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is the art and science of directing the movement of a craft from one point
to another along a safe and efficient path. Navis means ship, Agere means
to drive. Today it represents Art and Science; Recording, Planning and
Controlling; Craft; Safe; Route; Time; Position; Experience and Decision.
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and efficient air travel. The agency also investigates aviation
accidents.
METHODS OF NAVIGATION
1. CELESTIAL/ASTRONOMICAL NAVIGATION
It is the art and science of finding one's geographic position by
means of astronomical observations, particularly by measuring
altitudes of celestial objects – sun, moon, planets, or stars.
It usually requires a chronometer, sextant, an almanac, a set of
sight reduction tables, and a chart of the region.
2. GEO–NAVIGATION
Navigation by Pilotage or Visual Contact
in this method, the navigator fixes his position on a map (or chart)
by observing known visible landmarks provided that there is good
visibility. It can be thru natural or man-made.
ELECTRONIC PILOTAGE if the aid of airborne RADAR is
used.
NOTE:
The RADAR used for this purpose is generally a microwave search
RADAR provided with a plan-position (PP) display.
Navigation by Dead-Reckoning
in this method, the position of the craft at any instant of time is
calculated from previously determined position, the speed of its
motion with respect to the earth along the direction of its motion
(track angle), and the time elapsed.
INERTIAL NAVIGATION a sophisticated extension of dead-
reckoning.
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In each case, the carrier frequency used has been chosen to satisfy two
main criteria, those of geographical range and the ability to carry the relevant
information.
LINES OF LATITUDE
group of lines that circle the globe in an East-West direction.
LINES OF LONGITUDE
group of lines that run in a North-South direction from pole to pole.
EQUATOR
Imaginary circle that divides the earth midway between the poles
NORTHERN HEMISPHERE
- Half of the earth that lies north of the equator.
- Any location in this hemisphere lies in the North
Latitude. Abbreviated as: N. Latitude, N. Lat. or N.
SOUTHERN HEMISPHERE
- Half of the earth lying south of the equator.
- All locations there lie in a South Latitude. Abbreviated as S.
Latitude, S. Lat. or S.
EXAMPLE#1:
A ship has its chronometer reading of 0430 hrs, while the ship’s local time is
1042 hrs. What is the position of the ship in longitude?
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MERIDIANS
- Lines of longitude, parts of the great circles that pass thru the earth's poles.
- The name meridian comes from two Latin words, "medius" and "dies",
which means "middle of the day".
PRIME MERIDIAN
- Chosen as the 0° Longitude, Imaginary line that separates the Eastern and
Western Hemisphere.
- Half of a great circle and extends from North-pole to South-pole.
GREENWICH MERIDIAN
- referred to as the prime meridian. Chosen as 0° Longitude.
- Site of England's National Observatory (Royal Greenwich Observatory).
Travelers must change time by an entire day when they cross the 180°
meridian. 180° meridian is near the middle of the Pacific Ocean. It crosses
only a small land area in North Eastern Asia and some islands in the Central
and Southern Pacific.
NOTE:
Time keeping was an important reason for the selection of the Greenwich
meridian as 0° longitude.
COMPASS ERROR :
1. Magnetic Variation (or Variation or Declination)
an error of the compass indicated by the angle between the
meridian of true north and meridian of magnetic north.
FYI:
Both the strength and direction of the magnetic field will vary over the years,
this gradual change is called the secular variation of the magnetic field.
Therefore, variation changes not only with the location of a vessel on the
earth but also varies in time. The correction for magnetic variation for a
location is shown on the nearest nautical chart's compass rose.
EXAMPLE#2:
If we find a variation of 4° 15' W in 2009, with an indicated annual correction
of 0° 08' E. Hence, in 2011 this variation is estimated to be 3° 59', almost 4°
West. This means that if we sail 90° on the chart (the true course), the
compass would read 94°.
EXAMPLE#3:
Let's say the compass rose gives a variation of 2° 50' E in 2007, with a
correction of 0° 04' E per year. In 2009 this variation is estimated to be ____,
almost ____. Now, if we sail 90° on the chart, the compass would read ____.
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magnetic north and the meridian of the compass north.
Deviation changes with the ship's heading, resulting in a deviation
table as shown. The vertical axis states the correction in degrees
West or East, where East is again positive.
