Common terms used in connection with vapor

and steam:
Boiling

Boiling is formation of vapor bubbles within a fluid. Boiling is initiated when the absolute pressure in the
fluid reaches the vapor pressure.

Saturated Vapor

Vapor at the temperature of the boiling point which corresponds to its pressure.

Wet Saturated Vapor

A wet saturated vapor carries liquid globules in suspension. A wet saturated vapor is a substance in
the gaseous state which does not follow the general gas law.

Dry Saturated Vapor

A dry saturated vapor is free from liquid particles. All particles are vaporized - any decrease in the
vapor temperature or increase in the vapor pressure, will condensate liquid particles in the vapor. A dry
saturated vapor is a substance in the gaseous state which does not follow the general gas law.

Superheated Vapor

In superheated vapor the temperature is higher than the boiling point temperature corresponding to the
pressure. The vapor can not exist in contact with the fluid, nor contain fluid particles. An increase in
pressure or decrease in temperature will not - within limits - condensate out liquid particles in the
vapor. Highly superheated vapors are gases that approximately follow the general gas law.

High Pressure Steam

Steam where the pressure greatly exceeds the atmosphere pressure.

Low Pressure Steam

Steam of which the pressure is less than, equal to, or not greatly above, that of the atmosphere

The Ideal Gas Law and the Individual Gas Constant- R

The Ideal Gas Law relates pressure, temperature, and volume of an ideal or perfect gas. The Ideal
Gas Law can be expressed with the Individual Gas Constant:

p V = m R T (1)

where

p = absolute pressure (N/m2, lb/ft2)

V = volume (m3, ft3)

m = mass (kg, lb)

R = individual gas constant (J/kg.oK, ft.lb/slugs.oR)

T = absolute temperature (oK, oR)

This equation (1) can be modified to:

p = ρ R T (2)

where the density

ρ = m / V (3)

The Individual Gas Constant - R - depends on the particular gas and is related to the molecular weight
of the gas.

The Ideal Gas Law and the Universal Gas Constant - Ru

The Universal Gas Constant is independent of the particular gas and is the same for all "perfect"
gases. The Ideal Gas Law can be expressed with the Universal Gas Constant:

p V = n Ru T (4)

where

p = absolute pressure (N/m2, lb/ft2)

V = volume (m3, ft3)

n = is the number of moles of gas present

Ru = universal gas constant (J/mol.oK, lbf.ft/(lbmol.oR))

T = absolute temperature (oK, oR)

Example - The Ideal Gas Law

A tank with volume of 1 ft3 is filled with air compressed to a gauge pressure of 50 psi. The temperature
in tank is 70 oF.

The air density can be calculated with a transformation of the ideal gas law (2) to:

ρ=p/RT

ρ= [(50 lb/in2 + 14,7 lb/in2)(144 in2/ft2)]/[(1716 ft.lb/slug.oR)((70 + 460) oR)]

= 0,0102 slugs/ft3

The weight of the air is the product of specific weight and the air volume. It can be calculated as:

w=ρgV

w = (0,0102 slugs/ft3)(32,2 ft/s2)(1 ft3)

 = 0,32844 slugs.ft/s2

= 0,32844 lb

The steam table below lists the properties of steam at varying pressures and temperatures:

Specific Enthalpy of
Specific
Absolute Specific Density Entropy
Temperature
pressure Volume -ρ- of Steam
(oC) Liquid Evaporation Steam
(kN/m2) (m3/kg) (kg/m3) -s-
- hl - - he - - hs -
(kJ/kgK)
(kJ/kg) (kJ/kg) (kJ/kg)

