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Blog for B.Ed./M.Ed. students and any one interested in Education. Welcome to my world of
Words.
Tuesday, 1 September 2015
B.Ed.Notes-Educational Management
EDU. 106. EDUCATIONAL MANAGEMENT
Prepared by
SABARISH-P
Attur, Thrissur.
Contact me : pklsabarish@gmail.com
Management – Meaning
• Management means steering an organization towards specified objectives through certain
processes.
• Management means the act of getting people together to accomplish desired goals.
• Management can also refer to the person or people who perform the act(s) of management.
• The human elements include: (i) Children, (ii) parents, (iii) teachers and (iv) other employees in
general.
• On the material side there are (a) finance, (b) buildings and grounds, (c) equipments and
instructional supplies. Besides, there are ideas, laws and regulations and so on, having a bearing
on the educational process.
• Motivate members
• Looking after proper functioning of school (like discipline, teaching, examination etc.)
• Maintaining records properly.
• Planning
• Organizing
• Directing
• Motivating
• Decision making
• Evaluating
1) Planning
b. It means deciding in advance what result are to be achieved and what actions are to
be taken for the same and who should take such actions, where , when and how.
2) Organizing
b. In a judicious manner, people and activities have to be grouped to produce the best
results by following
3) Directing
a. This means the continuous process of generation sufficient interest to each individual
to carry out actions that can be benefit the organization.
b. As strategies for motivation both monetary and non-monetary rewards are used.
5) Decision making
a. This means converting intentions to action plans on a rational basis, on the basis of a
perceived relationship between actions and outcomes.
6) Evaluating
Management of Men
Management of Money
Management of Machines
Management of Material
Management of Method
Social changes
Institutional Climate
Set of characteristics that
- describe an organization
• Personality of an organization
Institutional Climate-Meaning
• Organizational Climate refers to enduring quality of the internal environment that experienced by
the members of an organization.
• Open Climate
• Controlled Climate
• Familiar Climate
• Paternal Climate
• Closed Climate
• Autocratic climate
• Custodial climate
1) Open Climate
It is characterized by teacher relations that are professional, collegial, friendly, and committed to
the education of students.
The principal/management is supportive and professional and does not restrict or direct teachers
with orders.
2) Controlled Climate
Importance is given to the completion of tasks and little time is devoted to social life.
Teachers appear to be entirely devoted to their work and spend full time on fulfilling them. There is little
time available for interaction between each other.
Students are also heavily engaged with the tasks and are given little time to give over to the extracurricular
activities.
The principals usually keeps his distance from the teachers, students and parents in order to avoid any
degree of familiarity.
3) Familiar Climate
The principal is much interested in maintaining a social atmosphere that favors the fulfillment of any
particular task. Thus, a significant number of teachers is not committed to their main task.
Most of the students do not take their learning process seriously and some others have hollow excuses
to be out of school or to be absent from it (unexcused absences).
4) Paternal Climate
In this the school principal is a hard-working person, but he falls short of having any effects on the staff;.
The school principal is full of life and lively, but his management style tends to lean on the autocratic side.
Majority of the teachers, students and parents prefer to keep their cautious distance from the leader.
5) Closed Climate
There is no commitment particularly on the part of both the principal and teachers.
The school principal tends to be stern and wielding control. As a result, most of the teachers tend to be
frustrated and ineffective.
6) Autocratic climate
Better performance is ensured through fear, threats, punishment and occasional rewards.
7) Custodial climate
In this climate management feels it is their official right to decide what to be or not to be provided to
employee.
In this employees are participated in decision making and interact with management in organizational
matters.
This model of climate believes that employees are self motivated and have self direction and control.
Democratic climate help employees to fulfill their higher order needs such as esteem and self
actualization.
Supportive climate create conductive environment and best can be extracted from the employees.
There is a close relationship between the managers, teachers, students and parents.
• Employees work happily and associate with the organization for a long time.
