BRANCHES OF ANTHROPOLOGY

Course name: Introduction to General Anthropology

Paper No. & Title: B.A./B.Sc. Honours Paper –I

General Introduction to
Anthropology

Topic No. & Title: 2/8. Branches of Anthropology

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OBJECTIVES:

1. To highlight the scope of anthropology

2. To show the main branches of anthropology and their
scopes
3. To provide information about the subject matters of
each branch of anthropology

Content & Script of the Programme

Introduction:
Anthropologists study man as a member of animal
kingdom and his behaviour as a member of society.
Different branches of anthropology focus on different
aspects of human experience. One branch focuses on how
our species evolved from earlier species. Other branches
concentrate on the learned traditions of human thought
and behavior, how ancient cultures evolved and diversified,
and how and why modern cultures change or stay the
same. In its attempt to study the various dimensions of
man’s existence and behaviour, it tends to generate many
specialized branches.

The major elementary branches are mentioned as

under ;

1. Socio -Cultural Anthropology

2. Physical (Biological)Anthropology
3. Archaeological Anthropology
4. Linguistic Anthropology
5. Applied Anthropology

1. Socio-Cultural Anthropology:
Second half of the 19th century was the beginning period of
the socio-cultural Anthropology. It is being inspired by the
idea of evolution after the Darwin’s Publication of the
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Origin of Species. Many socio-cultural anthropologists

become interested in exploring the possibility of a similar
process of evolution in the field of society and culture.
They focused in the study of preliterate societies in the
belief that they represented the earliest condition of
human society and culture. All of them who got themselves
involved in the comparative study of preliterate societies
and cultures at that time, with the intention of studying
origin and evolution preferred the term ethnologists for
them. It deals with man in the context of society and
culture. While society’s presence is attested at sub-human
level, culture is exclusively a human phenomenon. Broadly
speaking, it concentrates on the life patterns of people
It develops as a science of socio cultural similarities and
differences with no limitation of time and space. In the
beginning it studies only among the preliterate people, but
now it entertains no such limitations. By the beginning of
the 20th century its earlier designation as Ethnology was
gradually abandoned. It is replaced by the terms cultural
Anthropology in America and by social Anthropology in
Britain.

In America, a tradition of study of whole cultures

developed, while in Britain the comparative study of social
structures was considered to be the subject matter of
social anthropology.

The American Anthropologists, however, considered

the study of culture of people to include social structure.
So the two differed only in degrees.

Unlike its earlier exclusive pre-occupation with the

preliterates, it has extended its domain to cover complex
societies as well, though the study of small scale non-
literate societies is still important to it.

The life of people has several dimensions, and the

attempts to study each one in detail has resulted in the
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origin and growth of several sub-branches from the

elementary branch of socio-cultural Anthropology such as
Economic Anthropology, Political Anthropology,
Psychological Anthropology, Anthropology of Religion and
so on and so forth. We shall overview only these sub-
branches of major interest.

a) Economic Anthropology: Production, consumption

distribution and exchange are the basic structures of
economic transactions and its processes. Economic
Anthropologists concentrate on these activities mainly in
non-literate and peasent societies. They focus on the
modes of exchanges including ceremonial exchanges. The
concept of reciprocity and redistribution are crucial here
The nature of trade and market systems are also studied.

The process of economic growth and development in

societies are ultimately studied. Some scholars argue that
the economic activities of man are not studied in isolation
but in their socio-cultural setting with the emphasis on
those socio-cultural factors that influence and determine
economic activity in each society. It resulted in a hot
debate between the formalists and sub stantivists i.e
those who feel that the theories formulated in the
discipline of Economics are equally sufficient in explaining
economic processes in simple societies, and those who
counter by arguing that the economy of each society is
embedded in the bed of culture and so that economic
theories that have been constructed with the modern
monetized systems in mind do not find a credible place in
the anthropology of simple societies.

