A Mini Project report submitted on

MANUFACTURING PROCESS OF SEWERAGE WASTE RAINWATER PIPES AND FITTINGS

A Project Submitted for partial fulfilment of the requirement for the award of the degree of

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY

IN

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Submitted by

Y.NAVEEN 17635A0303

P.DURGA PRASAD 16631A0302

K. GOUTHAM 16631A0303

RAMU

Under the Esteemed guidance of

Mr.J.E RAVI KUMAR M.Tech, MBA

Assistant Professor in Mechanical Engineering

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

SRI VENKATESWARA ENGINEERING COLLEGE, SURYAPET

(Sponsored by the exhibition society), Hyderabad

(Affiliated to JNTU Hyderabad, Telangana)

(Approved by AICTE New Delhi, India)

2016-2020
ABSTRACT
Injection Moulding (IM) is considered to be one of the most prominent processes for mass production of
plastic products One of the biggest challenges, facing injection moulders today, is to determine the
proper settings for the IM process variables Selecting the proper settings for an IM process is crucial
because the behaviour of the polymeric material during shaping is highly influenced by the process
variables. Consequently, the process variables govern the quality of the part produced. the difficulty of
optimizing an IM process is that the performance measures usually show conflicting behaviour Therefore,
a compromise must be found between all of the performance measures of interest. This thesis
demonstrates a method of achieving six sigma standards in small and medium plastic injection moulding
enterprises A modified six sigma called DAURR (Diagnose, analysis, Upgrade, Regulate and Review) based
on Taguchi method, Regression analysis and Artificial Neural Network has been proposed in this work
that can be used to find the best compromises between performance measures in IM, and potentially
other polymer processes. Its feasibility was studied with the help of a case study. The method has been
employed for the improvement in two quality characteristics (hardness and over shrinkage) of injection-
moulded nylon-6 bush produced in a small enterprise. After the implementation of the proposed
method, targets for improvement are clearly defined with the problems and causes being identified. The
process parameters are then optimized for quality characteristics improvements so that the Six Sigma
standard is reached This research work provides methodology so that six sigma approaches can be
applied and adjusted according to the requirements of small and medium enterprises (SMES). This work
also presents a novel, general and intelligent approach to multi response process optimization, with a
purpose to obtain a single Optimum setting of process parameters that meets specifications of all
considered, possibly correlated, responses.
 I ND EX
S.NO CHAPTER NAME PAGE NO

1 INTRODUCTION 1-3

1.1market potential 01

1.2history injection moulding 02

1.3 technical aspect 03

2 BASIC CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF(UPVC) 4-15

2.1 based on structure of polymers 05

2.2 based on mode of polymerisation 06

2.2.1 addition polymers 06

2.3 types of polymerisation reactions 06

2.3.1 addition polymerisation 06

2.3.2 free radical mechanism 07

2.3.3 polyesters 09

2.3.4 electric 15

3. INJECTION MOULD PARTS 17-22

3.1 clamping unit 17

3.2 mould system 20

3.3 hydraulic unit 21

3.4 cooling 22

4 WORKING OF INJECTION MOULDING 23

4.1 injection moulding cycle 23

5 MOULDING DEFECTS 27

6 TESTING OF SWR FITTING 29-30

6.1 physical appearance 29

6.2 mechanical tests 30

7 CONCLUSION 33

8 REFERENCES 34
 LIST OF FIGURES

S.NO CONTENTS PAGE NO

2.1 linear polymer 9

2.2 branched chain polymer 9

2.3 cross linked 9

2.4 thermoplastic pellets 12

2.5 injection moulding 14

2.6 reciprocating screw 15

2.7 clamping unit 17

2.8 die and mould system 20

2.9 hydraulic operating 21

2.10 cooling system 22

Manufacturing process of SWR pipes and fittings

SWR PIPES AND FITTINGS

1.INTRODUCTION
Solid, water and rain (SWR)Pipes are manufactured all over the world by extrusion technique. Sizing methods still vary but
the trend is the pressure sizing i.e. introducing air at the pressure of about 0.8 kg/cm2 to 1 kg/cm2 through one of the
spider legs of the dies. SWR Pipes are generally manufactured on single large die extruder.

SWR Pipes find application in a variety of fields in India and abroad. The most important applications are as follows:

Drinking water supply line

Water lines in hilly areas.

Irrigation lines

Industrial effluent disposal lines

Sewage and gas lines

Fuel gas line

Mining Industry

1.1 MARKET POTENTIAL

There is a large market and very good scope envisaged for SWR Pipes in the near future. Though some units are already in
the line, there is good demand with the increase in housing/building activities spreading in rural and urban areas.
Numbers of Chemical and Petrochemical plants are also being set up. Therefore, the demand for SWR Pipes is also likely
torise. One of the important applications is gas pipe line. It has advantage over SWR pipe because it is unaffected even by
temperature as high and is inert to almost all chemicals .These pipes are also used in the effluent treatment plants and
line.

The essential steps of SWR pipe and fitting production are to heat, melt, mix and convey the raw material into a particular
shape and hold that shape during the cooling process. This is necessary to produce solid wall and profile wall pipe as well
as compression and injection moulded fittings. All diameters of solid wall SWR pipe are continuously extruded through an
annular die. Whereas, for large diameter profile wall pipes, the profile is spirally wound onto a mandrel and heat-fusion
sealed along the seams. Solid wall SWR pipe is currently produced in sizes ranging from 1/2 inch to 63 inches in diameter.
Spirally wound profile pipe may be made up to 10 feet in diameter or more.PE pipe, both the solid wall type and the
profile wall type, are produced in accordance with the requirements of a variety of industry standards and specifications
such as ASTM and AWWA. Likewise, the SWR fittings that are used with solid wall SWR pipe are also produced in
accordance with applicable ASTM standards. Refer to Chapter 5 for a list of the commonly used SWR pipe standards.
Generally, thermoplastic fittings are injection or compression moulded, fabricated using sections of pipe, or machined
from moulded plates. Injection moulding is used to produce fittings up through 12 inches in diameter, and fittings larger
than 12 inches are normally fabricated from sections of pipe. Refer to for a list of the commonly used SWR fittings
standards. Standard Specification for Fabricated Fittings of Butt-Fused Polyethylene(SWR)Plastic Pipe, Fittings, Sheet
Stock, Plate Stock, or Block Stock. All of these pipe and fittings standards specify the type and frequency of quality control

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Manufacturing process of SWR pipes and fittings

tests that are required. There are several steps during the manufacturing process that are closely monitored to ensure
that the product complies with these rigorous standards. Some of these steps are discussed in the section of this chapter
on

quality control and assurance. The essential aspects of a solid wall SWR pipe manufacturing facility are presented in This
section will describe the production of solid wall pipe from raw material handling, extrusion, sizing, cooling, printing, and
cutting, through finished product handling. Details concering profile wall pipe are also discussed in the appropriate
sections.

