FLOOD CONTROL AND DRAINAGE ENGINEERING

Integrated Water Resources Management, Risk Reduction Approach

including Climate Change Effects

Noel M. Ortigas1, Edward Dennis Cruz2

¹ Executive Vice President, Engineering and Development Corporation of the Philippines (EDCOP)
Chair, PICE Specialty Division for Water Engineering
Principal Civil Engineer “A” and Acting Manager, Water Resources Department, EDCOP
Director, PICE, Makati

The Philippines is recognized to be abundantly endowed with water resources but the
country continues to face problems in proper allocation, usage and management of this vital
natural resource

Water allocation, utilization and optimized utilization have somehow eluded us for some
time: what with water shortage, limited equitable access to water supply (and sanitation),
low efficiency in our agricultural water utilization and flooding still observed and
experienced by a vast number of our people.

Our country is located within the Pacific Ring of Fire; likewise well within the typhoon path
from the Pacific Ocean to South Asia. We have earthquakes, volcanos, typhoons and
tsunamis, four of nature’s extreme events that lead to repetitive disasters if not properly
addressed. Climate Change is now an accepted reality and compounds the challenges that
we face in the water sector.

This paper attempts to provide and identify engineering solutions to typical drainage and
flooding problems in the country. Such is one of the major activities and advocacies of PICE,
a professional organization with a nationwide network and competent members who could
be tapped to provide engineering and technological answers to specific problems faced in
particular areas within our archipelago.
1. INTRODUCTION

In any area or land development – whether for residential, commercial, industrial,

recreational or institutional use – effective disposition of excess run-off or storm water is
essential.

As civilization progressed, drainage systems have also evolved. From primitive, simple
ditches to complex networks of curbs and gutters, surface and underground conduits. Along
with these physical improvements, the requirements for clearer and better understanding of
hydrologic and hydraulic processes also came about; so with the use of more “precise”
mathematical models and electronic tools to arrive at optimally designed drainage facilities.
With man’s increasingly concern for the environment; drainage designs have also included
management of storm water in terms of water quality rather than just quantity.

In the advent of the 20th century, engineers and planners have realized that while traditional
approaches appear to be valid, inputs and assumptions in terms of sustainability and
applicability to extreme events, natural or man-made have to be carefully to present-day
realities and considered in the planning and the design. Risk evaluation and disaster
management risk reduction preparations have also to be updated as well.

2. THE PHILIPPINE SETTING

Within In the pacific rim of fire; the Philippines is one of the countries in the world
susceptible (or really endangered) to natural extreme events. Prior to the super typhoon
Yolanda (maximum gusts recorded of 315 kph), a BBC study cite the Philippines as “one of
the world’s most naturally dangerous countries.” High intensity rains causing landslides,
along the general area where tectonic plates collide and typhoons build-up in the Pacific
Ocean just east of the archipelago tearing everything along their paths as they move west to
northwestward direction. The Philippines suffered 300 disasters in two (2) decades; in the
last four (4) years, 10 of the deadliest disaster in the last decade happened.

3. WATER SITUATION

The Philippines is situated such that rainfall within the country is on a whole sufficient – with
the mean annual rainfall varying from 1,000 to 4,000 mm over the 14 political and
geographical regions. This amount of precipitation is sufficient to fill up our ground
reservoirs, our springs and rivers to provide needs for agriculture, domestic requirements,
hydropower, industrial and tourism. That is, if rainfall is uniformly distributed over time and
in terms of need.

However, the sad facts about water supply:

a) Close to 40% of the country’s population do not have access to safe water supply
b) In such areas, residents pay 10 to 15 times higher than normally priced pipe water
supply systems
c) Even in piped water systems, efficiency is rather low, with some areas having service
for only 1 hour a day
d) Residents often rely on private vendors, or use their own dug wells, often at a risk of
availing unsafe water
e) Of some 550 water districts organized by the Local Water Utilities Administration
(LWUA), only about 20 or so are classified as “viable” water supply system, thus
limiting funding availability – crucial to the much needed expansion and
improvement of these utilities.

