24.38
1100 24.62 24.85 25.09 25.33 25.57 25.80 26.04 26.27 26.57 26.74
1200 26.98 27.21 27.45 27.68 27.92 28.15 28.39 28.62 28.86 29.09
1300 29.33 29.56 29.79 30.02 30.26 30.49 30.72 30.96 31.19 31.49
1400 31.56 31.88 32.11 32.34 32.57 32.80 33.03 33.26 33.49 33.71
1500 33.94 34.17 34.40 34.62 34.85 35.08 35.33 35.53 35.75 35.98
1600 36.20 36.42 36.65 36.87 37.10 37.32 37.54 37.76 37.99 38.21
1700 38.43
31
EXPERIMENT NO. 2(c)
Calibration of a Bourdon Tube Pressure Gauge by Dead Weight Tester
Introduction
Pressure gauges are instruments used to measure the pressure of liquid or gaseous materials
by calculating the force they would exert at a state of rest. The gauge displays the difference
between the pressure in the area being measured and that of the surroundings, called the
gauge pressure. The absolute or total pressure of the area will be the sum of the pressure
difference measured by the gauge and the atmospheric pressure.
Bourdon Tube Pressure Gauge

When a curved metal tube of approximately elliptical cross-section is subjected to an internal
pressure, it has a tendency to straighten. If one end of the tube is fastened, there will be
definite movement of the other which depends on the magnitude of the applied pressure. If the
pressure within the tube is reduced below that surrounding of the tube, the tube will have a
tendency to curve still further in a smaller arc. The tube itself resists and if not stretched
beyond its elastic limit, will return to its original position when the pressure is removed. Such
a tube is the basis of the so called Burdon tube pressure gauge. By means of a suitable linkage,
the motion of the free end to the tube is transmitted to a rack and pinion which rotates a
needle mounted on the face of the gauge.
Classification of Bourdon Tube Pressure Gauge

Bourdon tube pressure gauges are often classified as follows:
1. Pressure Gauge (for measurement of pressure above atmospheric pressure).
2. Vacuum Gauge (for measurement of pressure below atmospheric pressure).
3. Combination Gauge (for measurement of both vacuum and small positive pressure).
Pressure gauges are normally graduated in pounds per square inch (psi). Although for special
applications, those may have other graduations, such as Pascal (Pa) or Newtons per square
meter (N/m2), feet of water, inch of mercury (Hg), etc. Vacuum gauges are normally
graduated in inch of mercury. The vacuum part of combination gauges is generally graduated
in inch of Hg and the pressure part in psi.
32
Calibration of Bourdon Tube Pressure Gauge
In industries, laboratories, and other commercial environments, pressure gauges are integral to
processes. Employees rely on pressure measurements displayed by gauges to identify
potential problems. Ensuring that pressure gauges are performing reliably, within reasonable
limits of precision and accuracy, is absolutely essential for safeguarding quality and safety.
Pressure gauges can be calibrated using a dead weight tester, standard pneumatic calibrator, or
another suitable calibrator. The most satisfactory method of calibration of pressure gauges is
to use a dead weight tester.
Objectives
1. To plot the actual pressure of the pressure gauge versus the observed pressure.
2. To plot the actual pressure error versus the actual pressure of the pressure gauge.
3. To plot percentage of error versus the actual pressure of the pressure gauge.
Experimental Setup
Platform
Dead Weight Tester
dead weight tester (Range: 5 to 300 psi), where a pressure is impressed on oil (grade SAE 20),
which transmits this pressure equally to known area and to the pressure gauge under test.
Thus the piston area and the measuring weights give knowledge of the tube oil pressure which
is acting on the gauge.
33
1. Turn pressurizing handle counterclockwise to feed proper amount of specified oil to
pressurizing cylinder.
2. Again turn the plunger inside the barrel as far as it will move and then unscrew it for
suction of oil into the barrel. Repeat the process for several times to remove air which
may be present in the barrel.
3. Bring the plunger at the extreme outward position and then close the oil filling valve.
Now turn the plunger to create pressure in the oil. The piston with platform will now
gradually rise. Move the plunger further to remove air in the cylinder.
4. Open the oil filling valve again and then unscrew the plunger to the extreme outward
position. Then close the oil filling valve.
5. To exert a pressure on the oil, the plunger is moved into its cylinder, and weights are
added to the position to keep it from being pushed out of its cylinder. When a reading is
desired, the position of the plunger is so adjusted that the marker on the position is at the
same level with the bottom stop. To eliminate friction, the piston and the weights are
gently rotated. Care should be taken neither to push down nor to raise the weights. The
gauge is tapped tightly to eliminate gauge friction before a reading is taken.
6. Take the reading of the gauge with no weight on the piston. Increase the weight in steps
of 2 psi up to 10 psi, then in steps of 5 and 10 psi up to 25 psi, next in steps of 20 psi up
to 65 psi and finally in steps of 50 psi until maximum available weight is reached.
7. Decrease the weight in a similar manner and again note the corresponding pressure
gauge reading.
Relevant Equations
Determination of Mean Observed Pressure Reading
Mean observed pressure reading of the pressure gauge is calculated as follows:

Pup + Pdown
Pobs = , (1)
2
where,
Pobs = Mean observed pressure reading of the pressure gauge (psi)
Pup = Observed pressure reading of the pressure gauge while loading (psi)
Pdown = Observed pressure reading of the pressure gauge while unloading (psi)
34
Determination of Actual Pressure Error
Actual Pressure Error is the absolute difference between the actual pressure reading and the
observed pressure reading using pressure gauge. It is expressed as follows:
∆P = Pact − Pobs , (2)
where,
∆P = Actual Pressure Error (psi)
Pact = Actual pressure of the pressure gauge measured by dead weight tester (psi)
Pobs = Observed pressure of the pressure gauge (psi)
Determination of Percentage Error

Error is the difference between the actual pressure reading and the observed pressure reading
using pressure gauge relative to the actual pressure reading. Percentage of error is expressed
as follows:
Pact − Pobs
E= × 100%, (3)
Pact
where,
E = Error (%)
Discussion
2. Explain the nature of the variation of the actual versus the observed pressure graph.
3. How does the error in the reading change with the actual pressure during the
experiment?
Conclusion
experiment.

1. How air bubbles are removed from the dead weight tester and why?
2. Write down the specification and the working pressure range for the Bourdon tube
pressure gauge used in the experiment.
3. Why is the calibration of pressure gauge necessary for industrial applications?
35
Data and Calculation Sheet
Calibration of a Pressure Gauge by Dead Weight Tester
Area of piston, A = ……….. in2

Weight of piston and platform, W = …………… lb
Specification of test pressure gauge: ................................................................
Table 1: Collection of experimental data and calculation of mean pressure and other
parameters for different observations.
Measured Data Calculated Data
Actual Observed Pressure, Mean Observed Actual
No. of Error,
Pressure, (psi) Pressure, Pressure Error,
Observation E
Pact Pobs ∆P
Up Down (%)
(psi) (psi) (psi)
1 200
2 250
3 300
4 350
5 400
6 450
7 500
8 550
9 600
10 650
Please bring three normal mm graph papers for this experiment.

________________
36
EXPERIMENT NO. 3(a)
Measurement of Viscosity of an Oil by Saybolt Viscosimeter
Introduction
Viscosity of a fluid is its resistance to shear or flow, and a measure of fluid’s adhesive/
cohesive or frictional properties. It is a measure of fluid's resistance to gradual deformation by
shear stress or tensile stress. Viscosity is an important fluid property when analyzing liquid
behavior and fluid motion near solid boundaries. The shear resistance in a fluid is caused by
inter molecular friction exerted when layers of fluid attempt to slide by one another.
There are two related measures of fluid viscosity:

1. Dynamic (or Absolute) viscosity.
2. Kinematic viscosity.
Dynamic (Absolute) Viscosity

Absolute viscosity is a measure of internal resistance. Dynamic (absolute) viscosity is the
tangential force per unit area required to move one horizontal plane with respect to another
plane - at a unit velocity - when maintaining a unit distance apart in the fluid.
Kinematic Viscosity
Kinematic viscosity is the ratio of absolute (or dynamic) viscosity to density; a quantity in
which no force is involved. Kinematic viscosity can be obtained by dividing the absolute
viscosity of a fluid with the fluid mass density.
Unit of Viscosity
In the SI system, the dynamic viscosity units are N.s/m2, Pa.s or kg/(m.s). Dynamic viscosity
may also be expressed in the metric CGS (centimeter-gram-second) system as g/(cm.s),
dyne.s/cm2 or poise (P) where
1 P = 1 dyne.s/cm2 = 1 g/(cm.s) = 1/10 Pa.s = 1/10 kg/(m.s).
For practical use, the Poise is normally too large and the unit is often divided by 100 - into the
smaller unit centipoise (cP).
37
viscosity is m2/s - or the commonly used
In the SI-system, the theoretical unit of kinematic viscosit
Stoke (St) where
1 St = 10-4 m2/s = 1 cm2/s.
Stoke comes from the CGS (Centimetre Gram Second) unit system. Since the Stoke is a large
unit, it is often divided by 100 into the smaller unit centiStoke (cSt)
(cSt).
Saybolt Universal
rsal Seconds (or SUS, SSU)
Saybolt Universal Seconds (or SUS) is an alternative unit for measuring viscosity of
lubricants, insulating oils, and lighter fuel grades
grades.. The efflux time is Saybolt Universal
Seconds (SUS) required for 60 milliliters of a petroleum product to flow through the
calibrated orifice of a Saybolt Universal viscometer - under a carefully controlled temperature
and as prescribed by test method ASTM D 88. Saybolt Universal Seconds is also called the
SSU number (Seconds Saybolt Unive
Universal)
rsal) or SSF number (Saybolt Seconds Furol).
Objectives
1. To compute the Saybolt viscosity, dynamic and kinematic viscosity of the given oil.
oil
2. To identify
dentify SAE number of the oil using ASTM viscosity chart.
3. To plot
lot the Saybolt universal viscosity on a semi logarithmic graph against temperature.
38
Experimental Setup
A schematic diagram of the experimental setup is shown in Fig. 1. The experimental setup
consists of a Koehler SV3000 Saybolt viscometer and bath, withdrawal tube, receiving flask,
timer, thermometer support, filter funnel, Saybolt viscosity thermometers, bath thermometers,
etc. The Koehler SV3000 Saybolt Viscometer Bath is the latest design for determining
viscosity using Saybolt viscometer tubes and orifices. The bath operates at temperatures from
ambient to 240°C (464°F). The instrument determines the time required for 60 ml of sample
oil to flow through a calibrated orifice under precisely controlled conditions.
1. Measure and record the weight of an empty Saybolt standard flask.
2. Identify and record the grade of the four oil samples.
3. Pour each oil sample in the proper container of the Saybolt Viscometer (each container
should be labeled). There are four metal containers in the viscometer and they are
surrounded by an oil bath that needs to be kept at a constant temperature. An electric
heater embedded in the bath is used to adjust the temperature to the desired level.
4. Measure and record the temperature of the oil bath in the viscometer using a bulb
thermometer.
5. The measurement of the oil's viscosity is determined by the time required to collect 60
ml of a sample when it is drained through an orifice at the bottom of the container. It is
necessary to use a suitable stopwatch to time the process.
6. Place an empty flask under the container directly below the draining orifice. Carefully,
remove the cork stopper at the bottom of the container and simultaneously start timing
the draining process. Collect the fluid in the flask and stop the timer at the moment the
fluid reaches the 60 ml graduation. The units of elapsed time are referred to as Saybolt
Universal Seconds or SUS.
7. Determine the net mass of the fluid samples by weighing the 60 ml volume in the flask.
8. Calculate the density of the samples from these measurements. Make sure that the units
are consistent.
9. Repeat the same process for all the samples provided.
10. The time in SUS is directly proportional to the absolute viscosity of the fluid and
inversely proportional to its density. This time can be converted to stokes or centistokes
units by using standard tables of conversion or through a simple conversion equation.
11. Repeat the steps for different temperatures.
39
Relevant Equations
Determination of Density of Given Oil
Density of the given oil is calculated as follows:

mo
ρ= (1)
v
where,
ρ = density of the given oil (kg/m3),
mo = mfo − mf = mass of oil (kg),
mf = mass of flask (kg),
mfo = mass of flask + oil (kg),
v = volume of flask for oil collection (m3).
Determination of Dynamic viscosity of Given Oil
Dynamic viscosity of the given oil is calculated as follows:

µ = ρ × υ × 10−3 (2)
where,
µ = dynamic viscosity of the given oil (cP),
υ = kinematic viscosity of the given oil (cS).
Discussion
1. What was the effect of temperature on viscosity? Explain.
2. Write down the effect of temperature on viscosity index and explain.
3. What were the sources of error, and how to eliminate?
4. What are the pragmatic applications of the experiment?
Conclusion
experiment.

1. Which oil is good for use- oil with high viscosity or oil with low viscosity?
2. Write down the difference between kinematic and dynamic viscosity.
3. Which viscosity (kinematic/dynamic) is used to describe oil property normally and
why?
40
Data Sheet
Measurement of Viscosity of an Oil by Saybolt Viscosimeter
Mass of the empty bottle, m1 = ………………………… kg
Mass of the bottle with oil, m2 = ………………………… kg

Mass of oil, m = m2 − m1= ……………….. kg
Volume of flask for oil collection, v = ………………...………… m3
Table 1: Collection of experimental data and calculation of density.

No. of Temperature Mass of Mass of flask Mass of Density, ρ
observations (°C) flask, mf + oil, mfo oil, mo (kg/m3)
(kg) (kg) (kg)
1
2
3
4
Table 2: Collection of experimental data and calculation of viscosity.