• Leadership style
• Organizational policies
• Managerial values
• Organizational size
• Characteristics of members
• Economic conditions
1) Leadership style
• There is a positive correlation between a good organizational climate and leadership style.
2) Organizational policies
3) Managerial values
• Every organization has its own values. These values are communicated to employees through rules,
regulations and policies so that they can adapt them selves and modify their behavior.
• The values held by managers have a strong influence on organizational climate, because values
lead to actions and shape decisions
4) Organizational size
• Most of research studies show a strong positive correlation between organizational climate and
Institutional climate.
• Small organizations are responsive and flexible and this guarantees them success.
• It is more difficult for management in large organizations to give the appropriate amount of
management to its subordinates
5) Characteristics of members
• Most of the research studies show that Characteristics of Members influence Institutional Climate.
• The climate should be friendly not only between students but also between teachers.
6) Economic conditions
• Resource mobilization
• Time allocation
• Monitoring
• Evaluating
• Feedback
1) Academic planning
2) Resource mobilization
• Includes Mobilise Financial, physical and human resources for the support and development of
infrastructure and programmes.
• Through rich and diverse programmes students should be able to experience safe, enjoyable and
challenging activities which will enable them to develop and grow into successful and happy
young adults.
• Activities and programmes are to be planned for the kinesthetic and emotional developments of
every student.
4) Time allocation
5) Monitoring
• Monitoring the implementation of projects and programmes that are executed and managed at
various levels is essential for quality outputs.
6) Evaluating
• Evaluation is essential for obtaining valid information about the performance of an organisation
and factor that affect performance.
7) Feedback
Educational Leadership
• “An educational Leader is always trying to get others to accept his decisions or his objectives, or
encourages them to join in some common purpose. His skill like that of any other leader. Have
the ability to make significant judgment and to encourage others to accept these judgments”-
Barky
• Honesty
• Ability to Delegate
• Communication
• Sense of Humor
• Confidence
• Commitment
• Positive Attitude
• Creativity
• Intuition
• Ability to Inspire
Administrative duties
Discipline
Human management
• Organiser
• Administrator
• Supervisor
• Teacher
• Leader
• Teaching: Headmaster of a school is a teacher first and last. Teaching is his fundamental duty.
Headmasters remain so much absorbed in other duties that they never enter classes. But they
should take at least two periods a day on specialized subjects. They should deliver or guide
demonstration classes. By actually teaching, the Headmaster comes to know the standard of
pupils in different classes and the standard of teaching in the school. He directly comes in contact
and understands difficulties of students and teachers.
• Planning: Unless the Headmaster plans for the school, there will be confusion all round. For making
proper planning, help of pupils, teachers, and parents should be taken. Most of the planning will
be there in course of discussions of school problems in the staff meetings and students councils
• School Supplies: This involves planning. Estimates are to be prepared regarding the quantity of
purchases to be made. Specification of each item is to be laid down and quotations have to be
invited and approved by the Headmaster. Goods ordered should be inspected and checked on
arrival. Headmaster will appoint a selection committee for purchase and maintenance of
equipments
• School Campus: School plant should provide adequate educational services. Best use of all the
rooms, laboratories, workshops and the farm is made. In case of over-crowding students may
attend laboratories in groups. School may be used for its specific uses. All school buildings should
be guarded against building hazards. The perfect up-keep of the school campus is the lookout of
the Headmaster
• Headmaster must decide time to be devoted for office work. Headmaster must make note of his office
duties.
• Duties of Headmaster prescribed by Education Department and Managing Committee should be strictly
followed.
• The Headmaster should strictly obey the rules and regulations by the University or school Board, to which
the school is affiliated.
• Routine duties of the Headmaster should be admission, checking class registers, cash book, acquaintance
roll; attendance registers accounts of various fees and fines.
All these general duties and specific responsibilities of the Headmaster will go to make better schools.
Performance Appraisal
• Systematic evaluation of the performance of the employees.