1.2 HISTORY OF INJECTION MOULDING

Injection is a manufacturing process for producing part from both thermoplastic and thermosetting
plastic materials. Material fed into heated barrel, mixed and forced into a mould cavity whore it cool and
hardens to the configuration of the mould cavity After product is designed usually by an industrial
designer or an engineer, moulds are made by a mould maker or toolmaker from metal, usually either
steel or aluminium, and precision machined to form the features of the desired part. Injection moulding
is widely used for manufacturing a variety of parts, from the smallest component entire body panels of
cars (Todd, 1994)

An Injection moulding machine, also known as an injection press, is a machine for manufacturing plastic
products by the injection moulding process. It consists of two main parts, an injection unit and a clamping
unit. Injection moulding machines can fasten the moulds in either a horizontal or vertical position The
majority of machines are Horizontally oriented, but vertical machines are used in some niche applications
such as insert moulding, allowing the machine to take advantage of gravity

The first man-made plastic was invented in Britain in 1851 by Alexander Parkes He publicly demonstrated
it at the 1862 International Exhibition in London; calling the material he produced "Parkesine". Derived
from cellulose, Parkesine could be heated, moulded, and retain its shape when cooled. It was, however,
expensive to produce, prone to cracking, and highly flammable

In 1868, American inventor John Wesley Hyatt developed a plastic material he named Celluloid,
improving on Parkes' invention so that it could be processed into finished form. Together with his brother
Isaiah, Hyatt patented the first injection moulding machine in 1872. This machine was relatively simple
compared to machines in use to day. It worked like a large hypodermic needle, using a plunger to inject
plastic through a heated cylinder into a mould. The industry progressed slowly over the years, producing
products such as collar stays, buttons, and hair combs. (U.S. patent, 1872) The industry expanded rapidly
in the 1940s because World War II created a huge demand for inexpensive, mass produced products. In
1946, American inventor James Watson Hendry built the first screw injection machine, which allowed

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Manufacturing process of SWR pipes and fittings

much more precise control over the speed of injection and the quality of articles produced. This machine
also allowed material

To be mixed before injection, so that coloured or recycled plastic could be added to virgin material and
mixed thoroughly before being injected. Today screw injection machines account for the vast majority of
all injection machines. In the 1970s. Hendry went on to develop the first gas-assisted injection production
of complex, hollow articles that cooled quickly. This greatly improved design flexibility as well as the
strength and finish of manufactured parts while reducing production time, cost, weight and waste.

The plastic injection moulding industry has evolved over the years from producing combs and buttons to
producing a vast array of products for many industries including automotive, medical, aerospace and
consumer products. (Douglas, 1996)

1.3 TECHNICAL ASPECT

SWR granules are fed into the hopper of the extruder which goes into the heated cylinder of the
extruder, where the granules melt and are conveyed(pumped)to the die exist. Now the melt passes
through the die and takes the shape of the die i.e. circular shape and emerges from the exit of the die. It
then passes through the calibrator and is forced to tale the shape of the inside of the calibrator which is
round in diameter by the inside air pressure. This melt solidifies and taken round shape in the calibrator,
which is cooled by passing chilled water through it continuously. Now the solid pipe is taken out from the
water and is drawn continuously from the die. The speed is adjusted according to the thickness of the
pipe required and extruder out put. The pipes is either cut into 5 meters length or wound on the winder
unit. Generally pipes up to 110 mm diameter can be made on this extrudeTYPES OF INJECTION
MOULDING MACHINES:

Machines are classified primarily by the type of driving systems they use: hydraulic electric, or hybrid

HYDRAULIC INJECTION MOULDING MACHINES

Hydraulic presses have historically been the only option available to moulders until Nissei Plastic
Industrial Co., LTD introduced the first all-electric injection moulding machine in 1983. The electric press,
also known as Electric Machine Technology (EMT). reduces operation costs by cutting energy
consumption and also addresses some of the environmental concerns surrounding the hydraulic press.

ELECTRIC INJECTION MOULDING MACHINES

Electric presses have been shown to be quieter, faster, and have a higher accuracy, however the
machines are more expensive.

HYBRID INJECTION MOULDING MACHINES

Hybrid injection moulding machines take advantage of the best features of both hydraulic and electric
systems Hydraulic machines are the predominant type in most of the world, with the exception of Japan

RANGES OF INJECTION MOULDING MACHINES:

Toggle machines of sigma/delta scries ranging from 30 to 500 tons .Hydraulic machine of Omega series
ranging from 80 to 775 tons .Hydraulic machine of magna series ranging from 550 to 1350 tons

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Manufacturing process of SWR pipes and fittings

2.BASIC CHEMICAL
COMPOSITION OF(UPVC)
Do you think that daily life would have been easier and colourful without the discovery and varied application of
polymers? The in the manufacture of plastics buckets, cups and saucers, children’s toys, packaging bags, synthetic
clothing materials, automobiles tyres, gears and seals, electricals insulating materials and machine parts has
completely revolutionised the daily life as well as the industrial scenario. Indeed, the polymers are the backbone
of four major industries viz. plastics, elastomers, fibres and paints and varnishes. The word ‘polymer’ is coined
from two Greek words: poly means many and mer means unit or part. The term polymer is defined as very large
molecules having high molecular mass (103-107u). These are also referred to as macromolecules, which are
formed by joining of repeating structural units on a large scale. The repeating structural units are derived from
some simple and reactive molecules known as monomers and are linked to each other by covalent bonds. This
process of formation of polymers from respective monomers is called polymerisation. The transformation of
ethene to polythene and interaction of hexamethylene diamine and adipic acid leading to the formation of Nylon
6, 6 are examples of two different types of polymerisation reactions.