No. of Temperature Falling Density, ρ Kinematic Dynamic
observation (°C) time (kg/m3) viscosity, υ viscosity, µ
(s) (cSt) (cP)
1
2
3
4
41
Viscosity Conversion Table
Saybolt
Universal Kinematic viscosity Saybolt
SSU Furol
at 100°F SSF
Centistokes
(37.8°C) ft2/sec (Seconds)
(mm2 /s)
(Seconds)
31 1 0.00001076 —
31.5 1.13 0.00001216 —
32 1.81 0.00001948 —
32.6 2 0.00002153 —
33 2.11 0.00002271 —
34 2.4 0.00002583 —
35 2.71 0.00002917 —
36 3 0.00003229 —
38 3.64 0.00003918 —
39.2 4 0.00004306 —
40 4.25 0.00004575 —
42 4.88 0.00005253 —
42.4 5 0.00005382 —
44 8.5 0.0000592 —
45.6 6 0.00006458 —
46 6.13 0.00006598 —
46.8 7 0.00007535 —
50 7.36 0.00007922 —
52.1 8 0.00008611 —
55 8.88 0.00009558 —
55.4 9 0.00009688 —
58.8 10 0.0001076 —
60 10.32 0.0001111 —
65 11.72 0.0001262 —
70 13.08 0.0001408 —
75 14.38 0.0001548 —
80 15.66 0.0001686 —
85 16.9 0.0001819 —
90 18.12 0.000195 —
95 19.32 0.000208 —
100 20.52 0.0002209 —
120 25.15 0.0002707 —
140 29.65 0.0003191 —
160 34.1 0.000367 —
42
Saybolt
Universal Kinematic viscosity Saybolt
SSU Furol
at 100°F SSF
Centistokes
(37.8°C) ft2/sec (Seconds)
(mm2 /s)
(Seconds)
180 38.52 0.0004146 —
200 42.95 0.0004623 —
300 64.6 0.0006953 32.7
400 86.2 0.0009275 42.4
500 108 0.001163 52.3
600 129.4 0.001393 62
700 151 0.001625 72
800 172.6 0.001858 82
900 194.2 0.00209 92.1
1000 215.8 0.002323 102.1
1200 259 0.002788 122
1400 302.3 0.003254 143
1600 345.3 0.003717 163
1800 388.5 0.004182 183
2000 431.7 0.004647 204
2500 539.4 0.005806 254
3000 647.3 0.006967 305
3500 755.2 0.008129 356
4000 863.1 0.00929 408
4500 970.9 0.01045 458
5000 1078.8 0.01161 509
6000 1294.6 0.01393 610
7000 1510.3 0.01626 712
8000 1726.1 0.01858 814
9000 1941.9 0.02092 916
NOTE: The Saybolt Universal SUS viscosity equivalent (SSU or SUS) to a given kinematic
viscosity varies with the temperature at which the determination is made. Check ASTM D
2161 "Standard Practice for Conversion of Kinematic Viscosity to Saybolt Universal
Viscosity or to Saybolt Furol Viscosity".
43
44
EXPERIMENT NO. 3(b)
Study of Sling Psychrometer and Determination of Humidity of Air
Introduction
Air is a mixture of nitrogen, oxygen, and small amounts of some other gases. Air in the
atmosphere normally contains some water vapor (or moisture) and is referred to as
atmospheric air. By contrast, air that contains no water vapor is called dry air. It is often
convenient to treat air as a mixture of water vapor and dry air since the composition of dry air
remains relatively constant, but the amount of water vapor changes because of condensation
and evaporation from oceans, lakes, rivers, showers, and even the human body. Although the
amount of water vapor in the air is small, it plays a major role in human comfort. The amount
of moisture in the air can be described by absolute and relative humidity. The humidity has
a definite effect on how comfortable we feel in an environment. If you live in a humid area,
you are probably used to waking up most summer mornings and finding the grass wet. You
know it did not rain the night before. So what happened? Well, the excess moisture in the air
simply condensed on the cool surfaces, forming what we call dew. In summer, a considerable
amount of water vaporizes during the day. As the temperature falls during the night, so does
the “moisture capacity” of air, which is the maximum amount of moisture air can hold. After
a while, the moisture capacity of air equals its moisture content. At this point, air is saturated,
and its relative humidity is 100 percent. Any further drop in temperature results in the
condensation of some of the moisture, and this is the beginning of dew formation.
Absolute Humidity
This is the ratio of the mass of water vapor to the mass of dry air in a given volume of the air
mixture. It is usually expressed in grains of water vapor/kg of dry air or kg of water vapor/kg
of dry air.
Relative Humidity
This is the ratio of the actual partial pressure of the vapor to the partial pressure of the vapor
when the air is saturated at the same temperature. The relative humidity ranges from 0% for
dry air to 100% for saturated air. Note that the amount of moisture, air can hold depends on its
45
temperature. Therefore, the relative humidity of air changes with temperature even when its
specific humidity remains constant.
Dew Point
This is the temperature to which, unsaturated air must be cooled at constant pressure for it
becomes saturated (condensation begins).
Sling Psychrometer
The Sling psychrometer determines percentage of relative humidity by measuring the
evaporation of water into the surrounding air. This device contains two thermometers. An
absorbent wick keeps the bulb of one thermometer wet. As one spins the psychrometer, air
flows over the wet bulb, increasing the rate of evaporation. As the water evaporates, the wet
bulb reading will continue to fall relative to that of the dry bulb. In dry air, evaporation will be
rapid with low relative humidity. In humid air, there will be little evaporation giving a high
relative humidity.
Objectives
1. To measure wet and dry bulb temperatures from sling psychrometer.
2. To determine relative humidity of air from psychrometric chart.
3. To determine absolute humidity of air from psychrometric chart.
4. To determine dew point of air from psychrometric chart.
5. To determine enthalpy of air from psychrometric chart.
Experimental Setup
A schematic diagram of the experimental setup is shown in Fig. 1. The experimental setup
consists of a sling psychrometer, psychrometric chart, water, magnifying glass, etc. The sling
psychrometer has two similar thermometers mounted on a frame, one to read dry bulb
temperature (DBT) and the other wet bulb temperature (WBT). The bulb of the wet bulb
thermometer is covered by a wick wetted with distilled water. The thermometer and wetted
wick is whirled through the air, the water evaporate into the surrounding unsaturated air,
causing the general conditions around the wet thermometer bulb to be similar to, and closely
approximate to, those of adiabatic saturation. After sufficient whirling, the thermometer reach
equilibrium conditions. Both temperature should be read quickly in order to get dependable
readings.
46
The sling psychrometer should be rotated at a speed of 10 to 15 fps or 100 to 200 rpm. It is
important that clean water should be used, since the slightest trace of oil on the wick cause
errors. The wick should be kept fully wet when reading are being made.
1. Wet the wick of the wet bulb thermometer and whirl the psychrometer for about a
minute.
2. Note down the reading (WBT) of the wet bulb thermometer quickly with the help of a
magnifying glass. Then read the dry bulb temperature (DBT) corresponding to the dry
bulb thermometer.
3. Locate the point on the psychrometric chart which corresponds to the measured DBT
and WBT.
4. Determine the required parameters of air using the psychrometric chart.
47
Discussion
1. Why did the two thermometers have different temperatures?
2. Explain how the relative humidity of the air affected the differences between the
temperatures of the two thermometers.
3. What does it mean if the water does not evaporate from the wet-bulb thermometer?
Conclusion
experiment.