• The systematic evaluation of the performance of employees and to understand the abilities of a
person for further growth and development
(1) Examines and evaluates an employee's work behavior by comparing it with preset
standards,
• Performance appraisals are employed to determine who needs what training, and who will be
promoted, demoted, retained, or fired.
• Curriculum Alignment
• Classroom Management
1) Knowledge of the content area:Content knowledge refers to the body of information that teachers
teach and that students are expected to learn in a given subject or content area, such as English
language, mathematics, science, or social studies. Content knowledge generally refers to the facts,
concepts, theories, and principles that are taught and learned.
2) Knowledge of Delivery Methods: Good teachers are expected to have an ability to transfer the
content to learners in an effective and appropriate way. Communicating ideas and concepts in a
simple, clear and sequential manner using examples where ever possible is an important criterion
for effective teaching.
3) Pedagogic content knowledge. (PCK): In addition to teachers' content knowledge and their
general knowledge of instructional methods (pedagogical knowledge), pedagogical content
knowledge was originally suggested as a third major component of teaching expertise, by Lee
Shulman. Pedagogical content knowledge is a type of knowledge that is unique to teachers, and is
based on the manner in which teachers relate their pedagogical knowledge (what they know about
teaching) to their subject matter knowledge (what they know about what they teach). It is the
integration or the synthesis of teachers' pedagogical knowledge and their subject matter
knowledge that comprises pedagogical content knowledge. Pedagogical content knowledge is a
form of knowledge that makes science teachers ‘teachers’ rather than scientists.
4) Understanding the Learning Process: In order to engage, motivate and teach all learners at
optimal levels, teachers must understand the learning process. There are six interactive
components of the learning process: attention, memory, language, processing and organizing,
writing and higher order thinking. These processes interact not only with each other, but also with
emotions, classroom climate, behavior, social skills, teachers and family. Most of the learning
process will involve four essential processes:
5) Understanding of Student Needs: To effectively choose teaching methods and help students learn,
teacher must first know something about whom you are teaching. Students will be coming from
different backgrounds and have various learning needs. Knowledge about students will enable
teachers to refine lectures, class discussions, comments, illustrations, and activities so that they
are more effective learning experiences. References to student interests, backgrounds, knowledge,
and even anxieties can make the class seem more personal and the material more accessible.
Student’s background can be properly accessed by suitable tools like questionnaires etc.
6) Curriculum Alignment: Curriculum alignment is the process in which teachers across all levels
formally evaluate/implement curriculum to address the changing needs of students and the
society. Curriculum alignment is defined as the degree to which expectations and assessments are
in agreement with one another to guide the system towards students learning what they are
expected to do and know.
7) Ability to use Student Achievement Data in Planning Instruction: Student achievement data such
as teacher observational notes of students performance in class, samples of students class work,
student portfolios, results of formal and informal classroom assessment, report cards should be
properly interpreted by the teacher for further improvement and planning of instruction.
8) Classroom Management :
• Promotes self-discipline
10) Ability to use Technology as a Tool in the Classroom: Teachers should have basic knowledge in
technology to use it in classroom for effective teaching and learning. Teacher should know to use
various softwares, projective and non projective aids to make teaching more interesting.
Additionally it is good for ateacher to have knowledge about Blogging, Using Google tools, Web
2.0, Interactive white boards, Web designing, video-audio editing etc.
11) Communication with Stakeholders Inside and Outside the School Setting: Teacher should have
essential soft skills like influencing, communicating, team building etc to maintain good
interrelationship between students, staffs, and other stakeholders inside and outside the school
setting.
Provides a climate which opens up communication between the teacher and parent
Cooperates with other teachers, the administration, and other educational personnel
Shares ideas and methods with other teachers and maintain a good relation.
Records in Schools
• School records are official documents, and files containing essential information of actions and
events which are kept and preserved in the school office for utilization and retrieval of information
when needed.