The sanitation problem is also as bad if not worse:

a) Only 7% of the country’s towns and cities are connected to engineered sewer
systems
b) While investments have been rightfully placed to the construction of and/or
improvement of existing water systems, investments in sanitation have been very
low. The latest statistics show that of a 100% investment program for water and
sanitation, 97% goes to water supply and only 3% is allocated for sanitation
c) Poor water quality (surface and groundwater) is becoming acute in urban and rural
areas
d) Only 36% of the country’s river system is classified as safe water source
e) A recent World Bank study revealed that of all groundwater sources sampled, 58%
are contaminated with coliform and would need treatment

The country is suffering an annual economic loss of PHP 67 B annually because of water
pollution; based on recent estimates (PHP 5 B in health, PHP 20 B in fisheries and close to
PHP 60 B in tourism). While the country’s tourist arrivals have improved rather well, 4.68 M
in 2013, 4.273 in 2012, these figures are still way below when compared to Thailand (22.3 M
in 2012), Malaysia (25 M in 2012). Thailand recorded tourism-related revenue of US 30 B for
2012.

There are cities in the country – Cebu, Iloilo, Dagupan, Metro Manila and Cavite –
experiencing salinity intrusion problems in their groundwater reserves due to excess and
unregulated groundwater extraction.

Approximately 31% of the recorded illness annually is attributed to water-borne diseases

(gastro-enteritis, diarrhea, typhoid, cholera, dysentery, hepatitis, and the most recent SARS)

In terms of investment requirements, estimates in made around 2015 show that PHP 530 B
is needed to resolve the shortage; PHP 400 B for sewerage and sanitation, PHP 130 B for
water supply.

4. WATER RELATED DISASTERS

A global institution, Water Resources Institute writes that: a) water risks has many
dimensions; b) water stress is growing worldwide, c) water stress is true not only in arid
regions; c) there is high competition in terms of water use and annual variability of water
supply – a deadly combination; and, d) increasing risk in food security.

Simply put, the root of “water related disaster” is having too much or having too little.

Too much causes: Landslides, floods, debris flow, tsunamis, storm surge

Too little: Drought, water quality degradation, water stress or shortage

Salinity intrusion (in wells, surface water, estuaries)
Four (4) of the most common, deadly natural disasters are present in the Philippines:

a) Wind storms (typhoons)

b) Earthquakes
c) Floods
d) Tsunamis

The latest to visit the country, brought about by super typhoon Yolanda in November 2013 is
of course, the storm surge, with some areas around Tacloban City reporting water reaching
to as high as 9 meters. Ten feet (10) waves over a 15 –foot storm surge, over a 2-feet storm
tide.)

5. CLIMATE CHANGE RISK AND CLIMATE CHANGE ADAPTATION

Changes in statistical properties over a long period of time are now referred to Climate
Change. In broader terms, it refers to human activities which have altered weather
conditions and not to those predictable changes based on the earth’s natural processes.
Climate Change is a more general term which would include global warming, and everything
else which increase levels in greenhouse gases will affect.

The ill effects of Climate Change include: heat waves, warm weather, ocean warming, water
level rise, melting of glaciers, polar warming, spreading disease, earlier spring arrival, range
shifts and population changes, coral reef bleaching, heavy snowfalls, flooding, droughts and
forest fires.

In the Philippines, our collective response has to be local; only those effects which would be
true to us in terms of our geographical location: a) sea level rise; b) temperature rise; and c)
tropical cyclone activity.

These three (3) sectors are directly impacted:

a) Water Resources
b) Agriculture
c) Forestry
d) Health

In the water sector or water environment, what have been confirmed are:

a) Typhoon paths appear to have changed

b) Precipitation patterns – high intensity rainfall, reduced rainfall or no rainfall in some
areas during dry months
c) Sea level rise
d) Combinations of b) and c) and continuing urban sprawl has caused frequent flooding
e) Forests have continued to be denuded. (Forest fires are now an increasing threat,
compounding the further reduction of forest and vegetation cover with the “slash
and burn” farming technique (kaingin).
f) Change in precipitation, evaporation, transpiration and infiltration (directly affected
by temperature) brings about excess surface run-off, and depletion of groundwater
recharge.
 g) As mentioned earlier, at least five (5) cities have confirmed salinity intrusion in their
operating wells causing NWRB to withhold all applications for groundwater permit
as well as requests for drilling permits.