1. How would the relative humidity change if you cooled the air in the laboratory?
2. Can a sling psychrometer be used when the temperature is below freezing?
48
Data Sheet
Study of Sling Psychrometer and Determination of Humidity of Air
Table 1: Collection of experimental data and Calculation of different parameters of air.

Measured/Calculated Parameters Symbol (unit) Value
Wet bulb temperature from sling psychrometer WBT (°C)
Dry bulb temperature from sling psychrometer DBT (°C)
Relative humidity of air calculated using psychrometric chart RH (%)
AH (kg of water
Absolute humidity of air calculated using psychrometric chart
vapor / kg dry air)
Dew point of air calculated using psychrometric chart Tdew (°C)
hair
Enthalpy of air calculated using psychrometric chart
(kJ/kg of dry air)
49
50
EXPERIMENT NO. 4(a)
Determination of Carbon Residue of Given Oil
Introduction
Carbon residue is the residue formed by evaporation and thermal degradation of a carbon
containing material. The carbon residue of a fuel is the tendency to form carbon deposits
under high temperature conditions in an inert atmosphere. The residue is not composed
entirely of carbon but is a coke that can be further changed by carbon pyrolysis. The term
carbon residue is retained in deference to its wide common usage. This is an important value
for the crude oil refinery, and usually one of the measurements in a crude oil assay. It is also
an important measurement for the feed to the refinery process fluid catalytic cracking and
delayed coking. The carbon residue of diesel fuel correlates approximately with combustion
chamber deposits. High amounts of carbon residue can be damaging to the environment.
Conradson Method
A weighed quantity of sample is placed in a crucible and subjected to destructive distillation.
The residue undergoes cracking and cooking reactions during a fixed period of severe heating.
At the end of the specified heating period, the test crucible containing the carbonaceous
residue is cooled in a desiccator and weighed. The residue remaining is calculated as a
percentage of the original sample and reported as conradson carbon residue.
Objective
1. To determine the Carbon residue of a given oil by Conradson Method.
Experimental Setup
A schematic diagram of the experimental setup is shown in Fig. 1. The setup consists of a H-
2495 Conradson Carbon Residue Apparatus containing Porcelain crucible, Skidmore crucible,
Spun sheet-iron crucible with cover, Chimney, wire support (Triangle of bare Nichrome wire),
Sand bath, Hood, Insulator, and a Meker type Burner. In the setup, a Porcelain crucible is
filled with a test specimen and two glass beads. The porcelain crucible is kept at the Skidmore
crucible which is then kept at the sheet-iron crucible. After complete burning of the test
specimen the weight of the residual is measure along with the Porcelain crucible and glass
beads. Hence, from this weight the weight of the carbon residual is determined.
51
1. Weigh to the nearest 10 g sample of the oil to be tested into a tarred porcelain or silica
crucible containing two glass beads about 0.1 inch in diameter. Place the crucible in the
center of the skidmore crucible. Level the sand in the large sheet iron crucible and set
the skidmore crucible on it in the exact center of the iron crucible. Apply covers to both
the skidmore and the iron crucible, the one on the latter fitting loosely to allow free exit
to the vapors as formed.
2. On a suitable stand or ring, place the bare Nichrome wire triangle and on it the insulator.
Next center the sheet iron crucible in the insulator with its bottom resting on top of the
triangle, and cover the whole with the sheet iron hood in order to distribute the heat
uniformly during the process Apply heat with a high strong flame from the Meker type
gas burner. So the pre-ignition period will be 10 ± 1.0 minute (a shorter time may start
the distillation so rapidly as to cause foaming or too high a flame) when smoke appears
above the chimney, immediately move or tilt the burner so that the gas flame plays on
the sides of the crucible for the purpose of igniting the vapors. Then remove the heat
temporarily and before replacing adjust by screwing down the pinch cock on the gas
tubing so that the ignited vapors burn uniformly with the flame above the chimney but
not above the wire bridge. The period of burning the vapors shall be 10 to 12 minutes.
52
3. When the vapor ceases to burn and no further blue smoke can be observed, readjust the
burner and held the heat as at the beginning so as to make the bottom and lower part of
the sheet-iron crucible a cherry red and maintain for exactly 7 minute. The total period
of heating shall be 30 ± 2 minute which constitutes as additional limitation on the
tolerances for the pre ignition and burning periods. The top of the burner about 2 in. (50
mm) below the bottom of the crucible.
4. Remove the burner allow the apparatus to cool until no smoke appears and then remove
the cover of the skidmore crucible (about 15 minute). Remove the porcelain or silica
crucible with heated tongs, place in the desiccator, cool and weigh. Calculate the
percentage of carbon residue on the original sample.
Relevant Equations
Determination of Carbon Residue
Carbon Residue of the given oil is calculated as follows:

A = 10 − Wloss , (1)
where,
A = Carbon Residue of the given oil (g),
Wloss = W1 − W2 = Loss of oil (g),
W1 = Weight of crucible + beads + 10 g oil (g),
W2 = Weight of crucible + beads + carbon residue (g).
Percentage of Carbon Residue of the given oil is calculated as follows:

A
C= ×100%, (2)
10
where,
C = Percentage of Carbon Residue of the given oil.
Discussion
1. Why is it neccessary to determine the carbon residue of an oil?
2. Why the pre-ignition time should be high?
Conclusion
Write down the summary of key findings and observations as outlined in the objective of this
experiment.
53
1. What is carbon residue?
2. Name different apparatus used in the Condradson carbon residue method.
3. Describe briefly how the Conradson carbon residue is measured.
54
Data Sheet
Determination of Carbon Residue of Given Oil
Table 1: Collection of experimental data and calculation of carbon residue.

Measured Parameters Symbol (Unit) Value
Weight of crucible + beads + 10 g oil W1 (g)
Weight of crucible + beads + carbon residue W2 (g)
Loss of oil Wloss (g)
Carbon Residue A (g)
Percentage of Carbon residue C (%)
55
EXPERIMENT NO. 4(b)
Study of Gas Calorimeter and Determination of Heating Value of Natural

Gas by Gas Calorimeter
Introduction
Heating value is the amount of heat produced by a complete combustion of fuel and it is
measured as a unit of energy per unit mass or volume of substance (e.g., kcal/kg, kJ/kg, J/mol,
MJ/kg, MJ/m3, Btu/m³, etc.). The heat of combustion of fuels is expressed by the higher and
lower heating values (HHV and LHV). Whenever a hydrocarbon fuel is burned one product of
combustion is water. The quantity of water produced is dependent upon the amount of
hydrogen in the fuel. Due to high combustion temperatures, this water takes the form of
steam which stores a small fraction of the energy released during combustion as the latent
heat of vaporization; in simple terms, as heat energy stored in the vaporized ‘state’ of water.
Higher heating value - HHV is the amount of heat generated with the total and complete
combustion of fuel, at assumption that the combustion products are cooled to the initial
temperature of the components involved in the combustion process, and the water condenses.
Lower heating value – LHV is numerically equal to difference between the high heating
value and the amount of heat required to the separation of water contained in fuel, and also
the water produced in the hydrogen combustion process.
Gas Calorimeter
The heating value of gaseous fuels is determined by means of a gas calorimeter, which is a
continuous flow type of calorimeter. The gas is burned in a Bunsen type of burner, and
product of combustion pass through tubes which are surrounded by flowing water. The
concept of the gas calorimeter is simple. The volume flow rate of gas flow to the calorimeter
is measured. Water conditions are adjusted to cool the products of combustion to the entering
air temperature. The rate of water flow through the calorimeter is measured and its
temperature rise is determined. Neglecting heat exchange between the calorimeter and its
surrounding, the heat received by water equals the heating value of the fuel. The gas flow to
the calorimeter is measured by a rotary gas meter of the wet type. The water which flows
through the calorimeter is collected and weighed. The temperature rise of water is determined
by means of two thermometers. The amount of condensate formed is determined by collecting
it in a small container. The pressure of the gas entering the gas meter is controlled by a
56
regulator. The gas temperature is measured by thermometer and a similar thermometer is used
for determining the temperature of the products leaving the calorimeter. The details of a gas
calorimeter are shown in Figs.. 1 and 2.
Objective
1. To find the heating value of natural gas using gas calorimeter.
Experimental Set Up
A schematic diagram of the experimental setup is shown in Fig. 2. The
he experimental setup
consists of a Gas Calorimeter, thermometers, water container, weighing scale, wet gas meter,
burner, etc.
Fig 1. Schematic Diagram of Gas Calorimeter

