The Myanmar Buddhist, His Life From The Cradle To The Grave, Dr. Tin Hlaing (Eng and MM)

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Foreword
(to The Myanmar Buddhist: His Lil’e
l’rom the Cradle to the Grave)
The first time lmet Saya Hla Pe was in 1964 at SOAS on the
introduction of Dr. Kyin Swee during my attendance at the
Colombo Plan Conference in London. There at his office and
lunch at a nearby Chinese restaurant, we had a lively
discussion where 1 was impressed by Saya's wide knowledge as
well as by his kindly sense ofhumour. My second meeting with
Saya was twenty years later in Paris when he came to give eight
lectures at the College de France d Of four
weeks. I was then working at Unesco in Paris and was unable to
attend any ofhis lectures which were given during the week but
at weekends my wife and I were able meet Saya and
Daw Than Mya socially at the residence of Professors Lucien
andDenise Bennet atAnthonyjust outside Paris over tea ordinner.
false remember taking the friendly couple out for a drive to the
Loire Valley for a leisurely chat in the car and over a liesurely
French lunch. During these conversations my London impression
of Saya's wide and deep knowledge was further strenghtened.
But I must say it reached its climax when 1 was allowed to read
his Paris lectures in original for the purpose ofwriting a foreword
to a bilingual book that U Soe Thein (Maung Wuntha) was
preparing for publication with a Myanmar translation by Dr. Tin
Hlaing.
Saya's book entitled "The Myanmar Buddhist: His Life from
the Cradle to the Grave" (a worthy counterpart to Shway Yoe's
"TheBurman: His Life andNotions) is divided into two sections,
Nurture (geographical, political, cultural, economic, social and
family settings) and Nature (birth, schooling, manhood and the
relationships involved, old age and death). These are often
illustrated by some of his own experiences and observation,
cleverly weaving the general and autobiographical, thereby
sustaining the interest and attention of the most learned and
sophisticated audience that the College de France is. In other
words, Sayahas successfully presented the image ofthe Myanmar
Buddhists, ofwhom he is an exemplary one, to the world.
ReGred Ambassador U Thet Tun
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CONTENTS
Translator's Foreword 17
1. Introduction 2s
2. Nurture 30
2.1 €ieographical setting 30
2.2 Political setting 31
2.3 Cultural setting 33
2.3.1 Buddhisrri 34
2.3.1.1 The Buddha 3§
2.3.1.2 The Three Major Schools 3b
2.3.1.3 Theravada Buddhism 37
2.3.2 - isrris 39
2.3.2.1 Buddhist celestial gods 40
2.3.2.2 Hindu gods 41
2.3.2.3 Terrestrial gods 42
2.3.2.4 Magic, astrology and others 42
2.4 Economic setting 43
2.5 Social environmemt 45
2.6 The Myanmar family 45
3. Nature: The Myanmar Buddhist 75
3.1 Youth 75
3.1.1 Brith 75
3.1.1.1 Naming ceremony 79
3.1.1.2 Life at home 82
3.1.2 Village School $3
3.1.2.1 Coaxing the psyche 86
3.1.3 English school $$
3. 1 . 3. 1Propitiating rituals 89
(1) U Shin Gyi 90
(2) The guardian spirit ofthe rice fields 91
3.1.3.2 Buddhist initiation ceremony 92
(1) Shin Upagutta 100
3.1.3.3 The ear-boring ceremony 102
3.1.4 University 103
3.1.4.1 Token marriage 107
3.1.4.2 The Guardian spirit ofthe hidden treasure 108
3.1.4.3 Alchemy and magic 109
3.1.4.4 The power of invulnerability 110
3.1.4.5 The magic candle 110
3.1.4.6 Omens iii
(1) The vulture iii
(2) The monitor lizard 112
(3) The owl 112
3.1.4.7 The astrologer 114
3.1.4.5 The Epidemic li 5
3.1.5 England 1 li 5
3.1.6 Myanmar 1957-55 1i9
3.1.6.1 The banyan-tree 1i9
3.1.6.2 The cairn 120
3.1.6.3 The ancestors’ nat 121
3.1.6.4 The auspious days 122
3.1.7 England 11 124
3.2 Manhood 125
3.2.1 Human relations and marriage 125
3.2.1.1 Parents and children 125
3.2.1.2 Teachers and pupils 126
3.2.1.3 Between friends 127
3.2.1.4 Between relatives 125
3.2.1.5 Social contract between man and woman 125
(1)Living together as man and wife 129
(2)Elopement 130
(3)Arranged marriage 134
(a) Investigation 135
(b) Negotiation 136
(c) Consultation 136
(d) Betrothal ceremony 138
(e) Marriage ceremony 139
(4) Married life 142
(5) Divorce 143
3.2.2 The three primary duties 144
3.2.2.1 Dana 145
3.2.2.2 Sila 148
3.2.2.3 Bhavana 149
3.3 Old age 151
3.4 Death 153
3.5 Epilogue 159
Appendix 278
References 285
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TRANSLATOR’S FOREWORD
Prof’ Hla Pc and 1
1 first met Professor Hla Pe in London in September 1972, when l arrived
there for further studies. 1 had brought books for him from Ludu U Hla
and Daw Ahmar and a letter of introduction from Botany
Professor Dr Than Htun. Our meeting lasted only about half-an-hour. 1
vaguely remember his office in a building in Fitzory Square.
Since then 1 have the good fortune to know him intimately and
to listen to his most informative conversations on various subjects.
London University
Around 1973, 1 believe, Prof Hla Pe’s School of Oriental and
African Studies London (SOAS) moved to its present site near the Uni—
versity Senate House in Malet Street. And, 1 was accommodated in Inter—
national Hall nearby. In fact, it was Prof Pe who introduced me to Mr
John Bracken, Deputy Warden of International Hall. Thus, either after
my visits to the University Library in Senate House or when 1 happened
to pass near SOAS, I would go in to see him, mostly without an
appointment. Sometimes, there would be a few of us, Myanmar chaps,
going to visit him. Prof Hla Pe and 1 have, between us, a common
institution, the University of London. He was in SOAS and 1 in Bedford
College in Regent’s Park. But there was also a divide between us; to use
C.P. Snow’s term, we belonged to ‘two cultures’. He was a professor of
Myanmar language, literature and culture, and la student studying physics.
He worked in the ’culture ofculture and I was deep in the 'culture of
scieuce'.
I should remark here that London University is an immense body
with its colleges and schools spread over the city. The structure seems
very loose; the colleges are many and quite independent. Students in one
college have not much chance ofmeeting or knowing professors in other
colleges.
Prof Pe, Prof Rice-Evans and the Great Golden Rock

lremember one special occasion. Britain-Burma(Myanmar) So-
ciety used to invite us to their meetings. In one event, they had a presen-
tation ofMyanmar life, arts and culture and the society encouraged us to
bring our guests. So, I invited my supervisor Dr Peter Rice-Evans (now
Emeritus Professor ofExperimental Physics) to come with meto the meet-
ing. To my delight, he was very much interested in the presentation. 1
have forgotten its subject as well as who the speaker was. But lremember
lS Dr. Hla Pc
the party that followed. 1 introduced Dr Rice—Evans Prof Pe. After
all, they were teaching in the same university! Dr Rice—Evans grabbed
the chance to ask some questions relating to Myanmar.
Dr Rice-Evans asked ProfPe, ‘Tin* has at his desk a Myanmar
calendar with the picture ofa Big Ciolden Rock, breath-takingly balanced.
1s that real‘/ 1 wonder if you could tell me something about it’. I was
delighted when Prof Pe told him, elaborately in fact, about the story of
’The Rock ut Kyuik-Htee-Yoe, the head ofthe hermit etc and the pilgrim—
age to it; the pleasant, winding, rising way up to the Rock.’ For days and
months, 1 had failed to tell him the story. 1 felt it was shame on me, for 1
hadn’t bothered remember the story tried learn it anew, 1
could tell friends who visited me at my desk and sat infront ofthe Ciolden
Rock.
Karma at Work
Again, karmas have seen it that we met again in
Mawlamyaing when ProfPe returned to settle down there after his retire—
ment in 1950. 1 was on the staff of Mawlamyaing College** as Head of
Physics Department. 1 lived on campus and Prof Pe’s home was not far
away. This time my wife and children were introduced to Sayagyi and
(Ma Ma) Daw Than Mya. Their place is in Taungwaing Road, on our
way into town. Occasionally we stopped there, especially when we saw
Sayagyi at work (?) in his garden. Also, I would make a point ofinviting
them to centain ceremonial occassions in the college.
About This Book

One day in 1983 or 1984 Sayagyi Dr Hla Pe asked me if 1 could
find him a typist who could type English correctly. He told me, he was
invited by College de France in Paris to deliver a course of lectures. He
had prepared a manuscript for the course and he wanted it typed. Those
were pre-PC days. Typists, there were in Mawlamyaing, but 1 do not
know any one who could competently type a learned document in English.
Confident that I could do it better andperhaps bring any inadvertant
mistakes to the scholar’s attention, 1 volunteered to type it myself. There
was not much time available and 1 was slow. I started working on an
Olympia machine going at my own pace. Then it was found I would not
be finishing it in time. So, lsought the assistance ofU Thein Lwin, college
* Tin (Hlaing)
** now Mawlamyaing University
The Myanmar Buddhist : His Lili From the Cradle to the Grave 19
librarian (at present Professor of Library and Information Science at
Yangon University). He agreed to help and we took turns at the typewriter.
Finally, we finished the manuscript; but, alas, not without mistakes. There
were plenty of mistypes and mistakes and which the author
took care to correct with a pen.
We did not have Xerox copiers then. We made two carbon copies
together with the ribbon-original. ProfHla Pe took the original to Yangon,
where, lbelieve he made a few photo copies. U Thein Lwin reserved one
copy for college library; 1 kept one for myself.
Sayagyi went to Paris and gave the lectures for which the
manuscript formed the basis.
In 1956, I was transferred to Mandalay University, and again in
19951 moved to Yangon. Butldid not leave behind Sayagyi’s manuscript.
It has been with me ever since.
1 retired from government service in 2001. Not having anything
worthwhile doing, I attempted writing articles for magazines, using a
pen-name. When friends asked me, What are you up to these days'?’, 1
would answer ‘Writing, bits and pieces’. In the mean time, 1 have come
to know Saya Maung Wun Tha, author and publisher whose Daung Sar
Pay has been producing Sayagyi Dr Hla Pe’s books in Myanmar. One
day, Saya Wun Tha told me January 5, 2003 was Prof Pe’s ninetieth
birthday and he and a few friends were going to Mawlamyaing for the
occasion. He asked me if 1 could come too. 1 was sorry, I couldn’t join
them.
Something for Sayagyi's Ninetieth Year

But I felt 1 wanted to do something for Sayagyi’s ninetieth anni—
versary. After some thought, I remembered the manuscript that has been
with me. It has not been published, and only three Myanmar people or
perhaps a few more know of its existence. Its contents are invaluable. 1
decided it should be translated, and 1 should do it myself to produce a
bilingual book. 1 discussed the idea with Saya Wun Tha. He readily
accepted my proposal and agreed to publish it bilingually.
My Hope
1 have come across Myanmar friends, both at home and aboard,
confronted with the task ofexplaining to foreigners, especially Western—
ers, the subtle and intricate aspects ofMyanmar culture and traditions. 1
witnessed many times, someone muddling through in his attempts, and
often resorting to outright bluff. 1 do not leave myself as an exception.
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YJ [MJZH-MJ
THE MYANMAR BUDDHIST:
HIS LIFE FROM THE CRADLE TO THE GRAVE
1. Introduction
This is the third time that 1 have the pleasure and privilege, and
indeed, the honour to address the French scholars and students ofvarious
disciplines on Myanmar studies. It would be too persumptuous ofme to
assume that this repeat performance is called for because my perform—
ances on the two previous occasions had gone down very well. I am
inclined, as a Myanmar Buddhist, to attribute my being here again to the
occasioning of yours as well as mine kurmu, a term that will recur fre—
quently in the course of this lecture. Here it may suffice to say that we
have been ordained to meet for the third time by the causes of our works
ofmerit carried out together in the previous existences. Be that as it may,
1 am here again as large as life.
I have accepted the kind invitation ofl'Assemblee des Professeur
du College du France with pride and humility: pride at the thought ofthe
confidence that the professeurs have reposed in me; and humility at the
awareness of my limitations in trying to prove myself worthy of their
trust. I’ll try not to fail them.
My terms of references are to deliver a series of eight lectures
on The Myanmar Buddhist: his life from the cradle to the grave, for four
weeks, at the rate of two lectures per week. I’ll adhere to the letter and
spirit of the terms. My aim is to inform and to induce reflection. My
purpose is to present to youthe whole spectrum ofthe life ofthe Myanmar
Buddhist — not what it ought to be, but what it really is. lntrying to achieve
it in eight lectures, I may be attempting to put a decalitre ofmilk in a litre
bottle. Nevertheless I’ll try. I’ll take you on a tour in sequential
stages through the exotic regions of(1) Nurture, his own environmental
influences, that is the geographical, political, cultural, economic and social
settings, together with his upbringing, care and training fostered by his
family that mould his personality; and (2) Nature, his inherited endow-
ment - qualities and characteristics, physical, mental and spiritual, which
to him, and which reflect in his beliefs and practices and diver-
sions during the normal course ofhis life. In this context, I’ll trace his life
form his birth, through the stages of childhood, adolescence, manhood
and old age, ending in his death and its concomitants. Such incidents and
events in his life as engendered by his beliefs and practices will be spot-
lighted give a true perspective to the picture.
In a discourse ofthis nature, it may be unavoidable for me not to
tread on grounds already covered by me in my two lectures at the Institute
of Social Anthropology in Paris in June 1950 ‘Social Contact their
impact on Myanmar culture’, and also in my three lectures on ‘Myanmar
Poetry’ in May 1971 at the National des Langues Orientales
Vinvantes, now known as lnstitut National des Langues ct Civilisations
Orientales. The present series oftalks are in essence a supplementary to
those lectures, in that the highlighting ofthe various aspects ofMyanmar
Buddhist’s life would, 1 trust, add a new dimension to your existing
knowledge of Myanmar and the Myanmar Language, literature and
culture.
A plea may be made here about my competency in giving this
lecture. The subject proper invites many sociological and anthropologi-
cal interpretations on many issues. 1 am giving this discourse in the
capacity as a Professor of Myanmar Language, Literature and Culture.
Sociology and Anthropology, 1 confess to knowing next to nothing, still
less to professing them.
2. Nurture
The Myanmar Buddhist, like the French Christian or the Indian
Hindu, or the Chinese Confucian, is in effect a creature ofcircumstances
which, as already stated, constitute nurture and nature.
Buddhism maintains that the personality ofan individual is what
its karma makes of it. So too is his destiny. The Buddhist concept of
karma is dealt with under 2.3.1 Theruv0du Buddhism. II needs to say here
only that karma encompasses both nurture, environmental influence and
nature, inherited endowment. These determinant agencies will be con-
sidered now to get the background against which the whole spectrum of
the life of the Myanmar Buddhist can be viewed in its true perspective.
2 .1 Geographical setting
Myanmar, the habitat of the Myanmar people, share frontiers
with India on the west and with China on the north and north—east — two
great countries which have contributed no small measure of culture and
civilization to the world. To the east lies Thailand and to the south Malaysia
and to the west the Indian Ocean, which has been the highway for
merchants from the west since the fifth century A.D or earlier.
Myanmar is as large as France, but its population is almost half
that ofFrance. The main physical features are the thickly wooded moun—
tains in the northern region, and high wooded plateaux and hills in the
east and south—east; the plains in the centre intersected by high ridges: the
YakhineYomas (or range of mountains), the Bago Yomas and the Shan
Plateaux; and the valleys ofthe three main rivers — the Ayeyarwaddy, the
Sit-taung and the Thanlwin — which have served as means ofcommunica—
tion from north to south since the dawn of history. And in the south are
the flat areas ofthe Ayeyarwaddy delta .
The climate ofMyanmar is mostly tropical. From May until Octo—
berthere is regular rainfall; for the rest ofyear there is hardly any rain. The
central part ofMyanmar is known as the Dry Zone, for here the rainfall is
very light. In the hottest months, March and April and part of May, the
temperature in the southern and central parts ofthe country may
100 Farenheit ( 35’ C ), while in December, January and February the
temperature may fall to 60’ F(15 ’C) and become progressively less in the
north.
These physical and climatic conditions are mainly responsible
for the distribution of both agricultural and natural products and also of
the peoples throughout Myanmar. Myanmar has for as we know
been primarily an agricultural country. Rice, cultivated in wet areas as
well as in Dry Zone by means of irrigation, tops the list of agricultural
products. In addition, Myanmar has been endowed with natural resources,
such as mineral wolfram, tin, silver, rubies, jade; and teak forests
which are mostly found in the Bago Yomas and south—eastern part of
Myanmar. Most of these exportable commodities pass through Yangon,
the principal port and capital ofMyanmar.
The indigenous races of Myanmar, which are of Mongoloid
stock, fall into three main groups: the Tibeto—Myanmar, the Mon—Khmer
and the Thai—Chinese. The first group is represented by the Myanmar
proper (concentrated especially in the Ayeyarwaddy valley), Yakhine
(along the western coastal strip), Dawei and Myeik (in the valley ofthe
Tanintharyee), the Nagas, Chins and Kachins and many other tribes in
the mountainous regions of the north. The representatives ofthe second
group are the Mon (in the Ayeyarwaddy delta and Thaton and Kyaik—
kha—mi districts - the regions around the mouths ofthe Sit-taung and the
Thanlwin repectively), the Wa (between the Shan States and Yunan), and
Palaung (in Northern Shan States), while the third group includes the
Shans (on the Shan Plateaux), Karens (in Tanintharyi, Karenni, and the
Ayeyarwaddy delta) and Taung-thu or Pa-o ( chiefly in the Shan States).
There are several thousand domiciled Indians and Chinese scattered all
over Myanmar.
2 . 2 Political setting
The political history ofMyanmar that impinges on the cultural,
economic and social activities of its peoples can be summarised as the
southward advance ofthe Bamas and the unification ofthe country at the
beginning of each dynasty by powerful Bama kings, whose control was
later terminated by misrule or invasions from neighbouring countries.
The making ofMyanmar was periodically interrupted by the struggle for
32 Dr. Hla Pc
supremacy between the Bama and the representatives of the other two
the Mon and the Shan, from which the Bama emerged as the
sovereign power by the middle ofthe eighteenth century. Twice the king-
dom came to an end through external invasion: the first was by the Tartan
under Kublai Khan in the thirteenth century, and the second by the British
in the nineteenth century, and at each time ceased to exist as an independ-
ent or united country for sixty years or so.
Waves of migrations from Certral Asia had been for
thousands of years before the Bamas descended the plains probably in
the mid-ninth century to settle down where the water is clear and the
grass is green. Here they came into contact with the Pyus, now extinct,
and the Mons who had already attained a high level ofcivilization . In the
eleventh century King Anaw-rahta, 1044 -1077, welded into king-
dom a group offormerly independent states and principalities, and ruled
them from his capital city ofBagan. €iradually he extended his sovereignty
down to Tanintharyi in the south and to Thaton, the capital city ofathriving
Mon kingdom; to Yakhine in the west, and over the hills east ofthe Sit-
taung river. The city of Bagan, today one of the famous ruined cities of
South-East Asia, succumbed to the principalities at the end the Bagan
dynasty.
During the next two generations or so, Upper Myanmar formed
part ofthe Shan hegemony with separate capitals at Sagaing, Myin-zaing
and Pin-ya, all only a few miles away from Mandalay, the last capital of
the Myanmar kingdom while the Mons at Bago, north of Yangon, re-
assured their former glory to hold suzerainty over lower Myanmar.
In 1365, the Ava dynasty was founded with its capital at Ava,
south-west ofMandalay. The kings ofthis dynasty devoted much oftheir
time and energy to upholding Buddhism and to encouraging an off-shoot
of that heritage - the Myanmar literature. At the same time while they
were wracking their brains in finding out means and ways ofpreventing
the Shans from their domination, they were also attemping, without much
success, to conquer the Mon kingdom.
Unity of the whole country was re-establishdd only in the six-
teenth century. Two kings of the Taung-ngu dynasty, 1531-1750, called
Tabin Shwe-hti, 1531-50, andBayin Naung, 1500-81, first ruling at Taung-
ngu and then at Bago achieved this long awaited attainment. Bayin Naung
put an end to Ava’s rule in 1555, and taking a leaf out ofAnaw-rahta’s
book, re-gathered the dismembered states into his fold to set up a united
kingdom only to be frittered away by his successors.
In 1750, the Mons, taking advantage of the internal weakness,
tried to wrest the power and managed to spread their control over the Dry
But they lost their temporary gains as well as their independence
for good when Alaung-hpaya, 1752-1760, chiefofShwebo, north ofMan-
dalay, re-united the whole of Myanmar and founded the Alaung-hpaya
dynasty, known in historical works in English as the Ava dynasty. The
of nineteenth century saw the kingdom of Myanmar reach its
widest extent: it included the whole of modern Myanmar together with
Manipur and part of Assam now integral constituent states of India.
say the Myanmar the kings of this dy-
nasty shifted their seats of government from one capital to another: first
at Shwebo, then Ava, and to Amarapura, and back again Ava and
Amarapura, and finally to Mandalay.
It was unfortunate for the proud and parochial Myanmar kings
to be fated to have as neighbours in the nineteenth century the British,
who had brought under their complete control virtually the whole ofIndia
at the end ofthe eighteenth century. It coincided with the age ofimperialism
- beliefin the value ofcolonies, the policy ofextending a country’s empire
and influence - a precept practised by the Europeans powers ofthe time.
A collision course was now being set between the two nations facing
each other across the borders. Collide, inevitably, they did in the form of
three Anglo-Myanmar Wars of 1524-1526, 1552 and 1555, in the process
ofwhich the Myanmar lost the whole country to the British, piecemeal -
the two coastal strips of Yakhine and Tanintharyi, Lower Myanmar and
Upper Myanmar in succession.
After the Second World War of 1939 to 1945, during which the
country was occupied by the Japanese form 1942 to 1945, Myanmar
regained her independence on 4th January 1948. She did not revert to the
old monarchical type of government, but chose instead to become the
Republic of the Union ofMyanmar.
2.3 Cultural setting
In the lust ofthe two lectures delivered at the Sociological Insti-
tute in 1980, I set out how the social contacts with other races have fash-
ioned the Myanmar culture oftoday. Here it may be necessary to spotlight
only those aspects ofthis culture which have bearing on my theme, such
as Buddhism, particularly Theravada Buddhism, and other -isms, as-
trology, demonology, black and white magic, and kindred sciences, which
the Myanmarpeople have absorbed andMyanmarized, and appropiatedthem
as their own.
34 Dr. Hla Pc
2.3.1 Buddhism
Culturally Myanmar owes an immense debt its neighbours,
especailly to India and Ceylon (Sri Lanka). Both forms ofBuddhism, the
Mahayana, Cireat Vehicle and Theravada, Teaching ofthe Elders, which
came from India together with Tantric Buddhism and Hinduism, had co—
existed side by side with the other two -isms in Myanmar since the fifth
century A.D. Theravada Buddhism, according the Myanmar chroni—
cles, gained predominance over the Mahayana and other —isms , including
animism which the Myanmars were then professing, after the conquest
of Thaton by Anaw-rahta in 1057. The introduction of Theravada Bud—
dhism with its scriptures written in Pali, from the Mons, and later reinforced
from Ceylon, has uplifted the Myanmars to the plane above that of their
cognate people and ofother indigenous ethnic groups. One concrete result
will suffice.
The Bama borrowed the Mon alphabet and reduced their
langauge to writing sometime in the early twelth century A.D. Their evan—
gelical zeal to study and propagate Buddhism in their own tongue, and to
set up stone inscriptions for their works ofmerit - pogodas and monastries
— were the driving force behind this achievement. Ofthe members ofthe
Tibeto—Myanmar sub-family, only the Tibetans and Myanmars can lay
claim to having a script oftheir own.
Myanmar has a vast amount of literature in epigraphs, on palm
leaves and folded paper and in printed books. The epigraphical literature
ofover one thousand inscriptions, dedicatory in motive, dignified in style,
with many allusions to incidents from Buddhist scriptures and stories,
began in the early twelth century. Its contributors were Buddhist monks
or former monks holding official position at the court or in the provinces,
and poetesses; and its notable features were Buddhist piety and courtly
refinement of language. There was a preponderance of adaptation ofthe
Jataka (Buddha's former Birth Stories), epic historical and panegyric
poems in praise ofkings, lyrical poems on love and nature and folk, literary
and musical songs, as well as epistles, letters and dramas in mixed style
ofverse and prose.
Prose literature was relatively small in variety and in number
but large in volume. It comprises translations or adaptations ofBuddhist
scriptures and stories, chronicles, works of Pali grammar, astrology, as—
tronomy and alchemy and kindred sciences; legal precedents, the law
books based cheifly on Hindu legal treatises written in Sanskrit.
The printed literature which appeared comparatively late in the
nineteenth century such works as Pya-zat, dramatic of
Buddhist and non—Buddhist stories, novels, essays and short poems and
short stories. Some of these modern writings savour of western flavour.
Buddhism has a profound and pervasive influence the
Myanmar. It is deep rooted in the whole fabric ofhis mind. He may hold
an unorthodox belief and even put it into practice for reasons known to
him. Nevertheless, ifyou scratch the veneer ofhis make—up, you are bound
to find Buddhism deeply ingrained underneath the surface. under—
stand the whys and wherefores of his way of life, and his beliefs and
practices we will now turn our attention to this Faith ofhis.
2.3.1.1 The Buddha

Buddhism is the teaching of the Buddha. It is a way of life and
not a philosophy as the scholars understand it in the West. Buddhist
tradition regards the enquiry into reality for the sake of knowing
about it as a waste oftime. The investigation into the question ofwhether
the hen or the egg comes first, or ofthe origin and evolution ofman is a
case in point. The Buddha’s teaching is mainly concerned with showing
the way to salvation, which transcends all other considerations. This is
demonstrated in the life ofthe Buddha.
Before he became Buddha the Indian prince Siddhattha lived
for twenty—nine years in the city ofKapilavatthu a life ofluxury and ease
with all the imaginable comfort. Atthe age ofsixteen he married abeautiful
princess and led a married life. Thirteen years later, soon after the birth of
his son, he saw the Four Signs: an old man, a sick man, a dead man and a
monk. Realizing the futility of this purposeless existence on earth, he
renounced the world.
He left the city on his horse, accompanied by his faithful fol-
lower in the dark of the night. Helped by the deities, he managed to get
out ofthe walled city unheard and unnoticed. On the way Mara, the Devil
- the counterpart of Satan — intervened and told him to return to the city as
he was to become an universal monarch in seven day’s time. He did not
turn back. He crossed the river Anoma, and on the other side ofit he cut
off his hair with his sword, and threw it into the air. Sakka, the Ruler of
the second ofthe six celestial worlds, received it and had it enshrined in
a pagoda in his abode.
After practising austerity as an ascetic for six years at various
places he came to what is now called Buddha Gaya in modem Bihar State.
He sat down on the throne under a banyan tree with his face towards the
36 Dr. Hla Pc
east. Mara again appeared on his savage elephant, together with hosts of
accomplices to lay claim to the throne. The Prince invoked the inanimate
Earth as his witness to attest to his declaration that the throne was his by
virtue ofthe works ofmerit done in his myriads of existences. The Earth
confirmed it with a mighty that made the elephant kneel and pay
obeisance to him and caused the Mara’s army to flee
Then began the great Struggle to attain Enlightenment. I’ll give
you only a summary of the long account of it. During the first watch of
the night he meditated what he had been in the former states. At
midnight his vision became that ofa god and until morning he meditated
the future. He became the fourth of the five Buddhas in this world
cycle in 559 BC. His name is €iotama. He preached
for forty five years and passed away in 544 BC when he was eighty years
old.
Buddhism, strictly speaking, is not areligion, ifit means 'a system
of worship based the belief in the existence of a supernatural power,
the creator and the of the universe, who hils given to man d
spiritual nature which continues to exist after the death ofthe body'. Or,
'human recognition of superhuman controlling power and especially ofa
personal find or gods entitled to obedience and worship'.
The Buddha never claimed to be other than a human being;
neither did he ever claim any inspiration from any god or external power.
‘He attributed all his realization, attainments and achievements to human
endeavour and human intelligence’. ‘He may be called a man par
excellence and he came to be regarded in popular religion almost as ‘super-
human'!
His teaching lays great emphasis on the man being his own sav-
iour, and urges strongly never to seek help from anybody else. He says:
‘You should do your work, for the .. . (Buddhas) only teach the way to
liberation, Nirvana’. One ofhis teachings serves as a dictum for scholars
who are in pursuit of truth.
'Be not led by authority of religious texts, nor mere logic or
influence, nor by seeming possibilities, nor by the idea: "this is our
teacher". He told his followers 'that a disciple should exmine even the
Buddha himself, so that he might be fully convinced of the true value of
the teacher whom he follows. (Walpola Rahula : What the Buddha Taught,
p.2 and passim)
2.3.1.2 The Three Major Schools

