Sport

 /  Private  Ground  School  

Lesson  3:  Aerodynamics  

 FAA  Aerodynamics  Video  

h=p://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_kKRUjtJIBk    
 Forces  of  Flight  
•  LiL:  Force  produced  by  the  dynamic  effect  
of  air  acOng  on  an  airfoil,  opposes  weight    
–  Pulls  the  airplane  into  the  air  

•  Weight:  Combined  load  of  the  airplane  

itself,  fuel,  cargo,  and  crew  
–  Pulls  the  airplane  towards  earth  
 Forces  of  Flight  
•  Thrust:  Forward  force  produced  by  the  
powerplant  /  propeller  
–  Pulls  airplane  forward  in  air  

•  Drag:  Rearward,  retarding  force,  caused  

by  the  disrupOon  of  airflow  by  
components  of  the  airplane    
–  Slows  airplane  down  
 Forces  in  Flight  
•  In  steady  unaccelerated  flight  
–  LiL  =  Weight  
–  Thrust=  Drag  
•  Forces  equal  in  climbs  and  descents  as  well  
–  Upward  and  downward  forces  in  equilibrium  
–  All  forward  forces  equal  all  rearward  forces  
 Bernoulli’s  Principle  
•  Venturi  effect    
•  Pressure  same  on  either  end  of  venturi  
•  When  air  is  in  center  of  venturi  
–  Velocity?  Pressure?  Temperature?  
 Bernoulli’s  Principle  
•  Air  foil  acts  like  a  venturi  
–  Low  Pressure  above  wing  
–  High  Pressure  below  wing  
•  Air  over  wing  speeds  up  
 Bernoulli’s  Principle  
•  h=p://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=UujAMPv3y-­‐A    

                   Venturi  Effect    
 Newton’s  Laws  of  MoOon    
1st:  A  body  at  rest  tends  to  stay  at  rest;  a  body  in  
moOon  tends  to  stay  in  moOon  (InerOa)  
2nd:  When  a  body  is  acted  upon  by  a  force,  its  
resulOng  acceleraOon  is  inversely  proporOonal  to  
the  mass  of  the  body  and  is  directly  proporOonal  to  
the  applied  force.  (F=ma;  It  takes  more  force  to  
accelerate  a  larger  object)    
3rd:  For  every  acOon  there  is  an  equal  and  opposite  
reacOon  
 Parts  of  a  Wing  
•  Mean  Camber  Line  
•  Camber  
•  Leading  Edge  
•  Trailing  Edge  
•  Chord  line  
•  Flight  Path  
•  RelaOve  Wind  
Parts  of  a  Wing  
 Angle  of  A=ack  
•  Angular  difference  between  chord  line  and  flight  
path  
•  Air  no  longer  smoothly  flows  over  wing  if  angle  of  
a=ack  becomes  too  great  (cannot  produce  liL)  
•  CriOcal  Angle  of  A=ack  
–  Between  15  and  20  degrees  
–  LiL  is  reduced  
–  Drag  is  increased  
–  Wing  becomes  stalled  
 Wing  Design  
•  Aspect  raOo  –  raOo  between  length  and  width  
of  a  wing  
•  Wing  area  –  total  surface  area  of  the  wings  
•  Planform  –  the  shape  of  the  wing  as  viewed  
from  above  
•  Angle  of  incidence  –  angle  between  wing  
chord  line  and  aircraL’s  longitudinal  axis  
Wing  Types  
 Turning  Flight  
•  The  horizontal  component  of  li1  causes  an  airplane  
to  turn  
•  As  airplane  is  banked  a  component  of  the  liL  is  
directed  toward  the  turn,  leaving  less  liL  available  
to  support  the  weight  –  more  liL  is  needed  to  
maintain  level  flight  (back  pressure  on  sOck)  
 
Turning  Flight  
 Forces  in  a  Turn  
•  AircraL  generates  liL  
–  Equal  and  Opposite  ReacOons  
•  In  a  turn  aircraL  generates:  
–  Weight  (towards  center  of  earth)  
–  Centrifugal  Force  (pulls  towards  outside  turn)  

