Technical Paper
Najmeh Khazraiyan*
Gholam Hossein Liaghat
Hossein Khodarahmi
Normal impact of hard projectiles
on concrete targets
This research study involves obtaining an analytical model for the
perforation of unreinforced concrete targets by a hemispherical
hard projectile. Dynamic cavity expansion theory and the reflec-
tion of compressive waves from the end of the concrete targets
are used for developing the analytical model. The effect of the
friction coefficient is also investigated in the analysis. Numerical
modelling of the problem has been performed in LS-DYNA code
for validating the analytical results. Johnson-Holmquist concrete
and rigid material models have been employed for the concrete
and the projectile respectively. The impact velocity range consid-
ered in this work is between 250 and 850 m/s. No projectile ero-
sion is considered in this range. The analytical results have been
compared with numerical results and show good agreement with
numerical simulations.
Keywords: perforation process, concrete structure, analytical model,
hemispherical rigid projectile
1 Introduction
The resistance of concrete structures to the penetration
process of rigid projectiles is an important topic in civilian
and military structures with protective panels. Many mod-
els have been developed to analyse these types of problem
effectively.
Some researchers have presented analytical models
for the impact of a rigid projectile on plain or reinforced
concrete targets. The dynamic cavity expansion theory by
Bishop et al. [1] has been employed in most of the investi-
gations in this field. In this theory the resistance force ap-
plied to the projectile nose is estimated. Forrestal et al. [2–4]
developed a semi-analytical model for estimating the pene-
tration depth of an ogival projectile based on that theory. Li
and Chen [5], Li et al. [6] and Chen and Li [7] extended For-
restal’s model further by introducing two independent non-
dimensional parameters for semi-infinite targets. Later,
Chen et al. [8] proposed a model to predict the perforation
of reinforced concrete targets by an ogival projectile. They
considered four non-dimensional parameters.
Numerical simulations have become increasingly im-
portant tools for solving such analytical models. Some of
the numerical methods have been based on discrete meth-
* Corresponding author: n_khazraiyan@iiau.ac.ir
Submitted for review: 22 October 2012
Revised: 8 December 2012
Accepted for publication: 28 January 2013
176 © 2013 Ernst & Sohn Verlag für Architektur und technische Wissenschaften GmbH & Co. KG, Berlin · Structural Concrete 14 (2013), No. 2
DOI: 10.1002/suco.201200047
ods such as finite element, finite difference and mesh-free
methods. In these methods a full solution to the penetration
process is achieved by solving the whole set of equations.
These techniques are capable of obtaining strain, stress, ve-
locity, position and acceleration as a function of time.
Conservation of mass, momentum and energy and
also constitutive equation and equation of state are ap-
plied to represent the response of a media under dynamic
loadings.
Agardh and Laine [9] presented a simulation using
LS-DYNA code for the projectile perforation of a 60 mm
thick fibre-reinforced concrete slab with a velocity of 1500
m/s. The results were in fairly good agreement with test re-
sults. Simulations of the penetration and perforation
process of three types of high-performance concrete tar-
gets were presented by Unosson [10]. The tests were simu-
lated with the LS-DYNA code and the standard material
type 72 “Concrete Damage”. Good agreement with test da-
ta was achieved for the perforation, but the results were
not satisfying in the case of penetration. Teng et al. [11]
employed the Elastic-Plastic-Hydrodynamics material
model in LS-DYNA code to investigate the dynamic be-
haviour of reinforced concrete targets under impact load-
ings. Some tests were performed to obtain the material
properties. Tham [12] investigated the perforation process
for concrete targets using AUTODYN-3D code. The re-
sults obtained were compared with experimental residual
velocities and post-test damage results. The result from the
constitutive model, which includes strain rate and damage
with a pressure-dependent yield surface, showed relatively
good agreement with experimental residual velocities.
Huang et al. [13] studied the perforation of a steel bar-re-
inforced concrete target numerically using LSDYNA code
and the modified Taylor-Chen-Kuszmaul continuum dam-
age model. The crater diameters on both the front and
back surfaces of the concrete target and the residual ve-
locity of the projectile predicted by the numerical simula-
tion are in good agreement with the experimental results
reported by Hanchak et al. [14]. Tai and Tang [15] applied
LS-DYNA code to study reinforced concrete subject to an
impact loading process. The Johnson-Holmquist concrete
model was employed to simulate the large strain, high
strain rate and high pressure to which the concrete is sub-
jected. Numerical simulation of the dynamic responses of
a concrete slab under the impact of an ogive-nose steel
projectile was performed by Wang et al. [16]. The perfor-
 N. Khazraiyan/G. H. Liaghat/H. Khodarahmi · Normal impact of hard projectiles on concrete targets