CLASSIFICATION OF POLYMERS:- there are several ways of classification of polymers based on some special
considerations. The following are some of the common classification of polymers:

Classification based on source :-

Under this type of classification there are three sub categories.

1. Natural polymers
These polymers are found in plants and animals. Examples are proteins, cellulose, starch, some resins and rubber.

2. Semi-synthetic polymers

Cellulose derivatives as cellulose acetate (rayon) and cellulose nitrate, etc. are the usual examples of this sub
category.

3. Synthetic polymers

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Manufacturing process of SWR pipes and fittings

A variety of synthetic polymers as plastic (polythene), synthetic fibres (nylon 6,6) and synthetic rubbers (Buna - S)
are examples of manmade polymers extensively used in daily life as well as in industry.

2.1 Classification Based on Structure of Polymers

There are three different types based on the structure of the polymers

Linear polymers
These polymers consist of long and straight chains. The examples are high density polythene, polyvinyl
chloride, etc. These are represented as:

FIG 2.1 linear polymer

Branched chain polymers

These polymers contain linear chains having some branches, e.g., low density polythene. These are
depicted as follows:

FIG 2.2 branched chain polymers

Cross linked or Network polymers

These are usually formed from bi-functional and tri-functional monomers and contain strong
covalent bonds between various linear polymer chains, e.g. bakelite, melamine, etc. These polymers are
depicted as follows:

FIG 2.3 network polymer

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Manufacturing process of SWR pipes and fittings

2.2 Classification Based on Mode of Polymerisation

Polymers can also be classified on the basis of mode of polymerisation into two sub groups.

2.2.1 Addition polymers

The addition polymers are formed by the repeated addition of monomer molecules possessing double
or triple bonds, e.g., the formation of polythene from ethene and poly -propene from propene. However,
the addition polymers formed by the polymerisation of a single monomeric species are known as
homopolymers, e.g., polythene.

The polymers made by addition polymerisation from two different monomers are termed as copolymers, e.g.,
Buna-S, Buna-N, et

Condensation polymers
The condensation polymers are formed by repeated condensation reaction between two different bi-functional or
tri-functional monomeric units. In these polymerisation reactions, the elimination of small molecules such as
water, alcohol, hydrogen chloride, etc. take place. The examples are terylene (dacron), nylon 6, 6, nylon 6, etc.
For example, nylon 6, 6 is formed by the condensation of hexamethylene diamine with adipic acid.

2.3 Types of Polymerisation Reactions

There are two broad types of polymerisation reactions, i.e., the addition or chain growth polymerisation and
condensation or step growth polymerisation.

2.3.1 Addition Polymerisation or Chain Growth Polymerisation:-

In this type of polymerisation, the molecules of the same monomer or diffrent monomers add together on a large
scale to form a polymer. The monomers used are unsaturated compounds, e.g., alkenes, alkadienes and their
derivatives. This mode of polymerisation leading to an increase in chain length or chain growth can take place

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Manufacturing process of SWR pipes and fittings

through the formation of either free radicals or ionic species. However, the free radical governed addition or
chain growth polymerisation is the most common mode.

2.3.2 Free radical mechanism

A variety of alkenes or dienes and their derivatives are polymerised in the presence of a free radical
generating initiator(catalyst) like benzoyl peroxide, acetyl peroxide, tert-butyl peroxide, etc. For example,
the polymerisation of ethene to polythene consists of heating or exposing to light a mixture of ethene
with a small amount of benzoyl peroxide initiator. The process starts with the addition of phenyl free
radical formed by the peroxide to the ethene double bond thus generating a new and larger free radical.
This step is called chain initiating step. As this radical reacts with another molecule of ethene, another
bigger sized radical is formed. The repetition of this sequence with new and bigger radicals carries the
reaction forward and the step is termed as chain propagating step. Ultimately, at some stage the product
radical thus formed reacts with another radical to form the polymerised product. This step is called the
chain terminating step. The sequence of steps may be depicted as follows:

For termination of the long chain, these free radicals can combine in different ways to form polythene.
One mode of termination of chain is shown as under:

Preparation of some important addition polymers

(a) POLYTHENE
There are two types of polythene as given below:
(i) Low density polythene:
It is obtained by the polymerisation of ethene under high pressure of 1000 to 2000
atmospheres at a temperature of 350 K to 570 K in the presence of traces of dioxygen or a

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Manufacturing process of SWR pipes and fittings

peroxide initiator (catalyst). The low density ` polythene (LDP) obtained through the free
radical addition and H-atom abstraction has highly branched structure. Low density
polythene is chemically inert and tough but flexible and a poor conductor of electricity.
Hence, it is used in the insulation of electricity carrying wires and manufacture of squeeze
bottles, toys and flexible pipes.
(ii) High density polythene:
It is formed when addition polymerisation of ethene takes place in a hydrocarbon solvent
in the presence of a catalyst such as triethylaluminium and titanium tetrachloride (Ziegler-
Natta catalyst) at a temperature of 333 K to 343 K and under a pressure of 6-7
atmospheres. High density polythene (HDP) thus produced, consists of linear molecules and
has a high density due to close packing. It is also chemically inert and more tough and hard.
It is used for manufacturing buckets, dustbins, bottles, pipes, etc

(b) Polytetrafluoroethene (Teflon) :-

Teflon is manufactured by heating tetrafluoroethene with a free radical or persulphate catalyst at
high pressures. It is chemically inert and resistant to attack by corrosive reagents. It is used in making
oil seals and gaskets and also used for non – stick surface coated utensils.

c) Polyacrylonitrile:-
The addition polymerisation of acrylonitrile in presence of a peroxide catalyst leads to the formation
of polyacrylonitrile.

Polyacrylonitrile is used as a substitute for wool in making commercial fibres as orlon or acrilan.