The field ofBuddhism consists ofthe Original Message, its devel—
opment, and additions to it. It is therefore difficult to dogmatise on which
is the Message and which is the development, since the Buddha’s
preachings were not put on record until the last century B C in Sri Lanka.
Some scholars may however be able to distinguish several of the addi-
tions. Its range of subjects is vast.
In time Buddhism than 2500 years, during which
there emerged three schools: Theravada (The Doctrine of the
Elders), often disparagingly referred to as Hinuyénu (The Lesser Vehicle)
by the members of the school, Muhéyanu (The €ireat Vehicle),
and finally the Zen (Meditation).
In space it the Theravada countries of Sri Lanka,
Myanmar,Thailand, Laos and Cambodia; The Mahayana countries ofTi-
bet and its neighbours, and Mongolia and and finally the Zen
country of Japan.The geographical distribution of the schools is note-
worthy. The heterodox forms of Buddhism, the Mahayana and Zen, are
embraced by the in the temperate zones, while the orthodox
form, the Theravada, by those in the tropics.
2.3.1.3 Theravada Buddhism

Theravada Buddhism, the oldest of the three schools, is often
called the southern school ofBuddhism. It reached Sri Lanka from India
in the third century BC, Myanmar in the tenth century AD, Thailand in
the twelth, Cambodia in the thirteenth century AD and Laos probably
later.
Its scriptures have been arranged into three groups known as the
Three Pitaka or Baskets - from the fact that the long strips of prepared
palm-leafon which the texts were written were originally stored in baskets.
They are the Vinaya, Sutta and Abhidhamma.
The Vinaya, the code of monastic discipline, contains pro-
nouncements by the Buddha, laying down numerous rules for the con-
duct ofthe Order. With each rule the circumstances which led the Buddha
to propound it are given. To instance only one: the injunction to the monks
not to travel during the three months ofthe rainy season which coincides
with Buddhist lent. The reason was to preserve the growing rice fields
from being trodden by a great number ofmonks in their journeying from
one place to another.
The Sutta is the largest and most important ofthe Three Pitaka
It is divided into five groups of Nikéya, containing the Buddha’s Dis-
courses. And it is the last ofthe five Nikaya called the Minor Group that
has appealed to most ofthe Theravadin. Among its contents are the well
known Dhammapada, Verses of Virtue; and the Jataka, a collection of
Dr. Hla Pc
both of which commentaries in the form of stories
have been written. These stories have exerted immense the
life ofthe Myanmar Buddhists.
The Abhidhamma consists of works Buddhist psychology
and metaphysics, too abstruse except for the specialists. It is certainly
later than the other two Pitaka.
All these are written in Pali. On these, hundreds ofcommentaries
and sub-commentaries have been produced both in Pali and in the various
languages of the which Theravada Buddhism has spread.
Many of these writings, particularly in Pali, have been translated into
English. The Buddhist literature is ofimmense quantity and varied inter-
est. It is, however, as has already been said, the Sutta, the of the
Three Pitaka, that has captivated the hearts ofthe average Myanmar Bud-
dhists: the first, Vinaya, is a monastic code, and the third, Abhidhamma,
is too abstruse.
Through the study of exigeses on the Sciptures written chiefly
by the monks in their mother tongue, and by learning from their moral
preceptors, the monks, as well as from the parents or teachers, and also
from various sources such as literature and dramatic performances, the
average Buddhists have grasped certain essentials ofthe Faith when they
are in their twenties. With the progress in their age they become more and
more aware ofthree vital concepts which are intertwined with their past,
present and future lives.These are re-incarnation, karma and Nirvana, the
awareness ofwhich correlates to the level ofthe capacity oftheir under-
standing.
Reincarnation, being reborn after death, either as a man or as
some being, is accepted by the Theravadin with resignation as a process
he will have to undergo on the round of existence, called Samara. These
are the thirty-one planes of existence. They are the human world as his
focal point, the Four States ofMisery - animal, goblin, vile titan and hell
- below, and the twentysix celestial abodes above, comprising ofsix worlds
of deva or nat in Myanmar and the twenty worlds of the Brahma.
He has a general idea that karma, literally meaning ‘deeds’ is a
law of causality, or a docrine of as you sow, so shall you reap, and good
and evil consequences accompany a person from one existence to another.
One’s present lot, be it good, bad or indifferent, is the result of past
deeds; and the deeds ofthe present and some ofthe past will be the cause
ofbenefit or suffering in the future.This is the inexorable law which also
determines the destiny and quality ofhis rebirth. Works of merit jointly
performed by two or more people, he understands, bring about their re-
in one of the coming existences; and the number of times of their
and its duration is determined by the quality of their work of
merit. He has no illusion that the preparatory stages to salvation may last
myriads oflives, through numerous cosmic ages. In the interim period he
has to reconcile himselfto transmigration in the space-time order, Samsara,
until by virtue ofhis spiritual maturity he attains Nirvana.
Nirvana, meaning ‘the going out oflamp’ may be defined as the
final extinction ofconsciousness. There are many and varied expositions
this ‘untranslatable of the unspeakable’. The
conception ofthe ordinary Buddhists however is ‘cessation of sufferings
woes’. To the Theravadin this is the emancipation from the round of
life or Samsara, and his ultimate goal.
The term Nirvana, unlike the terms re-incaranation and karma,
is rather recherché to the ordinary Myanmar Buddhists. But they have
been shown the way to reach it by the Buddha.The first andmost important
way to reach Nirvana is by means ofthe Eightfold Path - the Path which
features in one or two places ofthis lecture. These are (1) Right view and
(2) Right aspiration, referring to the attitude to be taken by the aspirant;
(3) Right speech, (4) Right conduct and (5) Right means of
livelihood, referring to the moral and social requirements ofthe aspirant,
and
(6) Right endeavour, (7) Right mindfulness and (5) Right con-
templation, referring to the mental and spiritual disciplines that are needed.
2.3.2 -isms
Buddhism in Myanmar, as in other Theravada countries, is
syncretic. It is, as already mentioned in my lecture in Paris in 1980, tinted
with Hindusim from which it developed, with Tantric and Mahayana Bud—
dhism from which it has superceded, and with animism surviving from
earlier phase of Myanmar history. Behind the facade ofMyanmar Bud—
dhism lie many non—Theravada practices and beliefs, some ofwhich have
merged with those ofthe Theravadin so closely that these alien elements
have been accepted by unsophisticated Myanmars as part and parcel of
their Faith.
The Myanmar Buddhist is really a synthesis of two personalities — a
Buddhist and a Myanmar. He lives not only for the life hereafter, but for
this world as well. The recongnition ofthis dichotomy is essential for the
understanding ofhis dual personality. As a Buddhist he takes refuge (has
faith) in the Three Gems - Buddha, the Law and the Order ofthe monks
40 Dr. Hla Pc
- and practises piety, by among other things, dana making religious offer-
ings, sila (Myanmar thi-lé) observimg precepts, and bhavana
(Myanmar he-wouo) devoting hismself to meditation, all for the next
world, with a view to reaching Nirvana ultimately.
As a Myanmar (1) he has his eyes on this world and sometimes
propitiates both the celestial and terrestrial deities or nat, and spirits and
human adepts in black and white magic, through fear or feelings of inse-
curity; (2) he to magical rites and rituals as to gain material
benefits, or acquire power over animate or inanimate objects; and (3) he
may believe in alchemy, astrology and kindred sciences for various worldly
The Myanmar conception of the deities is very complicated.

Some ofthese deities are Buddhist, others are Hindu and the rest seem to
be indigenous. These supernatural beings fall under three categories: the
Buddhist celestial gods - the deva or nat, and the Brahma; (2) the Hindu
gods; and (3) the terrestrial nat, some of whom are Buddhist and the rest
indigenous.
2.3.2.1 Buddhist celestial gods

The hierarchy ofthese celestial gods is the Brahma in their twenty
planes ofexistence, which are one on top ofthe other. Below them are the
six worlds of the deva, also in tierred formation one above the other. A
few of the deva, with whose names and activities the Myanmar Bud-
dhists are familiar, may be given for your information.
1. Mara, the Devil, who has been mentioned earlier, and who
will be mentioned again later, is the powerful ruler ofthe sixth and highest
deva world. He is usually identified in the Myanmar Buddhist mind with
sacrilegious acts and deeds.
2. Sakka, the benign ruler ofthe second celestial abode, his chari-
oteer Matali and his chief architect Vissukamma.
Sakka has been fairly fully dealt with in mytwo pervious lectures
in Paris. I’d like to repeat and add a few words to what I have said about
him in there. He is known in Hindu mythology as Indra, which is one of
his epithets in the Buddhist Scriptures. It is stated in various Buddhist
writings that he will be the sole guardian ofthe second halfofthe Buddha’s
Religion, which is to last five thousands years after the death ofthe Bud-
dha in 544 BC, and that in that capacity he will mete out reward to the good
and punishment to the bad. The current Religious Year is 2528 Buddhist
Era (BE)* There is popular belief among the Myanmars that he
decends to the human world annually the four days of Thingyun
(Sanskrit souUoufi) the period ofthree to four days when the sun passes
from Pisces to Aries , and that he returns to his celestial abode on the last
day ofit . This period coincides with the annual Myanmar Water Festival
which usually begins the 13th April and ends the 15th 16th
April, to begin a Myanmar New Year the next day
Métuli, the charioteer has been to the human world twice to fetch
two kings in Tévutimsu (Myanmar Tu-wudein -thu),
the Sakka’s abode, at his master’s desire. Vissukamma, the chiefarchitect,
has contributed to the Myanmar language the word hissuko, pronounced
beik -thuku, meaning an architect .
Cutu Muharuju, the four great kings, are the guardian gods of
the four comers of the world. The knowledgeable Myanmar Buddhists
are on their best behaviour on the fifteenth day ofevery lunar month. For,
that day the four great gods appear in the world find out if men
cultivate righteousness and virtue, and send their reports to the gods of
Ta-wadein-tha, who, it is said, rejoice or lament according as to men
prosper in righteousness or not.
(See €i.P. Malalasekera: Dictionary oJ’Puli Proper Numes, Vol.
I, London, 1937, pp 561-2)
2.3.2.2 Hindu gods

The Hindu gods, for whom the Myanmar people have a place in
their hearts for one reason or another are many. There are the statues of
Vishnu, Surya , Siva , Ganesa and Brahma in some of the temples of
Bagan. They are known to the Myanmars as Peik-thano, Thu-ri-ya, Pa-
rami-thwa (Sanskrit paramesvara(, Maha Pein-né, and Byama
respectively. These gods have had their due share oftreatment in my two
previous lectures together with Saraswati (Myanmar Thu-ya-thadi). Since
the last mentioned famous goddess has a place in my present lecture, she
deserves a repetition ofwhat has been said ofher.
In the Hindu mythology Thu-ya-thadi is presented as the bestower
offertility and wealth; the goddess ofBrahma, and ofspeech and learning;
inventress ofthe Sanskrit language and Deva-nagari letters; and patron-
ess ofarts and sciences. But to the Myanmar she is chiefly known as the
* At the time ofwriting-1984 AD,

1346 Myanmar era, 2528 Buddhist era.
42 Dr. Hla Pc
goddess of Many a love—stricken unrequited frequently
approaches a magician invoke her aid to his success.
2.3.2.3 Terrestrial deities

The terrestrial or earthly nat are most difficult to sort out. Some
ofthese, particularly the guardian spirits, are mentioned in the Buddhist
scriptures. But others are indigenous, who are comparable to the phi in
Thailand. They are:
1. Benevolent guardian spirits of numerous animate and inani-
mate objects in the physical world, such as human beings, houses, trees,
mountains and seas. Of these the guardian deities of the trees seem to
have closer affinity with the life ofthe Myanmar people.
2. The 37 nats, who with the exception of Sakka are all
indigenous, and inclined to turn malevolent ifneglected. The accounts of
the circumstance which led them to be re-incarnated as nat
Almost all ofthem died of unnatural or violent death. Every one ofthem
has a name. But we do not know by whom, when or how they were
deitified. (For detailed study, see R.C.Temple: The 37nuts, London, 1906).
3. Local nat, whose legends fill many pages ofMyanmar litera-
ture, and form the subject for many a narrative and dramatic perform-
ance. Some ofthem have been romanticised. They too need placating on
appropriate occasions.
4. ‘Raw nat’. These are the spirits ofthe people who died of un-
natural or violent death. Their existence on earth is said to be short-lived
- a maximum ofseven days after their death - during which they stay near
their former residence, since they are too preoccupied with the future of
their bereaved beloved ones.
2.3.2.4 Magic, astrology and others

The world ofthe Myanmar's beliefs and practices admits of, in
human form, ghosts, magicians, adepts and witches; and in inhuman form,
demons, goblins and other supernatural beings. A Myanmar resorts to
magical practices such as being tattooed, swallowing pills, carrying amu—
lets and magic squares to achieve the power of invulnerability and other
supernatural attainments. Witches, the Myanmar maintain, are galore since
there is a witch in every seventh house in every street. They practise
socery out of spite or for revenge or to gain influence over the people.
Astrology has been known andmade use ofbythe Manipuri Brah—
mins at least since the eleventh century AD. The vital role it had played in
the lives and of the Myanmar royalties and of the
commoners has not lost any of its vitality today. Its present day uses are
applied to foretelling the future, to rituals to avert impending dangers and
to choosing the auspicious time and day for a ceremony and for business
and for social activities.
Other beliefs and practices include omens and exorcising, which
will be touched upon in the lecture. The confessions of a Myanmar Bud—
dhist may strike you as rather paradoxical It is however
d sequence the make up of a Myanmar Buddhist personality
and his attitude life. He was an animist before he became a Buddhist.
Deep down in the recesses of his mind there still lurk of his
beliefs, many of which have been sustained by tradition and his
environment. He is fully aware of the fact that his life is only a stage in
his journey salvation, that is myriads of existences away.
Meanwhile at a certain point, life in this world, which is full ofwoes and
suffering, seems to him both mystifying and and in such d
situation he is assailed by a sense of inadequacy or insecurity. He has
learnt form his elders, or read in both religious and secular works, of
people in such a plight turning to supernatural practices and supernatural
things. He is only treading the path oftradition left by his forbears. Buddha,
may 1 remind you, is only a teacher who shows the way to salvation: he
is not Cmd, the Supreme Being, Creator and ruler ofthe universe.
2.4 Economic Setting

Myanmar is a developing country. With its so far underdevel-
oped technology and climatic conditions and physical features, it is natu-
ral that its economy mainly depends on agriculture. Myanmar, as already
mentioned earlier, is rich in natural resources, the potentialities ofwhich
have not been fully developed yet. Until such a time comes she has to
concentrate her efforts on the production ofagricultural commodities for
home consumption and for foreign export.
Myanmar people are essentially agriculturalists: they have been
so since they came down to the plains of Myanmar over one thousand
years ago. Rice growing by wet or dry cultivation is their chief occupa-
tion. Ploughing, harrowing, transplanting and harvesting in orthodox ways
was, and still is, the order of the day, though mechanization is being
introduced. The natural workmates and friends ofthe cultivators are tropi-
cal beasts of burden, such as water-buffaloes and cattle, to whom they
have a sentimental attachment; and yet they look upon them as dumb
44 Dr. Hla Pc
animals devoid of sensitiveness, as is illustrated in the Myanmar expres—
‘lu—nganwa’ a human creature cattle, meaning a dumb. Among other
domesticated animals, elephants and horses are still regarded as the
paraphernalia of officials vestiges of the custom of former times, and
the elephant is accredited with intelligence ofa high degree; and dogs are
held to be destitute of any good qualities or redeeming features an atti—
tude that cuts clean across the notion ofthe dog’s lovers in the West, and
makes of the English ‘you lucky dog’. It stems, 1
believe, from the Myanmar Buddhist’s conception ofthe dog as the deni—
zen of the Four States ofMisery.
In the rural areas there have always been Myanmars who earn
their living supplement their earnings by hunting fishing, though
Buddhism disapproves of these activities. Bows and arrows and spears
are the chief weapons of a hunter who is by dogs. Of the
wild animals the tiger stands for savagery and ferocity, while the deer for
meekness and mildness; the monkey is notorious for naughtiness; and
the monitor lizard, because of its forked tongue is an embodiment of
untruthfulness, and because ofit having a dull—grey colour, the Myanmar
regard it as an animal ofill omen that augurs poverty: the word for poverty
and dull—grey colour are the same in Myanmar. 1 have been told that the
Thais also share the same belief with the Myanmar people in this
respect.On the other hand the peacock, which is the emblem ofthe flag of
the Myanmar kings, is looked upon as an auspicious bird, while the vulture
is regarded as an inauspicious creature. More about the monitor lizard
and vulture will be discussed later.
Fishing with various kinds ofimplements - nets and traps — goes
on in small streams as well as in the large rivers of Myanmar. Both the
hunters and the fishermen, in view oftheir vocation that violates the moral
precepts, occupy the lower rung in the social ladder ofBuddhist Myanmar.
There are in Myanmar also many various kinds of manual
workers and artists and craftsmen. To list only a few: boatman, raftsman,
cart driver, toddy climber ( who taps the juice at the top ofthe palm tree);
and authors, poets, musician, blacksmith, goldsmith, mason, weaver,
potter; and sculptor and wood carver, the last two craftsmen are to be
found chiefly in Mandalay, the last capital of the monarchical period.
Myanmar women, particularly those in the rural regions, share the
daily burden ofwork with their menfolk in many walks oflife. They hold
their ground in spite ofthe several one—sided Myanmar sayings: ‘Day will
not break for a hen’s cackle; it will break only for a cock’s crow’— a senti—
ment also to be found in Chinese proverbs— and 'A big wave, it’s under
the boat; a big mountain, it’s under the feet’ meaning women will always
be subdued by men. Much of the day—to-day business is in the hands of
the women, and they give a good account of themselves in rural and
domestic economy.
2.5 Social environment

Many Western writers have portrayed the Myanmar people as
easy going and pleasure loving. But they fail to mention that these people
are free from which the of their own
suffer and have to take tons oftranquilizing tablets to get rid of it. They
forget the and side of the life of the Myanmars who
work arduously on farms and on rivers under exacting conditions. During
these periods of work, they have scarcely any time give attention to
anything other than the task in hand. When therefore they have an
opportunity to release their pent—up feelings they enjoy themselves with
special fervour. Forms of amusement up to the twentieth century were
comparatively simple. Those that appeal most to them were pwé (stage
plays), dancing and music, playing musical instrument and singing on
one hand; and on the other, gambling (usually at pwé), racing and boxing
- all of which they generally indulged in at the many festivals and fairs
usually held at the time of the full moon.The period for such pleasures
was confined to the dry season. Needless to say, the social environment
has been transformed in modem days with the advent of the cinema to
towns and the free film shows to the rural areas, and the soccer and the
basket and volley balls, as well as many other forms of such diversion to
various parts of Myanmar.
2.d The Myanmar family

Within the large circle of the above environmental influences
lies a smaller circle, concentric with it, representing the family in which
the Myanmar Buddhist grows up.
Due chiefly to adherence to the teaching of the Buddha and to
underdeveloped technology and the environmental set up, life in Myanmar
(as in other Buddhist countries) meanders along; and people’s standards
and values are different from those in the West. Materialism is subordi—
nate to idealism; contentment takes precedence over dissatisfaction; and
moral and spiritual attainment is preferred to intellectual achievement .
The people are less sophisticated and less complicated. Their needs are
modest compared to those of their counterparts in the West, and they
46 Dr. Hla Pc
need not exert themselves too much for what they want. Such people are
usually found in rural areas away from large cities, where the ethos ofthe
society or community has been contaminated by the impact of Western
civilization and
This is the general picture of Myanmar Buddhists. But the war
and its concomitants as well as new factors that have been springing up
since the end of the war in 1945 have impinged several aspects of
their life, and consequently engendered shifts in their standards
and values, and even in their morality. Nevertheless their fundamental
beliefs and practices remain almost unchanged.
Against this background, I’ll present you the family. Some of
the remarks and comments are from my own experience and others from
my own observations. The picture that emerges in the end will be a
composite one, the like of which may be seen anywhere in Myanmar.
The word ‘family’ here means ‘the body ofpersons who live in
one house, including parents, children, servants, and so on. And the sort
offamily I’ll talk about falls under this category with a slightly different
image. We have in Myanmar instead ofservants what are nowadays called
‘house-companions’ in those households in the urban areas who can
afford to pay wages. These companions, a kind of general factotum, are
distant relatives ofthe parents or complete strangers.
Broadly speaking members ofthe family, especially in the rural
regions, live in houses with an open plan. It often resembles a hall, con—
taining the minimum items offurniture. Here they sit, eat or sleep, gener—
ally on the floor. In some cases, a room or two may be carved out ofit as
sleeping quarters for the parents and grown-up daughters, furnishing it in
some cases, if they can afford it, with bedsteads to sleep on; or a room
extended from it to serve as a kitchen. Doors and windows are left open
during the day, though not in the rainy season. On the whole, therefore, it
is a kind of communal life that affords hardly any privacy.
In big cities, such as Yangon, Mandalay and Mawlamyine there
are many European style houses and bungalows. Be it in a village wooden
or bamboo house or in a city brick bungalow, we generally find the whole
family living together with minimum friction.
Many people in the West may assume that because oftheir inhibi—
tions and tense atmosphere, this sort of situation would breed several
neurotics among the members ofthe family. It might, but these symptoms
seldom come up to the surface. Myanmars on the whole are more or less
relaxed, and besides it is their way of life. Of course there are some in—
dependent minded members, who finding the situation not to their liking
intolerable, may set up a home of their own. But generally speaking
the pattern of such a coalescent family life has prevailed throughout the
country. Two pieces of evidence may be cited.
My family lived in a small village ofabout three hundred houses
until after the war, when it was forced Mawlamyine, about
forty miles away, by insurgency and economic pressures. The number of
in the family at any time was never less than twelve, over which
my grandmother presided. Even when the household moved and settled
down in an entirely different environment, they still preserved the conti—
nuity, except that of my aunts took the of her deceased
mother. The family now has seven members in place of twelve. Their
relationship is most amicable.
1 have in Yangon a friend. Until a few years ago he and his wife
and their three children lived for several years under the same roof with
his mother, his sister, her husband and their family as well as another
unmarried sister ofhis, besides two house companions — altogether about
twelve in number. Their house however is very large. My friend seemed
to be happy — no complaints whatsoever; and his mother ocassionally
wrote to me indicating how pleased she was to be able to spend her old
age- she was not even sixty then - with her family, particularly with her
grandchildern. 1 was then living in England. In contrast, 1 had an English
widow lady of seventy living along next door to me. She had a married
son. He and his family had a house oftheir own about sixty miles away.
One day 1 poked my nose in and asked her why she didn’t have her son's
family with her. The reply was short and sweet: '1don’t want them getting
in my way.'
There are many contributory factors that bring about the coales—
cence among the individuals of the family. The three main agencies are
tradition, community and Buddhism.
The Myanmar Buddhists are conservative. They are sticklers
for the tradition that has been handed down from generation to generation.
They nourish ‘what-was—good—for-my—parents is good enough for me’
attitude. Some years ago I saw a cousin ofmine chastising her child, and
1 said to her: 'You are beating the devil into his head.' Her reply was, as 1
expected: 'None ofyour alien new fangled ideas. 1 am only following the
trodden path of my great—grandparents, grandparents and parents; you
were born only the other day. Do you want to spoil the child by sparing
the rod?'. However, the tradition, which acts as guideline in the course of
life, encourages discipline, respect and humility.
4N Dr. Hla Pc
Community is an untangible powerful force in Myanmar, and
most ofthe members defer to its opinion andjudgement. It is a perceptible
arbitrator on social and moral matters. Many people by the nature oftheir
upbringing dare not to it, still less spell out the
often used in the West: "Mind your own business — me/ez des vos uJJ’uire“;
instead they have mind their p’s, and q’s, that is to be careful not to
offend against propriety. Community frequently acting in the capacity as
‘Big Brother’ censures the parents whose children, in its eyes transgress
the traditional code of ethics such as being insolent the elders or get—
ting a girl into family way. And, it usually down heavily upon d
man who takes a second wife, and heavier on a woman who takes a second
husband.
Faith is the third of the triad. Buddhism has been dealt with
quite adequately as to need to add much, except perhaps to mention a few
tenets that the secular side of life. These are to
relatives and give aid and succour to the old, and to have regard for others,
and to treat with humility and respect those who are older in age, higher
in status or more learned than oneself, all of which are, as it were, the
bolts and nuts of a family structure.
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3. Nature : the Myanmar Buddhist
I’ll now launch myself on the main theme of my lecture, the
Myanmar Buddhist. He is a Myanmar who takes refuge (has faith ) in the
Three Items; an individual ofdual personality who believes also in other
-isms; and member of a family that is closely knit by respect,
thoughtfulness and by the concept that the law ofkarma has allowed him
to attain its membership by birth, marriage or by adoption.
It is a human document which centres round the salient features
in my life, my own observations viewed both retrospectively and intro-
spectively. 1 shall lift the veil from the tableaux ofthe life ofthe Myanmar
Buddhist to let you see the whole spectrum ofthem in three stages: youth,
manhood and old age ending in death. In this process 1 shall follow the
advice ofan old English author and poet given to his fellow authors: ‘Let
him relate the events of his own life with honesty, not disguising the
feelings that accompany them’.
1 come from Myanmar, a country in which, in spite of the then
economic stringency, could afford to spend liberally huge sums ofmoney
to hold the Sixth Buddhist Council to collect, collate and edit the Bud-
dhist Scriptures from 1954 to 1956, in commemoration of the 2500th
anniversary of the death of the Buddha in 544 B.C; a country whose
government demanded and got independence at the auspicious time and
date, furnished by the astrologers, of4:20 am on the 4th ofJaunary, 1948;
and a country dotted with temples of deities either standing side by side
with the numerous Buddhist shrines or standing by themselve in cities,
villages or in remote areas.
3.1 Youth
3.1.1 Birth
1 was born in a small village situated on a tributary ofthe river
Thanlwin. Ours was for a time a well-to-do Buddhist family. We were
farmers. Soon after 1 came into the world, 1 am told, the village mid-wife
cut offmy navel or umblical cord, and had it buried in a place safe enough
to be despoilt by animals such as cats and dogs. This traditional practice,
known as chet hmyok, meaning literally ‘navel—buried’ must have been
being universally observed by the Myanmar people. For, this phrase has
acquired the meaning of one’s native place a village, a town
country of one’s birth.
3.1.1.1 Naming ceremony