• Keeping accurate and proper records of students achievement and growth, information on school
activities and matters will help to promote efficiency and effectiveness of the school system.
• School records have importance in the effective and efficient organization and administration of
the school for the planning and implementation of appropriate course of actions allowing proper
monitoring of activities/tasks.
• Records are important because they serve as major information tool that sustains the school and
aids in achieving educational goals and objectives. Records restore teaching competence and
maintain the trend in the history of teaching and learning processes.
1. Admission register
2. Attendance register for staff and students
3. Attendance register for students
4. Stock register
5. Acquittance Register
6. Teaching Manual
7. Student Profile
8. Cumulative record
9. Service book
1) Admission Register
• Note down the time of their arrival as well as departure every day.
Purpose
• To maintain institutional discipline
4) Stock Register
5) Acquittance Roll
• It is the financial document which shows the details of payment to the staff in the educational
institution
• The name and designation of the claimant and the net amount payable
6) Teaching Manual
7) Student Profile
• It can include the data submitted by the student as well as information which is added
by staff members
• Personal data, family background, health information, scholastic record, non scholastic record,
personality traits etc.
8) Service Book
• An official record of the government employees regarding their professional life in the institution.
9) Cumulative Record
• A record containing the detailed information about a child so as to reveal the growth and
development of the child while in school in all aspects
• Personality, physical, mental, moral, social etc- from the beginning to the end of his school
career.
• Should be Up-to-date
• Should be genuine
• Should be Authentic
SABARISH-P at 08:58:00
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Blog for B.Ed./M.Ed. students and any one interested in Education. Welcome to my world of
Words.
Friday, 21 August 2015
Prepared by
SABARISH-P
Attur, Thrissur.
School Subjects-Meaning
A school subject is an area of learning within the school curriculum that constitutes an institutionally
defined field of knowledge and practice for teaching and learning.
School subjects can be traditional academic subjects, such as mathematics, history, geography, physics,
chemistry and economics.
Newly there are some unconventional school subjects like tourism and hospitality.
Academic school subjects, such as mathematics, chemistry, geography, history, and economics, are to be
compulsorily taught to the students.
The content of these academic subjects need to be worked with and transformed by the teachers in such
a way that it is appropriate for classroom teaching.
Constructing a school subject involves the selection and arrangement of content of knowledge,
skills and the transformation of that content for school and classroom use.
Constructing a school subject is in accordance with respect to both the societal expectations and the
activities of teaching.
Thus, a school subject is the result of institutional selection, organization, and framing content for social,
economic, cultural, curricular and pedagogic purposes.
A school subject constitutes an organizing framework that gives meaning and shape to curriculum
content, teaching, and learning activities.
School subjects are distinctive, purpose-built enterprises, constructed in response to different social,
cultural, and political demands and challenges, and towards educational aims.
Thus a school subject contains content, and translating content for educational purposes.
Academic disciplines-Meaning
The term ‘discipline’ originates from the Latin words discipulus, which means pupil, and
disciplina, which means teaching (noun).
An academic discipline or ‘field of study’ is a branch of knowledge that is taught and researched
as part of higher education.
Examples for Academic Disciplines are Anthropology, Space Science, psychology, sociology,
archeology, Education etc.
School Subjects-Definition
A school subject constitutes an organizing framework that gives meaning and shape to
curriculum content, teaching, and learning activities (Karmon, 2007)
“A school subject is an area of learning within the school curriculum that constitutes an
institutionally defined field of knowledge and practice for teaching and learning.”- Deng,
Z (2013)
“An academic discipline or field of study is a branch of knowledge that is taught and
researched as part of higher education”. - Anthony Biglan
Some unconventional school subjects like tourism and hospitality have minimal
connections with academic disciplines.
A school subject constitutes an organizing framework that gives meaning and shape to
curriculum content, teaching, and learning activities.
The formation of a school subject entails a theory of content - a special way of selecting,
framing, and translating content for educational purposes.