Condensation Polymerisation or Step Growth

polymerisation
This type of polymerisation generally involves a repetitive condensation reaction between two bi-
functional monomers. These polycondensation reactions may result in the loss of some simple
molecules as water, alcohol, etc., and lead to the formation of high molecular mass condensation
polymers. In these reactions, the product of each step is again a bi-functional species and the
sequence of condensation goes on. Since, each step produces a distinct functionalised species and is
independent of each other, this process is also called as step growth polymerisation. The formation
of terylene or dacron by the interaction of ethylene glycol and terephthalic acid is an example of this
type of polymerisation.

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Manufacturing process of SWR pipes and fittings

NOTE:- G. Natta of Imperia and Karl Ziegler of Germany were awarded the Nobel Prize for Chemistry
in 1963 for the development of Ziegler-Natta catalyst.
Teflon coatings undergo decomposition at temperatures above 300°C.
Acrylic fibres have good resistance to stains, chemicals, insects and fungi

1. Polyamides
These polymers possessing amide linkages are important examples of synthetic fibres and are termed as
nylons. The general method of preparation consists of the condensation polymerisation of diamines with
dicarboxylic acids and also of amino acids and their lactams. Preparation of nylons
(i) Nylon 6,6: It is prepared by the condensation polymerisation of hexamethylenediamine with adipic
acid under high pressure and at high temperature.

ii) Nylon 6: It is obtained by heating caprolactum with water at a high temperature.

Nylon 6 is used for the manufacture of tyre cords, fabrics and ropes.

2.3.3 Polyesters
2. These are the polycondensation products of dicarboxylic acids and diols. Dacron or terylene is the best
known example of polyesters. It is manufactured by heating a mixture of ethylene glycol and terephthalic
acid at 420 to 460 K in the presence of zinc acetateantimony trioxide catalyst as per the reaction given
earlier. Dacron fibre (terylene) is crease resistant and is used in blending with cotton and wool fibres and
also as glass reinforcing materials in safety helmets, etc.
3. Phenol - formaldehyde polymer (Bakelite and related polymers)

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Manufacturing process of SWR pipes and fittings

Phenol - formaldehyde polymers are the oldest synthetic polymers. These are obtained by the
condensation reaction of phenol with formaldehyde in the presence of either an acid or a base catalyst.
The reaction starts with the initial formation of o-and/or p-hydroxymethylphenol derivatives, which
further react with phenol to form compounds having rings joined to each other through –CH2 groups.
The initial product could be a linear product – Novolac used in paints

Novolac on heating with formaldehyde undergoes cross linking to form an infusible solid mass called
bakelite. It is used for making combs, phonograph records, electrical switches and handles of various
utensils

BIODEGRADABLE POLYMERS
A large number of polymers are quite resistant to the environmental degradation processes and are thus
responsible for the accumulation of polymeric solid waste materials. These solid wastes cause acute
environmental problems and remain undegraded for quite a long time. In view of the general awareness
and concern for the problems created by the polymeric solid wastes, certain new biodegradable synthetic
polymers have been designed and developed. These polymers contain functional groups similar to the
functional groups present in biopolymers. Aliphatic polyesters are one of the important classes of
biodegradable polymers. Some important examples are given below:
1. Poly β-hydroxybutyrate – co-β -hydroxy valerate (PHBV)
It is obtained by the copolymerisation of 3-hydroxybutanoic acid and 3 - hydroxypentanoic acid.
PHBV is used in speciality packaging, orthopaedic devices and in controlled release of drugs. PHBV
undergoes bacterial degradation in the environment.

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Manufacturing process of SWR pipes and fittings

 Neoprene :-

Neoprene or polychloroprene is formed by the free radical polymerisation of chloroprene.

It has superior resistance to vegetable and mineral oils. It is used for manufacturing conveyor belts, gaskets and
hoses.

Copolymerisation

Copolymerisation is a polymerisation reaction in which a mixture of more than one monomeric species is allowed
to polymerise and form a copolymer. The copolymer can be made not only by chain growth polymerisation but by
step growth polymerisation also. It contains multiple units of each monomer used in the same polymeric chain.
For example, a mixture of 1, 3 – butadiene and styrene can form a copolymer

Copolymers have properties quite different from homopolymers. For example, butadiene - styrene copolymer is
quite tough and is a good substitute for natural rubber. It is used for the manufacture of autotyres, floortiles,
footwear components, cable insulation, etc

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Manufacturing process of SWR pipes and fittings

3.INGREDIENTS USED IN SWR

FITTING MANUFACTURING
Injection moulding is used to create many things such as wire spools, packaging, bottle caps, automotive parts
and components, game toys. pocket combs some musical instruments and an of them, one piece chairs and small
tables, storage containers, mechanical parts (including gears), and most other plastic products available today
Injection moulding is the most common modem method of manufacturing plastic parts; it is ideal for producing
high volumes of the same object

Process characteristics

Suitable materials Commonly used thermoplastic materials are

FIG 2.4 thermoplastic pellets

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Manufacturing process of SWR pipes and fittings

: Shrinkage rate of common thermoplastic material upon solidification (Source: Design for Manufacturability
Handbook by James G Brilla, 2nd Ed)

THERMOPLASTICS PERCENTAGE

Acetal 2.0-2.5

Acrylic 0.3-0.8

Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene 0.3-0.8

Nylon 0.3-1.5

Polycarbonate 0.5-0.7

Polyethylene 1.5-5.0

Polypropylene 1.0-2.5

Polystyrene 0.2-0.6

Polyvinyl chloride 0.1-0.5

Rigid
Polyvinyl chloride 1.0-5.0
Flexible

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES

PVC has high hardness w mechanical properties The mechanical properties enhance with the molecular weight
increasing, but decrease with the temperature increasing .the mechanical properties of rigid PVC (uPVC) is very
good the elastic modulus can reach to 1500-3,0000 MPa The soft PVC (Flexible Plastic PVC) is 1.5.15 MPa.
However, elongation at break is up to 200%-450% . PVC friction is ordinary, the static friction factor is ordinary,
the static friction factor is 04-05, the dynamic friction factor is 0.23

THERMAL PROPERTIES

The heat stability of PVC is very poor, when the temperature reaches 140 C PVC starts
decompose its melting temperatures 160 C. The linear expansion coefficient of the
PVC is small and has flame retardancy, the oxidation index is up to 45 or more. There
Fore, the addition of a heat stabilizer during the process is necessary in order to ensure the
products properties

ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES:
PVC is a polymer with good insulation properties but because of its higher polar nature
the electrical insulating property is inferior to nonpolar polymers such as polyethylene and polypropylene
the dielectric constant, dielectric loss tangent value and volume resistivity are high

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Manufacturing process of SWR pipes and fittings

the corona resistance is not very good, it is generally suitable for medium or low voltage
and low frequency insulation materials

4.INJECTION MOULDING
MACHINE
For thermoplastics, the injection moulding machine coverts granular or pellets raw plastics into final moulded
part via melt, inject, pack, and cool cycle. A typical injection moulding machine consist of the fallowing major
components:

 Clamping unit
 Hydraulic system
 Mould system
 Injection unit
 Control unit

Types of injection moulding machines

Machines are classified primarily by the type of driving systems they use: hydraulic, electric, or hybrid.

HYDRAULIC

Hydraulic presses have historically been the only option available to moulders until Nissei Plastic Industrial Co.,
LTD introduced the first all-electric injection moulding machine in 1983. The electric press, also known as Electric

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Manufacturing process of SWR pipes and fittings

Machine Technology (EMT), reduces operation costs by cutting energy consumption and also addresses some of
the environmental concerns surrounding the hydraulic press.

2.3.4 Electric
Electric presses have been shown to be quieter, faster, and have a higher accuracy, however the machines are
more expensive.

HYBRID

Hybrid injection moulding machines take advantage of the best features of both hydraulic and electric systems.
Hydraulic machines are the predominant type in most of the world, with the exception of Japan.

Injection unit

The injection unit melts the polymer resin and injects the polymer melt into the mould. The unit may be: ram fed
or screw fed. The ram fed injection moulding machine uses a hydraulically operated plunger to push the plastic
through a heated region. The high viscosity melt is then spread into a thin layer by a "torpedo" to allow for better
contact with the heated surfaces. The melt converges at a nozzle and is injected into the mould.

Reciprocating screw A combination melting, softening, and injection unit in an injection moulding machine.
Another term for the injection screw. Reciprocating screws are capable of turning as they move back and forth.
The reciprocating screw is used to compress, melt, and convey the material. The reciprocating screw consists of
three zones (illustrated below):

FIG 2.6 reciprocating screw

• feeding zone

• compressing zone

• metering zone

While the outside diameter of the screw remains constant, the depth of the flights on the reciprocating screw
decreases from the feed zone to the beginning of the metering zone. These flights compress the material against

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Manufacturing process of SWR pipes and fittings

the inside diameter of the barrel, which creates viscous (shear) heat. This shear heat is mainly responsible for
melting the material. The heater bands outside the barrel help maintain the material in the molten state.
Typically, a moulding machine can have three or more heater bands or zones with different temperature settings.

Injection moulding reciprocating screw:- An extruder-type screw rotates within a cylinder, which is typically
driven by a hydraulic drive mechanism. Plastic material is moved through the heated cylinder via the screw flights
and the material becomes fluid. The injection nozzle is blocked by the previous shot, and this action causes the
screw to pump itself backward through the cylinder. (During this step, material is plasticated and accumulated for
the next shot.) When the mould clamp has locked, the injection phase takes place. At this time, the screw
advances, acting as a ram. Simultaneously, the non-return valve closes off the escape passages in the screw and
the screw serves as a solid plunger, moving the plastic ahead into the mould. When the injection stroke and
holding cycle is completed, the screw is energized to return and the non-return valve opens, allowing plastic to
flow forward from the cylinder again, thus repeating the cycle.

Feed hopper:- The container holding a supply moulding material to be fed to the screw. The hopper located over
the barrel and the feed throat connects them

Injection ram:- The ram or screw that applies pressure on the molten plastic material to force it into the mould
cavities.

Injection screw :-The reciprocating-screw machine is the most common. This design uses the same barrel for
melting and injection of plastic. The alternative unit involves the use of separate barrels for plasticizing and
injecting the polymer. This type is called a screw-preplasticizer machine or two-stage machine. Plastic pellets are
fed from a hopper into the first stage, which uses a screw to drive the polymer forward and melt it. This barrel
feeds a second barrel, which uses a plunger to inject the melt into the mould. Older machines used one plunger-
driven barrel to melt and inject the plastic. These machines are referred to as plunger-type injection moulding
machines.

Barrel:- Barrel is a major part that melts resins transmitted from hopper through screws and structured in a way
that can heat up resins to the proper temperature. A band heater, which can control temperatures in five
sections, is attached outside the barrel. Melted resins are supplied to the mould passing through barrel head,
shot-off nozzle, and one-touch nozzle.

Injection cylinder :- Hydraulic motor located inside bearing box, which is connected to injection cylinder load,
rotates screw, and the melted resins are measures at the nose of screw. There are many types of injection
cylinders that supply necessary power to inject resins according to the characteristics of resins and product types
at appropriate speed and pressure. This model employs the double cylinder type. Injection cylinder is composed
of cylinder body, piston, and piston load.

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Manufacturing process of SWR pipes and fittings

3.1 CLAMPING UNIT

The clamping unit holds the mould together, opens and closes it automatically, and ejects the finished part. The
mechanism may be of several designs, either mechanical, hydraulic or hydromechanical.

Toggle clamps - a type clamping unit include various designs. An actuator moves the crosshead forward,
extending the toggle links to push the moving platen toward a closed position. At the beginning of the movement,
mechanical advantage is low and speed is high; but near the end of the stroke, the reverse is true. Thus, toggle
clamps provide both high speed and high force at different points in the cycle when they are desirable. They are
actuated either by hydraulic cylinders or ball screws driven by electric motors. Toggle-clamp units seem most
suited to relatively low-tonnage machines.

Two clamping designs: (a) one possible toggle clamp design (1) open and (2) closed; and (b) hydraulic clamping (1)
open and (2) closed. Tie rods used to guide movuling platens not shown.

FIG 2.7 clamping unit

Hydraulic clamps:- are used on higher-tonnage injection moulding machines, typically in the range 1300 to 8900
KN (150 to 1000 tons). These units are also more flexible than toggle clamps in terms of setting the tonnage at
given positions during the stroke.