Some months after my birth my grandmother, who was a Mon,
made preparations for the name giving ceremony, which is called dis-
hum tut-pwé, 'the accacia soap affix ceremony', an elliptical term for 'the
ceremony ofpouring a decoction ofthe soap accacia fruits over the baby's
head and giving a name to it'. In short, it is name giving ceremony. This is
an echo of the Hindu custom of ufimo kurmu, name giving; but the
ceremonials carried out are quite different. lam certain that the Myanmar
have appropriated this custom from the Mons with whom they have lived
in close affinity, and with whom they have had strong cultural ties since
the dawn ofhistory.
The Mon nomenclature for it is cow kupo ‘pouring soap acacia
fruits’, that is a decoction of these fruits (over the baby’s head). Under
the heading ‘Birth feast’, R.Halliday says:
‘For each child born there is what may be called abirth festival.
It should take place soon after birth, but is usually postponed till a
more covenient season or till the slack time ofthe year. March and
April are the months when it mostly takes place. It is known as caw
kapo, which means pouring a decoction ofsoap accacia. Apotful of
that is prepared and also a potful ofthe tumeric water. The baby is
bathed by the midwife first, and afterwards by the guests by pouring
the water over it. A dah or cleaver with its point in the earth is held
by the father beneath to convey the spent water to the earth. The
hands ofthe midwife are also washed. All who were present at the
birth or call to make enquiries must be invited to this ceremony.
There is ususally a mild feasting, and music is often played ....
R.C. Stevenson, in revising Judson’s Myanmar-English Dic-
tionary in 1893, says under the head word kin-bé-tat ’to hold a festival on
the birth of a child, during which the body of the child and the hands of
the guests are washed in a decoction’ To this the following explanation is
50 Dr. Hla Pc
added. ‘On the seventh day after the birth ofthe child, the midwife
the fruit of the (creeper), and mixes it with seven kinds of
grewia and washed the child’s head; after the head is clean (by washing),
the midwife takes the child up in a white cloth and presents him (or her)
to the mother; after this the midwife and the assembled persons who have
been invited invoked blessings’. (The word Cirewia is a botanical term
for a kind of creeper called tuyuw in Myanmar). The bark of the tayaw
and the fruit of the kin—bun are the two essential ingredients used in a
decoction for washing the head. It is believed that they are endowed with
certain mystical and magic powers. Thu-byei, the eugenia, which recurs
several times in this lecture, may be placed under the same category.
It may be noticed that both Halliday and Stevenson do not men—
tion in their accounts ofthis ceremony the phrase name giving. This ritual
was, 1 believe, and extension from the ceremony. 1 know for
certain that even in my younger days a kin—bran tat—pwé, which
all the rites stated above, meant a name giving ceremony both to the
Myanmar and Mon peoples. As Halliday asserts it is not always held
nowadays on the seventh day after the birth of a child.
In my case it was held some months after 1 was born. On an
auspicious day, the midwife did wash my hair with the decoction of soap
accacia fruits and tayaw and presented me to my mother. It is, 1 believe, a
reminiscence ofthe royal coronation. Then the astrologer gave me a name,
and he predicted that 1 would become either a monk or a great man.
Thereafter the relatives and guests invited to the ceremony blessed me
and showered on me with presents. They were in turn entertained to a
feast. My aunt told me about it when I reached the age of understanding.
The name giving ceremony has no religious significance. It is
entirely secular in flavour and is never held in the monastery, as the chris—
tening service is performed in a church. The only common elements
between the two are pouring a decoction over the baby’s head on the
Myanmar side and the sprinkling the child’s head with water in the case
of the Chirstians, and the name giving. There is a modem tendency to
Buddhistize many non-Buddhist customs and practices. In many such
ceremonies nowadays, the well—to—do parents invite the monks to their
home to hold areligious ceremony. After the formalities ofdoing obeisance
to the Three Gems, Buddha, the Law and the Order of the monks, and
undertaking the Five Precepts, the Abbot preaches a sermon in conso—
nance with the atmosphere of the occasion. He points out to the parents
that their child is one oftheir treasures, just as the eldest son ofa Univer—
The Myanmar Buddhist : His Lili From the Cradle to the Grave
sal monarch is one of the seven treasures ofhis father.
The ceremony concludes with the monks blessing the child by
its name.
The structure of the Myanmar names and the principles of the
choice of names and other aspects of this complicated matter have been
described about four years ago in my two lectures in Paris. I’ll offer you
here only its typography to refresh your memory.
As I was Wednesday child the astrologer gave me the name Hla
Pe, with due reference the day of my birth. each day of the week,
for your information, a of the letters of the Myanmar alphabet is
allocated for a day of the week. My name means ‘Handsome boy’. You
can infer from this that it is most unusal have a surname, although
many a westernized family has prefixed or suffixed one member oftheir
father’s or mother’s name to theirs. My father was called U Ngwei, Mr
Silver, a Monday child, and my two younger brothers, both
Thursday, are named Maung Ba Thwin, MasterFather’s Image, andMaung
Myint Théin, Master Superior to One Hundred Thousand. To make
confusion worse confounded my mother whose maiden name was Ma
Khin, Miss Love, was never called Mrs Silver. (For detailed study, see
€iustaf Houtman; Myanmar (Burmese) personal names, Department
of Religious Affairs, Yangon, 1952).
To digress for amoment. This customary practice ofthe Myanmar
Buddhist wife retaining her maiden name is apt to generate misunder-
standing in countries with a different culture, in financial, social and pro-
fessional matters.
When my wife, Daw Than Mya, Miss Million Emerald, arrived
in Britain some years ago, we opened a joint account at the bank. The
manager knew me and my wife. But he suggested that my wife ought to
suffix my last name to hers in order to avoid any misunderstanding by the
bank officials. Mywife has to suffer in silence whenever she was addressed
as Mrs Than Mya Pe, or Mrs Pe all the time she was in England.
More serious was the case ofa high ranking Myanmar UN official.
He went on a tour with hs wife in a foreign country. They stopped for the
night at a grand hotel. The manager was most reluctant to give them a
room because the wife has a different name in the passport. The UN
official explained to the manager this aspect ofthe Myanmar culture, and
said that at his age and with his position at the UN he would look very
silly if he were to roam the country with a mistress. They got the room.
This sort ofirritating incident is not confined only to the Myanmar
52 Dr. Hla Pc
Its tentacles grip even the British. A lady university don was
married business man after she had made her name in the academic
world through her publications and her appearences in international con—
ferences. She naturally held on to her maiden name, say Miss X, after her
marriage. In due course she applied for maternity leave to the Cioverning
Body ofthe college. The treasurer ofthis body was an old gentleman of
rectitude. He reacted of course against the application with disgust, and
refused to grant leave to Miss X. He relented only when the true facts
were revealed to him.
You may remember my telling you that the law of karma is a
contributory factor to the coalescence of a family. The only element that
is out of perspective in the picture is the names of the members of the
Myanmar family, which stemmed originally form the Buddhist’s faith in
astrology.
3.1.1.2 Lili at home

Buddhism however pervades the fabric ofthe life ofthe Myanmar
Buddhist, in whose thought, speech and deed are reflected the teaching
ofthe Buddha.
When I was two years old, 1 was adopted by my four paternal
spinster aunts. I was brought up in an environment that, 1 believe, had
influenced my thought, determined my action, formed my habits and
moulded my character within the context of the law of my past karma.
The environment in which a Myanmar child is nurtured is somewhat
different from that in the West. 1 noticed or was made to notice that age
was given precedence in every day life, andthat the household life revolved
around the oldest member - in my case it was my grandmother. Examples
ofrespect for old age and obedience to the elders were the rule rather that
the exception.
Long before lwent to the village school I was initiated into some
points of etiquette in dealing with the elders. Some ofthem, of course, 1
had learnt for myself. 1 was told, among other things, to avoid the use of
the pronouns such as 1 or you, but to use instead ‘Your humble servant’
for 1, and ‘Uncle and Auntie so—and so'; or 'Elder brother or Elder Sister
so-and—so' for you, according to the age and sex ofthe person 1 was ad—
dressing. Besides, 1 was also instructed not to blurt out ‘What’ or noises
to that effect, but to say nicely in Myanmar phrases equivalent to ‘Yes,
sir’ or ‘Yes, madam’ in answering an elder; and to say politely ‘Yes, sir’
or ‘Yes, madam’ (there are many other Myanmar phrases for these) rather
than making rude gestures such as nodding or shaking my hand, or still
worse, grunting noises of assent or dissent.
These instructions concern the realm of speech. A few may be
instanced in the domain of deed, in which the three elements ofrespect,
humility and thoughtfulness are noticeable. In the presence of the
elders, 1 had to take certain proper postures. I had to stand with my head
bent down from the neck, walk in a stooping attitude and sit neatly. And
in also offering something to such a person, 1 had to give it holding with
both hands. Nowadays, I notice many through this action,
do so by offering it only with their right hand, while holding or touching
of it with the fingers of the other hand a new innovation. If
was engaged, the ritual must be performed by my right hand: it is
rather hard on a left handed child.
Manners at the table also count a lot among the well-brought up
At meal times we all sat at the low table, with a plate of rice
infront of each of us. There were duplicate dishes of four, six or more on
the table. No one made a move until my grandmother had helped herself
from some of the dishes. Before helping oneself one always took a
spoonful from any dish she had not touched, and put it on to her plate.
1 still vaguely remember an incident. A cousin of mine and his
mother came to dinner with us one evening. The meal was served late,
and the boy was furnished. Casting the table manners to the winds, he
started helping himself ignoring the unapproving eyes round the table.
There was a shriek from him, and it transpired that his mother sitting next
to him had pinched the inside part ofone ofhis thighs - a rather sensitive
part ofthe anatomy, for exposing his lack ofdiscipline. This is comparable
to the covert act often perpetrated in the West under the dinning table: that
is, kicking one’s spouse in the leg when he or she has made afauxpas.
One part of our routine at home was listening to the stories -
folk-lores and religious tales generally with a moral - told to us with
some embellishments by fairly well read elders. It is similar to reading
stories to children in bed here. Then we did obeisance, as the children
here say bon nuit, to our grandmother and went to bed.
3.1.2 Village School

The process of inculcating ideas continued at the village school
1 went to at the age of five. It was a well disciplined and well organised
school. Here lleamt the three R’s — reading, w(r)iting and a(r)ithmetic. In
those days the curriculum did not include the fourth R — quite popular
54 Dr. Hla Pc
nowadays with of the students in the West. It stands for rebellion
and rioting. That would have against the grain of the Buddha’s
teaching. Besides, such students would have got a good hiding from their
teachers.
The main aim of the school was to lay a strong foundation for
literacy, numeracy and ethics. To achieve this end the headmaster adopted
what is now popularly known as ‘the stick and the carrot’ policy. More
will be said about it in the teacher-student relationship later. The word
stick mentioned above is a metaphorical one: it is a form ofpunishment.
The inflicting of such punishment at the school was meted out the
pupils who had not prepared their lessons, who failed to finish their home
work, or whose behaviour left much to be desired. They would be kept at
school during lunch hours. The stick means literally a real stick, d
cane. It was used in at our school.
Chastising by hand by cane at home and at school has been
still the prerogatives ofparents and teachers. The Myanmar believe that a
good smacking or caning is good for ‘the soul’ of the young. They still
have faith in the old maxim: ‘Spare the rod and spoil the child’. 1 don’t
remember having ever been caned by a teacher throughout my school
days. But I was caned once or twice at home. I shall never forget the one
caning 1 received the first and the last time from my grandmother. She
was kind and understanding, but she would not tolerate even an insolent
gesture from the young member to the elder.
One day an older cousin ofmine, who was a tease, provoked me
so much so that 1 lost my temper and hurled rather offensive words at
him. Unfortunately, my grandmother happened to be sitting at the moment
within hearing distance ofthose words. She at once took me to the back
of the house, got a cane out and gave me six strokes, without showing
any signs ofanger. The rhythmic swiches ofthe cane were punctuated by
the words: ‘Promise, no more of these rude words’, to each of which 1
replied ‘No more, grandma’ in between my sobs.
Conservative parents, there are many, would like to extend chas—
tising even to the grown-ups. More than twenty years ago, a young
Myanmar couple came as state scholars from Myanmar to our School —
the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London, to
work for a higher degree. The girl was the daughter ofa cabinet minister
in the Myanmar government. Her mother, who accompanied them to
England, came to see me one day at the School and said: ‘Hsaya—gyi,
Great teacher, ifever these young people are naughty, beat them as much
The Myanmar Buddhist : His Lili From the Cradle to the Grave S5
as you like, so long as you do not maim them’ used
by the parents when they are entrusting their children the care of d
teacher. The so-called called young were then at least 23 to 24
years old.
About ‘the carrot’ 1 have alluded to. Either at lunch time or at
the end of school hours, the headmaster would to us questions in
mental arithmetic or general knowledge, such as 'If a man takes half an
hour to how would it take him for four miles'?'
What’s the capital of Myanmar‘/' Whoever could answer the question
first, he or she could go home. The dullards were always the last to leave
the school And the head would single out a good bright pupil
and praise him or her in front ofthe whole school.
In the of our schooling we were taught homilies,
most of which are based taken from Buddhist Scriptures. ‘Take
refuge (have faith) in the Three Items; pay homage to the Five Worthy
Objects, that is the Three Items and parents and teachers; and show respect
to one older, higher in status or more learned than you.’ Stories from the
Scriptures with morals - the reward or benefit for the good, and the
punishment or bad results for the bad, as meted out by karma.
The text books contain stories to drive home these points.
Myanmar literature, most of which is tinged with Buddhism, abounds in
morals: the retribution that awaits a person who has fallen into the sins of
anger, greed and folly; or the reward for one who cultivates such virtues
as tolerance, compassion and truth. Those stories were read during the
day at the school; they were often heard in an exaggerated version in the
cool ofthe evening at home; and were occasionally brought to my attention
in dramatic performances at night. Constant instilling ofthese ideas into
the children’s heads must have made deep impressions upon a Myanmar
child in his formative years.
Furthermore we had to commit to memory several pentads or sets
ofFive Duties, apparently on the analogy ofthe Five Precepts: those of
parents and a child; ofa teacher and a pupil; and ofa husband and a wife.
These moral principles were drummed into the heads of boys and girls
during their impressionable years, and some oftheir imprints are bound
to leave in the students’ minds.
One ofthe duties we had to perform before 4 pm on school days,
somewhat like saying morning prayers in school here, was repeating dox-
ologies usually after our leader, a senior boy or girl. In these sessions we
made obeisance to the Three Gems and then undertook the Five Precepts:
(1) not to kill; (2) not to steal; (3) not to tell lies; (4) not to commit sexual
56 Dr. Hla Pc
offences; and (5) not to drink alcohol. A school boy, needless to say, can
refrain from the last two, but sometime or other he breaks one or all ofthe
first three precepts. Nevertheless some remnants ofthe code are bound to
remain in his mind as he grows up, and they will act as deterrents to him
subsequent occasions.
Speaking ofdeterrents always reminds me ofa personal episode
ofmine. When 1 was quite young, we had a boy staying with us. He and
1 got fine, until we fell out one day. That evening we had our bath in
the river, and 1 came up first and hid his clean shirts out of spite. It is
necessary in Myanmar, as some ofyou may know, to change one’s clothes
frequently because of the heat and the sweat. However, as as I put
on my shirt, 1 was stung by d that must have been lying under
the collar or in the pocket. 1 still remember telling the other boy between
my shrieks of pain where to find his shirts: 'Your shirts...ouc6 .. . are .. .
ooh .. . behind .. . uuh .. . the chest!' Since then this retribution always stares
at me whenever 1 want to do someone down.
Variety is the spice oflife. I shall now introduce a variation into
the pattern ofthe life ofthe Myanmar Buddhist to wind up the highlights
ofmy village school days.
3.1.2.1 Coaxing the psyche

The year I joined the school 1 was given a fright while walking
along the unlit, pitch dark village street. 1 fell ill. Try as they might the
village doctors could not make me better. Some ofthem pronounced that
my illness was not an ordinary ailment: I had been possessed by an out-
side agency (apé hmi in Myanmar). Others believed that the leik-pya the
butterfly or psyche, having been startled, had left my body: hence this
sickness. My grandmother and my aunts agreed with the second opinion.
My grandmother therefore decided to resort to the traditional custom of
leik - pya hkaw coaxing the leik-pya back to its tenement, the body.
My grandmother first collected and put them in front ofher (1)
a plate containing five or six balls of cooked rice, each garnished with
small pieces ofjaggery (small lumps of coarse brown sugar made from
palm sap); (2) a basin half filled with water, at the bottom of which lay
six halves ofbetal nuts; (3) a bowl also half filled with water on which a
hank ofred and white cotton thread floated to and fro with the breeze; (4)
a small tray containing a gold ring tied also with a strand ofred and white
cotton thread in the form of a neck-lace.
First, my grandmother raised the plate ofcooked rice-balls with
both her hands as if she were propitiating a diety and said a few words,
and put it down. Then she picked up the six halves ofbetal nuts from the
bottom of the basin and held them in the palms of her both hands. She
muttered words ofsupplication and made some sort ofvow, and dropped
them back into the water in the basin. She went through the motion sev—
eral times until all the six halves lay face upwards, whereupon she took
the ring from the tray, dangled it inside the bowl the cotton hank
come to it. Thereafter she tied the hank to the ring and put the necklace
with the ring dangling round my neck. I had been united with my
butterfly! 1 recovered soon after this non—Buddhist ritual. As far as I am
aware this ritual several races and tribes in Myanmar.
Buddhism denies the existence of the It recognizes only
matter and mind, which also constitute life force. At some time, 1 do not
know when, and for reasons unknown, the Myanmar got confused life—
force with leik-pya, perhaps a vestige of an animistic belief. The whole
notion is foreign to Buddhism. Yet many Myanmars still cling to it.
Shway Yoe has a lot to write about leik—pya in his book: The
Myanmar: his lili and notions, London, 1910, pp.390-5 ‘ ...the life of
man resides in leip—bya and dies when it disappears. The man at the point
of death opens his mouth and the leip—bya escapes from the body, but
only to die at the same time...' And he adds 'It is the cause of the great
unwillingness all Myanmars have to wake a sleeping man. It is obvious
from the above explanation ofthe character ofthe leip—bya, that it would
be injurious to rouse a man suddenly from his slumbers. His butterfly
might be wandering far from the body, and probably would not have time
to hurry back to its tenement. Then the man would certainly fall sick, or
at any rate would be indisposed for a time. Consequently, it is useless to
tell a Myanmar servant to wake you at a certain hour. He will come at the
appointed time and look wistfully at you, and wish something would fall
down and make a noise; but he himself will tread as softly as a house—
breaker and will not even have the heart to instigate some body outside to
make a disturbance... Consequently the master is wakened, and gets up
an hour and a halfafter he wanted to, and stormed at the poor Myanmar...’
1 lend my support to the assertion that some, but not all,
Myanmars are most reluctant to wake up a sleeping person, the more so if
the person is his or her beloved. 1 know a friend whose dear wife refused
to disturb his sleep, unless it is vitally necessary. Then she will go near
him and clear her throat as loudly as she dares; or sit on the bed and touch
his hand softly and whisper his name into his ear, until he wakes up. She
SS Dr. Hla Pc
too is afraid of seperating the butterfly from her husband’s body. But
there are equally many husbands and wives who do not care a damn to
arouse their spouses from their slumbers.
3.1.3 English school

Having spent five years at the village school, lleft it to attend an
English High School in Mawlamyine. It was a fairly expensive boarding
school. My aunts, who brought me up, scraped every centime they could
find to give me a decent start in life. Education was very expensive then.
Nevertheless, it was hankered after by parents who had the welfare of
their children at heart. My aunts were no exceptions. There were perhaps
other reasons. One was that I was a promising scholar. My aunts told me
with relish later that they see traits of a scholar in me ever since 1
was a young child. They said that I would trouble to any
long as I had a book, which I would hold upside down sometimes and
read it in my own way; and that whenever 1 accidentally trod on a book,
1 would sit down and make obeisance to it. 1 also learnt later that those
thoughtless older boys and girls in the family would touch my foot with a
book merely for the pleasure ofseeing me going through this performance
of mine. €ienerally speaking, a book is held to be sacrosanct by most
Myanmars, who probably identify its contents with the sacred texts ofthe
Holy Tipitaka, the Buddhist Scriptures. There is a saying ‘A word is as
sacred as a Buddha.’
The other reason was the astrologer’s prediction that 1 would
become a Buddhist monk or a great man. My aunts held out great hopes
in myfulfilling it. Besides there is another pragmatic consideration coupled
with it. They felt that by investing some capital in my education they
might get a return in their old age, when I would be a man ofconsequence.
Be that as it may, I went offto the then Government High School
in Mawlamyine, a town situated near the mouth of the Thanlwin river,
about forty miles away from our village. Just imagine a little country
bumpkin of nine as a resident at a famous school in a big town. 1 was
homesick, puzzled and bewildered at first. Soon, however, 1 adjusted
myselfto my environment. And soon lbegan to show my true mettle and
mycharacter. One day during an English lesson my egoism or selfconceit
got the better ofme. I volunteered to read a sentence which was: ‘The cat
is on the mat!’ It was catastrophic. 1 read: ‘Thee cat is on thee mat.’ The
whole class of thirty boys laughed, especially at the sound of on thee
which in Myanmar means a coco-nut. And since then 1 was nicknamed
‘ofi theé’. Soon, however, 1 turned the tables on them: 1 got promotion to
the fourth standard at the end of six months.
The system in Myanmar at that time was that the lowest class in
ahigh school was third standard, and the highest is tenth standard — equiva—
lent to the baccalaureate here.
Industry, intelligence and luck or karma were on my side, and
1 progressed to the satisfaction ofmy teachers. My confidence outran my
prudence. Once in of the weekly tests in Arithmetic, six questions
had to be answered in two 1 finished them all in a little an
hour, and strutted out ofthe class room. When the results were out, there
was a zero against my name — a I’d never forget!
In the eighth, ninth and tenth standards where the medium of
instruction was English in all the subjects, except in classes in Myanmar,
an Indian boy, a Myanmar boy and 1 monopolized the first three places at
every test and examination. You see the look of disdain and
on our faces whenever one ofthe other two occupied the first place.
We eventually sat for the final examination. All three passed. 1
got five distinctions out ofsix subjects and a scholarship, to boot, without
which lmight still be ploughing some ofour rice fields around our village.
My rivals too fared very well in the examination. But, the Myanmar boy,
in spite ofgaining a scholarship as 1 did, was too poor to go to the univer—
sity. The Indian boy and 1 were luckier. More about this episode of the
three young students and how it had turned me into a firm believer in
karma will be discussed later. Before Isay farewell to my life as a school
boy 1 must tell you three events that took place outside the school activi—
ties. These must not be omitted for all the wines in France.
During the school holidays lspent most ofmytime at my habitat,
the village, away from the hurly—burly of Mawlamyine. Here 1 felt no
longer a stranger in a strange land. Here 1 was initiated into a few non—
Buddhist rites which aroused great excitement in the simple mind of a
boy.
3.1.3.1 Propitiating rituals

As already hinted, there are many guardian spirits in whom the
Myanmars place their implicit faith for protection and aid. They have
inherited a beliefthat they must propitiate or supplicate a deity at a certain
time ofthe year. Aremiss on their part would have repercussions on them
and their family. I’ll tell you without any embellishments about two of
them.
90 Dr. Hla Pc
(1) U Shin Gyi

The first was the propitiating of a Mon nat or spirit revered by
most of the of lower Myanmar, the traditional homeland of the
Mons.
A Mon lad in the delta area went with from his
village in a boat across the sea to an island to cut down trees for poles. On
arrival at the island, called the Isle of the Fair Ladies, the young man,
who was a weakling, was left in the boat to keep an eye it and to
prepare meals. He played his harp which he bought along with him as he
waited his fellow to return from their chores. Unfortunately for
him he was a harpist of consumate skill, and the island was haunted by
Fair Lady Spirits. His haunting melodies captured the hearts of two of
them. In due course the young man fell in love with both ofthem. When
the boat men had gathered a boat load ofpoles, they left for home. But it
stopped suddenly when it reached a certain distance from the island. The
boat men could not do anything to move it. The boat owner, who was
steeped in lores, declared that there was ajinx on the boat - reminiscence
ofJonah and the Whale in the Old Testament - and added that all ofthem
must draw lots to find out the man of ill-omen. Three times lots were
drawn and three times the lot fell to the harpist. And he was thrown into
the sea. The boat, which had been held back by the two lady spirits, it is
said, ploughed its way homeward.
This young Mon has been deitified as U Shin Gyi, the Lord of
the Seas. The name Shin Gyi denotes Great Master, and the designation
U, as has been explained in my two previous lectures in 1980, is a term of
respect.
Every year before or after Buddhist Lent, which lasts approxi-
mately from the full moon day ofJune to the full moon day ofSeptember,
U Shin Gyi is propitiated by householders either at dawn between 4 and
5 o’clock or in the evening between 6 and 8 o’clock. I’ll describe to you
a modest and simple ceremony I took part in.
One evening a village elder, well-versed in the intricacies ofthe
propitiatory business came along and set up a table in an open space in
front of our house. About 6 o’clock he placed on the table a few lit can-
dles, leaves of the coco-nut tree, a glass half filled with thin paste of
sandal wood with a sprig ofthe eugenia dipped into it, and another glass
filled with coco-nut juice. He then put about three table spoonfuls ofthe
prepared steamed gluttinous rice from a basin into five saucers. Thereaf-
ter he sprinkled some coconut scrappings, without salt, on the sticky rice.
As a finishing touch he laid a peeled banana in each ofthose five saucers.
Finally he put all the items into a large tray. You may or may not know
that ence—nut scrappings eaten with steamed gluttinous rice is usually
salted to improve its taste. In this case salt is prohibited: U Shin Ciyi is the
Lord of the Seas.
The man went to the table and made obeisance to the deity saying
a set piece of prayers. At the end of it, he fetched the tray and raising it
with both hands he propitiated the deity by reciting another set of incan—
tations. In the meanwhile, all the inmates ofour house came out and paid
respects to the Cireat Master. Then, no sooner had the man started placing
the tray on the table than - we — myself, my brothers, my cousins and our
friends leapt up from squatting posture, rushed the table and
scrambled for the saucers - an act, we were told, the Lord ofthe Sea more
than approved of. Those who succeeded in the scramble helped them—
selves with great relish the contents of the saucers. The unlucky
ones had to be contented with what was left of the steamed gluttinous
rice in the basin, ofthe coconut scrappings in the plate and ofthe bananas
on the bunch. The propitiator went round dipping the sprig ofthe eugenia
into the glass of thin paste of sandal wood and sprinkling with it over
every one present on the scene and wishing all ofthem well.
The usual explanation for holding this annual ceremony by the
people is to seek the protection ofthe Great Master from any impending
dangers, and his aid to increase their prosperity. But there is more to it
than meets the eye. We now live in Mawlamyine, the capital city of Mon
State, where this practice is observed, I believe, more than anywhere else.
It is a city which is full ofbusiness people, who have to traverse the sea
by big mechanized boats. It is more than probable that this customary
practice was started by those who had to earn their living by the sea, such
as merchant men and fishermen. The legend ofU Shin Gyi is well—known
to many people in lower Myanmar.
(2) The Guandian spirit of the farms

The other incident 1 was involved in was the propitiation ofthe
guardian spirit of our farm. This annual ritual was performed at a nat—
shrine, just outside our village, on the eve of the farming season, about
the middle ofMay. The purpose was to ask the spirit’s aid to give us good
yield ofcrops, his protection ofour farm labourers and his prevention of
the farm from destructive elements. Four of us, an elderly villager, two
92 Dr. Hla Pc
farm labourers and 1 went to the shrine. We carried among us a big bowl
ofcooked rice, a large dish of chicken curry, a bottle of country
bunch ofbananas, a coconut and a few candles - the minimum requisites
for such a ceremony. The offerings were placed and the candles were lit
by the village elder on the plaform in front of the shrine. He then paid
respect to the nat and intoned some incantations, partly in Myanmar and
partly in Pali. The rest of us were doing obeisance all this time to the
statue ofthe deity who seemed to me to be smiling benignly on us
inside the shrine. At the end we all fell on to the food.
It may be ofinterest to you to know that many Myanmar would
have no to eating food that has been propitiated a deity. But
they would not touch that which has been offered to the Buddha’s image
pagoda. This disinclination to partake of the sacred food has been
attributed to the story ofthe ill-fated Mon king, Manuha. The account of
his capture by King Anaw-rahta of Bagan in 1057, and the subsequent
arrival ofthe three sets ofthe Pitaka in the Myanmar capital together with
Manuha has been hinted earlier. Here then, is the story of Manuha as
given in the Myanmar chronicles.
‘Manuha with his attendants’, I quote, ‘lived at Myinkaba.
Now, the glory of King Manuha, it is said, was this: that whenever
he spake, a wheel is issued radiant from his mouth. So when Manuha
visited and bowed his head before Anaw-rahta-min-saw, that king
was aghast, and his hair stood on end. Thereafter, in order to demean
Manuha’s glory, dominium and power, he caused his food to be
always prepared upon ajewelled salver and first dedicated to a pa-
goda and then set before the king. And king Manuha took no heed
nor scrutiny, but ate ofit. Thus, after a while the radiant wheel that
issued from his mouth vanished.’ (Pe Maung Tin and G.H. Luce .
The Glass Palace Chronicle ofthe Kings ofMyanmar, London,
1923, pp.79-80.)
3.1.3.2 Buddhist initiation ceremony

The third in this series to be considered is a Buddhist ceremony,
in contrast to the foregoing animistic rituals. It is the ceremony ofinitiating
a Myanmar Buddhist boy into monkhood of a novice. It is called in
Myanmar shin-byu-bwé, making a junior monk.
This ceremony comprises two phases. The first is the candidate
for novicehood going in a procession, known in Myanmar as shin-laung-
hlé. The second is the act ofmaking the candidate into a novice, that is
shin-byu. The function ofthe procession is the re-enactment ofthe future
Buddha’s renunciation of the world. Prince Siddhatta forsaking his
luxurions life ofa prince to become a recluse; his leaving on his horse the
palace and the city with the help ofdeities; the intervention ofMara; and
his attaining Enlightenment. The purpose of making a novice is to reca-
pitulate an incident in the life ofthe Buddha. When the Buddha returned
to his native city, Kapilavatthu, his son Rahula, who was then seven years
old, came to him to ask for inheritance. The Buddha offered him the only
thing he could: that was novicehood. He initiated his into a
with the help ofhis deciples.
The unawareness ofthese two episodes have led to speculations
the origin ofthe initiation ceremony. One, a popular view, is that it is
a recapitulation of the Prince’s renunciation story, which is only true of
the procession. The other view was put forward by the late Dr. Htin Aung.
He says in his book that it marks the occasion ofthe boy’s entry not into
the monkhood, but into manhood, which he says, would qualify him to
be a king. He is taking the word shin lv mean ‘a king’ and not d
However, he is wrong on both counts. A boy does not need such an
initiation into manhood as a prelimary step to the kingship. Every man,
says a proverb, is a potential king. And, the Buddha himself initiated his
son into novicehood.
(Htin Aung : Folk Elements in Burmese (Myanmar)
Buddhism, London, 1962, pp. 11 5 - 119)
Aconventional shin-byti ceremony naturally includes both these
two functions. But it has other features super-imposed upon it, such as
local tradition, beliefs and customs, and some animistic and Hindu ele-
ments, which will be unfolded later.
The main purpose in holding a shin-byu ceremony is to gain
merit. It is the most cherished aspiration of all Buddhist parents to see
their sons initiated into novicehood. They also derive an added pleasure
as well as pride from the feeling ofbeing ajunoir monk’s parents. Some
Myanmars often adopt for the occasion other people’s sons as theirs to
hold an initiation ceremony. Depending upon the financial resources
available, it ranges from the simple affair carried out in the presence of a
handful of people to one of great pomp and splendour. Most parents
naturally would like to make as great an occasion ofit as they can afford,
and not a few get carried away and exceed this limit. After all, this is once
in a life time, and they are investing the merit for their future life. There
have been warnings by monks to parents to cut their coat according to the
cloth, in other words, to suit their expenditure to their income. Here is
94 Dr. Hla Pc
taken from a sermon by a famous progressive monk. It is adapted to
suit this occasion.
A man has three sons ready for the initiation ceremony. But he
has no money hold it. Persuaded by a friend of his, he decided to
ahead with it against his better judgement. The result is disastrous.
Friend Your three are growing up. It’s time they were made nov—
Man : 1haven’t enough money. lam planning to make them novices in

two years’ time.
Friend : Don’t get wrong ideas. Life is impermanent. If you were to die
between now and then, wouldn’t you suffer for it's ahead
with it. Don’t be apprehensive.
Man 1 am afraid of getting into debt.
Friend : You won’t, you know. If you sell three of the four bullocks of
yours, you will have enough money for the ceremony. And as
you have many friends, ifthey help by contributions, these will
more than recoup the price of the bullocks.
Man : All right. I’ll do it.
(A marquee for the ceremony is erected. Invitations are sent out;
but nobody comes. And the lone bullock lows: man, mrs.)
Man : (To the bullock) You are mooing, 1 suppose, with a sad heart,
because you have been seperated from your companions. (He
then explodes). There is still a bullock left. Come and goad me
again into doing it - you son ofthe bitch!
(Adapted from Persuasion, J.A. Stewart Introduction to Col-
loquial Burmese Rangoon (Myanmar Yangon), 1936, p. 127)
Apart from the genuine desire to gain merit, there are also some
reasons for staging the ceremony: the desire to meet the wish ofthe head
of the household, a grandmother or a grandfather, who is getting on in
years; or the belief that this act would shut the gates ofhell on the spon-
sors; or that a boy who has never been a novice will not make headway in
life.
The ages of the candidates vary from five to nineteen years.
However, unless dictated by financial circumstances or by a desire to
please the head of the household, the normal age of the candidates is
generally between thirteen and sixteen. This also seems to have been the
case in olden days. We find such evidence in old songs, most of which
indicate that the boys had already acquired girl friends. Here are two of
these songs, both sung by girl friends: the first is about her boy friend on
the eve of his entering the novicehood, and the second, waiting him to
leave his novicehood.
1. As I walk to the east
And gaze west over my shoulder,
1 see the pagoda with its gold pennons and streamers.
Holding in your arms a bamboo wrapperful ofwritings
You are getting ready to enter the monastery.