0.8 3.8 160 0.00626 15.8 2493 2509 9.058

2.0 17.5 67.0 0.0149 73.5 2460 2534 8.725

5.0 32.9 28.2 0.0354 137.8 2424 2562 8.396

10.0 45.8 14.7 0.0682 191.8 2393 2585 8.151

20.0 60.1 7.65 0.131 251.5 2358 2610 7.909

28 67.5 5.58 0.179 282.7 2340 2623 7.793

35 72.7 4.53 0.221 304.3 2327 2632 7.717

45 78.7 3.58 0.279 329.6 2312 2642 7.631

55 83.7 2.96 0.338 350.6 2299 2650 7.562

65 88.0 2.53 0.395 368.6 2288 2657 7.506

75 91.8 2.22 0.450 384.5 2279 2663 7.457

85 95.2 1.97 0.507 398.6 2270 2668 7.415

95 98.2 1.78 0.563 411.5 2262 2673 7.377

100 99.6 1.69 0.590 417.5 2258 2675 7.360

101.33 100 1.67 0.598 419.1 2257 2676 7.355

110 102.3 1.55 0.646 428.8 2251 2680 7.328

130 107.1 1.33 0.755 449.2 2238 2687 7.271

150 111.4 1.16 0.863 467.1 2226 2698 7.223

170 115.2 1.03 0.970 483.2 2216 2699 7.181

190 118.6 0.929 1.08 497.8 2206 2704 7.144

220 123.3 0.810 1.23 517.6 2193 2711 7.095

260 128.7 0.693 1.44 540.9 2177 2718 7.039

280 131.2 0.646 1.55 551.4 2170 2722 7.014

320 135.8 0.570 1.75 570.9 2157 2728 6.969

360 139.9 0.510 1.96 588.5 2144 2733 6.930

400 143.1 0.462 2.16 604.7 2133 2738 6.894

440 147.1 0.423 2.36 619.6 2122 2742 6.862

480 150.3 0.389 2.57 633.5 2112 2746 6.833

500 151.8 0.375 2.67 640.1 2107 2748 6.819

550 155.5 0.342 2.92 655.8 2096 2752 6.787

600 158.8 0.315 3.175 670.4 2085 2756 6.758

650 162.0 0.292 3.425 684.1 2075 2759 6.730

700 165.0 0.273 3.66 697.1 2065 2762 6.705

750 167.8 0.255 3.915 709.3 2056 2765 6.682

800 170.4 0.240 4.16 720.9 2047 2768 6.660

850 172.9 0.229 4.41 732.0 2038 2770 6.639

900 175.4 0.215 4.65 742.6 2030 2772 6.619

950 177.7 0.204 4.90 752.8 2021 2774 6.601

1000 179.9 0.194 5.15 762.6 2014 2776 6.583

1050 182.0 0.186 5.39 772 2006 2778 6.566

1150 186.0 0.170 5.89 790 1991 2781 6.534

1250 189.8 0.157 6.38 807 1977 2784 6.505

1300 191.6 0.151 6.62 815 1971 2785 6.491

1500 198.3 0.132 7.59 845 1945 2790 6.441

1600 201.4 0.124 8.03 859 1933 2792 6.418

1800 207.1 0.110 9.07 885 1910 2795 6.375

2000 212.4 0.0995 10.01 909 1889 2797 6.337

2100 214.9 0.0945 10.54 920 1878 2798 6.319

2300 219.6 0.0868 11.52 942 1858 2800 6.285

2400 221.8 0.0832 12.02 952 1849 2800 6.269

2600 226.0 0.0769 13.01 972 1830 2801 6.239

2700 228.1 0.0740 13.52 981 1821 2802 6.224

 2900 232.0 0.0689 14.52 1000 1803 2802 6.197

3000 233.8 0.0666 15.00 1008 1794 2802 6.184

3200 237.4 0.0624 16.02 1025 1779 2802 6.158

3400 240.9 0.0587 17.04 1042 1760 2802 6.134

3600 244.2 0.0554 18.06 1058 1744 2802 6.112

3800 247.3 0.0524 19.08 1073 1728 2801 6.090

4000 250.3 0.0497 21.00 1087 1713 2800 6.069

 Absolute Pressure = Gauge Pressure + Atmospheric pressure.

 Specific enthalpy or Sensible Heat is the quantity of heat in 1 kg of water according to the
selected temperature.

Example - Boiling Water at 100oC and 0 bar

At atmospheric pressure - 0 bar gauge or absolute 101.33 kN/m2 - water boils at 100oC. 419 kJ of
energy is required to heat 1 kg of water from 0oC to the saturation temperature 100�C.

Therefore, at 0 bar gauge (absolute 101.33 kN/m2) and 100oC - the specific enthalpy of water is 419
kJ/kg.

Another 2,257 kJ of energy is required to evaporate the 1 kg of water at 100 oC to steam at 100oC.
Therefore, at 0 bar gauge (absolute 101.33 kN/m2) - the specific enthalpy of evaporation is 2,257
kJ/kg.

The total specific enthalpy of the steam at atmospheric pressure and 100 oC can be summarized as:

hs = 419 + 2,257

= 2,676 kJ/kg

Example - Boiling Water at 170oC and 7 bar

Steam at atmospheric pressure is of limited practical use. It cannot be conveyed by its own pressure
along a steam pipe to the points of consumption.

At 7 bar gauge (absolute 800 kN/m2) - the saturation temperature of water is 170oC. More heat energy
is required to raise the temperature to the saturation point at 7 bar gauge than needed for water at
atmospheric pressure. From the table a value of 720.9 kJ is needed to raise 1 kg of water from 0 oC to
the saturation temperature 170oC.

The heat energy (enthalpy of evaporation) needed at 7 bar gauge to evaporate the water to steam is
actually less than the heat energy required at atmospheric pressure. The specific enthalpy of
evaporation decrease with steam pressure increase. The evaporation heat is 2,047 kJ/kg according
the table.