•  Load  Factor  =  Weight  +  Centrifugal  Force  

Forces  in  a  Turn  
Coordinated  Turns  
 Turn  Rate  
•  Rate:  number  of  degrees  per  unit  Ome  
(Standard  Rate  =  180°  per  minute)  
–  If  bank  angle  is  constant,  but  speed  is  increased,  
rate  of  turn  will  decrease  (i.e.  takes  more  Ome  to  
complete  a  turn  at  higher  airspeed)  
–  If  airspeed  is  constant,  but  bank  angle  is  
increased,  rate  of  turn  will  increase  (i.e.  takes  
less  Ome  to  complete  a  turn  at  steeper  bank  
angle)  
 Turn  Radius  
•  Radius:  the  horizontal  distance  an  aircraL  
uses  to  complete  a  turn  
–  If bank angle is constant, but speed is
increased, radius of turn will increase (i.e.
takes more distance to complete a turn at
higher airspeed)
–  If airspeed is constant, but angle of bank is
increased, radius of turn will be smaller (i.e.
takes less distance to complete a turn at
steeper bank angles)
 Skids  and  Slips  
•  Too  much  rudder  in  a  turn  
–  Airplane  will  yaw  in  direcOon  of  turn  
•  Too  li=le  rudder  in  a  turn  
–  Airplane  will  yaw  in  opposite  direcOon  of  turn  
•  Skidding  Turns  
–  Pushed  towards  the  outside  of  a  turn  
•  Slipping  Turns  
–  Pushed  towards  the  inside  of  a  turn  
           “Step  on  the  ball”  
 Adverse  Yaw  (turns)  
•  Increased  drag  on  down  aileron  
–  AircraL  will  yaw  in  opposite  direcOon  
•  Happens  when  a  turn  is  iniOated    
•  If  the  aircraL  turns  leL,  aircraL  will  yaw  right  
•  Use  rudder  in  direcOon  of  turn  to  correct  
•  Just  a  li=le  rudder,  not  a  lot  
Adverse  Yaw  
 Weight  
•  Weight  of  the  airplane  acOng  towards  the  
center  of  the  earth  
 Thrust  
•  Increase  thro=le  to  increase  
thrust  
•  Airplane  will  accelerate  as  long  
as  thrust  exceeds  drag  
•  Once  thrust  and  drag  are  
equal,  acceleraOon  will  stop  
•  ReducOon  of  thrust  will  cause  
aircraL  to  decelerate  unOl  the  
drag  decreases  to  point  where  
it  equals  thrust    
 Drag  
•  Induced  Drag  
–  Results  from  producOon  of  liL  
–  Varies  inversely  with  airspeed  
•  Parasite  Drag  
–  Results  from  airplane  flying  through  air  
–  Varies  directly  with  airspeed  
•  Induced  Drag  +  Parasite  Drag  =  Total  Drag  
•  Best  Glide  Speed  –  intersecOon  of  Induced  
Drag  and  Parasite  Drag  (Minimum  drag)  
 Induced  Drag  
•  Decreases  as  airspeed  increases  
•  A  byproduct  of  liL  
•  Increases  with  higher  AOA  
 Parasite  Drag  
•  Increases  as  airspeed  increases  
•  Form  Drag  
–  Body  of  aircraL  going  through  the  air  
•  Interference  Drag  
–  VorOces  between  two  surfaces  jointed  together  
•  Skin  FricOon  Drag  
–  FricOon  between  air  and  wing  
 Total  Drag  
•  The  slower  the  airplane:  
–  The  greater  the  AOA  
–  The  more  induced  drag  increases  
•  The  faster  the  airplane  flies:    
–  More  Parasite  drag  increases  
Total  Drag  
For  Comparison…    
 Flaps  
•  Allow  flight  at  slower  airspeed  
•  Plain  –  simple  hinge  
•  Split  –  hinged  on  lower  
porOon  –  produces  lots  of  
drag  
•  Slo=ed  –  allows  some  high  
pressure  air  to  travel  over  the  
flap  
•  Fowler  –  increases  total  wing  
area  as  well  as  camber  and  
chord  line  
 Best  Glide  Speed  
•  Varies  with  Weight  
–  Lighter  –  Slower  glide  airspeed  
–  Heavier  –  Faster  glide  airspeed  
•  Rule  of  Thumb  
–  Reduce  glide  speed  by  5%  for  every  10%  below  
max  weight  
•  Glide  Distance  given  as  RaOo  
–  9  to  1  
Gliding  Flight  
 Factors  AffecOng  the  Glide  
•  Weight:  heavier  airplane  will  glide  at  a  faster  
airspeed,  but  will  cover  the  same  distance  
(same  glide  raOo  as  lighter  airplane,  but  will  
hit  the  ground  sooner)  
•  ConfiguraOon:  clean  airplane  (no  flaps)  has  
higher  glide  raOo  
•  Wind:  headwind  decreases  gliding  distance;  
tailwind  increases  it  
 Three  Axes  of  RotaOon  
•  VerOcal  Axis  
–  VerOcally  through  aircraL  
•  Lateral  Axis  
–  Horizontally  through  wing  Ops  
•  Longitudinal  Axis  
–  Horizontally  from  nose  to  tail  