What are you going to study,
How many lents will you be spending,
Please tell your beloved in your own sweet voice.
(Khin Zaw)
2. In front ofthis girl’s house
There are one or two clumps of hsut-thuhpu flowers.
The parrots are swarming around them.
Oh, my precious parrots, please spare them.
They are intended to adorn his ears,
When my beloved leaves novicehood.
(Htin Aung)
The most popular time for shin-byu—bwé is after the harvest.
The weather is dry. The people are in a mood to enjoy it after their long
toil in the ricefields and, above all, there is ready money for it.
Now, about the initiation ceremony in which 1 myself was a
candidate.
You may recall my being usually back at the village during the
school holidays. It was during one long summer vacation of April and
May that the four aunts of mine, who brought me up, decided to hold a
shin-byu-bwé for me and my two younger brothers. They had saved
enough money from the sale ofrice, and my grandmother was advanced
in years — she was not even seventy and she lived another fifteen or more
years as you will see later.
1 was then fourteen, but lhasten to add that, unlike those boys in
the songs, 1 did not have a girl friend. The respective ages ofmy brothers
were twelve and eight years. In the meanwhile, an uncle ofmine and his
wife had also decided to have their eldest son, an eleven year old boy,
initiated together with us. Their decision was influenced partly by eco—
nomic reasons, but chiefly by their desire to make my grandmother happy.
This however caused a rather perplexing situation. There is a prevalent
belief, at least in our part of the world, that no shin—byu-bwé should be
held with an even number of candidates. But my aunts got over it by a
stroke of ingenuity. They adopted for the occasion a village boy of thir—
96 Dr. Hla Pc
teen with the consent ofhis parents, who, need 1 say, were only too pleased
to have their son made a novice.
The date ofthe ceremony was fixed by consulting an astrologer,
who gave the time and day for it. Invitation cards were sent
out to relatives and friends living outside our village. All the household-
ers in the village were invited by word of mouth. My grandmother, be-
and respected by the villagers, talked to all those who were going
to play vital tradition, put their old heads together to make arrangements
for the lieutenants for the assignments of duties such as fetching water
from the river and the wells, gathering fuel, cooking huge pots ofrice and
the like. The women's leader consulted with members ofher inner circle
things that needed a woman's touch, for example, the culinary and
aesthetic sides of the ceremony. The middle age people, who were well
experienced in ceremonies of all kinds, took on themselves the job each
was qualified do, such as inviting the monks and attending to their
needs at and looking after and entertaining guests through
out the ceremonial period. Even people between sixty-five and seventy-
five volunteered to help in the preparation of betel boxes and trays of
cigars, cheroots and cigarettes, which are the necessary appurtenances of
every religious ceremony. This is one of those occasions on which one
can see the altruistic instincts ofthe Myanmar Buddhists at their best.
A highly decorated marquee was put up a few days before the
ceremony. Meanwhile, we, the candidates were not allowed to do any-
thing that might damage our limbs orjeorpadise our lives, such as climb-
ing trees and swimming in the river. The elders explained vaguely that
evil spirits might try to put us out of action to spoil the ceremony. They
were, 1 believe, subconsciously thinking of the incident between Mara
and the future Buddha.
The day came without any mishap. The ceremony began with
making offerings to the noble Saint, Shin Upagutta, the vanquisher of
Mara, ofwhom a brief account is appended to the description ofthe shin-
byti-bwé in hand; and also the invocation of well known local deities so
that we could be presented to them. We, clad in princely attire, in the
manner of the princes of the Myanmar court, took part in these rites.
After these preliminaries, we started our tour round the locality on horse-
back, (known in Myanmar as shin-laung hlé - deg. This again was done to
commemorate Prince Siddhattha’s leaving the city. Many other forms of
transport have also been used: motor cars, elephants and even a man
carrying the candidate on his neck. In some cases the candidates have no
other form of transport except shank’s pony (Ie poney de jumbe), their
own legs.
We went in We had a golden umbrella held
each of us, and a few men dressed like deities as our retinue, apparently
representing those who had helped Prince Siddhatthd QOt tlWtly
the palace. The was made lively by the presence of a
seemingly endless number of dancers and an orchestra led by two aboe
players and three drummers. The horses, well caprisoned and highly
trained, also joined in the festivity. They pranced, and shook and nodded
their heads to the beat of the drums. We first made for the monastery,
which was situated outside our village, and paid our respects to the abbot
and monks, and returned to the village. Here we stopped at almost every
house, and did obeisance to the Buddha’s images on the shelf in the front
In return, the householder contributed according to his means
from say, ten centimes to ten francs. We covered about one hundred out
ofthree hundred houses in the village on the first day.
The next day the procession started earlier. Some ofthe villagers
also decided to share the transport duty with the horses, chiefly to acquire
merit and partly to enjoy themselves. One of my carriers held my two
hands as 1 sat on his neck with my legs dangling on each side of it, and
waltzed around in between, leaping up and down to the beat ofthe drums.
1 suffered some discomfort, but on the whole 1 enjoyed it as much as he
did.
On the third day of the procession, we went by boats to two
neighbouring villages. At the second village, called Kyon-do, about seven
miles away from ours, we were taken round in three cars - a Ford, a
Chevrolet and an Overland, while the orchestra and dancers followed us
in an open bus. We got back about half-past three in the afternoon. To my
surprise, my cousin and 1 were kept under guard at a house while the
villagers took back my two brothers and the village boy to our house.
This gesture is known in Myanmar as shin-laung-hpwet-te, hide the novice
candidates. There they asked for ransom for our release from my aunts
and my cousin's parents, and they got 20 rupess or kyats - roughly about
20 francs today. There was an amusing sequel to this.
About twenty ofthese villagers spent a few rupees on liquor and
had it with their dinner in our house. Five of them had no stomach for
alcohol; and soon after this convivial party, they became merry and sang
and danced in the marquee until the headman arrived. He told them to go
and sleep it off and come and see him the next day. When they came
back, he ticked them off for making fools of theselves in front of other
95 Dr. Hla Pc
people, ordered them to clear all the weeds from the monastery precincts
on the day after the ceremony was over.
At 5 o’clock that evening the head shaving ritual began. My
grandmother, my father (my mother died when 1 was seven years old),
my four aunts and the parents of my and the village boy held in
pairs a square piece ofwhite cloth underneath each ofour heads to receive
the hair as it fell before each stroke ofthe razor blade. The hair of every
novice or monk candidate is regarded as sacred by the Myanmar Buddhists.
You may recall the incident in which Prince Siddhattha cut off his hair
and threw it up, and Sakka caught it and took it his celestial abode.
Then our heads were thoroughly washed in a decoction ofthe soap accacia
fruits and other ingredients. Finally we donned white robes and took our
positions in front ofthe monks, about ten in number, who were already
seated the dais in the marquee for the ceremony of ‘Requesting the
robes’. First the congregation made obeisance to the Three Ciems, and
undertook to observe the Five Precepts. Then came our turn. We recited
a formula in Pali, which we had learnt by heart before the shin—byu—bwé,
requesting the robes from the Abbot - one under, one upper and one outer
robe. He offered us the robes, all of which were in front ofhim in a row.
The village elders helped us to put on the robes, an intricate business for
the uninitiated, and we followed the monks to the monastery.
Early the next morning we, the five novices, came back to the
marquee in a procession behind the monks, for the concluding ceremony
of‘listening to the Sermon and pouring water’. All the religious offerings
have this established pattern of finality.
First, the large congregation, as on the previous evening, paid
obeisance to the Three Gems, undertook to observe the Five Precepts,
and then listened to the discourse by a celebrated monk from Mawlamyine,
specially invited to our village for the big event. His theme was on ‘ini—
tiation ceremony, with reference to that ofRahula, and the merit gained
from holding it. He illustrated with stories from some appropiate portions
ofthe Sutta. The discourse ended with the customary water pouring ritual,
the purpose of which was to invoke the Guardian Spirit of the Earth to
hear witness to the work ofmerit. It was an echo ofwhat the Buddha did
when Mara came to claim the throne. All the monks recited in unison a
set piece in Pali, the substance ofwhich is: ‘Firm in my faith in the Three
Gems, 1 make this offering that I may be free from all the present and
future miseries ofthis round of existence, and that 1 may attain Nirvana,
the cessation ofthe Wheel ofLife. May all the creatures suffering torment
in the Four States ofMisery reach the happy abodes ofthe celestial beings.
May all my relatives, friends, and all inhabiting the earth and other worlds
share the benefit ofthis work ofmerit. O Earth, and ye deities, guardians
ofthis place, bear witness to the piety ofthis offering.’ The format ofthis
formula has been changed considerabley since then.
Simultaneously with the recitation, my grandmother, as the head
ofthe family, was pouring water from ajug on to the ground. (The water
is usually poured into a basin if the ceremony is held inside a house) As
as the recitation ended she shouted three times: ‘Share this merit
with me’, to which three times the whole congregation replied: ‘Well
done’.
The initiation ceremony was Feeding on a large scale for
the last time began. The monks, the novices and the monastery boys had
their meals, at the end of which we returned the monastery, followed
by a cartload of gifts for the monks. All those who came to attend the
ceremony as well as those who came to make a success of it were fed. It
is said, perhaps in a rather exaggerated way, that no smoke could be seen
issuing from a single house in our village for four days, that is, no cooking
was done in any home.
1 must inform you at this point that my four aunts and their elder
brother, the sponsors of this shin—byte-bwé did not share the miresable
fate of the man, whose story 1 have narrated as an introduction to our
initiation ceremony !
As a climax to this deed, my grandmother provided for the en—
tertainment of the people an open air dramatic performance. A festivity
as a sign ofrejoicing at the work ofmerit was, and still is, common in all
southern Buddhist countries, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand and
Cambodia. We, the novices, were not allowed to participate in this festivity:
it violates one of the Ten Precepts we had to observe. It was most
tantalizing to have to be contented with looking on from a distance at the
huge crowed milling round the stalls and the stage, while the music from
the orchestra seemed to be signalling us to come.
We, like the monks, had to practise austerities. We went round the
village every morning. We ate our meals only before noon. We told our
beads at least four times a day, directing our mind to the monastery, our
meal, our robes and the medicine we had in case ofillness: we conceived
the monastery as a mere shelter for refuge from the weather: the meal as
a mere sustenance to keep us alive; the robes as pieces ofcloth to cover our
body; and the medicine as a mere substance for curing our illness - and
nothing else. We observed the Ten Precepts, that is five more over and
100 Dr. Hla Pc
above the five 1 mentioned earlier, and said prayers at night,
carrying out oddjobs such as sweeping the grounds ofthe monastery and
its floors. We stayed seven days, the conventional period for novicehood.
On the eighth day of our we paid our respects to the abbot and
and left the monastery to enter what in theory is said be man—
hood. A novice can, however, leave the monastery whenever he wishes,
as can an ordained monk, who does not want to spend the rest ofhis life
in the monastery: he however seldom leaves, as a rule, until he has kept at
least one Buddhist lent, which lasts, as already stated, the three months of
the rainy
Here is an addendum the above. Some years there was
an initiation ceremony in London for the of a Myanmar Embassy
official. The ceremony was a simple affair held at the monastery in the
presence ofhis few friends. And the Buddhist abbot there dispensed with
the practice of the their rounds through the
streets of London.
(1) Shin Upagutta

As hinted earlier, 1 shall now relate to you the story of Shin
Upagutta. The word shin is the designation ofa Buddhist monk or a saint.
He is the tamer ofMara.
Upagutta, it is said, dwells in a tierred bronze mansion at the
bottom of the Southern Ocean, that is on the south side of Mt Mem. Mt
Meru is situated in the centre of the four great islands or continents: the
Eastern, the Western, the Northern and the Southern. The last is known
as Jambudipa, the noblest of all the islands, of which the Theravadin
claim that their countries form a part. He came to fame during the reign
ofKing Asoka, 269 - 232 BC, the powerful sovereign ofMagadha Empire
with its capital at Pataliputta, which is the present city ofPatna in Bihar
in India.
The king built on the river bank a great shrine and enshrined the
relics ofthe Buddha in it. Similar sacred edifices were also set up through-
out the Jambudipa island, altogether 84,000 in all. He ardently wished, so
the story goes, to revere the great shrine for seven years, seven months
and seven days. But the king’s heart was sorely troubled by the thought
ofMara, who, he anticipated, was bound to try to upset plans one way or
another. So he asked thousands ofmonks he had invited for the occasion
to name one who could spike Mara’s gun. One monk replied that no one
but an arahat or a saint called Upagutta would be able to beat Mara in his
own game. The king sent two monks for the Saint. He came in due course.
As expected, Mara appeared and tried his best to commit all the sacrile-
gious acts he could muster. But he was worsted at every turn by Upagutta.
He tamed Mara into an angel, all throughout the holy of
Asoka’s paying devotional reverence to his great shrine.
The Pali works do not recognize Upagutta. BtJt d
fuller account of Upagutta and Mara is given in the Myanmar Chronicle,
Muhu in-zuwin-duw-gyi, Mandalay, 1905, pp. 141 - 146; in C.H.
Duroiselle: Upagutta ct Mara’, Extract du Bulletin dc l’Ecole Francaise
d’ Extreme Orient, Janvier-Juin, 1904; and father Eugene Denis’s thesis:
Lu Lokkupunnutti ct les idees du Bouddhisme ancien,
which he had submitted for the Doctorat d’Etat es Lettres ct Sciences
Humaines in 1975. An extract from the resume of his thesis he sent me
may be qouted here '... historie du doyen Upuguttu qui vit duns un puluis
de bronze uu J’ond des uux, .. ., gut resussit u neutruliser Mam ct u Ie
convertir ’. He corresponded with me and came to see me once, butt have
never seen his thesis.
The beliefin Upagutta’s power over Mara, ingrained in the minds
of the Myanmar people, has generated several practices among the
Myanmars, which are becoming a common phenomenon. Two practices
as preventive measures and one as an act ofpiety will suffice.
Before the beginning of a religious ceremony Myanmars take
precautionary measures by worshipping and supplicating Upagutta to deter
Mara from doing any mischevous deed to spoil it. This was done, as you
will note, before our initiation ceremony. They also would, through a
propitiator as their medium invoke Upagutta every time rain threatens
either before or during an open air dramatic performance, to prevent Mara
from indulging in his spoil-sport tactics. Mara, the ruler ofthe sixth ce-
lestial abode, is feared by all the celestial beings including Sakka and the
rain-god. They all fled when Mara appeared with his hordes to claim the
throne from the Buddhajust before he attained Enlightenment. Dramatic
performances are normally staged during the dry season but unseason-
able rain does fall sometimes during this period in Myanmar.
The conception ofUpagutta dwelling in a bronze mansion at the
bottom of the Southern Ocean has lead to a customary practice among
the Myanmar Buddhists. At the end ofevery Buddhist Lent, they launch
‘fire rafts’ in the river, a wonderful scene ofillumination. As soon as it is
dark, the villagers or townflok row out into the mid-stream and set adrift
a multitude oflittle floats ofbamboo or banana stems, each carrying little
oil lamps or little candles. The decor and the contents of these rafts as
102 Dr. Hla Pc
well as the time for launching them vary from locality locality. In
Mawlamyine the rafts are larger and they carry, apart the lights,
either a little mansion or an alms—bowl containing offerings offood such
as various kinds ofjam, and slices offruits and similar items but no flesh
of any kind. Some people choose dawn launch their rafts.
outside Mawlamyaing I have been told on authority that the people won’t
set adrift their floats until the time the monks usually go round for receiving
food, approximately between seven and nine in the The cer—
emony is in revered remembrance of Upagutta. The people hope — they
are hoping against hope — that these floats would be carried by the stream
to the sea, at the bottom of which lives Shin Upagutta.
It may be of interest to you to learn that the cult of Upagutta is
spreading to the intellectual circle nowadays.
3.1.3.3 Ear-boring ceremony
There is another ceremony which is held, ifcircumstances favour
it, as a complementary to that ofthe shin-byu-bwé. It is formally referred
to as ‘ear-boring’ ceremony.
Ear-boring was a traditonal custom observed particularly at the
Myanmar court during the monarchical period. In those days, too, the
ordinary girls had their ears pierced; but only a few men followed their
example. For the royal princesses the boring of the ears, which was
accomplished with ceremony, was compulsory. It is understood that no
royal princess could marry until she had gone through the ritual ceremo-
niously. For the king it is said to be obligatory, since, according to Dr
Htin Aung the ear-boring ceremony was anecessary prelude to coronation.
Royal custom was adhered to especially in the city where the ear-boring
ofthe daughters of official or richer families was a ceremony.
It is a usual practice in Myanmar, particularly in towns, for the
parents who have a young daughter to hold the ear-boring ceremony in
conjunction with that ofthe initiation. There are two main reasons. One
is economic: it is less expensive to combine those two ceremonies than to
have two seperate ones. The second is personal. Parents do not like the
idea oftheir daughter feeling that she has been left out of the lime-light
which her brothers are getting at the initiation ceremony. There is no
religious significance.
On the appointed day at the propitious time fixed by the
astrologer, the girl, usually dressed as a princess of the Myanmar court,
and flanked by two elderly ladies, takes her seat on a large cushion in the
presence of the invited guests. The astrologer announces the auspicious
moment and the professional ear—borer moves up to the girl, and passes
the gold needles through the lobe ofeach ear and then between two ofhis
fingers. The needle is bent and left in the wound. The girl
often shrieks yells through nerves, and sometimes through pain.
Nowadays a medical doctor gives her a local anaesthetic just before the
ritual to deaden the pain. It takes a few days before the ears are ready to
receive ear—rings
3.1.4 University
Now that the shin—byu ceremony that symbolizes the initiating
of a boy into is the next remarks you expect to
hear from me are: having left behind the formative years and the stage of
adolescence, 1 entered into matrimony and a life of domesticity. But 1
cannot truthfully say that 1 did, because 1 was only a little over fourteen
years old then. The next phase ofmy life after two years as a school boy
was that of an undergraduate student at the University of Yangon — the
university which, for one particular period of time, I thought 1 would
never make for.
You may remember my telling you about the school final ex-
amination the three of us sat and passed. But before the results were out 1
was working on our farm. One day my aunts took me aside and confided
in me that they were not doing very well and my prospect ofgoing to the
university was very dim. They added however that things might look up
next year. It was the time ofworld depression that effected every family’s
purse. It was like a nightmare to me that put paid to my sweet dreams.
Karma however intervened on my side. As already mentioned,
when the results were out, I gained five distinctions and a scholarship to
to the University of Yangon. The scholarship was worth twenty five ru—
pees or kyats, a little over three US dollars or twenty five francs at the
present rate of exchange. It covered my boarding fee at one of the
university residential halls — a sum on which our family could live
comfortably for one month in those days. All my aunts had to pay me was
about twenty francs for my tuition fee and my pocket money per month.
1 was most grateful to my karma for offering me such a chance in life.
1 propose to give you only a skelton account of my academic
life as a framework, to which the flesh in the form of the Myanmar
Buddist’s beliefs and practices will be added later.
My first few months as an undergraduate were miserable, to put it
mildly. All the arrogance I had acquired during my school days and after
the results ofthe examinations were published, vanished into thin air. The
104 Dr. Hla Pc
gap between the school and the university standards was very wide in—
deed. Besides, Yangon university, then the only ultimate centre of learn—
ing in Myanmar, was the place for intellectual elites - the cream of
Myanmar intellectuals. 1 felt I had met my crushing defeat after so many
successes.
But I soon picked myself up and began to take everything in my
own stride. 1 was given permission to complete two years’
year. But 1 had to give it up for reasons 1 shall recall later. The university
education widened my horizon. It was the result of cross—fertilization
between myself and British professors and lecturers, and other students,
and reading more advanced books in English. 1 gradually
critical and independent in myjudgement. But I still remained essentially
a Myanmar Buddhist.
At the end ofthe second year, I passed the crucial examination,
which sifted the grain from the chaff - the examination in which the per—
centage of the number of students passed was thirty to forty. My friend
and rival ofour school days, the Indian student, failed. It was not his lack
ofindustry or intelligence, but ofkarma. His dominating father had forced
his son, who was very good at English and History, to take Chemistry,
Physics and Biology. The father wanted him to become a doctor. His sad
fate started a train ofthought in my mind. Three young men with similar
qualities had an equal opportunity in the same school. Yet one of them,
the Myanmar student had to drop out ofthe picture for lack of money to
go to university. Now, the Indian student had become a drop-out because
he was forced to take the subjects for which he had no aptitude. Why? To
this question I applied myself until 1 got the answer from a Buddhist
dictum. It says that to succeed in life one needs three requisites - karma,
intelligence and industry. Karma here is used in the sense ofthe cumula—
tive results ofone’s deeds performed in the past as well as in the present
existence. From this dictum 1 concluded that those two young men’s lack
ofsuccess must be attributed to their karma. Henceforth my faith in karma
was re-affirmed by an event at the beginning ofmy third year at the uni—
versity. 1 had to make a crucial decision at my aunts’ request. You may
recall that 1 was a scholarship holder, and every scholar was obliged to
follow a course for an Honours degree at the beginning ofhis third year.
This Honours course took three years to complete as against two years
for a general degree. In balancing their budget my aunts discovered that
the three years’s course was one year too many to support me. So they
suggested that 1 should get some sort of stipend in lieu ofthe sholarship.
lbowed to their wish and applied for a stipend intended for poor students.
It was worth fifteen kyats more than the scholarship. But, what man pro-
Yed disposes.
In due course 1 was called for an interview with members ofthe
Stipend Board. 1 came face to face with the chairman ofthe Board,
fessor €i.H. Luce. He looked at my application and crumpled it up into a
ball and threw it into the waste-paper basket. He then sat like a statue
staring at me, without saying a word, 1 believe, for two minutes. 1 thought
it lasted two hours. Suddenly one ofthe board members, who was deputy
warden ofour hall, relieved me ofmy suffering by telling me that 1 could
1 made for the door as fast as my legs could carry me. 1 learnt
him that evening when he came to see me that Luce was furious with me
for opting for a general degree and that Luce wanted me read for an
degree in History Myanmar. I had been attending Luce’s
classes in Far Eastern History and Myanmar epigraphy. 1 knew that he
thought worlds ofme and he even volunteered to teach me Chinese. So 1
decided take an Degree in Myanmar. And Professor
Luce, who was at that time officiating as the Principal of our College
told me that since 1 had to do an extra year, I would not be paying my
tuition fees henceforth. 1 wrote a letter of explanation to my aunts and
they did not demur to my having to stay one more year. All this changed
the course ofmy life, as the events unfold themselves.
It was also in my third year too that 1 decided to take up the
teaching profession as my career. To a Myanmar, on whom Buddhism
does not sit lightly, teaching and medical professions are the two noblest
ways ofearning one’s living. I knew that 1 wasn’t cut out for the medical
profession since the sight ofblood always gave me a turn. My aunts, on
the other hand, wanted me to join the Indian Civil Service, popularly
referred to as the ICS, and known as ‘Heaven-born Service’: its members
were receiving top grade salaries, and were held in high esteem. Perhaps
myaunts were thinking ofthe astrologer’s prediction that I would become
either a monk or a high official; or perhaps, as is human nature, they
wanted to enjoy the splendour of the life of an Indian Civil Servant’s
aunts who could afford to live in a splendid house, go about in a chauffeur-
driven limousine, and have several servants at their beck and call. 1 tried
to reason out with them. We argued. It was a clash of ideas, standards
and values due to the generation and intellectual gap. Respect and ever
conscious ofthe gratitude 1 owed them would never allow me to be rude
to them. 1 would not have the nerve to call them ‘squares’ even had such
a word had been known in those days. This question was however re-
106 Dr. Hla Pc
solved to the satisfaction ofboth parties in the end as manifested later.
1 was glad in a way that 1 chose the Myanmar Honours course. It
took me into the unknown and fascinating regions ofMyanmar language,
literature and culture. Classes in inscriptions of the Pyu, Old Myanmar,
Old and Medieval Mon were conducted by Luce; in philology and pho-
netics by Pe Maung Tin; and in Myanmar classical literature by the lec-
turers in Myanmar. Eventually the final year arrived: the examinations
would be held in March 1936. But the 25th February a strike was
called by the university student leaders. Over 700, than half the
student population, obeyed them. I too was one ofthem.
We were taken to the Shwe Dagon Pagoda platform. The
residents ofeach ofthe eight halls were allotted to one ofthe zayats, rest
houses, which dotted around the hill of the famous pagoda. We stayed
there about three weeks, at the end of which the leaders called off the
strike, as the University authories gave in to most oftheir demands. They
told us that the examinations which we had missed would be held in May
ofthat year. We all went home.
The scene in our house was most depressing when 1 arrived back.
My aunts were almost in tears. They felt that the money spent on me all
these years had gone down the drain. My prospects of getting a goodjob
had been blighted by myjoining the strike. To all these, lmerely replied:
‘Aunties, what is to be, will be’, and went on preparing for the coming
examination, and passed the Bachelor of Arts or BA Honours examina-
tion with First Class Honours. It was a miracle; or was it the work ofmy
karma?
1 proceeded to the Master ofArts (MA) degree course. And the
university authorities appointed me a tutor in Myanmar - an omen for the
fulfilment of my aspiration to be a teacher. I had a happy life as a part-
time tutor and student for two years. In my second year of playing this
dual role, an unexpected and inexplicable thing happened to me. It turned
out to be the turning point in my life.
1 was having tea in a cafe in Yangon town one afternoon, when
a friend walked in. He spotted me among the many in there, and showed
me an advertisement in a newspaper in English about a state scholarship,
offered by the government for further studies in Britain. It invited appli-
cations from those holding a First Class Honours degree. The last day to
submit them was the very next day. 1 thanked him profusely. 1 went the
next morning to the government department concerned and handed over
my application for the scholarship to the proper authorities. In due course
lsat a competitive examination for it, and was interviewed later together
with two other short-listed candidates. At the end ofit all, 1 was awarded
the scholarship.
There were hundreds ofcafes in the city ofYangon. And yet my
friend, the messenger of good tidings, chose to have his refreshments no
where else except this cafe. He saw me, and you know what happened
thereafter. Wasn’t it
On the morning of my departure from the village for England,
the atmosphere in the household was ofjoy and sadness. Just before 1
left, lknelt before a row often people: my grandmother seated herself in
the centre, flanked on one side by her four sons, including my father; on
the other side by her five daughters, four ofwhom were my foster mothers.
And as 1 did obeisance to them, they showered upon me all kinds ofgood
wishes for my happiness and success in a foreign land. One ofmy uncles
gave me a piece ofadvice as a parting gift; it was not to lose my Myanmar
Buddhist indentity in a distant strange land, and to constantly observe the
Five Precepts. Little did I realize, as 1 said good—bye to them, that 1 would
never see most ofthem again. All, except three ofmy aunts whom 1 saw
when I went back to Myanmar on study leave in 1957, died during the
Second World War.
So far I have related to you the events ofmy academic life with
honesty, not disguising the feelings that accompanied them. I shall now
tell you in the same spirit some of the remarkable incidents that, as it
were, punctuated my intellectual activities.
3.1.4.1 Token marriage