Note! Because the specific volume of steam decreases with increasing pressure, the amount of heat
energy transferred in the same volume actually increases with steam pressure. In other words the
same pipe may transfer more energy with high pressure steam than with low pressure steam.

Sensible. Latent and total heat in evaporated

water - steam - at different gauge pressure and boiling temperatures can be
found in the table below:

Gauge Specific Sensible

Temperature Latent Heat Total Heat
Pressure Volume Heat
(oF) (Btu/lb) (Btu/lb)
(psig) (ft3/lb) (Btu/lb)

25 134 142 102 1017 1119

20 136 73.9 129 1001 1130

15 179 51.3 147 990 1137

10 192 39.4 160 982 1142

5 203 31.8 171 976 1147

0 1) 212 26.8 180 970 1150

1 215 25.2 183 968 1151

2 219 23.5 187 966 1153

3 222 22.3 190 964 1154

4 224 21.4 192 962 1154

5 227 20.1 195 960 1155

6 230 19.4 198 959 1157

7 232 18.7 200 957 1157

8 233 18.4 201 956 1157

9 237 17.1 205 954 1159

10 239 16.5 207 953 1160

12 244 15.3 212 949 1161

14 248 14.3 216 947 1163

16 252 13.4 220 944 1164

18 256 12.6 224 941 1165

20 259 11.9 227 939 1166

22 262 11.3 230 937 1167

24 265 10.8 233 934 1167

26 268 10.3 236 933 1169

28 271 9.85 239 930 1169

30 274 9.46 243 929 1172

32 277 9.1 246 927 1173

34 279 8.75 248 925 1173

36 282 8.42 251 923 1174

38 284 8.08 253 922 1175

40 286 7.82 256 920 1176

42 289 7.57 258 918 1176

44 291 7.31 260 917 1177

46 293 7.14 262 915 1177

48 295 6.94 264 914 1178

50 298 6.68 267 912 1179

55 300 6.27 271 909 1180

60 307 5.84 277 906 1183

65 312 5.49 282 901 1183

70 316 5.18 286 898 1184

75 320 4.91 290 895 1185

80 324 4.67 294 891 1185

85 328 4.44 298 889 1187

90 331 4.24 302 886 1188

95 335 4.05 305 883 1188

100 338 3.89 309 880 1189

105 341 3.74 312 878 1190

110 344 3.59 316 875 1191

115 347 3.46 319 873 1192

120 350 3.34 322 871 1193

125 353 3.23 325 868 1193

130 356 3.12 328 866 1194

135 358 3.02 330 864 1194

140 361 2.92 333 861 1194

145 363 2.84 336 859 1195

150 366 2.74 339 857 1196

155 368 2.68 341 855 1196

160 371 2.6 344 853 1197

165 373 2.54 346 851 1197

170 375 2.47 348 849 1197

175 377 2.41 351 847 1198

180 380 2.31 353 845 1198

185 382 2.29 355 843 1198

190 384 2.24 358 841 1199

195 386 2.19 360 839 1199

200 388 2.14 362 837 1199

205 390 2.09 364 836 1200

210 392 2.05 366 834 1200

215 394 2 368 832 1200

220 396 1.96 370 830 1200

225 397 1.92 372 828 1200

230 399 1.89 374 827 1201

235 401 1.85 376 825 1201

240 403 1.81 378 823 1201

245 404 1.78 380 822 1202

250 406 1.75 382 820 1202

255 408 1.72 383 819 1202

260 409 1.69 385 817 1202

265 411 1.66 387 815 1202

270 413 1.63 389 814 1203

275 414 1.6 391 812 1203

280 416 1.57 392 811 1203

285 417 1.55 394 809 1203

290 418 1.53 395 808 1203

295 420 1.49 397 806 1203

300 421 1.47 398 805 1203

305 423 1.45 400 803 1203

310 425 1.43 402 802 1204

315 426 1.41 404 800 1204

320 427 1.38 405 799 1204

325 429 1.36 407 797 1204

330 430 1.34 408 796 1204

335 432 1.33 410 794 1204

340 433 1.31 411 793 1204

345 434 1.29 413 791 1204

350 435 1.28 414 790 1204

355 437 1.26 416 789 1205

360 438 1.24 417 788 1205

365 440 1.22 419 786 1205

370 441 1.2 420 785 1205

375 442 1.19 421 784 1205

380 443 1.18 422 783 1205

385 445 1.16 424 781 1205

390 446 1.14 425 780 1205

395 447 1.13 427 778 1205

400 448 1.12 428 777 1205

450 460 1 439 766 1205

500 470 0.89 453 751 1204

 550 479 0.82 464 740 1204

600 489 0.75 473 730 1203

650 497 0.69 483 719 1202

700 505 0.64 491 710 1201

750 513 0.6 504 696 1200

800 520 0.56 512 686 1198

900 534 0.49 529 666 1195

1000 546 0.44 544 647 1191

1250 574 0.34 580 600 1180