mance of the modified Taylor-Chen-Kuszmaul model was In order to obtain the residual velocity of the projec-
evaluated by comparing it with the material soil/concrete tile in the perforation process, Newton’s second law is
and Johnson-Holmquist concrete model [17] available in used:
LS-DYNA code. Polanco-Loria et al. [18] proposed some
modifications to the Johnson-Holmquist concrete model dV
m = −F (3)
[17] for a concrete target under impact loadings. Ballistic dt
limit assessments with deviations < 8 % were found when
compared with experimental results. Liu et al. [19] per- where
formed numerical simulations of oblique-angle penetra- F axial resistance force on projectile nose during tun-
tion of concrete targets by deformable projectiles. A com- nelling phase of penetration process (Eq. (1))
bined dynamic constitutive model that can describe the m mass of projectile
tensile and compressive damage was developed and im-
plemented in LS-DYNA code. The numerical results were Integration of Eq. (1) from V to V1 and t to t1 yields the
in good agreement with experimental data. velocity of the rigid projectile as a function of time:
Extending the Forrestal et al. model [3], the present
 sf 
0.5  *  0.5 
work studies the perforation of thick concrete targets by N ρc
V(t) =  *c  tan{tan −1  V1
hemispherical-nose projectiles considering the effect of  N ρc   sfc  
friction and the reflection of compressive waves from the  
π d2
( )
0.5
end of the target. The effect of reinforcing bars is negligi- – sf N *ρc (t − t1)} (4)
ble as has been mentioned in [20]. Further, this paper uses 4m c
dynamic LS-DYNA finite element code to simulate the
concrete target perforation process and to enable compar- In the above equation, v1 = ((mV02 – 0.5π d3sfc)/
ison with the results obtained. (m + 0.5π d3N* ρc))0.5 is the termination velocity and
t1 = cos–1(V1/V0)/(c/m)0.5 is the termination time of the
2 Analytical model cratering region. Parameter c is equal to (V02 – V12)/(4d2),
which is derived from the conditions of continuity of
In this section, Forrestal et al. [3] is first explained and ex- force, velocity and displacement in the boundary between
tended to thick concrete targets, and then a new analytical the cratering and tunnelling regions [3].
model based on cavity expansion theory is proposed. The displacement of the projectile into the concrete
It is assumed that the projectile strikes the target nor- slab is obtained by integrating Eq. (4) from X to 2d and t
mally and does not deform during the penetration to t1 as follows:
process. The effect of the friction coefficient is also con-
sidered during the impact process.  4m   *  0.5 
N ρc
X(t) =  2 *  ln{cos(tan −1  
 V1
 π ρ 
2.1 Forrestal et al. model d N c 
 sfc 