All  intersect  center  of  gravity    

 VerOcal  Axis  
•  Rotates  aircraL  leL  and  right  
–  Term:  Yaw  
–  Use  Rudder  
•  Passes  through  center  of  gravity  
 Lateral  Axis  
•  Rotates  aircraL  up  and  down  
–  Term:  Pitch  
–  Use  Elevator  
•  Passes  through  center  of  gravity  
 Longitudinal  Axis  
•  Rotates  aircraL  LeL  and  Right  
–  Term:  Roll  
–  Use  Ailerons    
•  Passes  through  center  of  gravity  
 LeL  Turning  Tendencies  
•  Torque  
•  P-­‐Factor  (propeller  factor)    
–  “Asymmetrical  Thrust”  
•  Slipstream  effect  
•  Gyroscopic  Precession  (leL  and  right)  
 Torque  
•  Equal  and  Opposite  ReacOons  
–  Propeller  turns  right  /  AircraL  turns  leL  
–  Rolls  the  airplane  to  the  leL  
–  Torque  causes  airplane  to  yaw  leL  
–  LeL  yaw  during  takeoff  
–  Need  to  hold  in  right  rudder  
 P-­‐Factor    
“Asymmetrical  Thrust”  
•  Equal  and  Opposite  ReacOons  
–  Downward  moving  blade  on  right  side  takes  
bigger  bite  of  air  –  more  thrust  
–  Upward  moving  blade  on  leL  side  takes  smaller  
bite  of  air  –  less  thrust  (right  side  of  propeller)  
–  LeL  yaw  during  t/o,  climb  
 Slipstream  
•  Propeller  air  is  rotated  and  sent  backwards  
–  Clockwise  corkscrew  pa=ern  
–  Strikes  verOcal  stabilizer  to  leL  side  
–  Causes  slight  rolling  moment  to  the  right  about  
longitudinal  axis  
 Gyroscopic  Precession  
•  LeL  Turning  Tendency  
–  Climbs  
•  Right  Turning  Tendency  
–  Descents  
•  Precession  
–  Rigidity  in  space  
–  Precession  
 CorrecOng  for  LeL  Turning  
Tendencies    
•  CorrecOons  made  to  aircraL  
–  Offset  engine  (to  right)  
–  Trailing  edge  of  verOcal  stabilizer  may  be  canted  
to  the  right  
–  LeL  wing  may  have  a  greater  angle  of  a=ack  
–  Holding  right  rudder  in  at  high  power  sesngs  and  
lower  speed  
 Stability  
•  Tendency  for  an  aircraL  to  return  to  a  
condiOon  of  steady  flight  aLer  it’s  been  
disturbed  
–  StaOc  –  iniOal  tendency  
–  Dynamic  –  over  Ome  tendency  
•  PosiOve:  oscillaOons  decrease  over  Ome  
•  NegaOve:  oscillaOons  become  worse  over  Ome  
•  Neutral:  oscillaOons  stay  the  same  over  Ome  
 Stability  
 