1500 597 0.23 610 557 1167

1750 618 0.22 642 509 1151

2000 636 0.19 672 462 1134

2250 654 0.16 701 413 1114

2500 669 0.13 733 358 1091

2750 683 0.11 764 295 1059

3000 696 0.08 804 213 1017

3206.22) 705.40 - - - -

1) 2)
Atmospheric pressureis used for the table except for
2)
Critical Point - At 3206.2 psia and 705.40oF the vapor and liquid are indistinguishable. No change of
state occurs when pressure increases above the critical point or when heat is added. At the critical
point it is no longer referred to water or steam and it is not possible keep the water and steam apart.

Note! Gauge Pressure = Absolute Pressure - Atmospheric Pressure

NTP - Normal Temperature and Pressure - is defined as air at 20oC (293.15 K, 68oF) and 1 atm
( 101.325 kN/m2, 101.325 kPa, 14.7 psia, 0 psig, 30 in Hg, 760 torr)

Properties of gases

Critical Boiling
Critical pressure
temperature temperature
Substance
(psi)
(oF) (oC) (atm) (oF) (oC)
(lb/sq.in)

Air -220 -140 573 39 - -

Alcohol (C2H6O) 421 216 956 65 172.4 78

Ammonia (NH3) 266 130 1691 115 -27.4 -33

Benzol (C6H6) 554 292 735 50 176 80

Carbon-dioxide (CO2) 88,2 31 1132 77 -110 -79

Carbon-monoxide
-222 -141 528 35.9 -310 -190
(CO)

Ether (C4H10O) 381.2 194 544 37 95 35

Hydrogen (H) -402 -242 294 20 -423 -253

Nitrogen (N) -236 -149 514 35 -321 -195

Oxygen (O2) -180 -118 735 50 -297 -183

Water (H2O) 706-716 375-380 3,200 217.8 212 10

The stress in a steam boiler shell can be
calculated as
σ = P D / 2 t (1)

Where

σ = Hoop stress (N/m2)

P = boiler pressure (N/m2)

D = diameter of boiler shell (m)

t = thickness of boiler shell (m)

In general condensate lines are designed to handle start-up conditions where huge amounts of steam
condensate in cold pipes and heating equipment. As a rule of thumb the maximum condensate load is
often twice the maximum steam load during operation.

Within certain circumstances, especially in high pressure steam systems with heavy load heat
exchangers, the generated flash steam may be the limitation of the condensate lines.

The flash steam generated can be expressed

as
w% = 100 (hil - hfl) / hfe (1)

where

w% = ratio of flash steam generated (%)

hil = initial liquid enthalpy (kJ/kg)

hfl = final liquid enthalpy (kJ/kg)

hfe = enthalpy of evaporation (kJ/kg)

The condensate load can be expressed as

wc = ws w% / 100 (2)

where

wc = condensate load (kg/h)

ws = steam flow rate (kg/h)

If the condensate receiver in a steam distribution system is vented to the surroundings, flash steam will
generate and evacuate, and a considerable amount of energy will be lost.

The flash steam generated depends on the initial and final pressure before and after the condensate
traps for the heat exchangers. In the example - calculating generated flash steam - 0.11 kg flash steam
is generated per kg condensate from a heat exchanger with 5 bar gauge pressure.

In other words 11% of the condensate is lost to the surroundings and must be replaced by feeding new
water to the system.

Feeding more water requires additional heating energy and additional water treatment, increasing the
total operating cost for the system.

To improve the systems efficiency, and reducing the operating cost, its common to limit the energy loss
by using some kind of low pressure flash recovery systems where flash steam condensates in low
temperature consumers - as heat exchangers for feeding water, air heaters and similar.

The amount of flash steam generated depend on the steam pressure - the pressure in the condensate
before it leaves the condensate trap - and the condensate pressure after the trap - the pressure in the
condensate return pipe lines.