b) Political Anthropology : It concentrates on the

ubiquity of political process and the functions of legitimate
authority, law, justice and sanctions in simple societies’ ;
focus of power and leadership. It focuses on the
Anthropological point of view in the formulation of the
typology of political structures based on differences and
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similarities observed among the societies of the world and

its political processes emerging among nations and
complex societies. Moreover, it also studies political
culture and the nation building processes.

c) Psychological Anthropology: It is the study of

psychological, behavioral and personal approaches of man.
The basic human conflict between human and personal
needs are varied and must be studied at individual as well
as social level simultaneously was realized, but neither
psychologists nor anthropologists alone could satisfactorily
handle all the dimensions of the problem in the frame work
of one single discipline. This gave rise to the need for a
co-operative endeavor between them. Culture was not the
gift of God nor did it grow by itself. It was achieved at a
great psychic cost. It thus developed as an interdisciplinary
approach within the folds of American cultural
Anthropology. Modern Psycholgical Anthropologists are
very much intersted in the process by which culture is
transmitted from one generation to next. The process of
enculturation forms the basis for difference in cultural
configurations which are the moulders of personality. It
was this configurational view, a product of psychological
tendencies uniquely tempered in different cultures by
cultural factors which opened up an area of research. Ruth
Benefiet conducted her research in many American Indian
cultures and published her “Patterns of Culture” in 1934.
Margaret Mead Studied among the Somoans to tell us how
adolescence and sex attitudes come to be acquired in
different cultures.

d) Ethno – archaeology – The term ethnic refers to a

group distinguished by common cultural characteristics.
The comparative study of cultures in historical perspective
is the subject matter of ethnology whereas the descriptive
account of the total way of life of the people at a given
time is devoted as ethnography. Archaeology is that
branch of anthropology which is concerned with the
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historical reconstruction of cultures that no longer exist. It

helps to reconstruct the human past in its material
features including how people lived and worshipped, how
they built, their arts, tombs and travels. It provides
material on man’s prehistory about which no written
records are available. It is concerned with all of man’s
material remains. Thus, the use of archaeology to study
ethnography becomes imperative. That’s why this branch
is referred to as Ethno- archaeology.

e) Ecological Anthropology - It deals with the

relationship between human beings and their
environments. It is the use of the concept of environment
in the explanation of both the origin of different cultural
elements and also the diversity of cultural groups. It also
attempts to understand of cultural groups. It also attempts
to understand the relative influence of environment on
human society and how it is used by different societies.
The ecological perspective is based on the assumption that
constant interplay takes place between man and his
environment. They cannot be understood as isolated
entities. The ecological perspective in Anthropology was
first expressed by Steward in the 1930’s through his most
important concept, “cultural ecology, which recognized
that culture and environment are not separate spheres but
are involved in a dialectic interplay or reciprocal causality.

f) Anthropology of Religion : There are many theories

regarding the origin of religion among people. Some of the
major theories are Animism, Animatism, Manaism and
Primitive monotheism. The perceptions of people regarding
the differences between man and nature are studied first
of all. The beliefs in natural forces and super-natural
forces, and/or being are investigated. The operation of
religious traditions including the rituals and ceremonies
among non-literate and peasant societies are studied in
detail.
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The practices which fall within the domain of religion such

as taboo and totemism are also examined. The differences
between magic, religion and science are discussed and
debated. Witch craft and Sorcery are examined as
important aspects of non-literate magic. Above all, the
social and Psychological functions of magic and religion are
emphasized .

2. Physical Anthropology:
It is a branch of Anthropology which attempts to explore
human mystery related to their origin, differentiation,
diversities and distributions. With the advancement of
genetical sciences, it becomes more and more biology
oriented, and by virtue of it, its area of study got
considerable extension. By considering the whole
situations, it can be divided into the following sub-
branches.

a) Primatology - It is the Scientific study of primate

group of mammal . Man, the central figure of
Anthropologycal study, belongs to the order primate of
animal kingdom. The primates, starting from the smallest
rat like micro cebus to the largest huge bodied gorilla, in
their various stages of development show different life
patterns. The integrated study of the primates, in the
background of physical Anthropology gives an intrinsic
value to understand the position of man.