•  PosiOve  StaOc  –  the  iniOal  tendency  to  return  to  
the  posiOon  from  which  it  was  displaced  
•  PosiOve  Dynamic  –  the  overall  tendency  of  the  
airplane  to  return  to  its  original  posiOon  directly  
or  through  a  series  of  decreasing  oscillaOons  
•  Combined  posiOve  staOc  and  dynamic  stability  
results  in  “damped  oscillaOons”  
Stability  
 Longitudinal  Stability  
•  Stability  around  the  lateral  
axis  (pitch  stable)  
•  Longitudinal  stability  
primarily  determined  by  the  
locaOon  of  the  CG  relaOve  to  
the  center  of  pressure  
•  Most  airplanes  designed  with  
CG  slightly  forward  of  center  
of  pressure  (nose  heavy)  
 CG  Effects  on  Longitudinal  
Stability  
•  Too  far  forward  
–  Longer  t/o  runs  
–  Higher  stall  speeds  
–  At  the  extreme,  may  not  have  
enough  elevator  to  liL  the  nose  
•  Too  far  aL  
–  Less  stable  at  all  speeds  
–  Faster  cruise  
–  Lower  stall  speed  
–  More  dangerous  than  too  far  forward  
since  elevator  may  not  be  effecOve  
enough  to  recover  from  stall  (won’t  
be  able  to  lower  nose)  
 
 Power  Effects  on    
Longitudinal  Stability  
•  A  power  reducOon  will  
decrease  the  downwash  on  
the  horizontal  stabilizer  
causing  the  nose  to  pitch  
down  
•  If  thrustline  is  above  CG,  an  
increase  in  power  will  cause  
the  nose  to  pitch  down  
•  These  two  power  effects  tend  
to  offset  each  other,  however  
at  high  power  sesngs  and  low  
airspeeds,  these  two  forces  
may  not  be  in  balance  –  be  
careful  on  power-­‐on  
approaches  and  go-­‐arounds  
 Lateral  Stability  
•  Stability  around  the  
longitudinal  axis  (roll  
stability)  
•  Dihedral  –  upward  angle  
of  the  airplane  wings  
•  Sweepback  
•  Keel  Effect  
 DirecOonal  Stability  
•  Stability  about  the  
verOcal  axis  
•  VerOcal  tail  is  the  primary  
contributor  
•  Weather  vane  
 
 Ground  Effect  
•  Ground  effect  alters  the  three-­‐dimensional  airflow  pa=ern  
around  the  airplane  
•  Alters  the  wings  upwash,  downwash,  and  wingOp  vorOces  
•  Restricts  the  verOcal  component  of  airflow  around  the  wing  
•  The  result  of  the  earth’s  surface  altering  the  airflow  
pa=erns  about  the  airplane  (not  a  “cushion  of  air”)  
•  Induced  drag  is  decreased  close  to  the  ground  (within  one  
wingspan)  
•  Takeoff:  In  ground  effect,  an  airplane  may  become  airborne  
before  it  reaches  its  recommended  takeoff  speed  
•  Landing:  Excess  speed  in  the  flare  may  cause  the  aircraL  to  
float  
 Ground  Effect  
•  Airplane  has  
–  Less  drag  
–  More  liL  
–  Ability  to  fly  at  slower  speed  
•  Occurs  when:  
–  Close  to  the  surface  (within  ½  wing  span)  
–  Changes  airflow  around  the  wing  
 Load  Factor  
•  RaOo  of  the  load  supported  by  the  wings  to  the  actual  weight  
of  the  airplane  (Gs)  
•  Load  factor  increases  as  angle  of  bank  increases  
•  Stall  speed  increases  with  increased  load  factor  
•  Load  factor’s  affect  on  stall  speed  is  most  notable  in  banks  
over  45°  
–  60°  bank  results  in  41%  increase  in  stall  speed  (2  G’s)  
–  75°  bank  results  in  100%  increase  in  stall  speed  
•  Limit  load  factor  –  how  many  posiOve  or  negaOve  Gs  an  
airplane  can  withstand  
Load  Factor  
 Load  Factor  