The distinction between school subjects and academic disciplines has not received
sufficient attention from policymakers, researchers, and educators.
3) Social efficiency: The central purpose of schooling is to meet the current and future
manpower needs of a society by training youth to become contributing members of
society.
These discourses argue that contemporary schooling should allow individual learners to
construct their own knowledge base and competences. It should prepare young people for
their future role as active, responsible, and productive citizens in a democratic society.
Furthermore, schools are expected to be instrumental in equipping individuals for the
challenges created by economic and cultural globalization. These ideas have been employed
by governments across the globe as the reasons for changing curriculum content.
The above diverse aims and expectations of schooling entail different implications for how
school subjects should relate to academic disciplines.
Relationship between school subjects and academic disciplines
(Three Juxtapositions –continuous, discontinuous, and related.)
School subjects can have different and variable relationships to academic disciplines, depending on their
aims, contents, and developmental phases.
There are three broad comparisons/contrasts (associations) between school subjects and academic
disciplines:
(1) School subjects and academic disciplines are essentially continuous.
(3) School subjects and academic disciplines are different but related.
Each of the associations, ie Juxtapositions implies a particular curricular position concerning how school
subjects are constructed with respect to academic disciplines.
The continuous position shows the importance of transmitting disciplinary knowledge for the
development of the intellectual capacity of students and for the maintenance or reproduction of academic
culture/knowledge.
This is called the doctrine of disciplinarity, according to which school subjects are derived from and
organised according to the structure of academic disciplines.
The central purpose of a school subject, like that of a discipline, is to initiate the young into the academic
community of scholars.
School subjects, therefore, are supposed to derive their life, from their related intellectual disciplines.
School subjects constitute a faithful and valid introduction to the academic disciplines whose names they
bear.
Students are dealing with relatively simple ideas and methods, they study the same ideas and methods
known by experts in the academic disciplines.
The exclusive reliance of the curricular position on academic disciplines in defining school subjects leaves
out other kinds of knowledge (e.g., practical knowledge, technical knowledge, local community
knowledge, etc.) that could be potential curriculum content.
Curriculum development framed by this curricular position ignores the interests, attitudes, and feelings
of learners. Furthermore, this curricular position shows little concern about meeting social, economic, and
political needs, and is silent on issues about social reform and reconstruction.
The world of knowledge, the needs of learners, and the needs and demands of society are three essential
factors that determine and shape curriculum content and set school subjects apart from academic
disciplines.
In this curricular position school subjects and academic disciplines are essentially discontinuous in
purpose and substance. Hence, school subjects are allowed for construction, which could get beyond the
narrow academic or disciplinary concern.
The discontinuous position finds support in humanism, social efficiency, and social reconstructions.
Humanist educators argue that school subjects are created to provide students with rewarding
experiences that contribute to personal growth and individual freedom. School subjects, therefore, need
to be formulated according to the interest, attitudes, and developmental stages of individual students.
They need to derive content from a wide range of sources – such as personal experiences, human activities
and community cultures and wisdoms. Disciplinary knowledge may or may not be useful for the formation
of school subjects.
From the perspective of social efficiency, school subjects are constructed for the primary purpose of
maintaining and enhancing economic and social productivity by equipping future citizens with the
requisite knowledge, skills, and capital.
The formation of school subjects, therefore, is justified with close reference to the needs of occupation,
profession, and vocation.
Therefore, specialised and applied fields like engineering, accounting, and marketing, among others, are
the primary sources from which the contents of school subjects are derived.
Academic disciplines are drawn upon only when they demonstrate their efficacy in promoting those skills
and knowledge actually needed in occupations.
School subjects are created to provide students with meaningful learning experiences that might lead to
liberation and cause social activity.
The formation of school subjects is based upon an examination of social contexts, social issues, and
futures, with the intention of helping individuals reconstruct their own, standpoints, and actions.
Like humanistic educators, social reconstructionists believe that school subjects derive contents from a
wide range of sources. Contemporary curricular views like autonomous learners, participatory citizenship
and globalisation further set school subjects apart from academic disciplines.