π d2
( )
0.5
Forrestal et al. [3] consider two regions for the penetration − sf N *ρc (t − t1))}/
4m c
process in plain concrete targets: cratering and tunnelling   *  0.5 
 N ρc 
regions. After impact, the cratering domain is created; its cos tan −1  V1 + 2d
 sfc 
(5)

depth is assumed to be approximately twice the diameter  
  
of the projectile. After that, the tunnelling domain begins
and continues until the projectile stops or exits the con-
crete. Forrestal et al. [3] provided a semi-empirical equa- 2.2 New analytical model
tion for the resistant force in the tunnelling phase in a
semi-infinite target: An analytical model is proposed for the concrete
target perforation analysis considering the friction coeffi-
π d2 cient between projectile and target. When a concrete
F= (sfc + N *Bc ρcV 2 ) (1)
4 target is struck by a rigid projectile, compressive waves
are generated and propagated from the front of the tar-
where get to its rear face. The compressive waves generated
N* nose shape parameter by the impact are reflected at the end of the target as
d projectile diameter tensile waves. This breaks the concrete in a conical
ρc concrete density shape.
V instantaneous velocity of projectile In this work it is assumed that the generation of the
Bc factor taken to be unity for concrete [3] concrete conoid shape at the end of the target depends on
s experimental constant depending on compressive the initial velocity of the projectile. If the impact velocity
strength of concrete target, which is given as [20] is high enough, the perforation process will occur without
any conoid formation. This means that the projectile exits
s = 72 fc−0.5 (2) the panel before reflection of the compressive waves.
Therefore, determination of this time period is important.
In the above equation, fc is the compressive strength of the It is assumed that the time required for reflection of the
concrete target (in MPa). compressive waves is [21]

Structural Concrete 14 (2013), No. 2 177

N. Khazraiyan/G. H. Liaghat/H. Khodarahmi · Normal impact of hard projectiles on concrete targets

H H It is worth mentioning that the friction coefficient de-

t2 = + (6)
ulong vcrack pends on the initial impact velocity. According to Bowden
and Tabor [23], the friction factor is evaluated from the fol-
where lowing equations:
ulong speed of longitudinal stress waves
vcrack speed of radial crack propagation   µ − µd 
µ = µs −  s  V0 V0 < Vd
  Vd  (15)
It is assumed that the relation between vcrack and ulong is µ = µ V0 ≥ Vd
given by  d

vcrck = 1/9.5 ulong (7) where

V0 initial impact velocity, which varies between 250
where Eq. (7) is taken from the comparison with Han- and 850 m/s
chack’s experimental data [14]. The time of conoid shape Vd critical penetration velocity, which depends on the
separation is readily obtained as concrete conoid fracture, taken to be 470 m/s in
this analysis [23]
t2 = 10.5
H
(8) µ friction coefficient, taken to be 0.01–0.03 for geolog-
ulong ical media [24]
µs, µd static and dynamic friction factors respectively, as-
The speed of the longitudinal wave is equal to sumed to be µs = 0.6 and µd = 0.05 [23]
ulong = (Ec/ρc)0.5 where Ec is the modulus of elasticity of
concrete and ρc is the concrete density: Integration of Eq. (10) yields the velocity of the rigid
projectile as a function of time:
H 2 ρc
t2 = 10.5 (9)  N sf 
0.5  0.5 
N ρ 
Ec V(t) =  1 c  tan{tan −1  2 c  V1
 N2 ρc   N1sfc  
 
π d2
( )
It is assumed that when the conoid is separated, the 0.5
− sf N N ρ (t − t1)} (16)
perforation process has been completed. It should be 4m c 1 2 c
noted that any changes in this time only depend on the
thickness, density and modulus of elasticity of the con- The exit velocity of the projectile is obtained by substitut-
crete. ing from Eq. (9) into Eq. (16), which yields
Instead of Eq. (1), the following expression is used if
 N sf 
0.5  0.5 
the friction factor between projectile nose and concrete N2 ρc 
Vr1 =  1 c  tan{tan −1  V 
target is considered [7]:
 N2 ρc   N1sfc  1
 
π d2 π d2
( )
dV 0.5
m =− (N1sfc + N 2 ρcV 2 ) (10) − sfcN1N 2 ρc (t2 − t1)} (17)
dt 4 4m

Here, N1 and N2 are parameters that depend on the Integrating Eq. (16) gives the displacement of the projec-
friction coefficient and nose shape of the projectile. These tile into the concrete slab:
parameters are given by Jones and Rule [22] as follows:
 4m   
0.5 
X(t) =  2 −1  N 2 ρ c 
8µ h  ln{cos(tan
 N1sfc 
V1
N1 = 1 +
d2 ∫0 ydx (11)  π d N2ρc 
 