6. PLANNING AND DESIGN REVISIONS

Climate Change Risk and Climate Change Adaptation

The Philippines has responded to Climate Change reality and has created a Climate Change
Commission, under Office of the President, a sole policy-making body tasked to coordinate,
monitor and evaluate programs and action plans of the government relating to climate
change pursuant to provisions of law.

The Environment Management Bureau (EMB) of the Department of Environment and

Natural Resources (DENR) has also required that environmental impact assessments (EIAs)
should, aside from impacts of the project on the environment, also consider impacts of the
impending climate-change related changes on the project or activity and on its design.

Table below shows the Comprehensive Framework for Mainstreaming Climate Change into
existing EIA Processes (Integrating Climate Change Risk Reduction/Climate Change
Adaptation Analysis – CCR/CCA)

Table 1 - Comprehensive Framework for Mainstreaming Climate Change into the

Existing EIA Processes (CCR/CCA)
EIA Process Stage TRADITIONAL EIAs CRR/CAA – ENHANCED EIA
Project Screening Determination of EIA Climate Change projections in
requirements based on Project vulnerable areas factored in the
and Threshold as well as the ECA map as part of the project
proposed location vis a vis the screening (awareness raising for
static Environmental Critical Area prospective project proponents
(ECA) maps necessary)
EIA Scoping Identification of Project Climate change vulnerabilities is
components and corresponding integrated in the identification
significant impacts and mitigation/ process
management needs for inclusion
in the EIA study
Impact Analysis Evaluation of the Environmental Climate change projections for
Impact of the Project activities/ relevant parameters are integrated
implementation vs the static in the impact analysis
“baseline” conditions
Mitigation Formulation of environment Identify/Formulate climate change
management plan (EMP) critical adaptation options as part of the
environment impacts based on EMP
the impact analysis
Preparation and Finalize documentation of the EIA Finalize documentation of the
Review of the EIA Study and the Environmental Climate-risk integrated study and
Report Management Plan climate change adaptation plans as
strategies as part of the over-all
EMP
Project Preparation of detailed project Climate change adaptation chosen
Commissioning/ design and project option/s are integrated in the
Implementation commissioning/implementation in detailed project design and
consideration of the EIA implemented
recommendation and the EMP
Project Implementation of the Project Effectives of the adaptation
Monitoring Environmental Management options which is part of the EMP
Plan/System based on the EIA shall be included in the project
study recommendations and monitoring
assessment of the effectiveness of
the EMP

Hazard, Risk and Vulnerability

Risk is a chance or probability that a person will be harmed or experience an adverse health
effect is exposed to a hazard. It also applies to a property or equipment loss; the likelihood
of harm (usually qualified by a statement of severity of harm). Another way of expressing
risk is: the probability or threat of damage, injury, liability, loss or other negative occurrence,
caused by internal or external vulnerabilities, and which may be neutralized by a pre-
meditated act.

It could be expressed as: Risk = F(Hazard, Exposure, Vulnerability)

Where Hazard is any source of potential damage, harm or adverse health effects on
something or someone under certain conditions at work
Exposure refers to the population exposed or affected by the flood event
Vulnerability is a degree to which people, property, resources, systems and
cultural, economic, environmental and social activity is susceptible
to harm, degradation or destruction on being exposed to a hostile
agent or factor

Risk = P(Hazard) x P(Exposure) x P (Vulnerability)

Encounter Probability (Pe)

It is the chance of an extreme Hydrologic Event to occur at any given time within its physical
life given it design return period.

(-L/T)
Pe(%) = (1 – e ) x 100

Where T Return Period, average interval of time (in years) within which an extreme
(hydrologic) event is equaled or exceeded at least once.
L physical life of the project (in years)
Pe encounter probability (Pe)

Design Return Period

Applying the risk assessment factor as well as the encounter probability, the following table
gives the recommended return periods, and corresponding relationships between physical
life and encounter probability. It should be noted that physical life is not necessarily equal
to the economic life. However, this relationship is sometimes used to quantifying risk costs
and directly correlated to insurance and liability requirements.
Table 2 – Design Return Periods relative to Physical Life and Encounter Probability

The Department of Public Works and Highways (DPWH) has also issue revisions to design
criteria for hydraulic structures (drainage, flood control, including bridges). It now includes
Operational Design criteria with corresponding “check floods” to ensure adequacy of the
structures during extreme events. (Please see Table 3 below.)