b) Ethnology - It is the study of human diversities. All

the living men in the
world are categorized into different groups broadly known
as races. These are now understood as the Mendelian
Populations, an inbreeding group of humanity sharing a
common gene pool. It also attempts to explain the nature,
formation and differentiation of the racial groups

c) Human biology: It deals with the concrete biological

principles and concepts of man. It is differed from the
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biology of other animals because of the impact of cultural

achievement. It is highly influenced by culture as well.
Culture, sometime, remodelled biological phenomenon.
Physical anthropologist attempts to understand this
biological feature of man and their successive
development, changes in structure and function through
time.

d) Palaeoanthropology - It is the branch of physical

anthropology which deals with the documentation of
biological history of mankind. They work on fossil
evidences collected from the different layers of the earth.
It also attempts to reconstruct the link between the human
and non-human traits that had so long been lost. They
evaluate the fossil remains found from different sites and
establish their status and evolutionary significance.

e) Human Genetics: Genetics deals with the inherited

characters. There is a genetic relation between parents
and their offspring. The tendency of inheritance of parental
characters in known as heredity. The heredity and its
mechanism must be well understood in order to know the
origin and evolution of man. Human genetics is a
specialized branch of physical Anthropology which reveals
the mechanism of heredity of various traits in men.

f) Nutritional Anthropology: It deals with the matter

related with the nutritional perspectives of human beings
and their subsequent growth and development. The
population of a country needs proper growth and
development. Growth, however, is depended on two
factors – heredity and environment. This branch of
knowledge concerns with the impact of these two factors
on human beings as well.

g) Medical Anthropology – It studies disease patterns and

their impact on human societies. Medical Anthropologist
attempts to bring into light the socio-cultural as well as
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genetical or environmental determinants of disease within

a population through the close study of the people and
their way of life. This proves very much effective in
combating different diseases in human societies.

h) Physiological Anthropology: This branch deals with

the internal organs of the human body in order to
understand their bio-chemical constitutions. It is also
concerned with how the physiology of man interacts with
the external factors like climate, food habit, etc. Moreover,
it studies bio-chemical variations in man and other
primates.

i) Forensic anthropology : It deals with the skeletal

structure of hominids and non-hominids to understand the
similarities and differences of the body parts. This branch
of knowledge becomes very effective in the detection of
criminals as well as in the identification of the nature and
status of individuals through their biological remains.

j) Dental Anthropology : This branch of knowledge deals

with teeth and its pattern. The teeth provide the body
shape and size as well as food habit, and related behavior
patterns. The dental morphology helps us to understand
human evolution, growth, body morphology, genetical
features, etc.

It is therefore, a specialized knowledge which

attempts to study the distribution of different dental traits
among different population.

k) Anthropometry: It is the anthropological Science of

measurement. This study is not only useful in the study of
gradual human development through evolution and in
understanding the racial discrimination patterns but also
helpful in the day to day way of life which is exclusively
related to human bodily forms.
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l) Ergonomy: This branch of physical Anthropology is

concerned with the correlation between the static body
dimensions and the designing of machine to be driven by
man – this branch of knowledge is very important by the
very fact that many groups of people differ in body size as
a result of varied biological and environmental factors.

m) Demography: It is the Science of population. It

deals with fertility and mortality. These two factors are
again influenced by heredity and environment. As it is
concerned with the traits like growth, age – sex structure,
spatial distribution, migration in addition to fertility and
mortality of the population, it naturally becomes a
specialized branch of physical Anthropology.

n) Ethology: It is the science of animal behavior. The

data obtain from the study of other primate behaviors are
being used to help explain the basic background of human
behaviors and to suggest how human ancestors may have
acted on the different issues.

3. Archaeological Anthropology:
This branch of knowledge attempts to trace the
origin, growth and development of culture in the past. By
past we meant the period before history when man had
not acquired the capabilities of language, not merely to
speak but also to write in order to record the story of his
life.