The table below indicates the ratio of flash steam generated at different pressures before and after the
condensate trap:

Percent Flash Steam of Condensate (%)

Steam Condensate Gauge Pressure (bar)

Gauge
Pressure
(bar) 01) 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.6 3

0 0.0

1 3.8 1.7 0.0

2 6.3 4.2 2.6 1.2 0.0

3 8.3 6.2 4.5 3.2 2.0 0.8 0.0

4 9.8 7.7 6.1 4.8 3.6 2.4 1.7

5 11.2 9.1 7.5 6.2 5.0 3.8 3.1

6 12.3 10.3 8.7 7.4 6.3 5.0 4.3

 7 13.4 11.4 9.8 8.5 7.4 6.2 5.4

8 14.4 12.3 10.8 9.5 8.4 7.2 6.5

9 15.2 13.2 11.7 10.4 9.3 8.1 7.4

10 16.1 14.1 12.5 11.3 10.1 9.0 8.3

11 16.8 14.8 13.3 12.0 10.9 9.8 9.1

12 17.5 15.6 14.1 12.8 11.7 10.5 9.8

13 18.2 16.3 14.8 13.5 12.4 11.2 10.6

14 18.9 16.9 15.4 14.2 13.1 11.9 11.2

15 19.5 17.6 16.1 14.8 13.7 12.6 11.9

1)
It is common to vent the condensate system to the atmosphere - where the gauge pressure is 0 bar.
 1 bar = 105 Pa (N/m2) = 10.197 kp/m2 = 10.20 m H2O = 0.9869 atm = 14.50 psi (lbf/in2)

Example - Generated Flash Steam

A condensate system is vented to the surroundings and the pressure in the condensate system after
the condensate traps is 0 bar gauge. The absolute steam pressure before the condensate trap is 10
bar gauge.

According the table above 16.1% of the condensate will evaporate as flash steam after the trap.

Note! Without any flash recovery system the energy in the flash steam will be lost to the surroundings.

If the pressure of the condensate - the saturated water at the boiling point at the actual pressure - is
reduced, the heat energy in the water is reduced to a level appropriate to the final pressure. The
connection between the pressure and the boiling temperature can be found in the steam tables.

The energy - or enthalpy - made available when the pressure is reduced, will evaporate a part of the
water, producing the flash steam.

Only a part of the condensate water evaporates as flash steam. How much depends on the enthalpy in
the condensate at the initial and the final pressures.

The amount of flash steam produced during the pressure reduction can be expressed as:

w = (hil - hfl) / hfe (1)

where

w = ratio of flash steam generated (kg flash steam / kg condensate)

hil = initial liquid enthalpy (kJ/kg)

hfl = final liquid enthalpy (kJ/kg)

hfe = enthalpy of evaporation (kJ/kg)

Example - Flash Steam Generation

Condensate is produced inside an heat exchanger at a pressure of 5 bar gauge (6 bar absolute). The
condensate containing 670.9 kJ/kg of heat energy at saturation temperature 159�C.
 Steam table

The pressure is reduced to atmospheric pressure - 0 bar gauge (1 bar absolute) through the steam
trap and the maximum heat energy in water at atmospheric pressure and 100�C is 419.0 kJ/kg.

The evaporation energy of water at atmospheric pressure is 2,257 kJ/kg.

The flash steam generated can be calculated as:

w = ((670.9 kJ/kg)- (419.0 kJ/kg)) / (2,257 kJ/kg)

= 0.11 (kg flash steam / kg condensate)

Boiler Efficiency may be indicated by

 Combustion Efficiency - indicates the burners ability to burn fuel measured by unburned fuel
and excess air in the exhaust
 Thermal Efficiency - indicates the heat exchangers effectiveness to transfer heat from the
combustion process to the water or steam in the boiler, exclusive radiation and convection losses
 Fuel to Fluid Efficiency - indicates the overall efficiency of the boiler inclusive thermal
efficiency of the heat exchanger, radiation and convection losses - output divided by input.

Boiler Efficiency is in general indicated by either Thermal Efficiency or Fuel to Fluid Efficiency
depending the context.

Boiler Efficiency

Boiler Efficiency related to the boilers energy output to the boilers energy input can be expressed as:

Boiler efficiency (%) = Heat exported by fluid (water, steam ..) / Heat provided by fuel x 100 (1)

Heat Exported from the Boiler to the Fluid

For a fluid as water the heat exported by the boiler can be expressed as:

q = ( m / t ) cp dT (2)

where
q = Heat exported (kJ/s, kW)

m / t = mass flow (kg/s)

cp = specific heat capacity (kJ/kg oC)

dT = temperature difference between inlet and outlet of the boiler ( oC)

For a steam boiler the heat supplied by evaporating the water at saturation temperature can be
expressed as:

q = ( m / t ) he (3)

where

he = evaporation energy in the steam at the pressure the boiler is running (kJ/kg)

Heat Provided by Fuel

The energy provided by fuel may be expressed in two ways 'Gross' or 'Net' calorific value.
Gross Calorific Value

This is the theoretical total of the energy in the fuel. The gross calorific value of the fuel includes the
energy used for evaporating the water in the combustion process. The flue gases from boilers are in
general not condensed. The actual amount of heat available to the boiler plant is therefore reduced.
 Gross Calorific Values of some common Fuels