This is part of the continuing Structural Resiliency Program of the government – ensuring
that important and vital infrastructures as well as installations are designed and constructed
to be resistant and resilient against forces brought about by extreme natural events.

Schools, hospitals and other government buildings that could provide shelter, refuge and
could serve as evacuation centers are to be situated in relatively safer and secure locations;
and, able to be structurally stable against continuing and/or residual effects of natural
disasters (aftershocks, tsunamis, storm surges, etc.)

7. HYDROLOGIC DATA/INFORMATION NEEDED FOR FLOOD CONTROL AND URBAN

DRAINAGE SYSTEMS

A look at the essential data requirements for water projects, specifically for hydraulic
structures; and some suggested approaches to integrate Climate Change Risk and Climate
Change Adaptation.

a) Precipitation

Depth and duration of precipitation, Rainfall intensity and frequency, Path and area
distribution, Probable Maximum Precipitation (PMP).

Increasing (as well as decreasing) trends in the rainfall pattern should be observed
and recognized by the Engineer when planning and/or designing hydraulic
structures. PAGASA’s Climate Change forecast scenarios would be an important
reference.
b) Outfall/River Stage

Peak stage or maximum flood level (observed or computed); Ordinary water level;
Stage hydrograph during floods; Depth, extent and duration of inundation; Flood
wave profiles along the stream and tributaries.

Effect of rainfall increase (or decrease) plus the change in land use patterns affect
river or stream depths. If the waterway discharges into the sea, tidal fluctuations,
probable increase in sea levels and variations in coastal engineering phenomena
have to be recognized.

Table 3 – Return Periods for Design of Flood Control and Drainage Facilities

c) Flood or Run-Off Discharge

Maximum experienced peak flow rates; Discharge Hydrograph or rating curve

Historical stream flow records; Annual mean runoff or streamflow; Estimate of
floods depending on frequencies: 2-years, 5-years, 10-years, 25-years, 50-years

The C value in the rational formula (Q = CiA) would be changing (urbanization, land
use change). Rainfall intensities would have increased in southwestern areas of the
Philippines (highly pronounced in 3 or 4 provinces).

d) Drainage Basin or Drainage Area

Physical characteristics (area, length of waterway, slope, centroid of drainage area,

land-use, vegetation cover, soil type); Time of concentration, time to peak discharge;
Rainfall – Run-off response relationship (run-off coefficient, run-off curve number)
 Effects of the aforementioned should be incorporated in the C-value of the rational
formula.

e) Sediment Transport and Water Quality

Rate of suspended load and bed load; composition of sediment load; sanitation and
environmental concerns; and, water quality concerns.

Denuded forests and reduction in vegetation cover increase rates of flow, not just of
water but also of sediments from slope and mountain erosion. Some sediments
have properties which are highly erosive and increase scours, causing instability in
hydraulic structures. Very low flows also tend to cause deposition along rivers,
reducing hydraulic capacities resulting to bank overtopping during flash floods.

Only a few cities in the Philippines have sewerage systems. Wastewater (from
domestic, commercial and industrial users) is often discharged directly to natural
waterways or through urban drainage systems – without treatment.

Over-extraction of groundwater from wells (groundwater mining) is confirmed in

some cities in the country. Salinity intrusion has led to the closure of a number of
wells. Groundwater recharge has somehow been depleted as well, with
urbanization creating more paved areas, thereby reducing infiltration.

f) Detention Basins

Detention basins are used to reduce the peak outflow from a location. Urban
development results in increased impervious areas which causes faster catchment
responses and higher peak flow rates. Basins are often employed to return peak
flow rates and volumes to the pre-developed condition to prevent the development
resulting in adverse flood impacts downstream. They can assist in meeting peak
discharge requirements in areas where land use have been converted to result to
higher rainfall-runoff coefficient, particularly those from rural to urbanized areas.

