Conjugation

 Discovered by Joshua Lederberg and Edward Tatum in 1946 in Escherichia coli.

 Transfer of genetic material takes place through formation of a conjugation tube known as
pilus.
 Pilus is formed by bacteria having F-Plasmid (F- factor) i.e. Donor/male/F+ with the help of
pili. Whereas bacteria lacking F plasmid are recipient/female/F- and cannot initiate
conjugation.
 Bernard Davis proved that physical contact is necessary for conjugation (U-tube experiment).

Conjugation between F+ and F-

I. Donor forms a conjugation tube and attach with the recipient.

II. There is simultaneous replication and transfer of small circular DNA (plasmid) takes place
from F+ to F- via conjugation tube.
III. The cells separate apart resulting in formation of two F+ bacteria. This means the F- turns F+
due to presence of F plasmid.

Fig: showing conjugation between F+ and F-.

Conjugation between HFr (donor) and F- (recipient)

I. Here F plasmid integrates with bacterial chromosome and results in development of HFr i.e.
a high frequency or super male.
II. In this process along with plasmid, a part of donor’s chromosome is transfer to the F-
bacterium.
III. Complete transfer of bacterial chromosome is a long duration process and often interrupted
in nature leading to breakdown of conjugation tube. Thus, only some part of chromosome is
transferred.
 Fig: showing formation of HFr cell.

Transduction
 Discovered by Joshua Lederberg and Norton Zinder in year 1951 in the bacterium Salmonella
typhimurium.
 It is a virus-mediated transfer of genetic material from one bacterium to another.
Bacteriophage are the bacteria-infecting virus.

Virus show two different mode of infection in a cell:

Lytic cycle

I. In this virus, inject its genetic material into the host cell through cell membrane penetration.
II. Lysis of host genome takes place and virus utilize the host cellular machinery to replicate its
genetic material and synthesise other structural components.
III. Assembly of new phage particles take place before outburst of host cell releasing new phage
progeny into environment to infect new cells.

Lysogenic cycle

I. Here the viral DNA/RNA incorporate into the bacterial genome and stay dormant and known
as Prophage. Prophage genome passively replicates along with host DNA and enters into the
new daughter cells.
II. Few stimulus trigger the prophage to enter into lytic cycle and replicate. At times while
packaging new virus, a portion of host DNA integrates into along with viral DNA.
III. Now when these virus infect another bacterial cell lead to transfer of bacterial genes from
one strain to another this process is known as transduction.
 Virus

Viral DNA Synthesis of new viral

Bacterial cell DNA and proteins

Lysis of B-DNA

Bacterial DNA
Bursting of host cell and release
of viral progeny

New virus infect other host

and release B-DNA
New virus having bacterial
along with its genome DNA

New B-DNA integrates into

new host genome

New integrated DNA

Fig: showing transduction

Transformation
 Discovered by Frederick Griffith in Streptococcus pneumonia and he concluded that some
form of transferrable genetic material resulted in transformation of the non-virulent bacterial
cells into virulent bacterial cell.
 In 1944, Oswald T. Avery, Colin M. Macleod, and Maclyn McCarty demonstrated that the
“transforming genetic material” was DNA.
 Few cells are compatible to incorporate foreign DNA through their cell walls these cells are
said competent cells.
 Competent cells can be created artificially through heat shock, electric shock and by use of
chemicals. It is one of the most use application in biotechnology.
 Bacterial DNA DNA fragments taken up New integrated DNA
Release of DNA by competent cell
fragments

Fig: showing transformation in bacterial cell

Blue green algae (BGA)

ICBN named BGA as Cyanobacteria in year 1978.

Cosmopolitan i.e. found in fresh water (mostly), marine water and terrestrial habitat.

Cyanobacteria were the first organisms to produced O 2 on our earth, as hydrogen donor in photosynthesis is H 2O.
Photolysis of water result in release of oxygen molecule.
Cyanobacteria are photosynthetic oxygenic prokaryotes.

Pigments:
 Chlrophyll 'a' – green (found in higher plants)

 Carotenoids - yellow

 C - Phycocyanin - blue

 C - Phycoerythrin – red
Shape and forms:
Unicellular: E.g. Spirulina
Colonial: E.g. Microcystis
Filamentous: E.g. Oscillatoria, Anabaena

NOTE: Oscillatoria is found in hot water springs having temperature up to 80°c, due to presence of homopolar bonds in
proteins of cytoplasm.