Soon after 1 had started attending classes at the University of
Yangon, the authorities granted me the dispensation from attending the
lectures for the first year students. 1 accepted it with alacrity, for it meant
cutting out one academic year. But it was not to be. 1 fell ill sometime
after following the what was then popularly referred to as ‘one year’s
course’ 1 went home and was placed under the care of a proper doctor
from Mawlamyaing. Afew days later, myworried aunts consulted a village
physician. He diagnosed my illness and pronounced that it was neither a
physical nor mental sickness. It's symptoms, he went on, indicated that it
was caused by outside agencies, and the only cure for it, he concluded,
was my entering into matrimony. But he knew that that was out of ques—
tion in my case. So he recommended a means for overcoming this obsta—
cle, that is my token wedding to a white hen.
Myillness dragged on for another ten days. In the meanwhile, my
doctor, who told me that I was suffering from anaemia, was treating me
105 Dr. Hla Pc
accordingly. When he was told what the physician had suggested, he
smiled and said that so long as the quack medicine man did not administer
any medicine of his me, he indulge in whatever he fancied. A
farm labourer produced a white hen. The physician tied one end ofa pice
of white string to the hen’s right leg, and the other end of it to my right
hand. He then said that we were man and wife. He untied the string and
let the hen free. It was the end ofthe marriage ritual. My young cousins,
who were present together with the older relatives at the ceremony,
promptly nicknamed me ‘the husband of a hen’. 1 felt better soon after
going through the motion ofcontracting the marriage, and returned to the
university. I cannot say whether it was the efficacy ofthe doctor’s medicine
or the effectual rite that restored my normal health
3.1.4.2 The guardian spirit of’ hidden treasure

It may be recalled that ours was a residential university and that
the majority of the students lived in halls, that were named after the an—
cient capital cities ofMyanmar. They are Tagaung, Pyay, Bagan, Thaton,
Bago, Sagaing, Pin—ya and Ava. Ours was Bagan Hall. We each had a
room of our own.
One evening about 9 o’clock, my concentration in my work was
broken by muffled noises coming from one ofthe rooms along the corri—
dor. On investigation, I discovered a senior sutdent of weak physique
and delicate health in a state of delirium. A few students were trying to
hold him down. An intimate friend ofhis confided to me in all seriousness
the history ofthis student. He had a sweet—heart, who was female guard—
ian spirit ofhidden treasure, and he was now possessed by her. The friend
said that the only way to get rid ofher was to get a necromancer, in vulgar
terms — a hidden treasure hunter. We did not get him, instead we got the
university doctor, who was an Anglo—Indian. He had been sent for by the
deputy warden ofour hall, who was a Moslem. The doctor examined him
thoroughly, pondered for a moment and prescribed for him castor—oil.
The young patient’s friends thought otherwise. When both doctor and the
deputy warden left the scene, they on their own initiative wound rosaries
round his neck and wrists. One or two ofthem recited the nine attributes
of the Buddha — a practice many Myanmars are apt to have recourse to
when faced with a situation involving supernatural beings.
The young man fell asleep. He was quite normal again in the
morning with the bottle of castor—oil on the table untouched. And he did
not seem to remember anything about last night's drama.
3.1.4.3 Alchemy and magic
It takes all sorts to make the world. A few more ofsome ofthese
are given in the following episodes.
As a Buddhist, I make a habit of paying respects three times a
year to my father, who was left a widower when 1 was seven years old.
He lived in a small town twenty miles away from our village. He was a
kind hearted and understanding father. The only fault I found with him
was his addiction to alchemy. He wouldn’t have it when lnicely told him
that he was crying for the moon.
My father was an alchemy addict and a dabbler in white magic.
His main objective was to obtain an elixir by reducing mercury to ash. He
was more interested in achieving the elixir oflife than an elixir to change
metals into gold, still less an elixir to cure all ills. He wanted
enough to see the future Buddha, Arimetteya, the fifth and last Buddha to
attain Enlightenment in this world cycle. He was not after the Philosopher
Stone, as the monk of ancient Bagan, known as Monk moat-Bull, who,
after successfully had achieved it, made the whole of the city of Bagan
rich with gold and silver. He acquired his name from having the eye of a
goat and that of a bull. (see Htin Aung: Folk Elements in Burmese
(Myanmar) Buddhism, p 51 & passim) My father, like other Myanmar
addicts, was inspired by the Monk moat-Bull’s success, but he forgot that
it was only a legend. The mercury, tried as he did, was never reduced to
ash; it was he who was reduced to poverty in the end.
My father’s house was the haunt ofthe charlatans. It was a ren-
dezvous for alchemists, magicians and similar crackpots. 1 met many of
them. One so-called alchemist could not decipher in a book on alchemy
the names ofthe necessary ingredients for his purpose. These were given
in cryptograms. 1 volunteered to help: I have more than a nodding ac-
quaintance with cryptograms, chronograms and mnemonics written in
Myanmar. But he refused myhelp. He thought that a student ofan English
university was not cut out for such an abstruse science. He referred the
matter to my father, who in turn sent him back to me. It was rather ironic.
One magician, who did not know properly some ofthe titles of
the deities concerned with his art, resented my scepticism. One day he
said to my father that he would show once and for all this sceptical English
educated heretic the potency ofMyanmar magic-craft. 1 agreed to be his
guinea pig. He asked me to open my right palm. When 1 did so, he placed
an amulet on it, recited a mantra, a magic spell, and declared that 1 would
be powerless to close it. 1 did. He looked flabbergasted. Nonetheless, he
110 Dr. Hla Pc
told me to keep it still closed with the amulet inside the fist, and recited
another mantra, and again declared that 1 would not be able to open
it. 1 did. He finally conceded his failure, which he attributed to my having
a strong will power.
3.1.4.4 The power of’ invulnerability
As a student reading for the Myanmar Honours degree, I usually
spent my long vacations in Mandalay and other cultural centres near this
city or at Bagan, where one could stay months on end imbibing Myanmar
arts and architecture. On one of these vacations, 1 decided to stay
village for reasons unknown to me. The Myanmar Water Festival or Thin—
gyan, which has been already hinted at, came. This is Hindu in origin, but
has been appropriated by the Myanmar as a Buddhist festival and the
three or four days ofthe festivity are looked upon as sacred. Most elderly
Myanmars keep sabbath throughout this period.
On the final day of the Thin—gyan, a somewhere
arrived at the village. He went to see the headman ofthe village who was
a cousin ofmine. He showed that dignitary what he claimed to be a solid
wild boar’s tusk, which he insisted was endowed with the magic quality
of invulnerability. Several Myanmars would share with his calim in this
matter. The headman had his head screwed on the right side, and he
wouldn’t believe a word ofit. So the man wagered a bet of 5 kyats on the
tusk stating that it would give the power of invulnerability to any one
who had it on his body. He then offered himself as a target to be shot at.
My cousin replied that it would be a plain murder which, he as aheadman,
was not going to commit. However, he took on the wager, and tied the
tusk to an empty bottle. He took out his double—barrel gun and shot it at a
distance often yards. The bottle was smashed to smithereens and the tusk
was not to be found any where. My cousin gave the money to his friends
who celebrated the victory, with the connivance of his, with bottles of
country liquor. They had one too many. The result was a brawl, which the
elders of the village, including my grandmother, blamed it on drinking
alcohol on a sacred day.
3.1.4.5 The magic candle
My course at the university, you may remember, included old
and medieval Mon. To supplement this knowledge of mine with that of
modem Mon, I asked an uncle ofmine to make for me an arrangement to
meet a learned Mon monk. He did. He lived in a village about 25 miles
away from ours. I went and stayed with him to read modem Mon works
with the monk.
A nephew of my uncle living with him was head over heels in
love with a pretty girl, who however did not requite his love. He spoke to
her whenever he got the chance; and he wrote love letters to her, but all to
no avail. He became desperate. On some ofhis friends’ advice, he sought
the aid ofa magician in the village. One evening he took me and a few of
his friends the magician’s house, where he saw the man preparing d
magic candle. It was thirty centimeters in height and a little
three centimetres in diameter. He had on it several magic squares and a
few figures. A piece of cloth was tied arround the middle of it. 1 learnt
later that it was from one ofthe blouses ofthe girl, which the young man
how other had managed smuggle out of the house. After
intoning a few incantations mostly devoted to the praising of Sarawati,
the Cioddess of Love, the man asked the young man to light the candle
and make a wish. He told us that when the candle burnt through, the girl
was to come running to the man of her love.
We had to wait for time for the candle to burn through.
Nothing happened. The magician conceded that it was one of his few
cases of failure. The girl married another man.
3.1.4.6 Omens
(1) The vulture
On my trips form our village to Yangon or vice versa, 1 always
had to use Mawlamyine as staging post. On one such occasion I allowed
myselfthe luxury of spending two nights, instead ofthe usual one night,
in Mawlamyine before I retuned home.
As 1 scrolled along a main road , my eyes fell on a dilapidated and
deserted building. It stood singularly alone among the other well main—
tained buildings around it. I remembered seeing it some years ago as a
thriving business centre. On enquiry, my host told me a briefhistory ofit.
It was once a Chinese businessman’s house, which he rented from an
Indian saw—mills owner. About a year or so ago, he said , a vulture alighted
on its roof. The householder and the house owner, who were not truly
conversant with the Myanmar auguries and omens, did not attach any
importance to it, and treated the vulture as they treated any other bird.
The business declined. It went from bad to worse. Then two
members ofthe family died one after the other. The Chinese businessman,
in the meanwhile, heard from his Burmese friends and clients stories of
the repercussions of such an event. In the end he and his family moved
somewhere abandoning the building to its fate. Since then, he said, no
112 Dr. Hla Pc
one had dared to move into it.
This was the only instance I had ever seen with my own eyes.
There are many other similar cases which have been reported
for which 1 cannot vouch their authenticity. Since then, I have been read—
ing books Several of these works say that a vulture, 1 think
because of its ugly look and dirty habits, is an bird. But
some ofthem maintain that a house on which a vulture has alighted is not
necessarily doomed for ever. It depends the cardinal point form
which it to perch the house, and which direction it departs
and the time it perches. The deserted house 1 have spoken ofis now alive
with people who are leading d life.
(2) The monitor lizard
There is an animal which most Myanmar
together with the vulture under the heading of creatures of
ill-luck. It is regarded as aprecursor ofpoverty by many Myanmar people.
Perhaps this concept arises, repeat what has been already said,
the fact that its ashen grey colour, mwt in Myanmar, also denotes poverty
or destitution. In the Myanmar classical poetry ofthe nineteenth century,
especially in dramas and sermons, there are references to the poverty
stricken persons as hput, monitor lizards.
It is a deep rooted belief among the Myanmar people that the
entry of a monitor lizard into a house foretells poverty for its owner.
Reports and stories of such instances are many. In all my life, 1 have seen
only one such instance. It, however, proved neither one thing nor the
other.
During one Christmas vacation, 1 had an occasion to go and see
a farmer in a neighbouring village, to buy a few cows from him. 1 went
with a farm labourer on foot. Just as we were entering the village we saw
a monitor lizard running into a ramshackle hut. Its owner was a lazy
drunkard who could hardly make both ends meet. He beat the unwelcomed
visitor to death and, 1 was told later, had it for his dinner. The man was
already a destitute, and either the perching ofa vulture on his hut, or the
entering of a monitor lizard into it could not in any way make his plight
worse than what it was.
(3) The owl
While still on omens, I would like to tell you about an alleged
connection between the hooting or screeching of an owl and the subse—
quent death of a person. Many Myanmars would strongly defend their
belief that the hooting of an owl in the vicinity or within the hearing
distance of a critically ill presages his imminent death. Be it a
coincidence or otherwise, 1 had once witnessed an event which seemed
to validate their belief.
In my fourth year at the University of Yangon, 1 returned home
a few days before the Christmas holidays started. 1 received a telegram
from of my aunts saying that a relative of ours was critically ill. 1
went to see him after my arrival at the village. 1 called him ‘little
grandpa’ for the fact that he was a younger cousin of my grandmother.
1 saw his family and the village physician. My little grandpa
was about 65. He hadbeen ill for months, and he was in a critical condition.
The physician was telling his wife that yesterday was his day of concep—
tion and today was his day ofbirth - the day of the week the patient was
born. He added ominously that ifher husband could survive the midnight,
he would pull through and would the mend again.It was about 9
o’clock in the evening.We all decided sit out the crucial midnight.
About 10 o’clock or thereabout, we heard the hooting, rather the screech—
ing of an owl from a nearby tree, followed by a sustained rhythm of
screeches. Our faces fell. Sure enough, my little grandpa died before mid—
night, inspite of all the efforts the physician made to save his life.
Two brief comments may be needed to make: one is the
physician’s notion ofthe day of conception and the day ofbirth; and the
relationship between the owl’s hooting and the death ofa sick person. We
can deduce from the physician’s remark that his notion of the day of
conception and the day ofbirth is not the same as the universal idea ofthe
date of conception of a child, as diagnosed by a gynaecologist and the
date of birth as recognised by the Registrar-General of Births, Deaths
and Marriages. In treating serious cases of illness, Myanmar physicians
attach a great importance to those two days of their patients, which are
crucial factors in time ofcrisis as demonstrated in the physician’s remarks.
Many sceptical people would certainly insist that the connection
between the two phenomena - an owl’s hooting and death - as tenuous.
They will assert that this sort of things are more common in villages
where there are more owls than in towns, and that there must be cases
where an owl’s hooting in the vicinity of a patient’s house does not
invariably bring about his death. Those are sensible arguments. But this
is the traditional belief and tradition dies hard.
3.1.4.7 The astrologer
Youmayremember mytelling you about the government awarding
me a state scholarship to go to Britain for further studies in education.
114 Dr. Hla Pc
That was, as you will recall, after I had been through the process ofsitting
the competitive examination, and being interviewed by a board. It was in
the interim period between these two ordeals that I experienced a mild
surprise.
There was a fourteen—day gap between the date of the
examination and that ofthe interview. I waited in great suspense for this
final act. Days seemed to drag on too slowly for me. The day prior to the
momentous interview, 1 went to see a friend in Yangon town with a view
to whiling the time away with him. It was a Sunday. As he tried to make
conversation with me, perhaps to prevent my mind from dwelling on the
coming interview 1 was having the next day, we heard some one shouting
'Astrologer, astrologer.' My friend asked him in. He was a Moslem. He
was hawking his trade. He was asked by my friend to read my
future. 1 was sure it was for fun. The astrologer first looked at my right
palm, and asked the date of my birth and he scribbled a number of
numerical figures a piece of paper. Finally he said ‘Sahib (Master in
Hindi), you are, 1 see, going to the West’, at which point I interrupted him
with a remark, ‘Bombay, 1 suppose’. He shook his head and told me: 'No,
no, a place much futher than Macca. And, there you will meet three gen—
tlemen, much older than you, and they will be kind to you. One of them
will treat you like his son. Believe me, Sahib, you will prosper there, sir.'
He went on with his prediction.
My friend and I regarded it as a huge joke. He gave the fee the
man asked for, which was not much. But soon afterwards, when some of
the things he had said had sunk in, 1 felt mildly surprised. He couldn’t
have known that 1 had already sat an examination and was awaiting an
interview for a state scholorship to go abroad. Yet, he talked ofmy going
to a place further than Mecca. Curiously enough, all those words of his
quoted above, did come true as you will see later. Equally, many other
things he predicted were widely off the mark.
It is not in mynature to approach either an astrologer or a palmist
and ask him to read myfuture. Yet, twice in mylife, so far, it has been other
people who have delegated themselves to do these for me. The first was
the incident mentioned above. The second was in 1969, when 1 was living
in England. I received athick registered envelope from myyounger brother
in Myanmar, containing three sheets of foolscap paper of predictions on
my future. He had my horoscope and apparently feeling worried about
his long absent brother, sought the aid of a most famous astrologer in
Yangon. One prediction says that 1 would get married in 1970. 1 did.
3.1.4.5 Epidemic
The summer before 1 left for England there ws a mild form of
cholera epidemic in village. The headman sent for the Health
Inspectors from Mawlamyine. He the villagers take the greatest
care with their food and water. The frightened villagers did as they were
told, but at the same time they requested the to and recite
purittu (protective sacred texts) at the cross—roads evening. There
are seven principal paritta. The Buddha, it is said, sanctioned the recital
ofthe paritta in times ofdanger or sickness, both individual and national.
This customary practice has been observed since the days ofthe Myanmar
kings.
At the end of the ceremony, the villagers held their own
form of ritual. They beat pails and buckets and drums as a means of
any evil spirits who might have a hand in this epidemic.
Incidentally, the beating of pails and other metal containers can also be
heard at the time ofthe eclipse ofthe moon. There is a belief among the
Myanmars that this mysterious phenomenon is caused by Ruhu (the Black
Planet) trying to swallow up the moon and that such an uproarious din
would make the seizer to release its victim, or to vomit it if Rahu has
already swallowed up the moon.
3.1.5 England 1
Having paid my respects to my grandmother and uncles and
aunts, 1 made for Yangon to start myjourney to England. I said good-bye
to Myanmar, totally unaware ofthe fact that 1 would not see her again for
the next nineteen years. 1 finally left Myanmar in August 1938 to join the
Institute ofEducation, University ofLondon. But, since its term began at
the begining of September, 1 was forced by expediency to abandon the
normal way of going to England by ship. In those days the mode of
travelling to and fro from Asia to Europe was by boat; flying by aeroplane
did not come into vouge until in the 1960’s. I went by ship to Calcutta.
From there I crossed the sub-continent of India by train to Bombay,
where I caught a large passenger liner for Marseilles. Here I boarded a
night express for Calais, and thence by ferry boat to Dover to catch a
train to London where 1 arrived on the 3rd of September.
This journey, which took eighteen days by boat and by train
across the vast seas and strange countries, was a traumatic and
enlightening experience for me. lsaw Paris from my carriage window on
the morning of3rd September. I had agood look at it without fully conscious
116 Dr. Hla Pc
that in time to 1 would be having very pleasant and fruitful
association with of its scholars and students. I have been to this
beautiful place five times since 1965.
My trip to England, especially between Bombay and Marseilles
on board the large liner, was abit ofan ordeal. Apart from the sea sickness,
there was the problem ofeating meals at the table in the dining saloon.
1 was then a vegetarian and a teetotaller. The transformation from a
meat eater to a vegetarian was a gradual process. It started when I was at
school in Mawlamyine. On the last evening ofmy returning to school in
Mawlamyine, my young cousins, as a gesture of farewell, would invari—
ably treat me to a meal ofcoconut rice and chicken curry — a dish for the
Myanmar gourmet. At first I enjoyed it. But gradually 1 began to have
scruples about eating chicken. It was perhaps out of compassion for the
animals we had farm cattle, buffaloes, pigs, fowls, ducks and
what have you. Each time I had chicken, I started to wonder whether it
was the white hen 1 fed yesterday, or the brown cockerel I was chasing
the other day. The thought spoilt my appetite. Soon, such emotional
feelings spread to the other animals, and they pricked my conscience so
much so that I gave up eating meat altogether — a life fled throughout my
university days. It was done on humanitarian grounds rather than on reli—
gious considerations. Buddhism is silent on the question of eating meat.
Hinduism is explicit on it. The Buddha ate whatever he was offered, and
so do the monks oftoday. As for the lay—Myanmar, though several veg—
etarians there are among them, they eat meat without giving a thought to
it.
On board the ship, at meal times 1 sat next to an elderly
Englishman. At dinner a menu was given to us. It had thirty to forty
courses, many ofwhich were in French, ofwhich 1 knew next to nothing
then. Acting on the advice of my table—mate 1 chose vegetarian dishes,
and then started eating semi—vegetarian food later — cheese dishes, a few
prawns or small amount of fish with plenty of vegetables. Some of the
waiters looked at me as an odd specimen, the more so when 1 declined
their offer of drinks.
1 shall not portray the life of a Myanmar Buddhist in an alien
clime, where the ambience was different form that ofMyanmar. To do so
would not do fulljustice to my lecture on the life ofthe Myanmar Buddhist
from the cradle to the grave. Instead 1 propose to tell you a brief story of
my days as a student and then as a teacher in England, spotlighting those
incidents, events and dramas, all ofwhich contributed to the changing of
the course ofmy life.
1 would have liked to forget, if I could, the first few months at
the Institute of Education. It was a kind of nightmare to me. 1 had to
study, among other things, Principles ofEducation, Elementary, Advanced
and Industrial Psychology and the English Education System in England
and Wales, all of which were €ireek to me. And on top of that 1 had to
practise teaching at an English school in London. However, at the end of
the session, 1 got through the examinations. 1 got a diploma in teaching,
which opened the door for me to proceed to the MA degree. It was a
miracle, or was it the working of my karma in the previous existences'?
Anyway, more miracles were to happen in the next ten years.
While I was at a end during the vacation after the
examination, another Myanmar state scholar came see me to tell me
that Dr I.A.Stewart was very keen to meet me. Dr Stewart, an Indian
Civil Servant had served in Myanmar many years. He retired in 1933 and
brought back to England the material for the compilation of a Myanmar
English dictionary. He was appointed lecturer in Myanmar at the School
of Oriental Studies, later to be known as The School of Oriental and
African Studies, London. He became Reader in Myanmar in 1935, and
Professor ofMyanmar in 1944. We went to see him at Bishop’s Stortford,
a town about thirty miles away form London. After a few preliminaries,
Dr Stewart talked me into switching form writing the MA thesis in
Education to preparing a thesis for the PhD degree in Myanmar. I joined
the school as a postgraduate in 1939.
World War 11 came in September ofthat year. All the Myanmar
state scholars in Britain were given an option of either returning to
Myanmar or remaining in Britain to continue their studies. 1 opted for the
latter. 1 prepared my thesis under Dr Stewart’s supervision. One evening
in 1942, 1 believe, while I was walking along a London street, musing
over the twists and tums in my karma during the last few months, several
German bombers started raining down bomb after bomb around me.
1 made for the nearest underground station to take shelter below. There
1 met a London East-Ender, a Cockney, most ofwhom are noted for their
sense ofhumour. He said with a broad grin: ‘Mate, you don’t need to run
so fast. Unless there is your name written on the bomb, you won’t be
killed by it’. When 1 asked him why then he was taking shelter under-
ground, he said: ‘1 ain’t afraid ofthe bomb, I was afraid ofits blast!’ His
remark on the bomb and the name written on it indicates that he was a
fatalist, one step removed from a believer in karma.
1 obtained the PhD degree in 1944, in the same year the title of
Professor of Myanmar was conferred on J.A. Stewart. At the end of the
war in Europe, Stewart asked me to assist him in his Myanmar-English
lls Dr. Hla Pc
Dictionary, then being compiled in the Dictionary office in his garden at
Bishop’s Stortford. I joined him in 1946. He had a colleague, a Mr C.W.
Dunn, another Indian Civil Servant, who had worked together with J.A.
Stewart in Myanmar. Stewart died ofheart attack in May 1945 at the age
of66. Dunn and I carried on the task in hand. In October 1945 I accepted
the offer of lectureship by the School of Oriental and African Studies,
with d that 1 would relinquish the post at the end of my three
years tenureship. It was not to be. 1 had one student after another reading
for the Myanmar Honours degree, besides several others from the Foreign
Office, from the BBC and other quarters. A Mr H.F. Searle,
in Myanmar ofProfessor Stewart and MrDunn, was appointed atemporary
lecturer in Myanmar, and also as an Editor ofthe Dictionary. The title of
Reader in Myanmar was conferred upon me by the University ofLondon
in 1955. My pleasant and profitable association with them was severed
by the death ofMr Searle in 1965 and ofMr Dunn in 1966.
At this juncture, may 1 refresh your memory with what the
Moslem astrologer had told me in 1935, a few months before 1 left for
England! He said: ‘Sahib, you are goig to the West .. . a place much farther
than Mecca. And there you will meet three gentlemen, much older than
you, and they will be very kind to you. One ofthem will treat you like his
son. Believe me... you will prosper there, Sir.’ 1 did meet Stewart, Dunn
and Searle, the three gentlemen who were very kind to me, particularly
Professor Stewart. He did treat me like his son; his eldest son, who was of
the same age as 1, was killed in Italy at the beginning of the war. After
one year of collaboration with Stewart on the Dictionary he began to
conceive in his head that I was the only reliable, trustworthy Myanmar
scholar he had ever met. He told it to his Myanmar wife and said to her in
my presence that Hla Pe should stay in England to work at the School. 1
still remember an incident that took place the day before Stewart’s death.
The Rector ofthe University ofYangon, who was in England at that time,
came to see us at Bishop’s Stortford. He offered me the post ofReader in
Myanmar in Yangon. Stewart, very ill though, angrily told him that that
was not good enough for me, and that 1 could become a professor one
day, if 1 would work at the School.
3.1.d Myanmar 1957-58

At my request, the School granted me a leave ofabsence for ten
months on study leave in Myanmar. My homeward bound journey was
more quiet and peaceful than the outward bound trip about nineteen years
1 went by boat from Liverpool to Yangon where 1 arrived one month
later. 1 had time hand to take stock of my failures and my achieve—
ments, and to speculate on the Myanmar 1 would find. 1 arrived back to
my country as a non—vegetarian and a non—teetotaller, and as a cigarette—
smoker!
I shall not bother you with the account ofmy academic activities
Myanmar language, literature and culture, for which 1 was
granted leave of absence on study leave in Myanmar. Instead I'll present
you with the interesting human side of the life of the Myanmar
Buddhist.
The Myanmars, 1 found, had not changed much with regard to
their attitude to Buddhism and other —isms. 1 couldn't help noticing that
the Myanmars were as zealous Buddhists as ever. The ember oftheir zeal
had been fanned by the holding in Yangon ofthe Sixth Buddhist Council
in 1956. They were devoting more and more oftheir time and energy to
meditation, without however neglecting their other two primary duties—
religious offerings and observing moral precepts. At the same time, false
noted that the so-called magicians, both individually and in groups, tak—
ing on various high sounding names, were on the increase. Some ofthem
were exploiting the ignorance, the fear, and in a few cases, the greed and
the cupidity ofmany Myanmars. 1 am not sure how potent their magic is,
but 1 do know from my personal experience that some of them don't get
right even the names of, and the relationship between, some oftheir patron
supernatural beings. Added to all these was the spectacle that greeted my
eyes at the house of a professor where I went to dinner on the third day
after my arrival in Yangon. In a room specailly built for the Buddha's
shrine, side by side with the Buddha's images were several statues of a
few nats, which, 1 was told, brought prosperity to the trades people. The
professor's wife was a businesswoman!
Now 1 will retail to you a few ofthe beliefs and practices ofthe
Myanmar people which 1 encountered during my stay in Myanmar. The
first was the worshipping of an awesome banyan tree.
3.1.d.1 The banyan-tree

My friends took me on a coach trip to an old Buddhist cave,
through jungles and valleys. The coach was loaded with people from all
walks of life. When we came to a huge old banyan tree - there are many
such trees in Myanmar which the Myanmars regard with awe — the driver
stopped the coach and all the passengers got off to pay their respects to
120 Dr. Hla Pc
the tree. 1 was well assured by the driver and my friends that most of the
people travelling on this road always did obeisance to this tree either by
getting out of their vehicle, inside it as they drove past the tree.
The exceptions, they said, were the Christians and of other
We then proceeded with ourjourney to the cave to study the
arts and sculptures, and to do another obeisance to the Buddha’s images
inside it.
There are, as you may know, numerous species ofbanyan-tree.
Nevertheless, ordinary Myanmar people associate every one ofthese trees
either with the tree under which Buddha attains enlightenment with
the abode ofa deity. And they hold it in awe. Many interesting stories are
being related about banyan-trees, but 1 would like to repeat the story
told to me by my teacher and mentor, the late Professor I
.A.Stewart and his Myanmar wife, while I was in Bishop’s Stortford.
Stewart was in charge ofa district in Upper Myanmar during the
First World War. He was a captain in the army and had under him
Myanmar and Indian Sappers and Miners - the forerunners ofthe Royal
Engineers.
There was an enormous banyan-tree with a temple underneath it
for the €iuardian deity in the centre of the town, where Stewart had his
headquarters. It was impeding the flow oftraffic. Nobody dared touch it.
In the end, the elders approached Stewart about the tree. He summoned
his soldiers, put dynamite around the tree and demolished it within a few
seconds. Three weeks later, Stewart and his men were ordered to go to
Mesopotamia.
Many citizens of the town, including Mrs Stewart and the
Myanmar soldiers’ wives, attributed the cause of their husbands having
to have to leave their homes and families to the destruction ofthe deity’s
abode.
(Hla Pe: Natural Symbols in south East Asia, edited by G.B.
Milner, London, 1978, P 101)
3.1.d.2 The cairn