The horizontal axis states the ship's heading in degrees divided by ten. Thus,
when you sail a compass course of 220°, the deviation is 4° W. (Note, that on
most modern sailing yachts the deviation is usually not larger than 3°).
Example B: The compass course is 220°, the deviation is -4° (table) and the
variation is still +3° (chart).
220° cc + 3° var + -4° dev = ?° tc Answer: Giving a true course of 219°
Example C: The compass course is still 220°, therefore the deviation is still
-4° (table) but let's use a variation of -10° this time.
Example D: The true course from the chart is 305° and the variation is +3°
(chart), yet we don't know the deviation;
?° cc + 3° var + ?° dev = 305° tc
Example E: The true course from the chart is 150° and we have a Western
variation of 7 degrees (-7°).
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COURSES AND BEARING :
1. Course(Heading) [ direction of travel ]
course is the angular distance of a ship’s direction of movement
on the surface of the earth, measured clockwise from a reference
north point (or three references – true, magnetic and compass north)
through 360 system on the arc of the horizon.
HORIZON
line that separates earth from sky.
d = 13h( m ) (km) d = 1.5h( ft ) (mi)
EXAMPLE#4:
1. Standing on a ground with a height of 1.5 m., the horizon is at a
distance of:
2. Standing on a hill or tower of 150 m. height, the horizon is at a
distance of:
2. Bearing [ direction ]
is the angular distance of any terrestrial object from an observer
measured clockwise from the same three points of references
through 360 system of the compass, giving rise to the three
bearings in one direction.
a. Relative Bearing (RB)
is the angular distance of an object measured clockwise through
360 from the ship’s bow (intended line of movement).
b. True Bearing (TB)
is the angular distance of an object measured clockwise from the
true north. TB = H + RB
c. 4–Point Bearing
are the eye approximation of relative bearing measured clockwise
or anti-clockwise from the ship’s bow, stern or beams.
MEASUREMENT OF TIME
The accurate measurement of time has always been fundamental to
navigation. Clocks were invented that would remain accurate throughout long
ocean voyages. They were called Chronometers. Progress has led to the
measurement of time using fundamental properties of the atom. This has
resulted in a redefinition of the second as being 9,192,631,770 periods of the
radiation (9,192,631,770 cycles of the Cesium resonance).
Ephemeris Time
Time based on long-term observations of the annual revolution of the
earth around the sun. It is the uniform measure of time defined by the law of
dynamics.
Atomic Time
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Time based on transitions in the atom. It uses the frequency of the Cesium
atomic clock. This agrees closely with Ephemeris second. Atomic second is
the unit in the international System of units (SI).
International Atomic Time
Atomic time reference derived from averaging the atomic time standards
of several countries.
Universal Time
Mean solar time on the Greenwich Meridian. Used in the application of
astronomy to navigation.
Coordinated Universal Time (UTC)
Atomic time maintained by the Royal Observatory and adjusted in steps
(leap seconds, so that it is synchronized with the UT1 within 0.9 second).
UTC is a high-precision Atomic Time Standard.
UTO
Determined directly from the astronomical observation. It is non-uniform
due to irregular rotation of the earth.
UT1
It is UTO corrected for the polar motion hence more uniform than UTO.
UT1 is the same as GMT.
UT2
It is UT1 corrected for the mean seasonal variations, hence more uniform
than UT1.
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TYPES OF ELECTRONIC NAVIGATION SYSTEM:
1. Hyperbolic Navigation System
2. Range-Range Navigation System
I. Hyperbolic Navigation System:
This is a method of using the propagation velocity to determine the
distance and position.
• Propagation velocity
velocity at which EM energy (radio waves) travel between their
source and the point of reception.
Types of Hyperbolic Navigation System:
1. Loran A and C 3. Decca Navigator
2. Omega
The inherent advantage of the hyperbolic system is the need to make only a
measurement of time lapse.
Advantages:
1. Only two stations are required to determine the position.
2. It is an easier technique for processing several signals, since each can
be dealt within isolation, rather than having to consider the many possible
combination of paired stations.
Disadvantage:
The limitation of range-range navigation is the requirement to maintain
absolute time with a high degree of precision. The clock stability necessary
for the duration of an ocean passage would demand the use of a cesium
frequency standard.