CHAPTER 2: Literature Review

The chapter comprises of brief explanation of Selective Laser Sintering, packing

structure, powder properties, shape and size distribution of particles of powder, and electronic

beam melting.

SLS (Selective Laser Sintering) produces parts of plastic by the addition of consecutive

layers of material. Selective Laser Sintering is allotted to the area of AM (Additive

Manufacturing) which is normally reflected as a part of the upcoming revolution of industries.

Additive Manufacturing describes around 12 various technologies layer-by-layer, often

referred to as 3D-Printing in the open literature. Additive Manufacturing is actually in

opposition to subtractive manufacturing. For example, traditional machining like grinding,

milling, and drilling, where the material is detached to attain the desired shape. In the whole

area of presently available technologies of Additive Manufacturing, Selective Laser Sintering

is considered as the most constructive approach as a genuine technique of production of

plastic parts suitable for the industry (Hopkinson et al., 2006). Nevertheless, one major

problem that limits the application of Selective Laser Sintering for AM is the thin variety of

polymers that are applicable. PA 12 (Polyamide 12) is the main and nearly exclusive choice.

Either pure Polyamide 12 or Polyamide 12 compounds are actually put into use in almost all

systems that are commercial in nature. Polyamide 11 (PA 11) is also exposed to Selective

Laser Sintering systems with reasonable success regardless of some extraordinary part

properties (Kruth, 2007).

SLS (Selective Laser Sintering) has been extensively put into use to process the

crystalline polymers, metals, and ceramics. Nevertheless, a broad range of available materials
and their employment have performed as a motivation to enlarge the employment of Selective

Laser Sintering to dissimilar systems of material (Reitzel et al., 2011). As a major section of

studies, several parameters of process and formulations of material were tried for the purpose

of determining the process feasibility and the results obtained initially seem to be promising.

A number of studies are available which highlight the control of parameters of processes and

formulation of material (Kruth et al., 2005).

The flexibility of the process of Selective Laser Sintering allows a wide range of

materials. Many of these materials contribute to making the process of Selective Laser

Sintering superior to other techniques of rapid prototyping, where the properties of material

are contingent on the whole process. Most common materials among such materials are: wax,

polymers paraffin, nylon, steel alloys, carbonates, and polymer-metal powders. Several

aspects of materials and processes that are used in Selective Laser Sintering have been

researched and it has been established that the process is a rapid mean of manufacturing and

prototyping.

2.1 Powder properties affecting packing structures

Microscopic powder material, which is less than several hundred micrometres in diameter,

have been core ingredients for various industries such as the pharmaceutical, colouring

powder, foods, and powder coatings for various printing devices (Schulze, 2008). New

powders have been developed which are more suitable for Selective Laser Sintering with the

aim of broadening its application of field constitutes. Various researches have been conducted

with the aim of developing new powders (Schmid, 2011). It has been found out that the

production method adopted can change the intrinsic properties of the powder such as the

melting point or the crystallisation point. However, the particle size and shape are also greatly
influenced (Pfister, 2005). In order to achieve a high powder packing good dispersion

conditions are important and a homogeneous spreading of layers is a must.

2.1.1 Particle shape

It is stated by Zäh and Lutzmann (2010), particle shape affects the composition of the

material, a formation of grains and therefore releases mineral matrix. In mechanical

terminologies, the chemical processes explain the shape which is derived from the matrix of

materials. In the light of Ponade (2010), the shape controls the size of particles and makes it

lies between d 50 to 400 µm. The larger the size of a particle is the higher is the probability

of resulting in imperfections and fracturing of the particles. In the case of smaller particles,

the imperfection can be stronger as it leads to failure in the atomic planning (Parthasarathy,

2010). It is also stated that there is a strong need for coordination in the conditions of the

particles as it aims to promote separation of particles through abrasion of shears. The shape

of particles is characterised by the multiple dimensions named as sphericity, smoothness and

roundness of the particles. The sphericity of the particles explains that the dimensions of the

particles are whether of the same magnitude or of the larger shape of a sphere which has a

relatively high diameter. On the other hand, the roundness of the particles is described as the

texture of surface which is of the same magnitude and possesses the smallest sphere of the

radius. Moreover, roundness is described as the curvature of the surface (Heinl et al., 2007).

The sphericity and roundness of the particles increase the smoothness and abrasion from an

independent side. For perfectly round shaped particles, it requires non-spherical shape which

can be angular.

2.1.2 Particle Size Distribution (PSD)

 Powders that have different size distribution of particles act differently in the process of

Selective Laser Sintering, and present alterations in bed distribution of powder and quality of

built parts. A broader variety of size of particles generally helps in achieving higher density

as smaller particles could fit in gaps that exist between larger particles. Nevertheless, the

higher density of powder will lead to friction (Shi and Zhang, 2006). Powder which has a

broader range size of particles provide higher density of powder bed, generates parts of higher

density under low intensity of laser energy, and produces flatter surface. The powder which

has a narrower variety of size of particle produces parts that generate parts that offer better

flow ability of particles.