The curricular discourses call for a learner-oriented approach to the construction of a school subject that
allows learners to construct their own knowledge according to their individual needs and interests.
The curricular discourses require the school subject to be formulated in ways that help students cultivate
certain kinds of sensitivity, disposition and awareness needed for responsible participation in society.
The school subjects equip students with general skills and lifelong learning abilities, essential for facing
the challenges of globalisation and the knowledge-based economy.
(3) School subjects and academic disciplines are different but related.
This third assumption demonstrates that the relationship between school subjects and academic
disciplines can exist in one of the three ways:
(c) that the relation between the subjects and disciplines is conflicting.
The first way holds that a school subject results from the transformation of an academic discipline.
The second way reflects that parallels exist between the stages in the development of disciplinary
knowledge and the stages through which the individual passes on the way to maturity, and therefore,
school subjects are formulated to reflect those parallels.
The third way can be viewed as a combination of the first and the second ways, where an academic
discipline provides the endpoint for the formation of a school subject and the school subject provides
for getting to know the academic discipline.
The formation of a school subject, involves three levels of curriculum making; the societal, the
programmatic, and the classroom.
The societal curriculum, also called the ideal or abstract curriculum, includes a conception of what
schooling should be with respect to the society and culture. Curriculum making at this level is
characterized by ideologies and discourses on curriculum policy according to schooling, culture, and
society.
The classroom curriculum – i.e., the enacted curriculum – is characterized by a cluster of events jointly
developed by a teacher and a group of students within a particular instructional context. Curriculum
making at this level involves transforming the programmatic curriculum embodied in curriculum
documents and materials into “educative” experiences for students.
The societal and programmatic curricula together form the institutional curriculum.
Thus, a school subject is formed as the result of institutional selection, organization, and framing content
for social, economic, cultural, curricular, and pedagogical purposes. Many important decisions concerning
content are therefore made prior to the actual instructional activities and the content actually taught in
the classroom, are independent in many respects from classroom teachers.
It is increasingly recognised that for teachers to know a school subject they must know
the ‘theory of content’ – how the content was selected, framed in the syllabus, and how it
can be transformed so that learners construct their own knowledge through it.
The inclusion or exclusion of a subject area from the school curriculum too has a social
history.
Distinctive school subjects are built for specific purposes and are constructed in accordance with the
prevailing social, cultural and political circumstances. The content of academic subjects such as
mathematics, chemistry, geography, history, and economics are to be transformed by the teachers in way
conducive for classroom teaching.
The contents of a school subject primarily comprise of the arrangement of age-appropriate information
in an orderly manner, so as to fulfill the educational needs of a student. A school subject is constituted
with a consideration of the societal expectations and the teaching activities. A school subject is formed
with a “theory of content” aimed solely for educational purposes.
School subjects are formed according to the needs of occupation, profession, and vocation. Therefore,
specialised and applied fields like engineering, accounting, and marketing, among others, are the primary
sources from which the contents of school subjects are derived.
Many important and independent decisions concerning the contents of school subjects are made prior to
the execution of instructional activities.
Teachers and students play a vital role as they have the potential to improve the contents of a subject by
working in it for developing the instructional background. The educative experiences of teachers and
students contribute to a large extent in transforming a school subject.
Thus it can be established that institutional selection and organisational content form the backdrop of a
school subject and the contents are determined by the social, economic, cultural, curricular and pedagogic
necessities.
In many parts of the world traditional school curriculum is being replaced by progressive types.
By studying about school subjects we can see that school subjects are essentially social and
political constructions.
School subjects have connection with social structure; social relations and they have
contributed in the process of cultural transmission too. Now it is being recognized that school
subjects are important sources for studying about the society and problems in it.
Recent researches offers that national and local proponents of subject change face a world
culture of school subjects.