π d2
( )
0.5
− sfcN1N 2 ρc (t − t1))}/
8µ h yy′ 4m
N2 = N * +
d2 ∫0 1 + y′ 2
dx (12)  
 −1  N 2 ρc 
0.5 

cos tan 
  V1 + 2d (18)
  1 c
N sf
where   
8 h yy′ 3
N* =
d2 ∫0 1 + y′ 2
dx (13)
The height of the concrete conoid is then expressed by

In Eqs. (11) to (13), µ is the sliding friction coefficient, Hcon = H − X(t)

 4m   0.5 
y is the nose shape function and h is the height of the
−  N2 ρc  
nose. =H− 2 1
 ln{cos(tan  N sf  V1
 π d N2ρc   1 c
Expressions for N1 and N2 have been derived by  
Chen and Li [7] for hemispherical-nose projectiles (Fig. 2) π d2
( )
0.5
− sfcN1N 2 ρc (t − t1))}/
as 4m
  0.5 
 N ρ  
N1 = 1 +
µπ 1 µπ
, N2 = + N* =
1 cos tan −1  2 c  V1 + 2d (19)
, (14)
  N sf  
2 2 8 2 
1 c
 

178 Structural Concrete 14 (2013), No. 2

 N. Khazraiyan/G. H. Liaghat/H. Khodarahmi · Normal impact of hard projectiles on concrete targets

where V1 = ((mV02 – 0.5π d3sfcN1)/(m + 0.5π d3N2ρc))0.5 L=0.06 m

and the other parameters are as defined above.
It should be mentioned that in order to use this ana-
R=0.01 m
lytical model, the ratio of projectile diameter to concrete
diameter should be > 22. Above this value, the reflection
of radial stress waves will not affect the penetration
process [25].

3 Numerical simulation

Numerical methods save costs and time and so are used

Fig. 1. Geometry of hemispherical-nose projectile
extensively in solving penetration problems. These simula-
tions are used in a variety of problems, including multi-lay-
er targets and several impact loadings.
In this section, two-dimensional axisymmetric nu-
merical analysis with LS-DYNA code [26] is used to
analyse the normal impact of a 0.163 kg rigid hemispheri-
cal-nose projectile on concrete targets. LS-DYNA is an ex-
plicit finite element code for analysing the large deforma-
tion dynamic response of structures. This code is suitable
for solving impact and penetration problems where high-
velocity and impulsive loadings are encountered. It should
be mentioned that in this simulation, Lagrangian formula-
tion is used as well.
Simulation results are compared with proposed ana-
lytical findings.

3.1 Finite element modelling

A plain concrete slab has a cylinder shape with 300 mm

radius and 100 mm height. Thus, axisymmetric analysis
can be used; the slab dimensions are 300 × 100 mm. The
projectile geometry is shown in Fig. 1 and the finite ele-
ment model is illustrated in Fig. 2.
Since both concrete slab and projectile are of a sym-
metrical nature, a fixed mesh of 4-node, two-dimensional
axisymmetric elements (y axis of symmetry) is used for
them.
A total of 16 388 quadrilateral elements is employed
for the concrete, 870 quadrilateral elements for the projec-
tile.
3.2 Constitutive equations
Fig. 2. Finite element model
C strain rate coefficient
Smax normalized maximum strength
Further, P* = P/fc is the normalized pressure and ε˙* = ε˙/ε˙0
is the dimensionless strain rate, where ε˙ is the actual strain
rate and ε˙0 = 1s–1.
The failure model in the Johnson-Holmquist con-
crete model [17] is based on volumetric plastic strain frac-
ture. The damage parameter is expressed by