After we left the cave, mentioned above, the driver ofthe coach
took us to a cairn, a fairly big heap ofstones. The passengers got off and
threw small stones and branches on to it. 1 too joined those people in this
ritual, though 1 had been living nineteen years in England. The atmos—
phere was too compelling.
This is a reminiscence ofthe ritual performed by the companions
of a prince who was to rule as the last king ofthe Bagan dynasty, 1044—
1257. The prince was nicknamed Minkhweche, Prince Dog Dung. When
'Minhkweche', I quote, ‘was about to king, he was playing
day at gouuyiu (a kind of seeds) with his companions. And behold, there
was lying on the court some dog’s dung indeed. So they took and moved
it, covering it each with an handful of earth and a bough of a tree they
went down flat upon their knees and worshipped it. When the wise saw
the great pile that they had worshipped, they began to say, "Erelong this
prince shall king" (Pe Maung Tin and €i.H.Luce The Glass
Palace Chronicle of’ the Kings of’Myanmar, London, 1923, p. 155)
3.1.6.3 Ancestors’ nat

In the summer of 1955, as the temperatures soared to round about
36’ Celsius, a friend ofmine took me to a hill station called Kalaw, in the
southern Shan States. It used to be one ofthe summer resorts ofthe British
officials, where the climate is mild and equable. We stayed at a house
amid the pine trees. Our host, an uncle ofmy friend, was a civil servant.
He was a noted white magician, who put to use his knowledge for nobler
ends.
One evening soon after we had been back from the day's outing,
his chauffeur, a Ciurkha, who lived near by, came running to him in dis—
tress. He told our host that when he got home he found his wife in a state
of paroxym — shouting, laughing and attacking people. Our host picked
up a Shan bag and a small cane from a table and went with his chauffeur.
We accompanied him. The wife, a slender woman, was lying in bed - all
in a tremor. The man examined her and gave her a crushed betel leaf to
chew it, and asked her what it tasted like. She said it was bitter, and tried
to get up. It took all the strength of her stout husband and of her strong
brother to keep her down on the bed. She calmed down somewhat when
the magician showed her his magic cane. He told the husband that the girl
was being possessed by her ancestors’ nat or spirit.
The magician took out an amulet on a string and put it round her
neck, not without opposition from her at first. He told the spirit (ofcourse
through her) not to harass her anymore. She shook her head vigorously.
So he recited a mantra and repeated his injunction by threatening her
with his cane. She nodded her head and smiled. A few seconds later, she
was normal again. She looked around her, and when she saw us standing
in the room, she stood up and chided her husband for not providing us
with tea or something to eat.
122 Dr. Hla Pc
3.1.6.4 The inauspicious and auspicious days
One month after 1 had got back Yangon Kalaw, my
younger brother came to tell me that the boat, Derbyshire, which 1 intended
to catch back to England, had already arrived in Yangon. She was fifteen
days ahead of her schedule. 1 learnt that she would be leaving
Friday, the 13th of June.
While 1 was waiting for the date of her departure, my relatives
and friends came to say farewell to me. When they found out the day 1
was leaving, a few ofthem said: "Hsaya (teacher), you are a learned man.
Surely, you know the lines, 'Travelling on water on a Friday, misfortune
at your feet will lay " Another interposed by telling me that it was on
the 13th too. The Myanmar idea of 13 as an unlucky number is derived, 1
a day called vuru-mittu, Sankrit ‘unfriendly day’. A date is
unfriendly or inauspicious, it is asserted, when the sum total ofthe num-
bers representing the day of the week and the day of the first or second
halfofthe month amounts to 13. Every Myanmar month has two separate
halves. The first is the waxing and the second the waning moon. Each
half has 15 days except the months in odd numbers, 1,3,5,7,9 and 11,
which have 14 days in the second half. Vara-mittu falls on Sunday (1) the
12th waxing or waning; Monday (2) the 11th waxing or waning and so
on. The majority of my well-withers pleaded with me not to go on that
day. But I was adamant, because the next boat would not be leaving until
the end ofJuly.
It may be stated that many Myanmars either ignore or defy
these beliefs. Equally, not a few Myanmars, including even educated ones,
would not feel like embarking on an enterprise or on ajourney ifthe day
were inauspicious. Before they do an important job, they often consult a
calendar in which the auspicious and inauspicious days are indicated. Or,
to find them out, they may recite the cryptogram in mnemonics on the
propitious and unpropitious days, which are in verse in several works on
astrology. Here is one. (The names ofthe twelve Myanmar months have
initial capital letters. and the Myanmar in there are in transliteration form.)
Auspicious days
1 .Tanhkfi: sa—lha Tanhkii: Friday - Wednesday
thwan: pa—Kuchun Kuchun Saturday - Thursday
Nayun nnwan. ca Nayun Tuesday - Tuesday
on-lha Wachui Wachui Sunday Wednesday
2.sa-lui Wakhon Wakhofi Friday Wednesday
mrat-toff Tosalan: Tosalan: Thursday Saturday
Sitaii: kywat chi Sitan:kywat Tuesday (Tuesday)
o-li Tanchoiimun: Tanchoiimun: Sunday Wednesday
3. sa-lurii: Natto Natto Friday Wednesday
ma-no Prasui Prasui Thursday Saturday
ci:-fifiui Tabui.twai Tabui.twai Tuesday - Tuesday
ai-wan Sunday Wednesday
We know from the table you have that the propitious days from
each of the months are those given in the last above. A careful
examination ofthis table shows that
(1) only six days out ofthe eight days ofthe week are included:
the two excluded days are Monday and Rahu; and
(2) there is in this a certain pattern.
(a) Five out ofsix days are arranged in pairs: Friday and Wednes-
day; Saturday and Thursday; and Sunday and Wednesday. They repre-
sent the auspicious days in the first, second and fourth months, while
Tuesday alone represents the auspicious day in the third month.
(b) This format ofthe first group offour months repeats itself in
the following second and third groups.
There is also a cryptogramin mnemonics, composed also in verse
form, for the inauspicious days. They too have a pattern, similar in format
to that oftheir opposite numbers, except that there are eight instead ofsix
days. The crytogram is: ta-ma,’ sak-rah., ah-krah., chu. -rac - the names
of four species of trees, representing the inauspicious days of the four
months in each ofthe first, second and third groups. In this case too, as in
that of their opposite numbers, there are four pairs which repeat them-
selves twice to go round the twelve months.
Inauspicious days
ta-ma Saturday-Thursday
sak-ran: Friday-Wednesday
an-karii: Sunday-Monday
chit rac Tuesday-Rahu
The only comment to make here is about ‘ran’ in sak-ran:, line 2
above. The letter ‘r’ is shown under Rahu in the table. But here for rea-
sons unknown it represents Wednesday. (See the table showing the days
ofthe week and their corresponding alphabets in appendix)
3.1.7 England II
OnFriday the 13th ofJune l958lleft onboard the ship Derbyshire
124 Dr. Hla Pc
for England. It was during the monsoon. The Indian ocean was very rough,
but rougher was the Arabian Sea. The ship tossed and rolled amidst moun—
tainous waves. But worse was to come. As she made her way through the
waves towards Aden, lying the north-west of her, there came a gale
force south-west wind. She had to change her due west almost
heading towards the on coming gale. We reached Djibuti instead ofAden.
The ship then made her way to her port—of-call by hugging the coast line
ofAfrica. Eventually we arrived at Aden. The Myanmar passengers natu—
rally put the blame on the date ofthe departure for what they had suffered
far.
Misfortune seldom comes alone. In the Red Sea one ofthe ship’s
engines broke down. When we finally made way Suez, we
began to hear rumours that our ship would not be allowed to go through
the Suez Canal into the Mediterranean sea. Some of you may remember
the Suez Crisis of 1956 and its aftermaths. Many ofus started entertaining
visions of having to go round the Cape of Creed thereby prolong—
ing ourjourney another two months. And some feared that our ship might
be detained by the Egyptian authorities and would not be released until
such time as the British and Egyptian governments could come to an
agreement. Again the date, the 13th and the day, Friday were blamed for
such inconveniences and sufferings. lam not sure what was happening in
those few hours. Even the Captain of the ship wouldn't tell us anything.
Anyway in another few hours we found ourselves, to our great joy, in the
Mediterranean sea.
In the period between 1958 and 1980, with a break ofmy revisit
to Myanmar in 1979, 1 led the life of a Myanmar Buddhist in England.
An account of my life there would still fall within the purview of my
lecture, but it would not arouse much interest in you. All 1 shall mention
here are three facts: my fulfilling the three primary duties of a Buddhist,
the description of which I reserve for the next stage; my fulfilling the
prophecy of the late Professor I.A.Stewart, which he made a few hours
before his death, by becoming a professor in the University ofLondon in
1966; and my fulfilling the wishes ofmy wife by returning to Myanmar
in 1980 for good.
3.2 Manhood
I shall now continue the story ofthe life ofthe Myanmar Buddhist
by transferring the scence to his habitat, Myanmar. You may remember
that we had paused for a while when we reached the stage ofhis transition
from youth to manhood. It was give myself a chance to continue my
brief autobiography and to highlight a few specimens of his beliefs and
practices. Here 1 shall pick up the thread and try to piece together the
aspects of his life present to you a recognizable portrait of
Myanmar manhood. The material for this and for each of the following
stages his journey in this world, 1 shall draw partly from my own
experience and partly from my own observations.
Having left behind the phase ofadolescence, the Myanmar Bud—
dhist enters into matrimony and a life of domesticity.
3.2.1 Human relations and marriage

Marriage in Myanmar is known by three expressions, ‘procuring
‘placing hand above hand’ and winding round with d
white cloth.’ All these form as rites in a marriage ceremony. Marriage is
a singularly significant institution ofthe Myanmar Buddhist — an institution
that reflects various aspects ofhis attitude to life: his standards and values,
his beliefs and practices, which are constituent parts ofhis culture. It is a
human relationship between two unrelated people of different sexes, in
which the two parties adjust themselves by tolerance, mutual respect,
understanding and love in order to live together till death or divorce parts
them. It is in a way, the culminating point ofother social dealings such as
between parents and children, teachers and pupils, and between friends,
and between relatives, which are based on platonic love.
1 shall consider the first these social dealings by showing you
a tapestry ofthem so that in the final analysis you can see this institution
in its true perspective.
3.2.1.1 Parents and children

The five duties of the parents, the distilled tradition, opinions,
beliefs, customs and such like of the Myanmar Buddhists, embody the
parents’ love and care for their children. These are;
(1) to guide their children away from evil;
(2) to lead them to what is good;
(3) to educate them;
(4) to set them up financially;
(5) to see that they are suitably married.
The love ofthe parents is well expressed in a saying: ‘The sight
oftheir children is like a drop ofcool, exhilarating water on them’. Their
attachment to their offspring is particularly strong, a fact which gives
126 Dr. Hla Pc
birth a proverb: ‘Discard only bad baskets and punnets, not bad
and daughters’. They would like to keep their children with them as long
as they and to share their possessions with them; and to fulfill the
last one of their five duties, that is to see that their children are suitably
married.
Their care stems from their desire to see them as decent citizens
and dutiful children. ‘Parents are the first teachers’ so says a maxim, and
they live up to it in spirit and, often, to the letter, so that the community
would look upon them as ‘true children of good parents’. They are well
aware of the popular observation: ‘Bad children; blame the parents’. As
with the parents all over the world, they would very much wish to see
their sons and daughters ‘riding an elephant, surrounded by horses; not
trampled by elephants and kicked by horses’. The bond between parents
and children is much stronger in Myanmar than in the West.
Children's and respect for their parents are a rule rather
than an exception. They hear, they learn and read in books the gratitude
they owed to their parents. ‘The magnitude of the debt owe to their
parents’, according to one homily, ‘is greater than that ofMtMem,' which,
as already stated, is the largest mountain in the Universe, lying in the
centre ofthe four large islands - Northern, Southern, Eastern, and Western.
€irown- up sons and daughters generally repay in the form of giving aid
and succour to their parents in their old age, for their care and tenderness
bestowed upon them from childhood to manhood days. After all parents
are included in the canon of Five Worthy Objects. Most of the children
are aware oftheir five duties, which are:
(1) to reciprocate their parents favours;
(2) to take responsibility for their parents’ affairs;
(3) to perpetuate the family;
(4) to be worthy of one’s inheritance;
(5) to perform works ofmerit on their parents’ behalf.
3.2.1.2 Teachers and pupils

The tie between parents and children is paralled by that between
teachers and pupils. The teacher is the second parent to his pupils. He
has at his heart the physical, intellectual and spiritual well being ofthose
in his charge. He is in fact their teacher as well as their mentor, in whom
they place their trust and loyalty which sees to it that these have not been
misplaced. He would not hesitate to chastise any pupil of his who has
trodden on the wrong path. Isn’t there, he would assert, a proverb which
says: ‘A bad pupil, blame the teacher’ His duty, he is aware, is to mould
any pupil into a full man.
The five duties he is expected to discharge are
(1) to endow his pupils with knowledge;
(2) to withold no knowledge from them;
(3) to send them to other teachers (to be better equipped);
(4) to admonish and exhort them;
(5) to protect them from danger.
Pupils in olden days, it seems, had d relationship with
their teachers. Many of them, as the Pali word mate-vosiko ‘living-in’
indicates, lived with their teacher to learn at his feet and administer to his
needs. There are stories in which, the teacher who had a daughter often
gave her hand in marriage to his favourite pupil. But things are different
nowadays. Nevertheless, many hold in reverence their teacher who
together with their parents constitutes of the Five Worthy Objects.
They rely on him for knowledge. Most ofthem still hang upon his words.
This faith in their teacher born ofrespect and deference, and the acceptance
of his pronouncements as the gospel truth may have one drawback: it
deters the pupils from taking their own initiative and from exercising
their critical minds in tackling difficult situations. The five duties
traditionally laid down for the pupils to carry out are
(1) to be assiduous;
(2) to listen to the teacher’s advice;
(3) to learn what he teaches;
(4) to greet him when he comes;
(5) to administer to him by his side.
3.2.1.3 Between friends

The two terms most commonly used to describe a friend is one-
hswei ‘comrade-ally’ and thu-nge-gyin 'companion since youth' the tie
between two friends is very strong indeed: 'friends ride in the same boat
and go on the samejourney'- they share the same happiness and sorrows,
and they go through thick and thin together. Friendship calls for sacrifice
and loyalty. Those who do not conform to these requirements are fair-
weather friends.
Advice in Myanmar didactic poems on the choice offriends and
how to deal with them is not scarce. And, Myanmar parents are always
reminding their children ofthe type ofperson to befriend, since an unde-
sirable companion can bring disrepute to his circle or even to his commu-
125 Dr. Hla Pc
nity. The contagiousness of bad habits is stressed in proverbs of
which the oldest is: ‘Plant a Hkwei-duuk (bitter fruit) tree near a sweet
the mango will certainly lose its flavour’. Once a friend
is found to be false or undesirable, a Myanmar is often not break
off the friendship as breaks off a growing branch bamboo’ but
to do it gently.
3.2.1.4 Between relatives

Just as there are fair-weather friends, so are there ‘fair-weather
relatives’, ifI may be permitted to coin the expression. Forthe self—seeking
relatives, the Myanmar have a saying: ‘He tries to establish relationship
with a person only when the person has gold’. Here then the
words hswei-my0 (ally—kind), the word for relative, andshwei-my0 (gold—
kind), intended rich relative. The ones are always ready
to come in time ofneedto the aid oftheir kith and kin. Myanmar Buddhists
are conscious of one ofthe thirty eight principles ofBuddhism: ‘Render
assistance to your relatives’. And there is no dubt that a too literal appli—
cation ofthis excellent principle, without due regard to equity andjustice,
has led to many cases of nepotism since the days of the monarchical
period. All through recorded history many wealthy and influential
Myanmar have put this tenet into practice; and it is not rare even today, to
find a well-to—do Myanmar supporting a houseful ofnear and distant rela—
tives. It is said ‘A good tree can lodge ten thousand birds’.
3.2.1.5 Social contract between man and woman

We now come to the human relationship between two unrelated
people, a man and a woman, who have contracted a union to live together
as husband and wife, in other words, marriage.
Three words have been invented by a wag. They are ‘hatched’,
‘matched’ and ‘dispatched’, meaning birth, marriage and death respec-
tively. The two persons are matched by an agency, which a Westerner
will identify with fate or love, or vaguely with one ofthose things in life,
whereas a Myanmar Buddhist associates it with nahpu-za or karma.
Nahpu-za, brow-writing, the Myanmar believe, has a hand in
every marriage. They maintain that any one who has the writing on his or
her brow will marry the destined person, and that those who do not have
it will remain unmarried. The idea is Hindu in origin. The Sanskrit phrase
lalita rekha meaning ‘written on the brow’ is the key to this belief, that
the destiny ofevery individual is written by the Brahma on the brow ofa
child on the sixth day of it's birth.
Karma, the other hand, is Buddhist in It is usually
translated into Myanmar, particularly concerning marriage, as ‘causes of
past deeds’. the ‘to get married’ we have in Myanmar
o sung hset together, o ofiug hson vaoses coincide, and
ukyuéngpu causes accompany. For that ofparting, there are o ofiug kru
causes are exhausted, o ufiug ufi causes are scanty. Those who are not
aware ofthe existence ofthis dual belief are apt to be misled by these two
nomenclatures, both of which however stand for Cupid, Roman god of
love, or Myanmar nuhpu-zu nut, the brow writing deity. Every Myanmar
parent, especially the mother in her anxiety forgets all about the nahpu-za
and karma, and starts worrying about her children when they reach the
age of puberty. She fears more about her daughters when she recalls the
proverb: ‘Not fruiting when it is time to fruit, and not blossoming when it
is time to A late marriage may consequences to
her daughter. She may be left on the shelf, or be led astray, or land in an
ill-matched union. She is worried about her son too. She is determined to
get the daughter-in-law ofher choice. But human nature being what it is,
she wins sometimes and loses at times. After all, the union oftwo people
is ordained by their nahpu-za or karma. The truth ofthis dictum will be
seen in the following exposition on marriage.
Marriage is a social contract and as such never sanctified. Bud-
dhist tradition looks upon it, as it does upon the birth of a child, as an
incident in life which is bound to prolong the existence in samsara of
those concerned. Marriage can be contracted by (1) direct contact
between the parents of the two parties, or by employing a go-
between; (2) elopement; and (3) living together as man and wife. All
these forms ofmarriage are legal in the eye ofthe Myanmar law.
I shall consider the last ofthese first, that is the two people setting
up a home of their own, without going through a formal marriage cer-
emony.
(1) Living together as man and wife

Two people live together as man and wife without going through
any formalities is not a rare phenomenon in Myanmar. They have their
own reasons: to avoid publicity for various considerations, or to avoid
wasting money or not having any money to spend on a ceremony and
such like. But many couples make the position known to the outside world
by informing their neighbours, village officials or by announcing in the
130 Dr. Hla Pc
newspapers, by putting their signatures a legal document in the
presence of a judge. It is not really essential for the to legalize
their marriage in this way: the customary law recognizes any
man and wife ifthe man’s garment is seen on the railing oftheir home or
if they eat their meals out ofthe same bowl or plate.
This sort ofmarriage also presupposes that the two people have
been through the phases of courting and falling in with each other
before they live as husband and wife, with or without the consent oftheir
respective parents.
(2) Elopement
Contracting marriage by elopement offends the sense ofpropriety
and decorum of the But its gets the hearty of the
young romantics. Elopement is a natural sequel to the two
mentioned above - wooing and falling in
Wooing in old Myanmar was done under the hawk-eyed parents
and elders. In those days when everything moved at a leisurely pace, and
when patience was a virtue, three seasons’ wooing was the rule rather
than the exception. Secret trysts were not as uncommon as they are today.
However, the young beau went to see his sweet heart at her home at the
hour ‘when brothers hardly recognize each other’ (between 5 and 6 pm),
and had a téte-I:i-téte with her. He stayed on ignoring ‘the time when
elderly people rest their heads on pillows’ (10 pm), until ‘the time when
bachelors return’ (11 pm) arrived. He bade adieu to his girl friend and
returned home. Marriage or elopement followed in its wake in due course.
1 have used, you will notice, the then current terms of expressing time to
give a proper atmosphere to the scene.
For many young people oftoday, three years waiting is too long.
Many old restrictions have been dispensed with, there is a change in their
attitude, and temptations have increased manifold. Some ofthem cannot
wait even three months. This is, as you all know, the age of ‘instant cof-
fee’, ‘instant noodles’ and ‘instant this and instant that’. Besides the way
courting is conducted has to adapt itself to the world of changing stand-
ards and values. Young men are more forward and the young girls are
less demure. The man often deploys one ofthe three means to achieve his
desired object. The first is a rather mild tactic. He writes love letters and
either gives them to the girl himselfor send them to her by post or through
an intermediary. The second is by employing a go-between - a tactic that
betrays his timidity. The third is a direct approach: he goes to see the girl
and, to use the modern parlance, chats her up. If one of these means
brings success to him, he is accepted, and in due course they fall in love
with each other. They want to marry. The parents intervene and object to
their entering into nuptials the grounds of their age unfinished
education and such like. The loved have alternative but
ment, and in a few extreme cases suicide. I’ll tell you about an elopement
1 witnessed myself in our village with a happy ending.
One of my friends who was about nineteen or twenty then ran
away with his sweet-heart, who in vain had tried many times
upon her well-to—do— parents to give their consent. His would—be parents—
in-law looked down upon him as a worthless creature, who would not be
able to keep their daughter in circumstances she was accustomed to. They
threatened to cut her off with a centime. The went into hiding
until the whole affair had been blown over and the parents fury had sub—
sided.
The young man was an orphan. He and his girl—friend approached
a handful of elders including two ladies, the paragon of the art of
reconcilliation. The emissaries came. They met the girl’s parents, and the
two ladies used their maximum power ofpersuasion. They asked the par—
ents to let begones be bygones, and stressed the fact that their daughter
was having the worst of both worlds. To drive their point home, they
quoted the proverb: ‘If the thorn falls, the leaf is pierced; ifthe leaf falls,
the leaf is pierced’. They capped their arguments by putting forward the
irrefutable reason that it was karma that had destined this union. The
parents in the end relented and agreed to have the two erring young ones
in the evening ofa certain auspicious day. Evening is the usual time chosen
for such an occasion: the people have done their day’s work, and life has
quietened down somewhat, and any formal activity will have less public—
ity — a statement that proved to the contrary, as you will see by and by.
At dusk onthat evening, the young couple, accompained by some
of the emissaries, came. They brought with them the traditonal tray of
gifts with which to pay their respects to the girl’s parents. After a brief
preliminary formality they did obeisance to the father and mother, who
gave their blessings: ‘May you both live as husband and wife happily
together to a ripe old age’. The father was now in a convivial mood.
Perhaps, he was feeling nostalgic about the day he eloped with his wife.
He added to those blessings his own. ‘May you also be blessed with a
matful ofchildren’- a number which depends upon the size ofthe mat. It
132 Dr. Hla Pc
may range from five to ten children. For such flippancy he got a digging
in his ribs his wife’s elbow. Just at that very moment stones and
broken pieces ofbricks ofall shapes and sizes began to rain down on the
thatched roof of the house. It was a frightening experience for those in-
side the house.
A band of village lads and two or three middle aged men had
taken up their strategic positions a few minutes before the arrival of the
party at the reception ceremony. They learnt of it time before the
event. They had indulged in this horseplay for what is generally known
as ‘stone fee’, gfi-ho in Myanmar. They kept hurling their missiles
until the father came out and groped his way in the darkness their
leader. He haggled over the sum ofmoney for the stone-fee. He then paid
them offto leave the party in the house in peace. The young couple were
henceforth married in the eye ofthe public.
1 must admit 1 have not the faintest idea of how this custom
originated. A few Myanmar scholars have attempted to explain away its
origin. 1 shall pass to you two versions oftheir accounts for what they are
worth. It is not unlike the story ofthe Fall ofMan.
It began with the beginning ofthe world. Soon after the evolution
ofthis world cycle, many Brahma passed away from their celestial abode
and appeared on earth self-illuminated. They first ate the tasty earth, as a
result of which they lost their self-illumination, and they took to eating
the layers underneath it. The diet tainted their minds with greed, which
brought about the disappearance oftheir sustenance. So they turned to a
fragrant and tasteful creeper called in Pali bodalaté or padalaté. It
disappered in due course, so they partook ofrice. This enterprise oftheirs
turned them into the prototype of modem man.
1 quote:
‘And there appears masculinity to man, feminity to woman.
So that man and woman gaze long at each other. Because they gaze
long at each other, the burning oflust arises. Then they follow their
sensual instincts. Because of their evil practices they are blamed,
censured by the wise; and to hide their sin, they make houses wherein
they dwell’. (The Path of Purity, 1, translated by Pe Maung
Tin,Oxford University Press, 1923, pp. 482 and following.)
It is more than possible that the Myanmar scholars use the story of the
evolution of the world cycle as a peg to hang their explanation on the
origin of the stone-fee. For, to this version they have added their own,
which says, 'The decent minded people make for the dwelling place of
the shameless individuals, and threw stones on their houses to drive them
away.' Such custom, the scholars maintain, still lingers
The other version ofthis folk—lore has a similar théme with some
variations.
Nine Brahma, not many Brahma as in the first episode,

appeared earth. And after eating the rice for their food, they were
tranformed into five men and four women. Four ofthe men took the four
women as their help—mates. The fifth man resented at being ‘left single’.
So he pelted the homes ofthe happy couples with stones. Most men would
have done the same thing ifthey found themselves in his shoes! Sympathy
with this sad archetypal bachelor has instituted the custom of stone
throwing by the bachelors from generation to generation down to the
present day. It should be added that this practice is confined only to cases
ofelopement in the rural areas. Another such traditonal practice in which
the payment of money is will be dealt with under arranged
marriage.
1 have made references to the tragic fates of a few run away

couples in Myanmar. Sometimes the boy andthe girl make apact to commit
suicide either together or seperately. At other times, it is usually the girl
who ends her life. The cause ofsuch tragedies are not far to seek. It is the
objections of the parents of one or both parties, born of prejudices and
pride. The means of putting an end to one’s life are many: chiefly by
taking cyanide or such like, by drowning or hanging oneself, or in few
instances by leaping from a great height - in France from such building as
the Eiffel Tower or in Britain from such prominent landsacpes as ‘Lovers’
Leap’, which are usually situated on the edges of steep cliffs.
Committing suicide is condemned by the Myanmar Buddhists,