An accurate control of the amount of air is essential to the boiler efficiency. To much air will cool the
furnace and carry away useful heat. Too little air and the combustion will be incomplete. Unburned fuel
will be carried over and smoke may be produced.
Net calorific value

This is the calorific value of the fuel, excluding the energy in the water vapor discharged in the
combustion process to the stack. The combustion process can be expressed as:

[C + H (fuel)] + [O2 + N2 (Air)] -> (Combustion Process) -> [CO2 + H2O + N2 (Heat)]

where

C = Carbon

H = Hydrogen

O = Oxygen

N = Nitrogen

In general it is possible to use the approximation:

net calorific value = gross calorific value - 10%

To understand the basics of efficient boiler operation, the combustion process must be understood.
Stable combustion conditions requires the right amounts of fuels and oxygen. The combustion
products are heat energy, carbon dioxide, water vapor, nitrogen, and other gases (excluding oxygen).
In theory there is a specific amount of oxygen needed to completely burn a given amount of fuel. In
practice, burning conditions are never ideal.

Therefore, more air than ideal must be supplied to burn all fuel completely. The amount of air more
than the theoretical requirement is referred to as excess air.

Power plant boilers normally run about 10 to 20 percent excess air. Natural gas-fired boilers may run
as low as 5 percent excess air. Pulverized coal-fired boilers may run with 20 percent excess air. Gas
turbines run very lean with up to 300 percent excess air.

Typical values of excess air for some common fuels are shown in the table below:

Excess of Air
Fuel
(%)

Anthracite 40

Coke oven gas 5 - 10

Natural Gas 5 - 10

Coal, pulverized 15 - 20

Coal, stoker 20 - 30

Oil (No. 2 and No. 6) 10 to 20

Semi anthracite, hand firing 70 to 100

Semi anthracite, with stoker 40 to 70

Semi anthracite, with traveling

30 to 60
grate

To determine the excess air at which the combustion system will operate we have to start with the
stoichiometric air-fuel ratio, known as the perfect, correct or ideal fuel ratio, the stoichiometric
combustion. During stoichiometric combustion there are a chemically correct mixing proportion
between the air and the fuel. During the stoichiometric combustion process no fuel or air are left over.

Process heating equipment almost never run stoichiometric. Even so-called "on-ratio" combustion,
used in boilers and high temperature process furnaces, incorporates a modest amount of excess air,
10 to 20% more than needed to burn the fuel completely.
If insufficient amount of air is supplied to the burner, unburned fuel, soot, smoke, and carbon monoxide
are exhausted from the boiler. The results is heat transfer surface fouling, pollution, lower combustion
efficiency, flame instability and a potential for explosion. To avoid inefficient and unsafe conditions,
boilers normally operate at an excess air level. This excess air level also provides protection from
insufficient oxygen conditions caused by variations in fuel composition and "operating slops" in the
fuel-air control system.

Stoichiometric or Theoretical Combustion is the ideal combustion process during which a fuel is
burned completely. A complete combustion is a process which burns all the carbon (C) to (CO 2), all
hydrogen (H) to (H2O) and all sulphur (S) to (SO2). If there are unburned components in the exhaust
gas such as C, H2, CO the combustion process is uncompleted.

The combustion process can be expressed as:

[C + H (fuel)] + [O2 + N2 (Air)] -> (Combustion Process) -> [CO2 + H2O + N2 (Heat)]

where

C = Carbon

H = Hydrogen

O = Oxygen

N = Nitrogen

To determine the percent excess air or excess fuel at which a combustion system operates, you
have to start with the stoichiometric air-fuel ratio. Also known as the perfect, correct or ideal fuel ratio,
the stoichiometric ratio is the chemically correct mixing proportion. When burned, it consumes all the
fuel and air without any excess of either left over.

Process heating equipment is rarely run that way, however. Even so-called "on-ratio" combustion,
used in boilers and high temperature process furnaces, usually incorporates a modest amount of
excess air -- about 10 to 20% beyond what is needed to burn the fuel completely.

If insufficient amount of air is supplied to the burner, unburned fuel, soot, smoke, and carbon monoxide
exhausts from the boiler. This results in heat transfer surface fouling, pollution, lower combustion
efficiency, flame instability and a potential for explosion. To avoid inefficient and unsafe conditions,
boilers normally operate at an excess air level. This excess air level also provides protection from
insufficient oxygen conditions caused by variations in fuel composition and "operating slops" in the
fuel-air control system. Typical optimum values of excess air levels are shown here for various fuels.
 if the air content is higher than stoichiometric, the mixture is said to be fuel-lean
 if the air content is less, the mixture is fuel-rich

 Excess air of different fuels

Example - Stoichiometric Combustion of Methane - CH4

The most common oxidizer is air. The chemical equation for stoichiometric combustion of methane -
CH4 - with air can be expressed as

CH4 + 2(O2 + 3.76N2) -> CO2 + 2H2O + 7.52N2

If more air is supplied, not all will be involved in the reaction. Additional air is termed excess air, but the
term theoretical air may also be used. 200% theoretical air is 100% excess air.