∆ε + ∆µ
The constitutive equations are used to explain the behav-
iour of the materials under environmental variations. In
D= ∑ D (Pp* + T *)pD2 (21)
1
this simulation, Johnson-Holmquist [17] model is used to
simulate concrete targets under high impact velocity, high where ∆ε p and ∆µ p are the incremental equivalent plastic
strain rate and pressure. Based on the Johnson-Holmquist strain and incremental plastic volumetric strain respec-
concrete model [17], the normalized equivalent stress is tively.
defined as The relation between pressure and volume and inter-
nal energy of a material is defined as the equation of state.
σ The following equation is used to calculate the pressure in
σ* = = [ A(1 − D) + BP *N ].[1 + C ln ε
*] (20)
fc the Johnson-Holmquist concrete model as EOS:

where P = K1µv + K2µv2 + K3µv3 (22)

σ actual equivalent stress
fc, T compressive and maximum tensile strength of con-
crete respectively
A normalized cohesive strength
B normalized pressure hardening coefficient
N normalized pressure hardening exponent
where K1, K2 and K3 are constant coefficients and
µ–v = µv – µlock/(1 + µlock) is the volumetric strain.
Element erosion technique is used with the Johnson-
Holmquist concrete model. There are different failure cri-
teria for element erosion. A strain erosion criterion was

Structural Concrete 14 (2013), No. 2 179

N. Khazraiyan/G. H. Liaghat/H. Khodarahmi · Normal impact of hard projectiles on concrete targets

Table 1. Material properties for 48 MPa concrete [17]

ρc (kg/m3) Gc (GPa) Ec (GPa) A B C N

2440 14.86 35.7 0.79 1.6 0.007 0.61

fc (MPa) EPSO ε fmin Smax Pcrush (GPa) µcrush Plock (GPa)
48 1 0.01 7 16 0.001 0.8
µv lock D1 D2 K1 (GPa) K2 (GPa) K3 (GPa) T (GPa)
0.1 0.04 1 85 –171 208 4

chosen for this study [18]. In this criterion, if the strain ε is 690
greater than or equal to the maximum principal strain
590 Proposed model
(ε ≥ ε max), the elements will erode and be deleted from the

Residual velocity [m/s]

analysis. A calibration method with experimental data is 490
Forrestal
used to determine the erosion parameter. Islam et al. [27]
employed such a method for determining the maximum 390
principal strain. This value is taken to be 0.35 for this sim-
290
ulation.
190
3.3 Material properties
90
The mechanical properties of the concrete material are -10
presented in Table 1. 100 300 500 700
Steel rigid projectiles with a density of 7800 kg/m3, a Impact velocity [m/s]
Poisson’s ratio of 0.3 and a Young’s modulus of 300 GPa
are employed. Fig. 3. Comparison of analytical residual velocity with Forrestal et al. versus
impact velocity in concrete target
3.3 Contact surface

The treatment of sliding and penetrating at the interface is
described by the contact surface. Automatic contact sur-
face to surface has been used between projectile/concrete
interfaces in this analysis. The projectile part is selected
for slave and concrete for master. The dynamic friction co-
efficient is taken to be 0.1 for concrete [7].
3.4 Initial and boundary conditions
The axis of symmetry is the y axis and the fixed conditions
are imposed at the boundaries at a distance of 300 mm
from the axis of symmetry. The only initial condition is
the impact velocity. The change intervals are from 250 to
850 m/s.
friction factor used was obtained from Eq. (15) for the pro-
posed model and is equal to 0.05 for the Forrestal model.
As can be seen, the ballistic limit velocity for the pro-
posed model is determined as 295 m/s, and 440 m/s for
the Forrestal model.
4.2 Numerical results
The numerical method presented in this article provides
valuable information concerning the kinetics and kine-
matics of the penetration process.
The effect of the dynamic friction coefficient on the
residual velocity for several impact velocities is given in
Table 2.