Calorimeter.
57
Fig 2. Schematic Diagram of Experimental Setup of Gas Calorimeter and Auxiliary
Equipment.
Preparation for the Experiment

1. The accuracy of heating value determination is affected by the accuracy of the various
measuring instrument. All thermometers should be calibrated preferably by a qualified
agency such as the Bureau of Standards.
2. Two thermometers should be placed in position in calorimeter and readings should be
noted when water is allowed to flow through the calorimeter. The two thermometer
readings should be noted and then the positions should be interchanged, the readings are
noted again. If the readings are not consistent the thermometers should be recalibrated.
3. Since these thermometers are calibrated for full immersion and are used with partial
immersion, there is a very small correction for emergent stem.
4. As the gas comes into intimate contact with the water in the gas meter, it is assumed the
gas is saturated when burned. Thus, the heating value determined per cubic meter of gas
will be at the observed temperature and at a pressure equal to the total gas pressure
minus the pressure of saturated vapor at the observed temperature.
58
5. The calorimeter and the thermometers should be well shielded from both water and
sunlight.
6. The equal-arm balance used for the determination of the weight of water should be
calibrated and the balanced weight should be checked.
7. Since the exit gases are to be cooled to within at least 1 degree of the entering air
temperature, the entering water temperature should be held 6°C below room temperature.
Some difficulty may be encountered in obtaining and maintaining this temperature to
within a fraction of a degree due to variations in temperatures in water lines. Before a
run is started, a check should be made to make certain that there are no air pockets
around the water thermometers.
Experimental Procedure
1. With water flowing through calorimeter, light the burner outside the calorimeter. Adjust
the gas flow to give a medium flame and insert the burner in the calorimeter.
2. Both the ASTM and ASME standards regulate that 40% excess air should be used.
When the fuel-gas analysis is not known, it is suggested that the air flow should be cut
until traces of CO is found in the exhaust.
3. Adjust the water flow so that there will be a temperature rise of the water about 10°C.
4. Note the amount of water passing through the calorimeter, amount of gas burned and the
amount of condensate collected for a specified length of time.
5. Note the barometric pressure, inlet-air temperature, outlet exhaust gas temperature, gas
pressure and temperature at the meter.
Necessary Considerations
1. Neglecting the very small amount of heat exchanged between the calorimeter and its
surroundings.
2. The lower heating value of saturated gas at standard conditions, per cubic meter is
Tm Ps
LHVs = LHVm
Ts Pm
where,
LHVm = lower heating value per cubic meter at meter-conditions
Tm = absolute temperature at meter
Ts = standard absolute temperature
Ps = standard absolute pressure minus saturated vapor pressure at standard temperature
Pm = absolute pressure of dry gas at meter conditions
59
Tm
If we assume Ps ≈ Pm, LHVs = LHVm
Ts
3. To obtain the exact HHV, it is necessary to know the amount of hydrogen in the fuel or
to adjust the humidity of the entering air so that complete condensation of the water
vapor of combustion will take place. When the analysis of the fuel is obtainable, one can
calculate the amount of water vapor, which will be formed by the combustion of unit
cubic meter of saturated gas at standard conditions.
Relevant Equations
Www − Wwc
1. Water flow per minute, m = kg/min
t
q
3. Gas burnt per minute, v = m3/min
1000
Wcw − Wcc
4. Condensate per minute, M c = kg/min
t
5. Temperature rise of water, ∆T = Two − Twi °C
mS ∆T
6. Heat absorbed by water per run, Q = MJ/min [S = 4.2 kJ/kgK]
1000
Q
7. Higher heating value at meter condition, HHVm = MJ/m3
v
8. Latent heat of water, ql = 2255.4 kJ/kg
M c ql
9. Heat required to condense per unit volume of gas burnt, qc = MJ/m3
1000v
10. Lower heating value at meter condition, LHVm = HHVm − qc MJ/m3
11. Absolute temperature at meter, Tm = (T∞ + 273) K
12. Absolute temperature at standard, Ts = 273 K
Tm
13. Lower heating value at standard condition, LHVs = LHVm MJ/m3
Ts
Discussion
1. Expected higher heating value of the sample is 40.44 MJ/m3. What are the reasons
behind the discrepancy between ideal value and calculated value.
2. Why was the fuel burnt with excess air?
3. What are the necessities of measuring heating values?
4. What can be done for getting a more accurate result?
60
Conclusion
Write down the summary of key findings and observations as outlined in the objective of this
experiment.