The chemical equation for methane burned with 25% excess air can be expressed as

CH4 + 1.25 x 2(O2 + 3.76 N2) -> CO2 + 2H2O + 0.5O2 + 9.4N2

Excess Air and O2 and CO2 in Flue Gas

Aproximate values for CO2 and O2 in the flue gas as result of excess air are estimated in the table
below:

Carbon Dioxide - CO2 - in Flue Gas (% volume)

Oxygen in
Excess Air Flue Gas
% for all fuels
Natural Propane Bituminous Anthracite
Fuel Oil (% volume)
Gas Butane Coal Coal

0 12 14 15.5 18 20 0

20 10.5 12 13.5 15.5 16.5 3

40 9 10 12 13.5 14 5

60 8 9 10 12 12.5 7.5

80 7 8 9 11 11.5 9

100 6 6 8 9.5 10 10

The combustion efficiency can be estimated by measuring the content of carbon dioxide and the
temperature of the excess gas.The efficiency may be calculated by the formula:

ηc = 100 - (0.95 + 37.2 / CO2%)(tsmoke- 20) / 100 (1)

where

ηc = combustion efficiency

CO2% = % volume CO2 in the excess gas

tsmoke= temperature in the excess gas (oC)

The optimal content of carbon dioxide - CO2 - is approximately 10% for natural gas fuel and
approximately 13% for light oils.

Combustion Efficiency for Natural Gas:

 Combustion Efficiency
Flue Gas Temperature (oF)
(%)

Air Oxygen 200 300 400 500 600

9.5 2.0 85.4 83.1 80.8 78.4 76.0

15 3.0 85.2 82.8 80.4 77.9 75.4

28.1 5.0 84.7 82.1 79.5 76.7 74.0

44.9 7.0 84.1 81.2 78.2 75.2 72.1

81.6 10.0 82.8 79.3 75.6 71.9 68.2

Coal is a readily combustible rock containing more than 50 percent by weight of carbonaceous
material, formed from compaction and indurations of variously altered plant remains similar to those in
peat.

After a considerable amount of time, heat, and burial pressure, it is metamorphosed from peat to
lignite. Lignite is considered to be "immature" coal at this stage of development because it is still
somewhat light in color and it remains soft.

Lignite increases in maturity by becoming darker and harder and is then classified as sub-bituminous
coal. After a continuous process of burial and alteration, chemical and physical changes occur until the
coal is classified as bituminous - dark and hard coal.

Bituminous coal ignites easily and burns long with a relatively long flame. If improperly fired
bituminous coal is characterized with excess smoke and soot.

Anthracite coal is the last classification, the ultimate maturation. Anthracite coal is very hard and
shiny.

Volatile matter1) per

cent
Class General description
(dry mineral matter
free basis)

101 < 6.1

Anthracites
102 3.1 - 9.0

201 9.1 - 13.5 Dry steam coals

202 13.6 - 15.0

Cooking steams
203 15.1 - 17.0
coals
Low volatile steam
coals
204 17.1 - 19.5

Heat altered low

206 19.1 - 19.5
volatile steam coals

Prime cooking
301 19.6 - 32.0
coals

Medium volatile
305 19.6 - 32.0 coals
Mainly heat altered
coals
306 19.6 - 32.0

401 32.1 - 36.0 High volatile coals

Very strongly
coking coals
402 > 36.0

501 32.1 - 36.0

Strongly coking
coals
502 > 36.0

601 32.1 - 36.0

Medium coking
coals
602 > 36.0

701 32.1
Weakly coking
coals
702 > 36.0

801 32.1 - 36.0

Very weakly coking
coals
802 > 36.0

901 32.1 - 36.0 Non-coking coals

 902 > 36.0

1)
Volatile matter - In coal, those products, exclusive of moisture, given off as gas and vapor
determined analytically.

Anthracite coal creates a steady and clean flame and is preferred for domestic heating. Furthermore it
burn longer with more heat than the other types

Combustion
Introduction
The notes below relate to the combustion process. Combustion is a rapid reaction between a fuel and oxygen that
produces heat (the chemical energy content of a fuel is converted to heat energy).

Composition of Dry Air

Oxygen is involved in the majority of combustion reactions and this is present in the air.
The composition of dry air as mole fractions is 0,7809 N2, 0,2095 O2, 0,0093Ar, and 0,003 CO2.
For combustion equations it is convenient and practical to treat Ar and CO2 as Nitrogen. The composition of molar air can
then be taken as (approx.) 0,79kmol N2 and 0,21 kmol O2 per kmol of Air.