Hydraulic Clamping System is using the direct hydraulic clamp of which the tolerance is still and below 1 %, of
course, better than the toggle system. In addition, the Low Pressure Protection Device is higher than the toggle
system for 10 times so that the protection for the precision and expensive mould is very good. The clamping force
is focus on the central for evenly distribution that can make the adjustment of the mould flatness in
automatically.

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Manufacturing process of SWR pipes and fittings

Hydromechanical clamps - clamping units are designed for large tonnages, usually above 8900 KN (1000 tons);
they operate by (1) using hydraulic cylinders to rapidly move the mould toward closing position, (2) locking the
position by mechanical means, and (3) using high pressure hydraulic cylinders to finally close the mould and build
tonnage.

Injection mould

There are two main types of injection moulds: cold runner (two plate and three plate designs) and hot runner –
the more common of the runner-less moulds.

Injection platens

Steel plates on a moulding machine to which the mould is attached. Generally, two platens are used; one being
stationary and the other moveable, actuated hydraulically to open and close the mould. It actually provide place
to mount the mould. It contains threaded holes on which mould can be mounted using clamps.

THE FUNCTION OF THE CLAMPING UNIT :-

 To hold mould in closed condition when the plastics material is been injected.
 Remove/eject the article form the mould when it has solidified and the mould is opened.
 Facility for mounting moulds of different sizes.

THE DIFFERENT PART OF CLAMPING UNIT:-

Stationary platen :

The stationary platen provides an area for mounting one half of the mould .it also acts as stationary object against
which the moving platen can build tonnage.

Moving platen :

The moving platen provides an area for mounting the other half of the mould. It is this platen that move back and
forth to open and close the mould.

Die height adjust platen:

This platen is used to adjust the clamp assembly to accommodate varying die height (mould thickness). It can also
be used to adjust the amount of tonnage that is applied to the mould.

Toggle mechanism

The toggle mechanism ties the moving platen and the die height adjust platen together It is this mechanism that
maintains clamp tonnage during the injection sequence

Clamp cylinder:

The clamp cylinder is mounted to a support yoke underneath the toggle mechanism. It is this cylinder that causes
the mould to open and close. When the clamp is closing, the cylinder rod pushes the cross-head upwards, which
causes the toggle mechanism to extend. When the clamp is opening, the cylinder rod pulls the cross-head
downwards, which cause the moving platen to pull away from the stationery platen.

Cross head:

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Manufacturing process of SWR pipes and fittings

The cross head is the mechanism link, or coupling, between the clamp cylinder and the toggle mechanism.

Hydraulic ejector mechanism:

The ejector mechanism is used to force parts from the mould after the moulding process is completed. This
mechanism includes two cylinder (for Sigma 30-110 1 cylinder for Sigma 150 onwards, Omega and Magma).
Knockout bar is supplied in option if multiple injection points are necessary. The back and forth movement of the
centre ejector rod causes the ejector pins in the mould to move more back and forth, thus forcing the parts from
the mould. The transducer attached with the moving centre rod monitors the position of the ejector stroke.

Strain rods (Tie bars):

All three clamp platens are tied with four strain rods. The strain rods also act as guide bars for the movement
platens. It is the strain force acting on the tie rods, which determines the overall clamping force acting on the
mould.

Die head mechanism:

For toggle machines, to accommodate moulds of various sizes, one has to move the complete clamping
mechanism either back or forth. This requires a feature called die height bet adjustment. A hydrometer drives the
main gear couples with the driven gears fitted on die-height nuts by a chain. Thus rotation of the hydro-motor
Cases rotation of the nuts which either thread out or thread in depending upon the direction of rotation.

Ram:

This is a part of the main clamping cylinder which is instrumental in creating the clamping force. The oil column
behind the ram (inside the clamping cylinder) is pressure used to create the desired force.

Traverse cylinders:

Magma and Omega machines have a separate traverse (closing) cylinder and a clamping cylinder. The closing and
opening takes place by the pull and push respectively of the moving platen by this traverse cylinder, which is
fitted on the stationary platen.

Prefill valve:

During the closing movement, the ram moves along with the moving platen. This creates a void behind the ram
inside the cylinder. This void is filled up by the opening of the prefill valve fitted at the rear of the clamping
cylinder. The oil from the reservoir (fitted behind the cylinder) rushes through the open prefill valve into the
cylinder. Once the closing stroke is over, a single is given to the prefill cylinder to close the prefill valve. The
clamping cylinder now becomes ready to build the tonnage.

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Manufacturing process of SWR pipes and fittings

3.2 MOULD SYSTEM

Mould (Tool and/or Mould) is the common term used to describe the production tooling used to produce plastic
parts in moulding. Traditionally, moulds have been ex pensive to manufacture. They were usually only used in
mass production where thousands of parts were being produced. Moulds are typically constructed from hardened
steel, pre-hardened steel, aluminium, and/or beryllium-copper alloy. The choice of material to build a mould is
primarily one of economics. Steel moulds generally cost more to construct, but their longer lifespan will offset the
higher initial cost over a higher number of parts made before wearing out. Pre-hardened steel moulds are less
wear resistant and are used for lower volume requirements or larger components. The steel hardness is typically
38-45 on the Rockwell-C scale. Hardened steel moulds are heat treated after machining. These are by far the
superior in terms of wear resistance and lifespan.

Typical hardness ranges between 50 and 60 Rockwell-C (HRC). Aluminium moulds can cost substantially less, and
when designed and machined with modem computerized equipment, can be economical for moulding tens or
even hundreds of thousands of parts. Beryllium copper is used in areas of the mould which require fast heat
removal or areas that see the most shear heat generated. The moulds can be manufactured by either CNC
machining or by using Electrical Discharge Machining processes

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Manufacturing process of SWR pipes and fittings

3.3 HYDRAULIC UNIT

HYDRAULIC UNIT

The function of Hydraulic unit is to Provide the power to machine by circulation of the hydraulic fluid under
pressure Enable the machine to perform various functions. The commonly used Hydraulic oil in the injection
moulding machine is

 MOBIL oil
 DTE 25
 ISO VG 46

The oil in the hydraulic unit is regularly checked and maintained in a constant level so as to produce a constant
tonnage and the smother running of the machine

It contains the following components:

 Keypad – touch screen technology

 Monitor-clear graphic display
 Safety fault alarm.