The Archaeological Anthropologist differs from the

socio – cultural Anthropologist in two important aspects :

a) The former studies past cultures while the latter

studies present.
b) The former lacks the advantage of personal contact
and interaction with the people he is studying which the
former enjoys.
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Archaeology can tell us about the technology of peoples by

analyzing the tools they have left behind. Based on this, it
can shed light on the economic activities of the people who
utilized that technology. The artistic capabilities of people
become apparent through the remains of fine engravings
on pottery, intricate designs on jewellery , etc. Physical
remains of housing can reveal certain aspect of social
structure. Besides, certain aspects of religions beliefs can
also be guessed by observing burial sites and the articles
kept in graves. Such various aspects that Archaeological
Anthropologists study begin with an attempt to understand
the geological processes, particularly the Great Ice Age,
and the succession of climatic phases that have left behind
stratigraphic evidences in river terraces and moraines.
Further, it studies man as an artificer. Based on the types
of stone tools, they divided the cultural development of
man into three stone Ages : Paleolithic (Old stone Age),
Mesolithic (Middle Stone Age) and Neolithic (New Stone
Age).

Excavation to discover artifacts, dating the assign an

approximate time period and clever conjectures to build
the cultural history of man’s past are the methods used by
Archaeological Anthropologists. Basically, they often work
with the socio – cultural Anthropologists to study and
reconstruct past cultures by the method of extrapolation
i.e. by inferring the unknown from those things that are
known.

4. Linguistic Anthropology:
Linguistic Anthropology is that branch of
anthropology which deals with language. It is concerned
with the languages of all people, past and present as it is
the chief vehicle through which man preserves and
transmits his culture from generation to generation. It also
interested in the relationship between language and
cultural cognition as well as cultural behavior.
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The major difference between Linguists and Linguistic

Anthropologist is that the former are mainly concerned
with the study of how languages, particularly written ones,
are constructed and structured. But the Linguistic
Anthropologists study unwritten languages as also written
languages. Another crucial difference between them is that
those features which the former taken for granted into
consideration by the latter. These features are related to
the systems of knowledge, belief, assumptions and
conventions that produce particular ideas at particular
times in the mind of people. Each of these features are the
mind of people. Each of these features are culturally
conditioned and hence unique to each culture and society.

Linguistic Anthropology has following branches

a) Descriptive or structure linguistics – It deals with
the description
of languages.
b) Historical Linguistics – It deals with origin and
development of languages.
c) Socio – cultural linguistics or Ethno linguistics – It
studies how
languages are used in actual speech and cognition. It not
only sheds light on the universal properties of languages
but also answers many questions like how languages of
people differ and how they are employed to perceive the
socio -cultural milieu in which a people live are sought.
The Linguistic Anthropology thus, tries to understand the
roles of language in human life and the part it has played
in the amelioration of humanity.

5. Applied Anthropology:
The ultimate aim of the study of man is not only
merely acquiring knowledge regarding man, society and
culture, but in applying the knowledge so gained in solving
the practical problems faced by mankind all over the world.
In this effort, Anthropologists often work closely with the
administrators of the government. The applied
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Anthropologists’ role may be seen as that of a consultant

to the government. The Applied Anthropologist has a role
in all the three events – before, during and after – of a
welfare programme. His initial work comprises a pre-study
of the people and their culture. The diagnosis of the
problems affecting their society comes next. Suggesting
specific solutions to those problems involve at the outset
the careful consideration of the pros and cons of the
developmental project. The Anthropologist has to
undertake the job of on-going supervision and analysis
during the application of the approved scheme for its
proper implementation. Moreover, an evaluation of the
entire project has to be done in order to review the work,
correct any mistakes that might have crept in and recast
the work for better results. Evaluation thus serves the
important purpose of exposing the pitfalls in the project
that serves as a sanction in future.

The efficiency of Applied Anthropology lies in

overcoming the barriers of change and in igniting the
stimulants of change. The cultural barriers to change arise
from factors relating to values and attitudes including
tradition, Fatalism, ethnocentricism, pride and dignity,
norms of modesty, the logical incompatibility of culture
traits, superstitions, etc. Social barriers to change arise
from group solidarity, public opinions, conflict,
factionalism, vested interest, lack of authority within family
as well as political structure, social stratification, class,
caste, etc.