The national curriculum has reflected a new movement to reconstitute the school subjects first
launched in the world movement of 1890 to 1910 periods.
Studying school subjects is necessary to investigate the link between school subject knowledge
and classroom pedagogy.
School subjects are now being considered as cultural and historical phenomenon so it is
necessary to study about them.
One of the important reasons for studying school subjects is that they provide a clear picture
of school knowledge and practices.
Studying school subjects thus entails an understanding of the “theory of content” that is crucial
for disclosing the educational potential embodied in the content.
School subjects are aimed to maintain the academic culture and develop the intellectual
capacity of students. School subjects are constructed for the primary purpose of maintaining
and enhancing economic and social productivity by equipping future citizens with the requisite
knowledge, skills, and capital.
School subjects are created to provide students with meaningful learning experiences that
might lead to liberation and cause social activity.
School subjects are allowed for construction and further provide students with rewarding
experiences that contribute to their intellectual growth. The school curriculum encourages a
learner-oriented approach to construct a school subject that allows students to learn according
to their needs and interests in their chosen fields of study. The school subjects equip the
students with general skills and learning abilities, essential for facing the challenges of
globalisation and the knowledge-based economy.
The school subjects pave the way for students to broaden their perspectives, enhance their
social awareness, develop positive attitudes and values, and foster problem-solving and critical
thinking skills. Thus, studying school subjects stands to offer a wide horizon for students to
create and explore create new corridors leading to enlightenment.
It is increasingly recognised that for teachers to know a school subject they must know
the ‘theory of content’ – how the content was selected, framed in the syllabus, and how it
can be transformed so that learners construct their own knowledge through it.
The inclusion or exclusion of a subject area from the school curriculum too has a social history.
Studying school subjects helps us to analyses how school subjects are influenced by the society,
culture and values of a nation.
To help students become independent thinkers so that they can construct knowledge appropriate to
changing personal and social circumstances.
To develop in students a range of skills for life-long learning, including critical thinking skills, creativity,
problem-solving skills, communication skills, and information technology skills.
To help students develop positive values and attitude towards life, so that they can become informed
and responsible citizens of society, the country and the world.
To provide all round development of the child and to attain the objectives of Education.
School subjects are allowed for construction and further provide students with rewarding experiences
that contribute to their intellectual growth.The school curriculum encourages a learner-oriented
approach to construct a school subject that allows students to learn according to their needs and
interests in their chosen fields of study.The school subjects equip the students with general skills and
learning abilities, essential for facing the challenges of globalisation and the knowledge-based economy.
The school subjects pave the way for students to broaden their perspectives, enhance their social
awareness, develop positive attitudes and values, and foster problem-solving and critical thinking
skills.Thus, studying school subjects stands to offer a wide horizon for students to create and explore
create new corridors leading to enlightenment.
“Content” of school subjects- Why study school subjects ? (for student teachers)
It is increasingly recognised that for teachers to know a school subject they must know the ‘theory
of content’ – how the content was selected, framed in the syllabus, and how it can be transformed
so that learners construct their own knowledge through it.
The inclusion or exclusion of a subject area from the school curriculum too has a social history.
Teachers need to have three kinds of subject matter knowledge: content knowledge,
pedagogical content knowledge and curricular knowledge.
Content knowledge includes knowledge of the substance and structure of the academic
discipline.
Curricular knowledge involves an understanding of the curriculum and the instructional materials
available for teaching a subject at various grade levels, which can be an aid to the transformation
process. Two assumptions underly the framework of curricular knowledge: (1) that school subjects
and academic disciplines are essentially continuous in substance and practice; and (2) that classroom
teachers necessarily work with and transform the content of an academic discipline into the content
of a school subject.
Reliance on the academic discipline as an essential frame of reference for defining teachers’
specialised understanding of content tends to overlook what is involved in knowing the content of a
school subject for teaching.
Teachers do need basic knowledge of related academic disciplines, but knowing the content of a
school subject lies at the heart of their professional understanding.