4 Results and discussion

Table 2. Effect of friction coefficient on residual velocity due to impact of
The main objective of this study was to obtain the residual rigid projectile on concrete target implemented by LS-DYNA code
velocity and ballistic limit velocity of a 0.163 kg hemi-
spherical-nose steel projectile in a concrete target by con- Impact velocity (m/s) Residual velocity (m/s)
sidering the friction coefficient.
Firstly, the results of the solution of the analytical µ=0 µ = 0.1
equations mentioned in the previous sections are present- 250 0 0
ed and then the numerical results are discussed. After that, 305 0 0
the analytical results are compared with numerical find- 370 100 65
ings. 498 260 233
570 351 325
4.1 Analytical results 600 383 354
700 497 466
Fig. 3 shows the analytical residual velocity of the projec-
800 601 576
tile for the proposed model and the Forrestal model. The

180 Structural Concrete 14 (2013), No. 2

 N. Khazraiyan/G. H. Liaghat/H. Khodarahmi · Normal impact of hard projectiles on concrete targets

WITH FRICTION
-50

-100

-150

-200

Y-velocity
-250

-300

-350

-400
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2
min=-370
Time (E-03)
(a) max=-65.51

WITH FRICTION
-200

-250

-300

Y-velocity
-350

-400

-450

-500
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
min=-498 Time (E-03)
(b) max=-233.17

WITH FRICTION
-550

-600

-650
Y-velocity

-700

-750

-800
0 0.1 0.2 0.3
min=-800
(c) max=-578.63
Time (E-03)

Fig. 4. Perforation development and velocity time histories of rigid projectiles in concrete targets for three impact velocities: (a) 370 m/s, (b) 498 m/s,
(c) 800 m/s

Fig. 4 presents the fracture of the concrete target and
the velocity time history for the rigid projectile at veloci-
ties of 370, 498 and 800 m/s. It can also be seen that the
velocity of the projectile decreases as it penetrates the tar-
get. This figure also depicts the formation of the conoid in
the concrete slab at a velocity of 370 m/s. This is primari-
ly due to the reflection of the compressive stress waves. At
the impact velocity of 498 m/s, the conical shape formed
in the target with smaller dimensions. At higher impact ve-
locities, the projectile perforated the target prior to frac-
ture of the concrete due to the reflection of the compres-
sive stress waves.
4.3 Comparison of analytical results with numerical data
Fig. 5 depicts the residual velocity of the projectile versus
its impact velocity by comparing the present work with the
Forrestal et al. method and numerical results (Table 2). It

Structural Concrete 14 (2013), No. 2 181

N. Khazraiyan/G. H. Liaghat/H. Khodarahmi · Normal impact of hard projectiles on concrete targets

690 main objectives obtained from the solution of the analyti-

Proposed model cal equations.
590 Forrestal Simulation of the perforation process in concrete
Numerical was implemented by LS-DYNA, an explicit finite element
Residual velocity [m/s]

490
code, where its results were compared with the data. It
was assumed that the dynamic behaviour of the concrete
390
and projectile is governed by Johnson-Holmquist concrete
and rigid material models. An erosion parameter was con-
290
sidered with the Johnson-Holmquist concrete material
model to delete the eroded element.
190
It was found that the proposed analytical and nu-
90
merical results were consistent with each other for con-
crete targets.
-10
100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800
References
Impact velocity [m/s]
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concrete target
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50
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Forrestal et al. and numerical results versus impact velocity
can be seen that the Forrestal et al. model does not match
well with the numerical results at low impact velocities
due to the fact that it does not consider conoid formation.
As can be seen, the proposed model is in good agreement
with data in all velocity ranges.
Fig. 6 shows the ballistic limit velocity for the pro-
posed, Forrestal and numerical models. As can be seen,
the analytical ballistic limit velocity is more consistent
with the numerical data than the Forrestal results.
5 Conclusions
This study has presented an analytical model for the nor-
mal impact of a hemispherical steel projectile on concrete
targets at impact velocities ranging from 250 to 850 m/s.
The model was based on the cavity expansion theory. The
time required for reflection of the compressive waves and
fracture of the bottom of the concrete, as a conical shape,
was derived by fitting the results to experimental data.
The residual velocity and ballistic limit velocity were the
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