In brief, Applied Anthropology has mostly dealt with

planned change and development in third world countries.
The two major areas in which Applied Anthropologists have
contributed substantially are improvements in technology
and health. They also help governmental and other welfare
agencies in formulating policies and plans for improvement
in several areas as well. Some of the areas concentrated
on by Applied Anthropologists are birth control,
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malnutrition, growth, medicine, juvenile delinquency, tribal

rehabilitation, solving industrial problems such as labor
unrest, adult education, etc.

Conclusion:
Seemingly, Anthropologist is given the status of social
engineer by some scholars while social doctor by others,
which in fact, is not an exaggeration.

FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTION

Q.1. Why is Anthropology often considered to be the most

comprehensive of the sciences dealing with man and
his works ?

Ans:- Anthropologist combines in one discipline the

approaches of both the biological and social sciences.
His problems centre, on the one hand, on man as a
member of the animal kingdom and on the other
hand, on man’s behavior as a member of society.
Further more, he does not limit himself to any
particular group of men or to any one period of
history. He is as much interested in the earlier forms
of man and his behavior as those of the present day.

Q.2. Why Anthropology divides into different branches of

study ?

Ans: The search for a set of principles which governs

man’s physical and
cultural development is the primary central theme of
anthropology. There are a great many different
problems related to the central theme. For instance,
why has man changed physically ? Why are there so
many distinctive human types despite their common
origin ? What accounts for the many wide differences
in languages and cultures ? What is the nature of
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culture and how do cultures change ? Each set of

problems requires the development of specific and
highly technical methods of study. It is therefore like
many other disciplines, divided into different branches,
each having to do with some specialized aspect of the
general field.

Q.3. What are the major questions that physical

anthropology seeks to answer.

Ans:- There are two distinct sets of questions that

physical anthropology seeks to answer. The first
includes questions about the emergence of humans
and their later evolution. In order to reconstruct
human evolution, paleontologists search for and study
the buried, hardened remains or impressions known
as fossils – of human, prehumans and related animals.
In attempting to classify evolutionary relationships,
they use not only fossil record but also geological
information on the succession of climates,
environments, and plants and animal populations. The
second set includes questions about how and why
contemporary human populations vary biologically. In
order to understand such variations, they use the
principles, concepts and the techniques of human
genetics, population biology and epidemiology. All
living people belong to one species “Homo Sapiens”,
for all can successfully interbred. Yet there is much
that varies among human populations.

Q.4. Why do physical anthropologists study primates ?

Ans:- From primate studies, they try to discover those

characteristics that are distinctly human, as opposed
to those that might be past of the primate heritage,
with this information, they may be able to guess what
our prehistoric ancestors were like. The influences
from primate studies are checked against the fossil
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record. The evidence from the earth, collected in bits

and pieces is correlated with scientific observations of
our closest living relatives. Thus, its studies got an
intrinsic value to understand the position of man.

Q.5. Distinguish between Ethnography and Ethnology

Ans:- An Ethnography is a written description of a

particular culture – the customs, beliefs, and behavior
– based on information collected through field work.
Traditionally ethnographers have lived in small
communities and studied local behavior, beliefs,
customs, social life, economic activities, politics and
religion whereas ethnologist examines, interprets,
analyses and compares the results of ethnography –
the data gathered in different societies. It uses such
data to compare and contrast, and to make
generalizations about society and culture. In short,
ethnologists, attempt to identify and explain cultural
differences and similarities, to test hypotheses, and to
build theory to enhance our understanding of how
social and cultural systems work. They also get data
for comparison not just from ethnography but also
from the other sub-fields, particularly from
archaeological anthropology, which reconstructs social
systems of the past.

Q.6. What is distinctive about cultural anthropology ?

