Plato - Type - when naming a new species, a required step is designating a type specimen - EX:

white male embodies the whole human race

Allegory of the Cave - question reality due to perception & ignore variability but work with
essence

Aristotle - The Scala Naturae - ladder of life (hierarchy)

4 Varieties of Human - European, American, Asian , African
4 Seasons - Blood, Yellow Bile, Black Bile, Phlegm

Buffon - The word race was questioned; wanted description not classification
Suggested environmental influence
Humans are only 1 species because lack of infertility

Blumenbach - 5 Races - Caucasians, Mongolians, Americans Ethiopians, Malayans

Bible and Human Variation - Origin: Tower of Babel - God didn't want a ladder built up to
heaven so he game people different languages

Monogenism - Belief that we descended from one creation: Adam & Eve

Polygenism - Belief we descended from more than one creation: Pre-adimite and multiple
creations of Adam
(incomplete story)

Samuel Morton - One of the last polygenist

Best known for massive cranial studies
Played with data to prove point

Scientific Racism - Manipulate data in order to prove studies in the chosen direction

Charles Darwin - -HMS beagle & Darwins finches

- Published the Origin of Species
-Noted variation within nature
-Discovered deep time (world is older than 1000 yrs)
-Natural selection is competition in nature where some will not make it because they aren't
strong enough shown through variation
-Artificial Selection is the domestication of plants and animals
-Variation is essential to evolution
-Sees race as arbitrary
-Blending inheritance is how variation is inherited

Gregor Mendel - Law of Segregation

Law of Independent assortment
Dominant and recessive traits - Lactose Intolerance
Law of Segregation - First law of heredity stating that pairs of alleles for a trait separate when
gametes are formed.

Law of Independent assortment - Each pair of alleles segregates independently of each other
pair of alleles during gamete formation

Phenotype - An organism's physical appearance, or visible traits.

Genotype - An organism's genetic makeup

Lewis Henry Morgan - -Theory of human development in which human societies evolved
through 3 stages- savagery, barbarism, civilization; passage from one stage to the other was
enabled by some technological revolution
-Became a ranking tool

Early 20th Centuries Ideologies - Social Darwinism

Hereditarianism
Eugenics

Social Darwinism - -"Survival of the fittest" to human societies - particularly as a justification for
one country taking over another
-Opposed by Darwin's natural selection

Hereditarianism - the mistaken idea that human traits are determined solely by genetic
inheritance, ignoring the contribution of the environment

Eugenics - -Intentional selection of genotypes that are considered more desirable

-Selective Breeding
-Sterilization of undesirable traits (retardation)

Franz Boas - -American anthropologist, "father of american anthropology."

-Four Subfields: Linguistic, Biological, Archaeology, Cultural
-Separation of race, culture and biology
-Questioned hereditarianism
-Conducted research on cephalic measurements and proved hereditarianism wrong
-Questioned effect of culture on behavior
-Opposed stages of cultural evolution and ranking

20th Century Events - Evolutionary Synthesis

Population Genetics
Local Populations
Evotlutionary Forces: Mutation, Natural Selection, Gene Flow, Genetic Drift
Evolutionary Synthesis - a unified theory of evolution that combines genetics with natural
selection

Population Genetics - The study of genetic changes in populations; the science of

microevolutionary changes in populations.

Evotlutionary Forces - Mutation

Natural Selection
Gene Flow
Genetic Drift

Mutation - -A random change in genetic code leading to a new allele

-Most important in cells that are passed on to child
-Alone not sufficient enough for significant evolutionary change
-Could be negative or positive

Natural Selection - -A natural process resulting in the evolution of organisms best adapted to
the environment.
-Advantages in survival

Gene Flow - -Movement of alleles into or out of a population due to the migration of individuals
to or from the population
-Counters genetic drift

Genetic Drift - -A change in the allele frequency of a population as a result of chance events
rather than natural selection.
-Most pronounced in smaller populations

20th Century Events - Holocaust

Civil Rights Movement

Carleton Coon - -Suggested that races as we define them today can explain biological variation.
-5 subspecies: Caucasoid, Mongoloid, Congoid, Australoid, Capoid
-Believed that humans could be classified based on intelligence over time (caucasoid evolved
faster due to intelligence)

Complex Traits - traits controlled by multiple genes and the interaction of environmental
factors where the contributions of genes and environment are undefined

Anthropometrics - measurement of the size, proportions and range of motion of the human
body

Craniometrics - the measuring and study of cranial morphology

Skin Color - -Easily Categorizable
-Measured by the amount of light reflective off the skin

Dermatoglyphics - the study of fingerprints

Odontometrics - measurement of teeth

Red Blood Cell Markers - Blood Groups - ABO system, + or -

DNA Markers - -Genetic Code - ATCG

-STR
-SNP

Single Nucleotide Polymorphism (SNP) - - A single base pair difference

Short Tandem Repeats (STR) - Short sequences of DNA repeated many times in a row

Nuclear DNA - 23 Chromosomes

mtDNA - -Mitochondrial DNA

-Inherited Only through mother
-Gives a female lineage to look at

Y Chromosome - -The sex chromosome found only in males. When paired with an X
chromosome from the mother, it produces a male child.
-Inherited only through father
-Male Lineage

Alfred Binet - -1st intelligence test (IQ)

-Designed this test to help students with an approach towards learning
-Test fit a bell curve
-Turned into a ranking device

Bell Curve - Distribution of scores in which the bulk of the scores fall toward the middle, with
progressively fewer scores toward the "tails" or extremes

What affects IQ? - -Genetic Factors: IQ runs in family

-Environment: Diet and geographic location
-Heritability: measured variation
-Race: Happened to be environment

Heritability - (genetic variation)/(genetic variation+environmental variation)

Relative to sample
Arthur Jensen - -Argued that intelligence is primarily inherited and that environment plays only
a minimal role in intelligence.
-Published paper about boosting IQ and how it is an accurate way to measure intelligence
-Misused Data

Richard Hernstin & Charles Murray - -IQ was measurable

-IQ correlated with social phenomena
-Lower Income, Lower parental socioeconomic status = lower IQ
-IQ highly has to do with genetic factors

Rushton - -Looked at evolutionary model to see racial difference in IQ

-Argued 2 types of Adaption: K Selection & R Selection
-Argued that Africans were R-selection and Asians were K-selection and Europeans were both
- Selectively chose and manipulated data

K Selection - Kin... having few offspring and protection them until they reach maturity (man,
horse, eagle)

R Selection - have as many offspring as possible as fast as possible (fish, insects)

The Flynn Effect - -James Flynn found that from one generation to the next there have been
steady gains in IQ scores cross culturally
-Readjusted bell curves to see real results
-Found: environmental impact, skills could be practices, and we have the potential to survive in
all environments

Generation Gains - US: 1930-1980 = 100-114

Norway: 1055-1975 = 100-110
Netherlands: 1950-1985 = 100-125