School subjects, constitute the locus of classroom teaching; they frame classroom teachers’
practice and perspectives on curriculum and instruction.
Knowing the content of a school subject involves knowing how the content is selected,
formulated, framed, and transformed in ways that render meaningful and educative experiences for
students.
The knowledge of the content of a school subject is crucial for disclosing the educational potential
inherent in the content.
As example, it is possible to look at knowing the content of a secondary school science subjects
like physics, chemistry and biology and knowing the content of liberal studies (an additional course in
arts subjects taken by students studying for a qualification in science, technology, or the
humanities.). Knowing the content of a secondary school science subject involves knowing five
intersecting aspects;
2) epistemological (concerning how we know these concepts and principles and how they come to
reach their present refined form),
3) psychological (concerning how the concepts and principles to be taught can be developed out of
the interest, experience, and prior knowledge of students),
4) pedagogical (concerning the effective ways of representing and reformulating the concepts and
principles)
5) socio-cultural (concerning how knowledge relates to and interacts with society, technology, and
culture).
The teacher needs to know how the logical can be formulated and transformed on the
epistemological, psychological, pedagogical, and socio-cultural planes, to render meaningful and
educative experiences to students. Teacher’s knowledge on the content of liberal studies entails
knowing how content can be organised, framed, and transformed into learning experiences to
broaden students’ perspectives, enhance their social awareness, develop positive attitudes and
values, and foster problem-solving and critical thinking skills.
With respect to liberal studies, four aspects are essential for knowing the content: namely inquiry
framing, socio-cultural framing, psycho-epistemological framing and pedagogic translation.
Inquiry framing is the content made for cross-curricular and issue-based inquiry.
Socio-cultural framing is the content prepared with reference to socio-cultural contexts.
Pedagogic translation is translating the content into teaching and learning activities and selecting
instructional resources.
Inquiry Framing - What are the themes and key issues pertaining to the module? What are the key
concepts that underlie each of the themes? How are these concepts related to the concepts in other
modules? What are the related issues for exploration?
Socio-cultural Framing - What significance do the key issues and related issues have for students, the
society and the world? How might these issues arise from various socio-cultural contexts? What
different perspectives can be brought to bear on addressing these issues? What kinds of critical
thinking can be encouraged? What attitudes and values are worthy of cultivation?
Psycho-epistemological Framing - What prerequisite knowledge and skills are needed for learning the
issues and concepts? How might the key issues and concepts connect with what students learn in
other school subjects or from other learning experiences in the curriculum? What have students
already known and experienced in relation to these issues and concepts? How might their existing
knowledge and experience be drawn upon for learning the issues and concepts?
Pedagogic Translation - On the basis of the above considerations, what could be teaching and learning
activities like group discussion, debate, role-play, project work, and independent inquiry, that could
broaden students’ perspectives and provide them with opportunities for problem-solving,
independent learning, and cross-curricular and critical thinking? What resources could be employed
for achieving the instructional purposes? What tools are most useful for assessing student learning?
How could the results of assessment be used to inform instruction?
Asking these questions allows teachers to interpret and reinvent the meanings of the content of
a particular module in specific instructional contexts.
Teachers assume the role of curriculum developer at the school or classroom level.
Knowing the content and studying school subjects thus entails an understanding of the theory of
content that is crucial for disclosing the educational potential embodied in the content.
References
1) Deng, Z (2013), School subjects and academic disciplines. In A Luke, A woods & K weir (Eds.), Curriculum,
Syllabus design and equity: A primer and model. Routledge
2) Ivor F. Goodson and Colin J. Marsh, Studying school subjects, A guide (1996), Routledge
Expected questions
10) What is the importance of teacher for studying about school subjects?
11) What are the different types of knowledge required by a teacher to know a school subject?
12) What are the requirements for knowing the content of a school subject?
13) Describe briefly the aspects that are essential for a teacher to know the content of school subjects?
SABARISH-P at 23:40:00
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