Ans:- The purpose of anthropology is to understand all

of human kind by studying all aspects of human
behavior and ideas. Anthropologists recognize that
immense differences lie between people – differences
in physical traits, language, life styles, beliefs values
and behavior. By studying these differences, they
come to understand that ways of behaving and
believing are intelligible in terms of over all context in
which they occur. By adopting this broad view of the
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human experience, perhaps human beings can tear off

the blinders put on them by their local life styles. It is,
thus incompatible with the view that a particular group
– and no one else – represents humanity, stands at
the pinnacle of progress or has been chosen by God or
history to fashion the world in its own image.

Q.7. Why do socio-cultural Anthropologists study non –

literate and peasant societies ?

Ans:- In the past, they almost exclusively study small –

scale and non-literate – lacking tradition of reading
and witting – societies with the conviction that they
represented the earliest condition of human society
and culture – No doubt, some aspects of life in non-
literate societies such as technology are simpler than
their equivalents in literate societies, but other aspects
such as kinship systems or oral traditions, may be
more sophisticated. The culture and societies of
peasants are also a long standing interest of socio
cultural anthropology. Perhaps the number of small
scale, non literate societies has diminished steadily
since anthropology became an academic discipline.
Today, their interest in non-literate and peasants
continues, but people who live in contemporary large
scale societies, both non – western and western have
also become a major focus of study.

Q.8. Why is physical anthropology more desirable to call

Biological anthropology ?

Ans:- The modern physical anthropology has entered

into categorical study of various physiological
perspectives through bio-chemical and genetical view
points and less stress has now been given on the
linear measurements. It is not interested in the study
of the superficial bodily parts, rather through the
adoption of new methodology it pledges to explore the
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mysteries of various internal features of huan biology.

In order to study human diversities it relies
extensively on population genetics which offers the
physical anthropologists a clearly formulated and
experimentally verified conceptual theme. The human
races are now best considered as dandelion
populations which centred round a purely genetic
concept. Because of this integrated – biology –
oriented approach of the present day physical
anthropology it is more desirable to call it Biological
anthropology.

Q.9. Differentiate between Linguistics and Linguistic

Anthropology

Ans:- Linguistics concerns with the study of how

languages particularly written ones, are constructed
and structured. But the Linguistic Anthropology
studies Unwritten languages as well as written
languages. Another crucial difference between there is
that those features which the former taken for granted
are taken into consideration by the later. These
features relate to the systems of knowledge, belief,
assumptions and conventions that produce particular
ideas at particular times in the minds of people. Each
of these features are culturally conditioned and hence
unique to each culture and society. Linguistics is more
structure – oriented whereas linguistic anthropology is
more history –oriented.

Q.10. Distinguish between Applied and Action

Anthropology

Ans:- If applied anthropology presumes a body of a

Scientific knowledge, compedia of empirical
proposions developed by theoretical anthropologists’
and awaiting application to particular situations when
they are asked to do so by management, government,
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administrator or organization, then, action

anthropology is far different. The applied
anthropologists role may be seen as that of a
consultant to the government. But, the action
anthropologist can have no master, he works as a
member of the academic community. He is and must
be a theoretical anthropologist, not only in background
but in practice. His method is clinical in the sense that
a physician continually improves his diagnosis with
tentative remedies. In socio- cultural dynamics, theory
requires to understand not simply the culture and the
functional interrelations of institution but also the
perceptions by people, of the alternatives which face
them in changing situation.

SUMMARY

Anthropology is the most comprehensive of the Sciences

dealing with man and his works. Different branches of
Anthropology focus on different aspects of the human
experience. On its attempt to study the various
dimensions of man’s existence and behavior, it
generates many specialized branches namely Socio-
cultural Anthropology, Physical (Biological)
Anthropology, Archaeological Anthropology, Linguistic
Anthropology and Applied Anthropology. Socio-cultural
Anthropology deals with man in the context of society
and culture. While society’s presence is attested at sub-
human level, culture is exclusively human phenomenon.
It totally concentrates on the patterns of people.
Physical Anthropology deals with human mystery related
to their origin, differentiation, diversities and
distribution. Archaeology attempts to trace the origin,
growth and development of culture in the past. Linguistic
Anthropology deals with the languages of all the people,
past and present. Applied Anthropology concerns with
planned change and development in the third world
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countries. The efficiency of it lies in overcoming the

barriers of change and in igniting the stimulants of
change. Moreover, it substantially contributes in the
improvement of technology and health.