The  amount  of  excess  load  that  can  be  imposed  on  an  aircraL  
depends  on  the  aircraL’s  speed.  
 Load  Factor  
•  Total  weight  the  wings  have  to  support  divided  
by  gross  weight  of  airplane  
–  Expressed  in  terms  of  G  (unit  of  gravity)  
•  Load  Factor  is  increased  by  
–  Angle  of  bank  
–  Turbulence  
–  Pull  out  of  a  dive  
•  An  increase  in  Load  Factor  
–  Increase  stall  speed  
–  AircraL  always  stalls  at  CriOcal  Angle  of  A=ack  
 Slow  Flight  
•  Less  airflow  over  control  surfaces  
•  Control  surfaces  less  effecOve  
•  Why  pracOce:  
–  Feel  the  controls  at  slower  speeds  
–  Listen  to  the  aircraL  at  slower  speeds  
–  Similar  procedures  to  landing  an  aircraL  
•  Low  airspeed,  high  AOA,  high  power  sesng  
 Minimum  Controllable  
Airspeed  (MCA)  
•  The  speed  at  which  a  stall  will  result  if  there  is  
any  further  increase  in  AOA  or  reducOon  in  
power  
•  Stall  horn  will  sound  5-­‐10  kts  above  stall  speed  
•  Stall  horn  may  sound  when  at  MCA  
 Region  of  Reverse  Command  
•  Takes  more  power  to  fly  slower  
–  “Pitch  for  Airspeed,  Power  for  AlOtude”  
•  Speed  is  unstable  
–  Slower  speeds  may  get  slower  and  slower  
–  Faster  speeds  may  get  faster  and  faster  
•  AircraL  is  in  slow  flight  
 Load  Factor  during  a  turn  in  
Slow  Flight  
•  Wings  have  an  increased  load  factor  
•  To  prevent  stall:  add  power  and  forward  
pressure  on  yoke  
•  When  bank  increases,  stall  speed  increases  
•  Use  shallow  banks  (15  degrees  or  less)  
•  Use  less  then  30  degrees  bank  in  traffic  
pa=ern  
 Maneuvering  Speed  (VA)  
•  Max  speed  you  can  apply  full  and  abrupt  
control  movements  
•  Airplane  will  stall  before  exceeding  load  limit  
•  VA  decreases  as  weight  decreases  since  a  
lighter  aircraL  is  subject  to  more  rapid  
acceleraOon  from  gusts  and  turbulence.  
 Maneuvering  Speed  
•  Two  categories  for  aircraL  cerOficaOon  
–  Normal  (+3.8  to  -­‐1.52  G’s)  
–  UOlity  (+4.4  to  -­‐1.76  G’s)  
–  Can  withstand  load  factors  without  structural  
damage    
•  Va  –  Maneuvering  Speed  
–  Speed  when  in  turbulent  weather  
–  AircraL  will  stall  before  structural  damage  occurs  
–  Varies  with  weight  of  airplane  
 Maneuvering  Speed  
•  Determined  by  weight  of  aircraL  
•  Directly  proporOonal  to  weight  
–  Heavier  weight  –  higher  Va  
–  Lower  weight  –  lower  Va  
 Stalls  
•  SeparaOon  of  airflow  
from  the  wing’s  upper  
surface  resulOng  in  
rapid  loss  of  liL  
•  Always  happens  at  the  
same  angle  of  a=ack  
(criOcal  angle  of  a=ack)  
regardless  of  airspeed,  
alOtude  or  weight  
 Stalls  
•  Airplanes  can  stall  at  different  airspeeds  but  always  at  the  
same  angle  of  a=ack  
•  Factors  that  make  an  aircraL  stall  at  a  higher  airspeed  
–  Increased  weight  
–  Increased  load  factor  
–  Snow/ice  on  wings  
–  Turbulence  
•  Types  of  stalls  
–  Power-­‐off  (approach  to  landing)  
–  Power-­‐on  (departure)  
–  Accelerated  (stall  at  higher  than  normal  airspeed)  
–  Cross-­‐control  (sOck  in  one  direcOon;  rudder  in  the  
opposite)  
 Stalls  
•  Stall  recogniOon  
–  Mushy  controls  
–  BuffeOng  
–  Reduced  wind  noise  
–  Stall  alarm  
•  Stall  recovery  
–  Lower  the  nose  
–  Add  power    
 
 Spins  
•  Airplane  must  stall  in  order  to  spin  
•  Both  wings  are  stalled,  but  one  more  than  the  
other  
•  PrevenOon:    
–  don’t  stall  
–  stay  coordinated  
–  don’t  load  the  plane  aL  of  CG  range  
•  Recovery  
–  Thro=le  to  idle  
–  Neutralize  ailerons  
–  Apply  rudder  in  the  direcOon  opposite  spin  
–  Neutralize  elevator  
–  As  rotaOon  stops,  neutralize  rudder  
–  Gradually  pull  back  on  sOck  and  add  power  
 Spin  Demo  
•  Outside:  
h=p://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iX4lK-­‐
ud1fI  

•  Inside:  
h=p://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=kQ60fitlU70    
Test  Time!