Note: I am using kmols (The molar volume is 22,414 m³/kmol at 0 °C and 101.325 kPa absolute pressure )

The equivalent mass fractions of air are 0,768N2 and 0,232 O2 per unit of air. These values are conveniently represented
as

1 kmol O2 + 3,76 kmol N2 = 4,76 kmol Air

1 kg O2 + 3,31 kg N2 = 4.31 kg Air

Combustion Notes
When considering the combustion of fuels with air equations are used to determine the proportions of the various
chemicals involved. The fuels generally are composed of carbon, hydrogen and sulphur with other substances including
oxygen and ash. The carbon, hydrogen and sulphur combine with oxygen in the air and the nitrogen and other gases in
air are assumed to take no part in the combustion process.....

The proportion of air for complete combustion is called the stoichiometric air/fuel ratio. Normally an excess of air is
available and the mixture is weak or lean. When insufficient air is available for complete combustion the mixture is rich...

Some of the terms used in combustion are identified below.....

 Air/Fuel Ratio R = (Amount on air) /(Amount of fuel)
 Stoichiometric air/fuel Ratio for complete combustion = R s
 Percentage excess Air E = [(R - R s) /R s]100%>
 Mixture Strength M s = ( R s /R )100 %

Weak mixture M s less than 100%

Rich mixture M s greater than 100%

It is important to note that the total combustion of a fuel requires ideal conditions. The fuel must be intimately mixed with
the oxygen, the temperature must be appropriate, the ignition cannot start without a source of activation energy ( a spark,
or flame, or local high temperature). Once the ignition has commence the combustion will generally spread
spontaneously. For an car engine it may be desireable to have a rich mixture to allow for maximum power or at start up. A
boiler requires an excess or air to ensure complete combustion of the fuel for efficient operation....

Combustion Equations
The following typical equations are used to determine the combustion process
  Carbon ...C + O 2 -> CO 2
 Carbon ...2C + O 2 -> 2CO...Incomplete Combustion
 Hydrogen ...2H 2C + O 2 -> 2H 2O
 Sulphur ...S + O 2 -> SO 2

Reaction equations are generally based on volumes for gases and masses for liquids and solids. An reaction equation
can include the enthalpy change Δ H at the end of the equation eg

C H4 + 2 O 2 -> CO 2 + 2 H2 - Δ H

Theenthalpy term is negative if the reaction is exothermic and positive if the reaction is
endothermic.

Consider the combustion of Propane gas (C3 H8 )as an example...

Writing down the basic reaction equation without identifying the quantities

C 3 H 8 +x O 2 -> y C O 2 + z H 2 O..x, y z being unknown

There are three carbon atoms on the LHS and therefore y = 3. There are 8 Hydrogen atoms on the left hand
side ( H 8) and therefore z = 4 (4.H2) . The equation resulting is therefore

C 3 H 8 +x O 2 -> 3 C O 2 + 4 H 2 O..x being unknown

To determine x it is easily calculated that there are now 10 Oxygen atoms on the RHS (3 O 2 + 4 O) x is
therefore 5. The reaction equation is therefore .

C 3 H 8 +5 O 2 -> 3 C O 2 + 4 H 2 O..

In terms of kmoles 1 kmol C 3 H 8 + 5 kmol O 2 = -> 3 kmol C O 2 + 4 kmol H 2 O

Transfer into mass units ( 1 - kmol has a mass in kg = Molecular Weight)

[1 kmol of C 3 H 8 = 44kg + 5 kmol of O 2 = 160 kg ] -> [3 kmol of C O 2 = 132

kg + 4 kmol of H2 O = 72 kg ]

Now considering the equations with respect to Air. For each volume of O2 there are 4,76 volumes of Air.
Therefore the stoichiometric ratio of for combustion of propane is 1 to 5.4,76 = 1:23.8 based on volume..
Table showing various substances involved in combustion with their Molecular Weights

Approx.
Substance Formula molecular
Weight
Benzene C 6H 6 78
Butane C 4H 10 -
Carbon C 12
Carbon
CO 28
Monoxide
Carbon
CO 2 44
Dioxide
Ethane C 2H 6 30
Ethanol C 2H 5OH 46
Ethene C 2H 4 28
Hydrogen H2 2
Methane CH 4 16
Nitrogen N2 28
Octane C 8H 18 114
Oxygen O2 32
Pentane C 5H 12 72
Propane C 3H 8 44
Propene C 3H 6 42
Sulphur S 32
Sulphur
SO 48
Monoxide
Sulphur
SO 2 64
Dioxide
Water H 2O 18