1. Define heating values (HHV and LHV).
2. Why is heating value in mass basis more convient to use than heating value in volume
basis?
3. What was the instrument used for measuring gas flow?
4. Which heating value (HHV/LHV) is more important from pragmatic point of view?
61
Data Sheet
Study of Gas Calorimeter and Determination of Heating Value of Natural Gas by
Gas Calorimeter
Weight of water container, Wwc = ..................... (kg)

Weight of condensate container, Wcc = ..................... (kg)
Table 1: Collection of experimental data from gas calorimeter.

Measured Parameters Symbol (Unit) Obs. No. 1 Obs. No. 2 Obs. No. 3
Weight of water container with
Www (kg)
water collected
Weight of condensate container
Wcw (kg)
with condensate
Dry gas pressure at meter
Pm (mm Hg)
condition
Time of flow of water t (min)
Gas burnt per minute q (L/min)
Inlet temperature of water Twi (°C)
Outlet temperature of water Two (°C)
Inlet temperature of gas Tgi (°C)
Outlet temperature of gas Tgo (°C)
Room temperature T∞ (°C)
Table 2: Calculation of heating value of natural gas.

No of Mass Gas Condensate Temperature HHV at LHV at LHV at
Obs. flow burning flow rate, rise of meter meter standard
rate, rate, Mc water, condition condition condition
m v (kg/min) ∆T (MJ/m3) (MJ/m3) (MJ/m3)
(kg/min) (m3/min) (°C)
62

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Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Experiments: (Fuel Testing Lab, 4th Floor, EME Building)

1. (a) Determination of HHeating Value of Coal

ink to download: http://bit.ly/ME204FTL

For Inquiry: Dr. Sumon Saha (Room #M413) Mobile: 01926197002

Necessary points of report writing:

Viva on the individual experiments will depend on the concerned teacher.

Copying another student’s report will be severely dealt with.

Course Number: Group Number:

Name of the Experiment(s):

Determination of Heating Value of Coal by Bomb Calorimeter

Correction for Heat Losses

Gross Heat of Combustion

Sample Quiz Questions:

Calorimeter: Parr 1341 Plain Oxygen Bomb Calorimeter

Weight of empty pan:__________ g Total length of fuse wire used :__________ cm

Table 1: Recording temperature of bomb calorimeter during experiment.

Calorific value of coal, HHV = ..............cal/g = ……………. Btu/lb

Determination of Flash Point and Fire Point of Given Oil

Figure 1. Schematic Diagram of the Experimental Setup.

Sample Quiz Questions:

Barometric Pressure, Patm = ……….. mm Hg

Table 1: Collection of oil temperature for different observations.

Flash point of given oil, Tflash = ..............°C

Proximate Analysis of Coal

Fixed Carbon Determination

The percentage of moisture content in the given coal is calculated as follows:

Determination of Ash Content in the Coal

The percentage of ash content in the given coal is calculated as follows:

Determination of Volatile Matter Content in the Coal

Determination of Fixed Carbon Content in the Coal

Sample Quiz Questions:

Table 1: Collection of experimental data.

Table 2: Calculation of different constituents in the given coal.

Study and Calibration of Thermocouple

Properties of Thermocouple Materials

Table 1: List of thermocouple types, materials and working temperature range.

SL. No. ANSI Type Material Combinations Temperature Range (°F)

A schematic diagram of the experimental setup is shown in Fig

Furnace Door Temperature Dial

Determination of Corrected Observed EMF Reading

Determination of Percentage Error

Sample Quiz Questions

Room temperature, T∞ = ………..°C = ……..…..°F

Table 1: Measurement of muffle furnace temperature for different observations.

Actual Measured EMF Observed EMF Observed

Please bring three normal mm graph papers for this experiment.

K Type (Chromel-Alumel) Thermocouple Data (Cold Junction at 32°F)

Calibration of a Bourdon Tube Pressure Gauge by Dead Weight Tester

Bourdon Tube Pressure Gauge

Classification of Bourdon Tube Pressure Gauge

Dead Weight Tester

Figure 1. Schematic Diagram of the Experimental Setup.

Mean observed pressure reading of the pressure gauge is calculated as follows:

Determination of Percentage Error

Sample Quiz Questions:

Area of piston, A = ……….. in2

Please bring three normal mm graph papers for this experiment.

Measurement of Viscosity of an Oil by Saybolt Viscosimeter

There are two related measures of fluid viscosity:

Dynamic (Absolute) Viscosity

Figure 1. Schematic Diagram of the Experimental Setup.

Weight of empty pan: g Total length of fuse wire used : cm