Machine operations:

 Injection unit settings

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Manufacturing process of SWR pipes and fittings

 Clamping unit settings

 Heater and clamping force settings
 Injection, cooling and ejection time settings

Functions:

 Setting of the speed of injection material

 Settings of heaters temperatures
 Setting the stroke size
 Setting the clamping force and injection force
 To see the position of the material in the barrel
 To set the injection and cooling times

3.4 COOLING
The cooling is done by water cooling system water is being circulated around the compound chamber walls and
the compound is cooled The compound obtained is ready for use. The hopper and cooling chamber are shown in
figure

TRANSMISSION OF COMPOUND:

The compound obtained above can be transferred to the hopper of injection moulding

machine manually or by using a pump the pump is fixed over the hopper of injection

moulding machine. A vacuum pump is also fixed to remove if any amount of moisture is

present in it. These increases the efficiency of the machine.

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Manufacturing process of SWR pipes and fittings

4.WORKING OF INJECTION MOULDING MEACHINE:

4.1 Injection moulding cycle:-
The injection moulding process can be performed in cycle as fallows:

 Mould close
 Tonnage
 Injection – pack and hold
 Cooling (refilling)
 Moulding open
 Ejection

MOULD CLOSING :

When a machine cycle begins, oil is directed to the cap end of the clamp cylinder this is the causes the cylinder
rod to extend. The cylinder rod pushes on the crosshead, and the force of this push is transferred through the
toggle linkage to the moving platen. Therefore, the moving platen is forced to move towards the stationary
platen.

Before the mould half touch, the speed of the platen movement decrease to keep the mould half from slamming
together. The clamp pressure used at this time is also reduced in order to protect the mould in the event that
some obstruction comes between two mould halves.

TONNAGE:-

After the mould halves touch, the pressure in the clamp circuit is increased to provide the force necessary to lock
the toggle linkage. When the linkage is

locked over, maximum tonnage is build. (maximum tonnage is dependent on the portion

of the die height adjust platen.) This tonnage is maintained until the injection sequence

completed and the parts produced have been allowed to cooled

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Manufacturing process of SWR pipes and fittings

INJECTION:

Once the mould has been closed and the tonnage is built the next stage would be to ensure that the material is
injected into the mould. The molten material is melted inside the barrel with the help of band heaters, there are 3
to 5 zones according to the size of machine. The band heaters are used for the heating of PVC granules. The
moulted material is injected into the mould with the nozzle according to the shot size.

The amount of material required for the complete filling of mould is called as shot size. The speed of injection and
the shot size are set according to the component to be produced.

COOLING AND REFILING:-

The injected molten material in the mould is kept to hold and cooled for some time to make it solid. The
maximum time is considered for the cooling of the material only. The cooling is done to the mould by supplying
cooling water.

During the process of cooling the material is again refilled into the barrel

through the feed screw. The screw rotates in the anti clock wise direction with the help

of the hydraulic motor and the new plastic granules move forward towards the heater to

melt from the hopper. The position of the material in the barrel can be seen on the position display.

MOULD OPEN:-

After the cooling is finished the clamp opening movement begins when oil is directed to end of the clamp

Cylinder. This creates a pulling force on the cross head .

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Manufacturing process of SWR pipes and fittings

As the cross head is Pulled downward, the moving platen is pulled away form the stationary platen. This opens
the mould .

EJECTION:-

The moulded part is pushed out form the mould by the ejector mechanism .

TIME FUNCTION FOR INJECTION MOULDING:

The time it takes to make a product using injection moulding can be calculated by

Adding:

Twice the Mould Open/Close Time (2M)

+
Injection Time (T)
+
Cooling Time (C)
+
Ejection Time (E)

Where T is found by dividing:

Mould Size (S)/ Flow Rate (F)

Total time 2M +T +C +E

T= V/R

V=Mould cavity size (in)

R=Material flow rate (in3/min)

The total cycle time can be calculated using t cycle = t closing +t cooling +t ejection

The closing and ejection times, can last from a fraction of a second to a few seconds depending on the size of the
mould and machine. The cooling times, which dominate the process, depend on the maximum thickness of the
part.

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Manufacturing process of SWR pipes and fittings

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Manufacturing process of SWR pipes and fittings

5. MOULIDING DEFECTS
Moulding Defects Alternative name Descriptions Causes

Blister Blistering Raised or layered Tool or material is

zone on surface of Too hot often caused
the part By a lack of cooling
around the tool or a
faulty heater

Burn marks Air burn/gas burn Black or brown burnt Tool lacks venting
areas on the part located injection speed is too
at further point form gate high
Colour streaks Colour streaks Localized change of Masterbatch isn't mixing
colour properly, or
the material has run
out and it's starting
to come through as
natural only
Delaminating Thin mica like layers the Contamination of the
formed in part wall materials e. g PP mixed
with ABS, very dangerous
if the part is being used
for safety critical
application as the
material has very little
strength when
delaminated as the
materials cannot band

Flash Burrs Excess material in Tool damage too much

thin layer exceeding injection speed/ material
normal part geometry injected clamping force
too low. Can also be
caused by dirt and
contaminants around
tooling surfaces.