Basins can also be used to reduce upgrade works that might be required for
stormwater drainage, and may be more economical than increasing pipe sizes or
channel dimensions.

Basins perform this through intercepting stormwater flows, and releasing the
stormwater volume in a controlled manner over a period of time.

8. SOME PRACTICAL APPROACH TO URBAN DRAINAGE PROBLEMS

Reducing Flood Magnitudes or Peak Flow Discharges

Knowledge of the manner in which land use changes and land treatment can modify the run-
off process is extremely important. Various proposed changes can be simulated and their
effect evaluated before decisions to implement these practices are made. Designs can be
improved and features incorporated into traditional design practices that will save funds,
reduce adverse environmental impacts, and even enhance the quality of life. New uses for
excess flows such as recreational ponds, artificial recharge, urban irrigation, and others can
be found. By considering the total water management instead of only fast removal of storm
water run-off, many positive impacts are obtainable. The table below summarizes some
measures for modifying the run-off process in an urban environment.

Table 4 - Measures for Reducing and Delaying Urban Storm Run-Off

Area Reducing Run-Off Delaying Run-Off

Cistern Storage Ponding on roof by constricted

LARGE FLAT Rooftop Gardens downspouts
ROOF Pool storage or fountain storage Increasing roof roughness
Sod roof cover 1. Rippled roof
2. Graveled roof
Porous pavement Grassy strips on parking lots
1. Gravel parking lots Grassed waterways draining
2. Porous or punctured asphalt parking lot
PARKING LOTS Concrete vaults and cisterns Ponding and detention measures
beneath parking lots in high for impervious areas
value areas 1. Rippled pavement
Vegetated ponding areas around 2. Depressions
parking lots 3. Basins
Gravel trenches
Cisterns for individual homes or Reservoir or detention basin
groups of homes Planting a high delaying grass
Gravel driveways (porous (high roughness)
driveways) Gravel driveways
Contoured landscape Grassy gutters or channels
RESIDENTIAL Groundwater recharge Increased length of travel of run-
1. Perforated pipe off by means of gutters,
2. Gravel (or sand) diversions, others
3. Trench
4. Porous pipe
5. Dry wells
Vegetated depressions
Gravel alleys
GENERAL Porous sidewalks Gravel alleys
Mulched planters

Continuing enhancements have to be made as the need for economical yet structurally
resistant infrastructures. Urban sprawl and the burgeoning population require this.

The challenges for engineers practicing in the Philippines are increased by the country’s
location. We may not have snow or ice loads, however, we do have typhoons, floods,
earthquakes, tsunamis, storm surges and to some extent, man-made calamities such as
terrorism. Safety and security are primordial concerns, but economics and financing could
be constraints which have to be addressed also.

Application of an integrated approach – examining a problem area as part of a basin and the
interconnection of the hydrologic and hydraulic networks leads to more plausible, practical
and economical solution, most of the time. Keeping the costs optimized would have to be
weighed considering safety and stability. This is where risk assessment helps in ensuring
optimal, dependable and sustainable performance of an infrastructure.

References:
1) “DPWH Design Guidelines, Criteria and Standards (DGCS)”, 2015
2) “DWPH Design Guidelines and Specifications”, Vols 1 and 2
3) “Water Resources Engineering”, Linsley, Francini, et al,
4) “Climate Change 101”, Climate Change Commission of the Philippines
5) “Flood Risk Assessment”, DMAPS Training and Workshop Module, 2009
6) “Floods, Water Engineering”, PICE Water Engineering Division, 2011
7) “Flood Assessment Module”, PICE Water Engineering Division, 2009
8) “Handbook of Applied Hydrology”, Ven Te Chow, Ph.D., Editor-In-Chief
9) “Handbook of Applied Hydraulics”, Davis-Sorensen
10) “Guidelines on Non-Structural Measures in Urban Flood Management”, International
Hydrological Programme, Ivan Andelkovic
11) “Introduction to Hydrology”, Viessman, Knapp, Lewis, Harbaugh
12) “Environmental Systems Engineering”, L. Rich
13) “Open Channel Flow”, Henderson
14) “Open Channel Hydraulics”, Ven Te Chow
15) “Master Plan for Flood Management in Metro Manila and Surrounding Areas”, The World
Bank