many ofwhom censured those Vietnamese Buddhist monks who sacrificed
their lives by self-immolation some years ago. This horrible act not only
violates one oftheir Five Precepts — not to kill - but it also goes against
the grain oftheir belief. It is that any one who commits suicide will repeat
it in the next five hundred and five consecutive lives. This as far as 1 am
aware, is not part ofthe teaching ofthe Buddha.
(3) Arranged marriage
The arranged marriage is an ancient institution in the East. It is
onrecord that this custom was already in practice in the time ofthe Buddha.
We know that Prince Siddhattha, the would—be Buddha, accepted duti-
134 Dr. Hla Pc
fully the hands ofa beautiful cousin ofhis, Princess Yasodhara, when his
royal father offered her to him in marriage. He was in India, where
this custom, which may have been established much earlier, had been
being preserved ever since. In China too, this tradition has been in existence
thousands of years. In Myanmar, the Myanmars took this custom
probably from India and institutionalized it probaly in the 11th century
AD. It is still going strong in spite ofthe western cultural impact since the
nineteenth century. And it will go on from strength to strength until par—
ents cease to worry any more about their children’s matrimonial affairs,
and the children cease respecting them. The possibility of such happen—
ings is too remote.
In the West too, history has provided us with instances of ar—
ranged marriages between the heads oftwo states, or between the mem—
bers oftheir families, chiefly for political reasons, throughout the centu—
ries. Butthe people have never followed their rulers' examples. Awesterner
disapproved ofthe very idea ofparents marrying offtheir son or daughter
by arrangement. An arranged marriage, he feels, has an element of coer—
cion or duress. When 1 was in Britain, my British friends and colleagues
and even the stranger 1 met were astounded to hear that arranged mar—
riages were still in vogue in Myanmar. Some thought that they were an
anachronism which should be abolished. Some declared that they con—
tained seeds oftragedy. As if to support their generalisations, reports on
cases of one tragedy and one coercion appeared in the British newspa—
pers.
The first was the tragic affair in which a strict orthodox Hindu
killed his daughter, a girl domiciled and educated in Britain, who rejected
outright the young man her father had intended to be her husband. The
second was also about another Indian father. He locked up his Western
oriented daughter who went out with her boy friend in defiance of the
wishes of her parents, who had already ear—marked a young Indian as
their son-in—law. These two were extreme cases. But, by the same token
there are many dutiful Indian children in Britain who have accepted to
live together with the life partners oftheir parent's choosing.
Those in the West with a different cultural background would
not be in sympathy with this customary practice in the East, unless they
had an insight into the nature ofthis long established custom. In the East
a man first marries the woman his parents choose and woos their choice
later, while in the West a man woos the woman he chooses and marries
his choice afterwards. There are many conributory factors which have
facilitated the establishing ofwhat the Westerners might call this topsy—
truvydom. In Myanmar, they are: upbringing and temperament of the
Myanmar Buddhist; his respect and obedience to his parents; his lack of
contacts with the opposite sex, and the rigid attitude to marriage,
that once done cannot be undone. It is not surprising then that in eight out
often cases both parties regard an arranged marriage as a means of unit—
ing two people, as ordained by their nahpu-za-or karma.
May I illustrate my points with two instances, in which after the
initial protests, success was achieved in arranging the marriages of two
seemingly incompatible young people a few years
The first concerned a young man. He was blessed with good
looks, d Education and d post in the goverment service. His
mother, to whom money was everything, made arrangements without his
knowledge to marry him offto a neice ofa man of wealth and status. The
girl lacked all his attributes. The who had a girl friend broke down
when he found out the lady he was to marry. Nevertheless, he went through
the marriage out of respect for his mother. He and his wife now have a
grown up family.
The second is about a girl. She is beautiful and is proud of her
beauty. She is educated too. Her rich parents, for the sake oftheir daugh-
ter’s future approached the parents of a young man to offer the hand of
their daughter in marriage to their son. He was well educated and held a
top government post. He was also a man of good character, but not of
good looks. They were married. It is said that the wife would not be seen
at functions together with her husband for the first few months after their
marriage. In the end she accepted the situation. She was a good wife to
her husband up to the time ofhis death.
In most of the arranged marriages, especially between the
children ofwell-to—do people, three preparatory stages are usually involved
before the holding ofthe wedding ceremony. They are (a) investigation,
(b) betrothal and (c) consultation.
(a) Investigation
Protective Myanmar parents are most particular about a prospec—
tive son or daughter—in—law. Before any commitment they make, they will
use every means at their disposal to find out all about their probable new
acquisition.
In awould-be-son—in-law, they examine chiefly his pedigree, moral
attainments and his intellectual achievements. The girl’s parents are in—
terested to know about his family history: has there ever been or is there
any leper, lunatic, or drug and alcoholic addict among his parents’ relatives;
136 Dr. Hla Pc
and is the young man partial to drinking, gambling or women'? Status and
wealth do count but they are subordinate to his moral virtues.
In a prospective daughter—in—law, the man’s parents scrutinize
her moral character, her looks, her domesticity, and her education. Wealth
can be one ofher assets!
(b) Negotiation
Having satisfied that their enquiries turned out to be all that to
be desired, the parents of one party approach their opposite numbers.
Over a cup oftea or coffee, or round a lunch or dinner table they discuss
the matter ofmatrimony. Ifthe discussions end satisfactorily an astrologer
is consulted about the matters relating to the marriage ofthe two people.
In several instances a go—between (in Myanmar uung-thwe liter—
ally meaning ‘successful connector’) is entrusted with the task for both
investigation and negotiation. A go—between in Myanmar is usually a
mature woman. She depends for her success onthe art ofpersuasive speech
which is much cultivated in Myanmar. It is not mere fluency or plausibility
so much as adroitness in getting on confidential terms with people and
involving them in a conversation they enjoy. Craft, sycophancy, perhaps
impudence may be employed, but never so as to alarm the other party or
to put him on his guard. Nothing will be accomplished unless the person
approached can be made to feel that he has been having a heart-to-heart
talk. The art employed may be described as practical psychology, the
ability to get on the right side of the person, to exploit his vanities or
frailities, and sometimes, of course, to appeal to his better feelings.
(c) Consultation
A reputable astrologer is consulted for two purposes. One is to
accertain whether the would-be-husband and wife are astrologically com-
patible; and the other is to fix the auspicious times and dates for the
betrothal and marriage ceremonies.
To have a happy enduring marriage, it is imperative, say the
astrologers, that many astrological aspects must be examined. There are,
indeed, many ofthem. One may suffice. It concerns the relationship be-
tween the planets under which the prospective husband and wife were
born. Since the eight planets, the Sun, the Moon, Mars, Mercury, Rahu,
Jupiter, Venus and Saturn are represented by the days of the week, the
astrologer attempts to find out whether the days on which they were born
are friendly to each other not. Mutual sympathy indicates a happy
lasting marriage, and mutual repulsion infuses unhappiness into the mar—
riage or may even cause seperation.
For such ascertainment, there are formulae which are composed
in mnemonic verses, in which the two words in question are juxtaposed.
The friendly and unfriendly days are as follows:
The friendly days

Sunday—Friday
Cin pan: Tuesday-Thursday
dan: lha Saturday—Wednesday
rha kyam Rahu—Monday
The unfriendly days

dham ma Saturday Thursday
so ka Friday - Monday
an wa Sunday — Wednesday
ra ja Rahu — Tuesday
With the aid ofthe table we can see that the ideal days are Sunday
and Friday, Tuesday and Thursday, Wednesday and Saturday and Rahu
and Monday. Those that are not suited are Saturday and Thursday, Friday
and Monday, Sunday and Wednesday, and Rahu and Tuesday. (See the
appendix showing the friendly and unfriendly days)
We shall reduce these two sets of compatible and incompatible
days to the following pattern.
Birthdays Compatible days Incompitable days

Sunday - 1 Friday - 6 Wednesday - 4
Monday - 2 Rahu - 8 Friday - 6
Tuesday 3 Thursday - 5 Rahu - 8
Wednesday - 4 Saturday - 7 Sunday - 1
Thursday - 5 Tuesday - 3 Saturday - 7
Friday - 6 Sunday - 1 Monday - 2
Saturday - 7 Wednesday - 4 Thursday - 5
Rahu 8 Monday - 2 Tuesday - 3
In examining this and several astrological aspects the astrologer

may find certain unfavourable signs, which are detrimental to the pro—
posed marriage itself. However, ifthe parents have already made up their
135 Dr. Hla Pc
minds, they ask the astrologer to perform appropiate rituals to surmount
these obstacles. Then he fixes the hours and the days for the betrothal and
marriage 1 have insist here that, equally, there are many
other instances of contracting marriages without any references to stars
and planets.
(d) Betrothal ceremony

The betrothal ceremony in Myanmar is formal than the
engagement party in the West. It is usually held at the girl’s house. Where
a large gathering is involved, the venue for the ceremony is in a marquee,
a restaurant in a hotel. I’ll tell you about such a ceremony held in
Mawlamyine about a year ago, in which 1 had to play a leading role!
My wife and I were invited by a friend of ours, who is a widower,
to his one and only daughter’s betrothal ceremony in his house. We went.
There was a fairly large gathering of guests. The father vaguely told me
that he would be grateful if 1 would say a few words at the ceremony. 1
did not take much notice of it. Suddenly, across the table we were sitting
at, the Principal ofthe Teacher’s Training Collage in Mawlamyine got up
and made a prepared speech form a sheet of paper. He said that he was
here on this auspicious day at the expressed desire of the parents of a
good son. He was, he added, the spokesman on their behalfto ask fromally
for the consent of the father of the girl to agree to her marriage to their
son. He went onto give biographies ofthe man’s parents and then extolled
his moral and intellectual virtues. He ended with the words that he very
much hoped that his request would be favourably received by the father.
The father turned to me for help as his spokesman for this
occasion. 1 got up and made areply in kind. The father, 1 declared, deemed
it an honour to have to receive a request like this from such a quarter, and
he was sure, 1 added, the young man as portrayed in the speech would
make a most suitable help-mate to his daughter. 1 then eulogised the
girl’s attributes such as the character, her education and her domestication.
1 concluded that the father was pleased to accede to the other party’s
request.
These formalities were followed by a ritual known in Myanmar
as /ei—sui /e ‘rings exchange’. It symbolizes plighting the troth. A lady
gave to each spokesman a casket containing a diamond ring. 1 put on the
ring—finger ofthe girl the ring said to have been given to her by the young
man. And my opposite number did the same with the ring form the girl by
putting it on the man’s ring—finger. The couple were then offered each a
bouquet consisting ofroses, gladiolii and sprigs ofthe eugenia, with which
they did obeisance in turn to the man’s parents and to the girl’s father.
The ceremony calTlo d The father entertained the guests IO d
banquet.
(e) Marriage ceremony

Marriage vary from place place. The essential
rituals are however observed universally, with slight variations as a result
of local tradition and the and spending power of the parents
concerned. The choice ofthe venue for the wedding ceremony, like that
ofthe betrothal ceremony, is determined by the nature and the scale ofit,
from a small house to a large hotel. It may range form a quiet one to that
ofthe wedding ofthe year. It can be performed by people form any walk
oflife - from a village elder to the highest official in the land. The orthodox
conservative Myanmars prefer see a Pen-na Brahmin, whose
prerogative it is to officiate at such a function, or failing that they choose
a pseudo-Brahmin. There is a tacit understanding, however, not to hold
any marriage ceremony during Buddhist Lent. 1 believe this arises out of
the misunderstanding ofthe Buddha’s injunction to the monks not to travel
during the raining season which coincides with Lent. The Buddha feared
that the monks travelling in groups might do damage to rice fields.
1 shall now briefly describe to you two out ofthe many marriage
ceremonies I have attended in Myanmar. The first one at Mandalay and
the second in Mawlamyine.
It was a society wedding in Mandalay. The ceremony was held
at the bride’s home. A few minutes before the auspicious moment fixed
by the astrologer, the bridegroom in his ceremonial dress, accompanied
by a friend, made his way to the front room ofthe big house, and took his
seat on one of a pair of large velvet cushions, which were placed on the
carpeted floor. The friend sat behind him. After a little while the bride, in
her ceremonial dress and bedecked with jewelery, entered the room. She
was escorted by a friend. She took her seat on the other cushion to the left
of the bridegroom’s.The friend also sat behind her. For a few minutes
they were under the glare ofthe invited guests.
At the appointed time, a Brahmin with a conch-shell dangling
by his left side came in. He blew the conch-shell, a token of success, to
start the ceremony. He took hold ofthe bridegroom’s right hand and held
its palm upward. He then placed the bride’s right palm over it (let-htat,
hand-placed-over hand, in Myanmar), and he wound round the jointed-
140 Dr. Hla Pc
palms with apiece ofwhite cloth (sé-lya yit-put, white cloth-winds round).
There after, he dipped the palms into a silver bowl, half filled with water,
that was in front ofthe couple. He muttered a few mantra in Sankrit and
took the palms out ofthe silver bowl. He blew his conch-shell to conclude
the ceremony. You will know from the above description why a marriage
ceremony is called in Myanmar a let-htut pwé.
The next item was a recitation by a well known singer ofayodu,
lyrical verse, sung in eulogy ofthe bride and the groom and their parents.
The ceremony concluded formally with an address by a erudite Myanmar,
admonitory in tone and informative in nature. He expalined the aims and
objects of the marriage ceremony and the man and wife be
faithful to each other. He then told them the five duties of a husband and
a wife.
Husband
(1) love and adore his wife
(2) To esteem her
(3) To commit no adultery
(4) To endow her with worldly possessions
(S) To provide her with ornaments
(1) To manage efficiently all domestic obligations

(2) To look after the relatives
(4) To protect the property
(S) To be industrious
An soon as he stopped his speech, a few ladies holding large

silver bowls scattered over the heads of the guests the contents of the
bowls - pop coms and silver coins. The guests were then entertained to a
feast. Later on, some happily married couples who had celebrated their
silver, golden or ruby wedding anniversaries were invited to the newly
weds’ bedroom. There, one after another, these couples stroked and blessed
the bed and pillows and blankets.
That evening, about 10 o’clock, the bridegroom made for the
bedroom, which was on the first floor. He found his way barred from the
foot of the staircase to the top of it by a series of strings. Each end of
these was being held by a person. This practice is known in Myanmar as
Kyo ta ’string-barring’. He was told that they were ‘gold and silver strings’,
and that ifhe wanted to pass them he must pay the toll. He had to fish out
some money from his pocket. No doubt, he had anticipated it. This
called ‘toll-payment’ and ‘stone fee’ are two ofthe many practices which
survive in several places in Myanmar. Their origins have been lost in the
mists oftime.
Before 1 to the next ceremony at Mawlamyine, a few
explanatory notes may be made on some ofthe rituals performed at that
ofMandalay. The positioning ofthe bridegroom’s palm upward denotes
his request for the hand of the bride; and placing of her palm over his
indicates her assent. The tying of the two palms with a piece of white
cloth, a symbol ofpurity, betokens the union ofthe two people; and dipping
the plams together in the water means the union that can never be seperated
just as water can never be severed apart in two.
The marriage ceremony in Mawlamyine was held at a restaurant
about six months ago. Most ofthe ritualistic items in that ofMandalay re—
appeared in it. But the differences between the two ceremonies are note—
worthy
The bride and bridegroom sat on chairs on a dais,below which
the guests took their seat also on chairs. The gentleman who officiated at
the ceremony was not a Brahmin. He is a university professor, a friend of
mine, who has been conducting marriage ceremonies in his spare time as
a labour oflove. He does not charge any fees as a professional does. The
ceremony itself was on a modest scale: the parents ofboth parties are not
well off.
The professor carried out his function single handed throughout
the ceremony, except at one point, when he had to place one palm above
the other. He persuaded my wife and myselfto perform this rite, 1 believe,
to give prestige to the ceremony. 1 held the right palm of the groom up—
ward, and my wife held the right palm ofthe bride downward and placed
it over the groom’s. The professor tied the two palms with a piece of
white cloth and we dipped them into the water in the silver bowl that was
in front of us. He did not actually blow the conch—shell which hung
dangling by his left side. He only made a gesture of blowing it. He did
not recite the mantra in Sanskrit, but instead he declaimed a few passages
ofblessings from the Buddhist Scriptures. He did make a speech briefly
on the biographies of the bride and groom. But he dispensed with the
singing of the laudatory song. He however added a new feature to the
ceremony - Buddhistic in flavour. Towards the end of the ceremony, a
lady from among the guests came to the edge ofthe dias and handed to
142 Dr. Hla Pc
each of the newly weded bouquet containing, as in the case of
the betrothal party mentioned above, gladiolii and sprigs of the
eugenia. Five times she went through this act, and five times the young
couple did obeisance, first to the Three Ciems; second to the local deities;
third to their parents; fourth to their teachers; and finally to the guests.
There are signs that the Myanmar Buddhists are incorporating
Buddhist elements into the marriage ceremony. A few are doing away
with the secular aspects of it. 1 have been to some marriage ceremonies,
in which the monks were invited to the wedding house to be fed before or
after the ceremony — as a religious offering. At one house in Mawlamyine,
the parents ofthe bride did away altogether with the traditional ceremony.
An Abbot and four monks were invited to the wedding house. The guests
undertook to observe the Five Precepts, at the end of which the Abbot
gave a discourse a story from the Buddhist Scriptures of a devoted,
generous and pious couple in Sri Lanka. He dwelt on their exemplary life
in this world and their reunion after death in a celestial abode. He told the
young bride and groom to draw the moral from the story. The monks
were fed first and the guests later. The two young people are married in
the eyes ofthe public.
(4) Married Lili

May 1, at the risk of being censured as a chauvinist, say that
marriages on the whole are more durable in Myanmar than in the West.
There are many imperceptible but strong bands round the union of two
strangers. First, the upbringing of the Myanmar people which revolves
round the two pillars of love and respect; the comparatively fewer
temptations to lure them into selfdestruction; andthird, the most important
ofall, their implicit faith in karma: karma has brought them together and
for better or for worse they will have to make the best of it.
Most ofthe above observations mirror in the relationship between
husband and wife. In spite of the unavoidable tiffs between them, they
realize that they are interdependent. AMyanmar husband is in theory the
master of the house, and if he so wishes he could take as many as one
thousand wives, as one proverb says. He is not however prepared to risk
at being stigmatized, and even ostracized, by the society as a man with a
lesser wife even in a country where polygamy is legal. He is usually kind
to his wife, and he would be the last manto follow the advice ofa Myanmar
proverb: ‘Spare not a bullock or a wife’— the equivalent English proverb
is: ‘A spaniel, a woman and a walnut tree, the more they are beaten, the
better they be’. He looks her as his sister and addresses her
accordingly as hnumé (younger sister). He knows he must not leave her
than month: ‘Stay away month from your wife’
(She will transfer her to another); ‘Stay away from a harp three
months’ (you will forget how to play it). He is conscious ofthe power of
his wife’s persuasive tongue, since if she says it many times she prevails,
and he is resolved not to side with her always as it means siding with
foolishness - not a magnanimous attitude to one’s wife.
The wife’s position seems to be at first sight an unenviable one.
In a country where marriage, building a pagoda and getting oneself
tattered are reckoned to be three things which, done, cannot be
undone, a wife has the worse ofboth worlds. Divorce and desertion always
brings discredit to her. Nevertheless, many wives prefer separation to
having suffer the agonies of living with a ‘dog-like husband’ the rest
of her life. Her position in marriage is not as bad as it is reflected in
proverbs and sayings, many of which often contradict one another.
AMyanmar husband, it has been said, is in theory the master of
the house; but in practice it is generally the wife who rules the roost. But
she seldom asserts her rights and independence. She loves, honours and
obeys her husband. ‘She is his mother sometimes, his younger sister at
times, and his servant the rest ofthe time’. One ofthe terms ofendearment
a wife uses in addressing her husband in Myanmar is oko (elder brother).
She looks to him to provide her with the blessings ofhis existance. In the
pool oflife she regards herself as water lily and her husband as the water,
and she will look well only when the water sustains her. As a good wife
she is willing to follow her husband through thick and thin in theirjourney
on earth as the thread follows the needle.
Even in the case ofa divorce a Myanmar wife’s position is better
than her counter-part in the West. In cases where property is involved,
both parties take away whatever property they may have had on marriage;
and the property acquired by husband or wife, or jointly by both, is di-
vided by mutual agreement or by the decision by the court.
(5) Divorce
Shway Yoe in his book, published in 1910, has this to say about
divorce: ‘ .. . divorces are far from being so common as most writers would
have us believe. The warmth of family affection is one of the strongest
traits ofthe race, and the Myanmar is very kind to his wife, while every
girl is taught from her earliest years to look with the highest respect upon
man, and to defer in all things to his judgment; though she is far more
144 Dr. Hla Pc
free than the Indian wife. It is a simple matter to blame the Myanmar for
easy marriage customs, but the system speedily puts an end to unhappy
and ill-assorted and illegitimate children are exceedingly rare.
Finally, unless there is good known cause for a separation the divorced
parties are not by any means looked upon with a favourable eye. The man
who enters a monastery to get rid of a wife by the contemptuous
name of low-Set ttuw-hewet) ‘jungle runaway’ for the rest of his life,
while the ta-ku-lat (tuhku-Int), the divorcee, is a perennial subject ofjoke
to the jester in the play:-
'She that’s neither maid, married, now widow,
Fits all men as a pot does its lid; O, - that is to say a divorced
woman needs small wooing.'
(The Mvanmar His Life and Notions, pp.60—6 1)
Shway Yoe’s general observations are true. Several ofthem are
still applicable to the plight ofmany a divorced person. The term tahkti—
lat is apt to convey to some sections ofthe public the idea that the person
is an unstable man woman. A tahkti—lat is likely to be looked
with sneer and scorn, while a widow or a widower is treated with warmth
and sympathy by the community as a whole. A divorced man is usually at
the end of a marriage queue behind the bachelor and widower, while a
divorcee’s prospects of remarrying are remote. She is regarded, though
she may be an innocent party, as a scheming minx in spite ofthe popular
saying:
‘Tahkti-lat, a woman divorced once,
We’ll never barter her for ten virgins’
But no one knows what a tahkti—lat’s nahpu-za or karma has in store for
him or her.
3.2.2 The Three Primary Duties
Any critical and independent minded Myanmar, who is essen-
tially a Buddhist, is often assailed by mental conflicts as he goes through
life. As a student he has to balance the moral teaching of holding his
teacher in awe against his intellectual training for finding out the truth,
and as a householder his choice of profession against the ever looming
background ofthe three fundamental concepts and the Five Precepts. Be
that as it may, as a householder, he takes up in earnest the three primary
duties: déna religious offerings, sila observing moral precepts and
bhavana practising meditation.
3.2.2.1 Dana
Of these three chief forms of practising piety, dana seems to
have appealed most to the Myanmar Buddhist, since the dawn ofhistory.
The initiation ceremony 1 dercribed earlier is an act ofreligious offerings.
It is easiest to fulfil, provided he has the means and, 1 suspect, it provides
him with tangible results in the form ofmonuments, and it also gives him
a svq vf kédos. Both members of the royalty and have had
of religious edifices built all over Myanmar. Many of the
mountains, hills and hillocks and the plains and the river banks are graced
with white golden pagodas. Tradition has it that there are four and d
halfmillion pagodas on the site ofthe ancient capital city ofBagan, which
is about one pagoda every eleven square metres! Some ofthese buildings
have dedicatory inscriptions on stone containing prayers as well as curses
to the would—be desecrators of their works of merit. These give us an
insight into the purpose in performing them.
1 would like you first two prayers out of many, and
then the curses. Here is the first prayer by a queen, which Professor Luce
says has a certain Hollywood quality about it. The translation is by Luce.
‘Mean time before I reach Nirvana, by virtue of this great
merit I have done, may 1 a man, and be more royally
happy than all other men. Or as a spirit, may 1 be full of colour,
dazzling brightness and victorious beauty, more than any other
spirit. More especially, I would have a long life, free from disease,
a lovely complexion, a pleasant voice, and a beautiful figure. 1
would be loved and honoured darling of every man and spirit.
Ciold, silver, rubies, carols, pearls and other lifeless treasure;
elephants, horses and other living treasure — may I have lots of
them (? these). By virtue of my power and glory 1 would be
triumphant with pomp and retinue, with fame and splendour.
Whenever I am born, may lbe fulfilled with noble graces, charity,
faith, piety, wisdom etc (? and such like) and not know one speck
of misery; and after 1 have tasted and enjoyed the happiness of
men andthe happiness ofspirits, when the noble law ofdeliverance
called the fruit of sanctity blossoms (? ripens), may 1 at last attain
the peaceful bliss of Nirvana’.
(The Journal of the Myanmar Research Society, Vol XXV1,
pt 111, 1936, p. 136)
Ah! vanitas vanitatum. She wants to have the best of both
worlds. Contrast this with the other by a lesser queen at the same court.
146 Dr. Hla Pc
‘1 wish to abandon a body by countless miseries
the misery of birth, age and death, the misery of living with
those we do not love, the misery ofseperation from those we love,
the misery of not getting what we want. So 1 have resigned
(‘' discarded) my dear gold, silver and other treasures,
and built a monastery and 1 have offered my fields, gardens and
slaves, excepting none ('? without exception), for the happiness of
the monks, who dwell there-in .. . May the merit of our deed
first to the king... May the queens also, and all the ladies-in-waiting,
share it .. . myself I pray that 1 may never be covetous,
insatiate, wrathful, frivolous nor inconsiderate. But 1 would cross
the of rebirths full of these graces modest in my
wants, easily satisfied, mild oftemper, pitiful, wise, conscious of
causes, large hearted, faithful, earnest, unforgetful and
considerate, and may 1 win the deliverance in the very presence of
Lord Mitreya’. (€i.H.Luce : Ibid 136-137)
A few comments on some of the allusions and words may be
made before we go on to the curses which usually follow or precede the
prayers.
(1) Both ladies express at the end of the prayers their desire to
reach Nirvana- ‘attain the peaceful bliss ofNirvana’ and ‘win deliverance’
- a format still used by every Myanmar Buddhist at the end ofhis or her
prayer.
(2) The five miseries mentioned in the second prayer are known
to almost every Myanmar Buddhist who always prays for their deliverance
from them - one way ofputting it for reaching Nirvana.
(3) The act of sharing merits, also in the second prayer, is still
being done by the donor at the end ofevery religious offering nowadays.
(4) Lord Mitreya is the Buddha who, as has been said, will attain
Enlightenment as the fifth and last ofthe five Buddhas in this world cycle.
The curses are meant to deter acts of vandalism. They are un-
Buddhistic in character.
‘Who among my relatives, the king’s relatives, or outsiders,
monks, laymen, men or women robs or violates one slave, one acre,
among the slaves and fields which 1 have offered, may his glory
not be great as a man, nor his life long. The king’s wrath be upon
him. The axe oflightning smite him. Danger offire, danger ofwater,
dangers ofelephant, horse, serpent, leopard, tiger, bear, befall him.
May he suffer terrible disease, which doctors try to cure but can-
not. May he die suddenly spitting lots of blood. Dead, also, may
he be cooked in the great hell, Avici. May he not behold any ofthe
coming Buddhas. Though it be his lot to be reborn as man, may he
be leprous, itchy, ulcered, blind, deaf, dumb, mad, a cretin dwarf
with stunted feet and hands and stunted ears and a beggar
withjust a bit ofrag wrapped round his neck, with no food to eat,
suffering a fate insufferable by any other man, amere human ghost!.
(€i.H. Luce : Ibid 134)
Here are two brief curses with homely touch about them impre-
cated on those who desecrate the offering.
‘May they cleave to hell as burnt rice to the rice pot’, and
‘May the rice and curry that they eat, the water they drink, the
homes they live in, turn
(€i.H. Luce : Ibid)
The Myanmars ofthe twentieth century have not fundamentally
changed in their attitude towards the religious offerings. Most of them
become philanthropists because they wish to sow seeds of merit, which
may fructify in future existences. Some however have an ulterior motive
as well: they want to be known as ‘pagoda-builder’ or ‘monastery-builder’
or ‘builder of any kind of sacred monument’ such as ordination hall or
preaching hall, since such an honorific title is a status symbol. On my
visit to Myanmar in 1957, 1 met many elderly orthodox Myanmar
Buddhists, a few ofwhom were pagoda or monastery builders, and every
time I broached the subject offounding public libraries in Myanmar they
turned it down. This idea to them was too revolutionary and probably
was tainted with Western influence. Their stock reply was that the founding
of a library would not yield as much merit as building a monastery or a
pagoda. When pressed for the reference to such a pronouncement by the
Buddha himself, they gave certain passages which state that one who
builds a pagoda or a monastery acquires the greatest merit. But what
these people did not know was that there were no pagodas and, for that
matter, no libraries in Buddha’s time.
The origin ofthis deep rooted custom may be traced back to the
practice ofthe Myanmar kings ofthe Bagan dynasty, every one ofwhom
built at least one pagoda. The successive kings made a religion offollow-
ing their predecessors’ example, until the last king was removed from the
throne in 1885. And, in turn, the commoners emulated their kings. This
act ofmerit, done with all the best intentions, has resulted in many ruined
146 Dr. Hla Pc
pagodas, not to mention of the ruined monasteries, all Myanmar,
through lack ofmaintenance - a neglect from which the works ofmerit of
the kings fortunately have not suffered so far.
Dana, 1 may conclude, all the acts of offering, of food,
money or objects to all the beings on earth including even the animals.
3.2.2.2 Sila
The Myanmar Buddhists are expected to observe at least the
Five Precepts in their daily life, as the Christians are expected to obey the
Ten Commandments. renew their pledges, as it were, of all
ages especially in rural areas go to the monastery or pagoda four times a
month-on the day ofthe full moon, the new moon, and the eighth day in
between, rather like to church on Sunday here, except that in
Myanmar, where a lunar calendar is in use, it does not fall on the same
day ofthe week. And, as mentioned earlier, the twelve Myanmar months
have 29 and 30 days alternately.
lstill have vivid recollections ofsome ofthe occasions on which
1 went to the village monastery as a young man in my Sabbath-day dress.
The people either took a trayful of gifts such as bananas and coconuts -
two traditional indigenous products - or may be a tin of biscuits, and a
packet of candles given as from the group or they may make individual
gifts separately. A gift tray is called kudéw-bwé, literally meaning obei-
sance-collection’, a tray ofgift. It is a necessary accompaniment to doing
obeisance to a person, an object or a deity. There are two kinds ofkadaw-
bwé. One is the ordinary kadaw-bwé, containing indigenous products.
The other is bi-lat kadaw-bwé European gift tray. The word bi-lat is
from Arabic wilayut, Europe. The contents ofthe tray are the products of
Europe such as tins of biscuits, jars ofjam and cans of condensed milk
and such like.
The congregation at the monastery usually consisted of two
groups - adults and the young at the back, and the old and the ageing in
the front. We placed the tray of gift in front of the Abbot, and did obei-
sance to the Three Gems by reciting a prayer in Myanmar dotted here and
there with Pali words. We then undertook the Five Precepts, at the end of
which, the first group left the monastery, while the others who were going
to keep the sabbath stayed behind to undertake the Eight Precepts.
To keep sabbath is to practise austerity. This means observing
three more precepts over and above the Five, namely not to have meals
after twelve noon; not to amuse oneselfwith entertainment ofany kind or
use cosmetics and ornaments; and not to sleep on a comfortable bed or
bedstead higher than half-a—metre. Besides, tells beads and
meditates the Three Signs of Beings the impermanence of life,
sufferings ofthis existence and the non-self(the actual denial ofthe indi—
vidual
The persons who keep sabbath usually have their meal at one of
the zuyuf, rest—houses near the monastery. They spend their night there,
break sabbath at dawn the next day, and return home in the
There are, of course, people who after undertaking the Eight Precepts go
home to practise austerity there, as 1 used to some years
When 1 was staying in Bagan Hall as an undergraduate, a few of
my friends and 1 used to foot about 4 o’clock in the morning
Sundays to the great Shwedagon Pagoda. The buses did not start running
before 6 a.m. There we did obeisance to the pagoda and undertook to
observe the Eight Precepts, and returned hall by bus. Keeping
sabbath was a good training for our mind, but 1 must confess that at first
hunger started gnawing at my stomach, but with a little discipline 1 got
used to it. But what tested my will power most was to keep my mind
occupied with the religious duties 1 was performing and not to be dis—
tracted by the thoughts of lectures and examinations.
3.2.2.3 Bhavana
Bhavana or meditation is the third member of the moral trinity.
Sila shows the way 'to cease to do evil', dana ‘the complimentary doing
good’, and 'bhavana' is an injunction to clean one’s mind, or discipline
and purify it by its deliberate control and exercise. It is, 1 believe, the
most difficult religious practice ofthe three. The majority ofthe ordinary
Myanmar Buddhists used not to devote themselves to meditation. It was
confined to the monks and some elderly devout Buddhists, as it requires
great concentration of mind, quietude, and suitable atmosphere. Those
who lead a normal domestic life could not afford time except at irregular
intervals.
Since the end ofthe second World War, there has been a wind of
change. Meditation as a religious practice has gained more popular fol—
lowing due apparently to the example set up by the ex-premier U Nu.
There are now as many meditation centres as there are schools of
meditation in Myanmar.
And since myreturn to Myanmar in December 1980, I could not
help noticing the great interest and enthusiasm displayed by so many
people in this a la mode meditation. It is modem in its approach. 1 would
like to share with you what little knowledge 1 have of it — the knowledge
150 Dr. Hla Pc
I have acquired from asking my relatives, friends and acquaintances who
are themselves in this mental culture.
Ofthe two forms ofmeditation there are, namely sumuthu Pali,
quietude ofmind, 'development ofmental concentration' which leads up
to the higher mystic states’; and vipusuna Pali, ‘insight’ into the nature of
things, leading to the complete liberation ofmind, Nirvana. The Myanmar
Buddhists naturally concentrate on the latter. Most of the people 1 am in
touch with are mostly in their initial stages ofcultivating mental develop-
ment. They are training their minds under the guidance of an instructor
by trying to take note ofeverything they do, and everything that happens
to them during the time oftheir meditation. As they take deep breaths, as
they sit or stand, as they talk or keep silence, or as they feel stiff in their
limbs sitting or standing in one position, they have to be
fully aware of the act the fact of anything happening to them at that
moment. It is easier said than done. Many of you are not without this
experience of losing your concentration every now and then while you
are reading a book or writing an article or a lecture.
The people, 1 refer to, are not practising medition at home, but at
one ofthe centres which, they feel, caters for their needs best. Neither are
they fully occupied with it. They allot to it a limited period ranging from
a few days to one month at a time.
With your permission I would like to supplement this sketchy
account of meditation by the obervations made on this subject by Dr
Walpola Rahula in his book, What the Buddha Taught. The book as
you will know was completed in Paris in 1958, and published, with a
Foreward by Professor Paul Demieville in 1959. First, Rahula wants to
substitute the term ‘mental culture’ or ‘mental development’ for the word
‘meditation’ which he asserts rightly does not do justice to the range of
meanings the word bhavana covers. These are cleansing the mind of
impurities, cultivating such qualities as concentration and awareness
leading up to the realization ofthe Ultimate Truth, Nirvana.
Onmental culture, 1 quote the relevant passages from the Chapter
on Bahavana. He says:
‘The moment the word“meditation” is mentioned, one thinks
ofan escape from the daily activities oflife; assuming a particular
posture, like a statue in some cave or cell in a monastery, in some
remote place cut off from society...The Buddha’s teaching on this
subject was wrongly, or so little understood, that in later times the
way of “meditation” deterioated and degenerated into a kind of
ritual or ceremony almost technical in its routine.’
What he says about form of meditaion aimed at achieving
awareness of whatever one does has bearings on the way the Myanmar
Buddhists, referred to above, are developing their mental culture. He de—
clares:
‘(It) is to be aware and mindful ofwhatever you do, physically
or verbally, during the daily routine of work in your life, private,
public or professional. Whether you walk, stand, sit, lie down or
sleep .. . whether you talk keep silence, ...even whether you
answer the calls ofnature — in these and other activities, you should
be fully aware and mindful ofthe act you perform at the moment!
(p.71).
It is obvious from what DrRahula has said that to cultivate mental
development a meditator does not need a specific place such as a medita-
tion centre, a specific allotted time for it, since it can be carried out
during the daily routine of work in one’s life; or a guide to show the way
to meditation since one can do it by oneself. l agree with him although his
method ofthis particular form ofmeditation is at variance with the practice
ofthe Myanmar Buddhists 1 have sketched in.
3.3 Old age