GLOSSARY

1. Culture : Distinctly humans ; transmitted through

learning; traditions and customs that govern
behaviour and beliefs.

2. Society: A group of people who reside within a specific

territory and share a common culture.

3. Science: A body of knowledge gained through

observation and experimentation; from the Latin
Scientia, meaning “knowledge”.

4. Technology: All the human techniques and methods

of reaching a specific goal in subsistence or in
modifying or controlling the natural environment.

5. Species: Groups of organisms with similar physical

characteristics that can potentially interbreed
successfully.

6. Genetics: The study of gene structure and action and

the patterns of inheritance of traits from parent to
offspring. Genetic mechanisms are the underlying
foundation for evolutionary change.

7. Primatology: The study of the biology and behavior of

non-human Primates (Prosimians, monkeys, and
apes).
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8. Primate: A member of the order mammals

(Pronounces Pry-may-tees ) which includes
prosimians, monkeys, apes and humans.

9. Hominids: Members of the family Hominidae.

10. Ethnography: Field work in a particular culture.

11. Ethnology: Cross cultural comparison; the

comparative study of ethnographic data, of society,
and of culture.

12. Artifacts: Objects or materials made or modified for

use by hominids. The earliest artifacts tend to be tools
made of stone or occasionally bone.

13. Applied Anthropology: The application of

anthropological data, perspectives, theory, and
methods to identify, assess, and solve contemporary
social problems.;

14. Palacoanthropology: The interdisciplinary approach to

the study of earlier hominids – their chronology,
physical structure archaeological remains, habitats,
etc.

15. Anthropometry: Measurements of human body parts.

16. Osteometry: The measurements of human skeletal

elements or skeletals.

17. Non-Literate society: The society lacking the tradition

of reading and writing.

18. Illiterate people: The people who do not read or write

either, but who live in societies in which others do.
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19. Peasants: The agricultural people whose lives and

work revolve around their households and Farms and
whose subsistence technologies are simpler then those
of used in industrialized societies.

QUIZ

1. The branch of anthropology that deals with origin and

development of languages in known as
a) Descriptive Linguistics
b) Ethnolinguistics Ans:- (c)
c) Historical Linguistics

2. The book “ The Origin of Species” was author by

a) E B Tylor
b) Charles Darwin Ans:- (b)
c) Charles Lyell.

3. Primatology is a branch of
a) Zoology
b) Botany Ans:- ( a )
c) Anthropology

4. Who among the following is interested in individual as

an individual ?
a) Anthropologist
b) Psychologist Ans:- ( b )
c) Sociologist

5. The Book “Patterns of culture” as author by

a) Margaret Mead
b) Ruth Benedict Ans:- ( b )
c) Lestic A white
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HOME ASSIGNMENT

1. Write an essay on Forensic Anthropology

Or

2. Write an essay on Medical Anthropology

REFERNCE:

1. Haviland. A, William 1998 cultural Anthropology ( 9th

Ed.) Harcourt Brace college publisher, New York.

2. Jurmain, Robert, 2000 Introduction of physical

Kilgore, Lyun Thomson Learning
Nelson, Harry Anathropology. (8th ed), Wadsworth
Trevathan, Wenda London.

3. Winchester, AM 1967 Genetics : A Survey of the

principles of Heredity, Oxford and lBH publishing , New
Delhi.

4. Ember, carol. R 1993 Anthropology( 6th ed)

Ember, Melvin Prentici Hall, New Delhi

5. Kottak, Conrad phillip, 2004 cultural Anthropology, Mc

Grew, New York

6. Scupin, Raymond 1992, cultural Anthropology : A

Global perspective
Prentice Hall, New Jersy.
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7. Janusch, J, Bucttner 1966, Origin of Man, John wiley

and sons Inc. New York.

8. Beals, Ralph, 2007 An Introduction to Surject

Hoijer, Harry Anthropology publication New Delhi