Embedded contaminates Embedded particulates Foreign particular (burnt Particular on the tool
material or other) surface, contaminated
embedded the part material or foreign debris
In the barrel, or too much
shear heat burning the
material prior to
injection.
Flow marks Flow lines Directionally “off tone” Injection speeds is too
wavy line or pattern slow (the plastic has
cooled down too much

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Manufacturing process of SWR pipes and fittings

during injection, injection

speed should be set as
fast as is appropriate for
the process and material
used)
Gate blush Hallow or blush marks Circular pattern around Injection speed is too fast
gate , normally only an ,gate/sprue/runner size is
issue on hot runner too small, or the
mould melt/mould temp is too
low.
Jetting Part deformed by Poor tool design, gate
turbulent flow of material position or runner.
. Injection speed set too
high. Poor design of gates
which cause too little die
swell and result jetting .
Knit lines Weld lines Small lines on the Caused by the melt-front
backside of core pins or flowing around an object
windows in parts that standing proud in a
look like just lines . plastic part as well as at
the end of fill where the
melt-front comes
together again. Can be
minimised or eliminated
with a mould -flow study
when the mould is in
design phase .once the
mould is made and the
gate is placed.
Polymer degradation Polymer breakdown form Excess water in the
hydrolysis, oxidation etc. granules , excessive
temperature in barrel
,excessive screw speeds
causing high shear heat
,material being allowed
to sit in the barrel for too
long, too much regrind
being used.
Sink marks (sinks) Localised depression (in Holding time/pressure
thicker zones) low , cooling time too
short , with sprue less hot
runners this can also be
caused by the gate
temperature bring set too
high. Excessive material
or walls too thick.
Short shot Short fill or short mould Partial part Lack of material, injection
speed or pressure too
low, mould too cold ,lack
of gas vents
Stringiness Stringing or long gate String like remnant form Nozzle temperature too
previous short transfer in high. Gate hasn’t frozen
new short off, no decompression of
the screw no sprue break

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Manufacturing process of SWR pipes and fittings

REASONS FOR DEFFECTS:

 If the overheating of the material in the barrel takes place burns are formed on surface of the product.
 If the proper mixing of the compound in barrel doesn't takes place, the product formed in the mould will
have different colours on the surface.
 If the pressure of the injection is not required, then cut in the material takes place.
 If the required injection timing is not set, the compound for the required cavity of the mould is not filled
and cuts are formed in the material.
 If the refilling time of compound is less than the cooling time then over heating of the compound takes
place which results in bums and scratch on the product in order to avoid this leakage of the material is
allowed.
 Over heating also leads to formation of gases in barrel which needs high pressure to remove from the
barrel. Sometimes even barrel must be removed and over heated material should be removed which is
attached over the screw.
 If the cooling of the mould doesn't takes place properly the sprue of the piece will not come with piece
and it gets struck in the mould inlet hole and it must be strike off with the brass rod as it acts as an
obstacle for the compound of next shot.
 If the cores are not inserted properly into the mould the piece is not formed properly.

6. TESTING OF SWR FITTING:-

Some of the finished product are tested for checking there standard As per the ISI STANDERDS. PVC fittings
are tested as per Bureau of Indian Standards relevant scheme of testing and inspection.

The testes performed are

 Physical testing
 Mechanical testing

PHYSICAL TESTING:

The physical testing includes

6.1 PHYSICAL APPEARANCE:

It is to see the appearance of the component. It is to see any indefinite shape or size, present of any burns or cuts
and any holes and vents

CHICOS SOFTENING TEST (CST):

It is to see the material is not getting soften below the desired temperature. For testing, a small piece is cut from
the material and kept under the needle and placed in the oil bath which contain heater. The pin is fitted with a
dial gauge which records the distance the needle have penetrated in the material. A weight of 5 kgs is kept on the
needle and the heater is switched on. If the needle is penetration more than 1 mm into the piece below the
temperature is 78 C then the piece is failed and it is rejected, or else it is passed.

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Manufacturing process of SWR pipes and fittings

SULPHATED ASH CONTENT:-

This test is used to check the ash content or the amount of filler material used in the raw material. This test is
conducted by taking 2 or 3 grams of material in a crucible and beating it to 850 C for 30 min in a furnace. Then a
small amount of sulfuric acid is added to it and the mixture is again heated to 850 C for 30 min again Then the
weight of the crucible is measured and noted.

The ash content in the material is found by the formula

ASH CONTENT = M3-M1/M2-M1 *100

6.2 MECHANICAL TESTS:

DROP TEST:
This test is to check the strength of the fitting. This test is performed by initially putting the material in the zero
degree chamber for about 1 hour and droping it from a weight of two meters on to a concrete floor. The fitting is
droped for 4-5 times nad visually inspected. If there are no cracks or reaking then the material is passed.

WATER TIGHTNESS JOINT TEST:

The two ends of the fitting is closed with the help of rubber washer and sealer and water and pressurized air are
passed into the fitting for about an hour. If there are any leakages, breaking or swelling then the piece is failed.

OPAQUE TEST:
The material is tested for light opaque as not to pass any light through it. For performing the test a piece of
material is cut from the component and is placed in the opaque test machine. The light source is switched on and
the percentage of light passing through the compound is tested. If it is greater than 0.02 % then the material is
failed.

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES

ADVANTAGES OF INJECTION MOULDING

 High production rates

 Design flexibility
 Repeatability within tolerances
 Can process a wide range of materials
 Relatively low labour
 Little to no finishing of parts
 Minimum scrap losses

ADVANTAGES OF SWR FITTINGS

The chief advantage of SWR fittings are:

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Manufacturing process of SWR pipes and fittings

 Resistance to corrosion
 Light weight
 Toughness
 Rigidity
 Economical in laying, jointing and maintenance

DISADVANTAGES IN INJECTION MOULDING

 High initial equipment investment

 High start up and running costs possible
 Part must be designed for effective moulding
 Accurate cost prediction for moulding job is difficult

APPLICATIONS OF INJECTION MOULDING All the plastic materials from the ball pen to car bumpers can be
manufactured. Some of the material produced in sudhakar PVC are :

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Manufacturing process of SWR pipes and fittings

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Manufacturing process of SWR pipes and fittings

7.CONCLUSION
The manufacturing of SWR fittings is studied through the world injection machine. In this project, we studied the
different types of injection moulding process and where they are applied, at the same time, we studied the
different parts of the plastic injection moulding machine and their working principles. Finally, we studied the
advantages of PVC fittings in fabrication process, also the injection moulding machine and process and the quality
of the given PVC fittings is also checked in commercial construction and housing applications.

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Manufacturing process of SWR pipes and fittings

8. REFERENCES

1. Wikipedia

2. Z. Tadmoreet al., "Moulding and Casting" p. 584-610.

3. G. Boothroyd Et al., "Design for Injection Moulding“p.319-360.

4. S. Shingo, "Single Minute Exchange of Dies".

5. Thiriezet al, "An Environmental Analysis of Injection Moulding.

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