How old is old'/ lam in a quandry about defining it. It is a vagary
on which different interpretations can be construed, and are being con—
strued, by peoples with different cultural backgrounds. The Myanmar
attitude to it is vague, and the Westerner’s view of it is arbitrary. To the
Myanmar it is any time after the age of fifty-five, an age still too young
to be called old, or to feel old for a Westerner. Most ofthe British people
over sixty maintain that one is as old as one feels! For want of such a
norm, 1 once put my foot in defining old age at the School ofOriental and
African Studies.
One day at lunch table, 1 was seated between the Director ofthe
School, who was about sixty—seven or sixty—eight years old, and a middle—
aged Scot lecturer. The Director was sitting on my right and the Scot on
my left. He was a golf enthusiast, as all Scots are in this game. He asked
whether 1 played golf. I replied in the negative. To his next question,
‘Why not?’, 1 answered jokingly that it was an old man’s game. He was
rattled and made me define what ‘old age’ was. Momentarily forgetting
the age of the Director next to me, I said: ‘Oh, say, 68’. My right ear—
drum was nearly split into two by a stringent voice: ‘68 is middle—aged’.
It was the Director who was shouting these words into my ear.
152 Dr. Hla Pc
the Myanmar Buddhists who are heard muttering the well
known phrase concerning the cycle of life —‘birth, old age, sickness and
death’, it is evident that old age is only two steps away from death. But
death, according the law of impermanence, to a baby, too. So
how is old'/ Be that as it may, as a rule the Myanmar Buddhist not
only feels but is made to feel old by others at the age offifty-five. Attitude,
ethos and perhaps the climate have all contributed to this notion. This is
generally the age when many, especially in the Civil Service, used to
retire during the British period. This rule was enacted, lam told, to enable
the British officials who had served twenty-five to thirty years in Myanmar
to return home and spend the rest oftheir lives with their family. This is
generally the age when most of the and daughters begin fulfil
their filial duties, by contributing towards the upkeep oftheir parents, or
by keeping these so—called old age people with them.
In Myanmar d of sixty is made to feel old, at least psy—
chologically, by two factors. One is the over-attentiveness paid out of
respect and consideration to an old person, and the other is the kinship
terms grandfather or grandpa and grandmother or grandma.
1 have seen cases where elderly people are not given the chance
to do anything for themselves. When a grandfather starts to make a move
to get his pipe from a nearby table, it is at once brought to him. The
moment a grandmother gets up to have a glass ofwater, it is given to her.
As soon as an old father fetches a broom to sweep the grounds around the
house as a kind ofexercise, a younger member ofthe family takes it from
him to do his job. Similarly, 1 was deprived ofmy gardening hobby many
times until lput a stop to it. No sooner had 1 taken a fork out ofthe garden
shed to do the weeding, than a young relative or the gardener told me that
he would rather do it for me. Even in making my own tea, the house
companion or someone else would not let me do it. But, in this particular
case 1 always put my foot down: the tea they make always has too much
milk and sugar for my liking. Ifsuch things go on for months or years one
is bound to feel older physically and mentally in the end.
1 have heard from the mouths ofpeople both from the East and
the West who have grandchildren, that they feel old because they are
grandparents now! It is this term grandparent which instils the idea of
aging into them, some of whom are not even fifty-five!
Myanmars generally look upon an old man as physically old
and mentally set in ideas, although there are sprightly old people who are
more than a match for many a younger man in active life. Incidentally, an
old is regarded as a symbol of wisdom, experience and sound
judgement.
At whatever time a Myanmar Buddhist feels old, from then on
he doubles his efforts in laying for the next life. Some of
the Buddha’s teachings, such as that every subject to the chain of
causality - birth, old age, sickness and death, and rebirth — becomes
poignant and apparent to him. His interest in worldly affairs wanes in
to the growing concern ofhis in the life here—after.
1 would like to put in aplea to you not to visualize every Myanmar
Buddhist over sixty years ofage as a morbid creature losing all his interest
in worldly affairs. There are many who can and do enjoy life.
14 Death
Myanmar language is rich in euphemisms for the word ‘to die’
and for all the concomitants of a death - the corpse and the funeral rites.
This phenomenon is an index of the Myanmar view of the cessation of
life which is both mystic and mysterious.
The Myanmar Buddhists of the twelth and thirteenth centuries
conceived death as a mere cessation of life. The expression they used
then was thei-de win uthet thei-de life ceases, as opposed to shin-de
win uthet shin-de life lives, be alive. Instances ofthe indiscriminate ap-
plication ofthis term in the stone inscriptions ofthat period to the death
of every being irrespective of status, rank or sacredness are not rare. It
was used for the death of even a Buddha. However the establishment of
Theravada Buddhism together with its sacred language, Pali, has raised
the Myanmar people to a higher plane of civilization and has enriched
their language with the accretion ofwords from Pali. They became more
sophisticated. From the fifteenth century onward their vocabulary on death
assumes a different format. A few specimens may suffice.
(1) Man
(a) Ordinary People
thei-de to die
hson-de to end, life ends
thei-hson-de to die-end, life ceases for good
(b) People of status, rank or wealth
aneik-sa yank-te impermanence arrives, to reach the
state of impermanence.
aneik-sa = Pali anicca
kan koun-de karma exhausts or ends:
kan = Pali kamma
154 Dr. Hla Pc
(c) Royalty
nut-ywu sun-de Nat village enjoys, to dwell in the
abode ofthe nat or celestial beings
(d) Divine beings - the nat and Brahma
en-tui-de, Pali can to die
(3) Sacred beings
(a) Monks
pyun-duw-inn-de return honorific particle-do, to re-
turn to his own abode, usually iden-
tified with the abode ofthe Brahma
(b) Buddha, Minor Buddha and the Saint
pureik-neik-bun win-duw-inn-de
Parinibana - enters-honorific parti
cle-do, to enter Nirvana; a
transla-
tion of the Pali word Purinibb0nu
The Myanmar Buddhists’ concept of death falls into two cat-
egories: (1) natural death and (2) unnatural or violent death, which as
already mentioned is described as uséin-thei raw-death. The natural death
is that which is brought about by old age and sickness, caused by, according
to the Myanmar people, the ninety-six kinds ofdiseases. The occurrence
of an unnatural death is always attributed to abnormal circumstances -
epidemics, snake-bites, suicide and child birth. The violent death, as it's
name implies, is a death resulting from violent causes - execution, murder,
accident and attack by a savage animal.
Ofthese, only the unnatural death entails an unconventionally
attended funeral and an unceremonious burial before the night is out.
A mother who dies at child birth is also buried overnight, and her grave,
particularly in rural areas, is guarded for seven consecutive nights, for
fear that a black magician may exhume her body and make use ofcertain
parts of anatomy for some magic preparations.
The euphemism for a corpse is é-thu-bé, the Myanmar
pronounciation ofthe Pali word asubha not pleasant. Its Myanmar equiva-
lent ma-tha is a direct translation of it. Both these Pali and Myanmar
words are used in combinations with other members for funeral terms.
é-thu-bé /ma-tha a funeral, a corpse
a- m ein a funeral house
a. /m ché to take a corpse to the place of interment or cre-
mation
to go alone orjoin other people in a funeral pro—
cession
o / in o/ring often abbreviated to o / in-/ofiug simply
slating, d
At some one’s death there is generally a procession, and a burial
service followed by a offering the seventh day after the
death.
Poignant grief is often expressed publicly by the relatives in
some cases ofdeath. The corpse is thoroughly washed from head to foot,
and the two thumbs and the two big toes are tied together with strings or
strips of cotton cloth. These are called ‘thumb-cord’ and ‘big-toe-cord’.
Thereafter, it is dressed in its best clothes. In olden days, an alternate way
was adopted: the whole body was swathed in a new white
cloth from armpits downward. The face is usually left uncovered, unless
for special Between the teeth is placed a silver d
custom now abandoned by many for Charon’s toll ferry the
river Styx. The body is laid a bier, at the foot of which are ke I d
lighted candle and an earthen pitcher ofwater. As long as the body lays in
the house a plate of food is placed by the side ofthe bier and is replaced
with another at every meal time. All these preparations are made under
the supervision of a person who is steep in the ritual tradition. Help in
this matter is not wanting. Hence the Myanmar saying, 'The corpse will
look good, only when the neighbours are good’. There are no professional
undertakers in Myanmar.
The duration ofthe body to be kept depends upon the status of
the deceased and upon the time taken to reach the mourning house by
relatives who live afar. A poor man is buried as quickly as possible to
save expenses, whereas a rich man’s obsequies last longer. Until the day
ofthe funeral, the house is generally bustling with people. Some come to
condole with the bereaved family, others mostly elderly ones, to meditate
on the impermanency of life by looking at the corpse - in Myanmar é-
thu-bé shu, and the rest to spend the night to keep watch on the corpse-in
Myanmar matha saun. They are young and middle aged men and women,
who pass the night playing games such as cards, Myanmar dominoes and
Ludo.
The coffin is either bought from a professional coffin maker, or
is made by carpenters often in the grounds outside the funeral house.
After the body is placed in the coffin, each young member ofthe family
has his or her height measured with a piece of cotton thread, and each
piece is coiled up and laid on the corpse.
On the day ofthe funeral, as the coffin is carried out ofthe house
156 Dr. Hla Pc
by pall bearers.Someone picks up the water pitcher, that has been lying at
the foot ofthe bier all this time, and pours water out ofit along the trail of
the coffin, and smashed the pitcher at the foot ofthe front steps.
The funeral procession heads for the cemetry. Its length serves
as an index ofthe status or wealth ofthe desceased. In towns, many forms
oftransport — cars, buses or horse carriages — are provided to those taking
part in it. The monks and the nuns lead the procession in cars or buses. In
villages, the follow the coffin foot. Most Myanmars believe
that in joining the funeral procession they gain merit which is said to be
ten times greater than that of to a monstery. Hence the saying:
to the monestery ten times, to a funeral Whoever
started this proverb must have had in mind the sobering effect through
meditation that the solemn mansion has on the people taking part in it.
The route ofa funeral procession to the cemetry by
certain conventions. It should never head for the centre of d
town. The funeral ofa person who has died in ajungle must not go through
any village, still less his own. It has to skirt round the outside of it. The
cemetry ofa village, as a rule, is set apart from it in a place on the west or
south-west ofit. In Mandalay, there is still a gate called 'the inasuspicious
gate’ on the south-west side ofthe old royal city, through which many a
funeral procession had passed in the days gone by. The orientation of a
town cemetry is impossible. There are more than one cemetry inside and
outside it. Every town cemetry has a zayat.
On arrival at the cemetery, the coffin is carried to the zayat, or to
an open space where there is no zayat, and is placed in front ofthe seated
monks, who are there to hold the burial service. The modem trend is to
have it held at home before the body leaves for the burial ground: it is
more private. This funeral service, held as a sort oflast rites on this earth
for the departed is performed mainly for the sake ofthe bereaved family,
and not to ensure that the dead shall have a happy life in the next exist-
ence: whatever the people may do, the dead will not escape the inexorable
law of krama. He is bound to fare according to his deserts that is the
result ofhis deeds in the past and present existences.
The coffin is taken to the open grave and lowered into it by
means of ropes. On several such occasions 1 have seen the coffin being
swung backward and forward three times over the grave before it is
committed to earth. This is, 1 am told, is a gesture offinal farewell to the
world.
Those who are by the grave side throw lumps ofearth or stones
into the grave before it is filled in. In large cities such as Yangon and
Mandalay, ceremation is superseding this burial practice as well as that
of entombment.
On returning home of the relatives may pick up a lump of
earth or a stone from the top ofthe new grave, take it back to the deceased
house and keep it in the front room. This is a token offering to the spirit of
the dead a temporary refuge for seven days. There is a general belief
among the Myanmar people that the spirit of the departed lingers about
on earth during of seven days after his or her death. Needless
to say it is a non-Buddhist practice and belief.
On the seventh day the ceremony for religious offerings is held.
It is calledyei-/e-zfiu wfii ‘seventh-day to feed the monks’. DrA. Judson
in his dictionary defines yet-le-ztln as ‘a feast given to guests attending a
funeral ceremony seven days after the burial ofthe deceased’. Shwe Yoe,
in his book, subscribed to it (p.959). The seventh day is, however, counted
from the day ofthe death; and it is not a feast given to guests attending a
funeral ceremony, but an offering of food to the monks. The word zfiu or
hsun here means the monk's food. Ofcourse the guests are also fed after
the monks as in every religious offering ceremony.
The ceremony follows the patterns of those of the others men-
tioned earlier: feeding the monks and the people attending it; undertaking
the Five Precepts; the religious discourse appropriate to the occasion; the
water-pouring ritual; and finally the sharing ofmerit with all the denizens
ofthe thirty-one planes of existence including the dead. No other single
event in the life of a Myanmar Buddhist presents the opportunity that a
death does, ofperforming all the religious duties I have been speaking of:
dana, sila and bhavana. lnotice this fact at the funeral ceremony ofone of
my four aunts in 1957 when 1 came back to Myanmar on study leave.
The scale of this kind of ceremony varies from one funeral to
another. There is, at the top, somewhat ostentatious display of offerings,
including gifts for the guests; and at the bottom, a modest form of giving
away food. It is called thabeit-thut 'putting food into the monks alms-
bowl’. It is held at the deceased's house or at a monastery with a handful
of people. At the end of the ceremony the food is placed into the alms-
bowls ofthe monks. According to the Buddha’s teaching be it a grand or
a modest ceremony, merit is gained only by those who make the offerings
with all the sincerity of their hearts.
This then is the story ofthe Myanmar Buddhist, as it were, from
155 Dr. Hla Pc
the cradle to the grave. It needs, however, rounding off by tying up the
loose ends, represented by some ofthe funeral rites. These are non-Bud—
dhist practices, which have been observed so long that they have become
customs nowadays. They lie outside my professional domain, but I will
try explain them as much as I can with the help of the knowledge 1
have gained from Myanmar sources. These sources, you must be warned,
are not well documented.
(1) Washing the body
There is ritualistic significance in it. The body is cleaned
beause it has not been washed since the dead person had been taken ill.
(2) Tying thumbs and big toes
This too is not a ritual either. The function of the string is to
keep in position the limbs ofthe body which is subject to various chemical
reactions.
(3) Placing coils of’ cotton strings on the corpse
1 have no explanation for it. There is a similar custom which is
placing a piece of the cotton—tree wood, or a short stem of the banana
plant in the coffin of an old maid. The explanation for that is to provide
the old spinster with a husband in her next life as a woman. 1 do not know
why two particular items are chosen.
(4) The térry litre
The practice ofinserting a coin between teeth is not uncommon
among many ethnic tribes. Burmese scholars maintain that it is a relic of
an ancient Indian custom. When a person died in those days the relatives
thrust the stem ofa red Hibiscus into its ear-hole, tied silver pieces to the
hem ofhis dress, caused him to be possessed by a spirit and sent it offto
the cemetry. There the grave diggers stopped the walking corpse, took
the money and buried it. The red Hibiscus with its dangling stamen, an—
ther and pollen is known to the Burmese people as the ghost flower,
unlucky to grow in the garden, or to bring it into the house or to adorn it
on one's head. However, 1 prefer the Charon's toll to that given in the
story.
(5) Pouring water in the trail of the coffin
The origin of this custom as given in a Burmese book sounds
most implausible. I shall however repeat it for what it is worth, and suggest
my own plausible conclusion to it.
Once a king would not bury the dead body ofhis most beloved
queen. He kept it in the palace. His preceptor, a hermit, heard of it, and
came to see him. By virtue ofhis supernatural power, the hemit summoned
the late queen, who was by now reborn as a female beetle. When asked in
the presence of the king, she replied that she was happily married, and
that she would not change her husband for any one on earth. On hearing
it, the incensed king kicked the body out ofthe palace, smashed the bier
and had the floor on which it had stood washed down with water.
This is an act of spite which loving relative would commit
against the dead nowadays. 1 suggested that its origin could be traced to
who did a relative he hated, and did have the
which his body had lain, washed down with water. And the people, who
witnessed such an act, followed it blindly without knowing the reason for
it!
(6) Throwing lumps of’ earth or stones into the grave
There is a story purported to explain the of this
practice, but it is so implausible that it is not worth your while to repeat it.
1 shall however repeat what a few Myanmar elders have told me about
the reason for performing this ritual. It is a kind of ‘forgive and forget’
gesture. As one throws lumps of earth into the grave, they assert, one
should say: ‘If there ever exists a state of hostility between you and me,
may it end here and now.' The lumps ofearth represent, 1 believe, a token
of peace offering.
3.5 Epilogue
And now, as a token ofmy appreciation ofyour attending some
or all ofmy eight lectures I shall bring my long discourse to a close. You
have seen the tableau ofthe life ofthe Myanmar Buddhist from birth to
death through the spectrum presented by a man who stands astride two
generations. You might deduce from it that the tableau ofone generation
is a replica of the previous generation. This is far from the truth. Every
thing is subject to changes. Nevertheless, the Myanmar Buddhist’s
fundamental beliefs and practices remain almost unchanged.
The family is still well knit as the community is well welded;
Buddhism still flourishes, so too the people’s practice in piety by fulfilling
the three primary duties ofDana, Sila and Bhavana; their strong faith in
re-incarnation, karma and Nirvana still continues unabated as with their
beliefs and practices in astrology, in deities, in magic and in omens; and
ceremonies ofevery persuasion are still being held. So, you can still meet
the Myanmar Buddhist as portrayed in my lecture all over the Myanmar
oftoday.
160 Dr. Hla Pc
lam deeply grateful to L’ Assemblée des Professeurs du College
de France for inviting me to deliver this series of eight lectures in Paris.
Their kind invitation has enabled me to meet my old friends again and to
make new ones. 1 trust that the time you have spent attending my lectures
are worth your while.
Au
(Hla Pe)
(15th March 1954)
Notes: The transliteration of words given follows the system devised

by Chas. Duroiselle (see Epigraphia Birmanica 1, i, pp.6- 12, Yangon,
1916). Certain modifications have been introduced make the system
more consistent and to meet modem requirements. The ‘big fi’ is written
‘fi fi’; the level tone for the vowel series shown as ‘o’; and tone marks
are indicated as in Myanmar script. The transcription of the Myanmar
words follows the system recommended by J.W. Okell: see A Guide to
the Romanization of’ Myanmar, Luzac, London, 1971.
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276 Dr. Hla Pc
The Five Duties

1. Parents
(1) To guide their children away from evil
(2) To lead them to what
(3) To educate them
(4) To set them up financially
(5) To see that they are suitably married
2. Children
(1) To reciprocate their parents’ favours
(2) To take responsibility for their parents’ affairs
(3) To perpetuate the family
(4) To be worthy of one’s inheritance
(5) To perform works ofmerit on their parents’ behalf
3. Husband
love and adore his wife
(2) To esteem her
(4) To endow her with worldly possessions
(5) To provide her with ornaments
4.Wile
(1) To manage efficiently all domestic obligations
(2) To look after the relatives
(4) To protect the property
(5) To be industrious
5. Teacher
(1)To endow his pupils with knowledge
(2) To withold no knowledge from them
(3) To send them to other teachers ( to be better equipped )
(4) To admonish and exhort them
(5) To protect them from danger
d. Pupil
(1) To be assiduous
(2) To listen to the teacher’s advice
(3) To learn what he teaches
(4) To greet him when he comes
(5) To administer to him by his side
TABLE
Days of the week with their corresponding letters of the alpha—
bet and numbers.
Days Letters of’ the alphabet Numbers
Sunday a and other vowels i
Monday k, kh, g, gh, ii 2
Tuesday c, ch, j, jh, fi 3
Wednesday l, w 4
Thursday p, ph, b, bh, m 5
Friday s, h
Saturday I, th, d, dh, n 7
Rahu y, r
Note: r sometimes — 4, and n—0 (zero)
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BIBILOGRAPHY
1. Basham, A.L. The Wonder That Was 1ndia,_London, 1977
2. Conze, E. Buddhism, Bruno Cassirer, Oxford, 1952
3. Duroiselle, Ch. ‘Upagutta ct Mara’, Extract du Bulletin L’ecole
Francaise D’extreme-Orient (Janvier-Juin 1904)
Epigraphia Birmanica 1, Rangoon, 1916
4. Hall, D.€i.E. A History of’ South-East Asia, St Martin’s Press,
New York, 1965
5. Halliday, R. The Talaings, Rangoon(Yangon), 1917
6. Hla Pe, Konmara Pya Zat, I, Luzac & Co. Ltd, London, 1952
Burmese(Myanmar) Proverbs, John Murray, London,
1962
‘Dawn Songs’, BSOAS, 1957, XX
‘Abbreviations, Cryptograms and Chronograms in
Burmese (Myanmar)’, JBRS, XLVI1, ii, Dec. 1964
‘Burmese(Myanmar) Attitudes to Plants and Animals’
‘Natural Symbols in South-East Asia,’ed. €i.B.Milner,
School of Oriental and African Studies, 1975
7. Houtman, €i. Burmese(Myanmar) Personal Names, Department of
Religious Affairs, Rangoon(Yangon), 1952
S. Htin Aung, Maung. FolkElements in Burmese(Myanmar) Buddhism,
London, 1962
9. Luce, €i.H. ‘Prayers ofAncient Burma(Myanmar)’, JBRS, XXV1, iii,
Dec. 1936
10. Luce, G.H. &Pe Maung Tin. ‘Burma(Myanmar) Down to the Fall of
Pagan’, JBRS, XXIX, iii, Dec. 1939
11. PeMaung Tin. The Path ofPurity, Oxford University Press, Vol.1, 1923;
Vol.11, 1929; Vol. 111, 1931
12. Pe Maung Tin &Luce, G.H. The Glass Palace Chronicle ofthe Kings
ofBurma(Myanmar),.Oxford University Press, London,
1923
13. Rahula, Walpola. What the Buddha Taught, Grove Press, Inc.,
New York, 1959
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and Co. Ltd, London, 1910
15. Temple, Sir R.C. The Thirty-seven Nats, London, 1906
In (Myanmar)
1. Compiled by scholars : Maha Ya-zawin-daw-gyi I,
(History of Myanmar), Upper Burma(Myanmar)
Newspaper Press, Mandalay, 1908
2. Hsaya Thin. Maung Ta-naw Wut-htu, 1 & 11, Rangoon(Yangon), (?),
1906

The Myanmar Buddhist, His Life From The Cradle To The Grave, Dr. Tin Hlaing (Eng and MM)

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Prof Pe, Prof Rice-Evans and the Great Golden Rock

About This Book

Something for Sayagyi's Ninetieth Year

2.3.1.1 The Buddha

2.3.1.2 The Three Major Schools

2.3.1.3 Theravada Buddhism

The Myanmar conception of the deities is very complicated.

2.3.2.1 Buddhist celestial gods

2.3.2.2 Hindu gods

* At the time ofwriting-1984 AD,

2.3.2.3 Terrestrial deities

2.3.2.4 Magic, astrology and others

2.4 Economic Setting

2.5 Social environment

2.d The Myanmar family

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3.1.1.1 Naming ceremony

3.1.1.2 Lili at home

3.1.2 Village School

3.1.2.1 Coaxing the psyche

3.1.3 English school

3.1.3.1 Propitiating rituals

(1) U Shin Gyi

(2) The Guandian spirit of the farms

3.1.3.2 Buddhist initiation ceremony

Man : 1haven’t enough money. lam planning to make them novices in

You are getting ready to enter the monastery.

(1) Shin Upagutta

3.1.4.1 Token marriage

3.1.4.2 The guardian spirit of’ hidden treasure

3.1.d Myanmar 1957-58

3.1.d.1 The banyan-tree

3.1.d.2 The cairn

3.1.6.3 Ancestors’ nat

3.2.1 Human relations and marriage

3.2.1.1 Parents and children

3.2.1.2 Teachers and pupils

3.2.1.3 Between friends

3.2.1.4 Between relatives

3.2.1.5 Social contract between man and woman

(1) Living together as man and wife

Nine Brahma, not many Brahma as in the first episode,

1 have made references to the tragic fates of a few run away

Committing suicide is condemned by the Myanmar Buddhists,

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