Particle size distribution (PSD) is a very important factor to affect the packing structure. Some

researchers made contributions to particle size distribution (PSD) through experimental research

and theoretical study. Someone (Ouchiyama and Tanaka, 1989; Yu and Standish, 1991) used a

numerical method to predict the porosity of the mixture of granular materials with different

diameter spheres. Later in 1997, Tsirel used a numerical model for predicting the porosity for

irregular shaped particles. Meantime, in 1997, Yu, Bridgwater, and Burbidge did the same research

for the fine powders. Later, Suzuki et al (2001) used the experimental method to researching the

PSD effect on the top density of fine granular materials.

The result of the particle size distribution of powder on the surface quality of wall is

examined. Three distinguished distributions of powder size within the variety of 20 and 80

µm, 30 and 120 µm, and 5 and 165 µm along with a bimodal distribution of powder size have

been taken into consideration. Smaller distribution of powder size and narrower range of

diameter leads to better surface quality (Günther et al, 2000). Another possible way to

enhance the surface quality is making use of bimodal distribution of size. Preliminary results
show that, larger particles of powder with broader range of diameter leads to additional

roughness of surface.

2.1.3 Flowability

Flowability is usually used to describe the propensity of the granular material to flow. One

obvious advantage of free-flowing powder is that it is easy to handle. On the other hand, free

flowing powders segregate easily, especially if particles are of different sizes. Some researchers

did more research on the cohesiveness. Flowability and cohesiveness have nearly the opposite

meanings. The flowability is a key factor in determining the quality of packing structure.

There is no one-size-fit-all measurement for flowability. De Jong et al (1999) reported that

many techniques were used to determine the propensity of powder to flow. Direct methods include

shear cells (e.g., Jenike cells), triaxial cells, true biaxial tester (Schwedes, 1996). Indirect methods

include static and dynamic angle of repose, discharge time, fluidisation degree, and powder de-

aeration rate.

Apart from the two methods, the propensity to pack is also an important factor to describe the

flowability of granular materials (Santomaso, 2003). Santomaso (2003) reported that the

flowability of granular materials was connected with the ratio of ‘high’ to ‘low’ density value. The

words, ‘high’ and ’low’, are two vague adjectives. Because density has many definitions, there is

a non-standard procedure to calculate the density. Kojima and Elliott (2012) also used bulk density

(as well as particle contacts) as an indicator for flowability, but their emphasis was on two-

component and cohesive pharmaceutical powders hence not very relevant to 3D printing which

almost always use free-flowing powders.

 Santos et al (2013) used a hopper-nozzle setup to experimentally study how fine powder

(<100 um particles) flow through orifice of the order of 1 mm. A CFD calculation of air-particle

interaction was also presented.

Hausner ratio, HR, is one of the commonly used flowability indices (Schmid et al, 2014; Van

den Eynde, 2015). However, because several alternatives can be used to describe the flowability,

flowability index is not always used with the same density. For example, in 1999, Abdullah and

Geldar reported that HR was used as the ratio between aerated density and tap density. Later, in

2000, Wong claimed that the HR used as the ratio between poured density and tap density. The

variations of HR among these flowability indexes are showed clearly in Table 2.1.

Table 2.1 Flowability indexes (De Jong et al., 1999)

In some recent studies, Ziegelmeier et al (2013, 2015) attempted a link between powder

flowability and print surface quality. Using FT4, Fu et al (2012) did some flowability tests

involving particles of different shape and sizes.

2.1.4 Other properties

The term cohesiveness is referred as producing or exhibiting coherence or cohesion. It

means that cohesiveness is a process of bonding different parts or aspects into a single unit.
It is one of the essential aspects that are required with regard to the formulation of the

component through SLS (Yang et al., 2003). However, the formulation of the component for

industrial purpose is based on cohesiveness because it incorporates efficient strength of the

material through incorporation of different materials. Cohesiveness effect is essential in

certain situations such as packing containers that are not rigid but are efficient material that

possesses identical properties such as dry sand, wet soil or cement. In the phenomena, the

gravity effect will be minimised and cohesive effect might be essential (Yang et al., 2007).

The review on cohesive particle behaviours is primarily carried out by changing the size

or the particle as well as mixture percentage of the component. The change in the mixture of

the component is carried out if materials or fluids do not fall in same properties as well as for

fluids if the particles are transformed into fluid (Yang et al., 2003). Moreover, packaging

particles that fall under the effect of cohesiveness followed by distribution of size express the

same tendency results for packaging density possess less extent of variation with the size of

the particles.

2.2 Powder properties affecting sintering

The most diverse manufacturing approach in metalworking technologies is powder

metallurgy. The process involves compressing the powder in a mold to produce a green

compact and the obtained compact is sintered at elevated temperatures in a protective

atmosphere (Goodridge, 2011). As the process continues, the compact becomes

strengthened and consolidated. Several attributes aid to the attraction and advantages of

metallurgy. The utmost attraction of the procedure is the facility to shape the powder to the

end component where quality is ensured followed by complexity of the shape in the most

economical way. Other advantages include the achievement of economies of scale with
high volume productions with no compromise on quality and structural parts. Materials

which are difficult to process can be catered through the same process. Shapes which are

uncommon and complex can be achieved through this procedure. The list of advantages

and attractions continues. However there are some properties of powder which can affect

the sintering process. The shape of the particle can affect the packing structure and particle

size distribution can also affect the structure of packing.

2.2.1 Powder shape

Static properties and dynamic properties are two perspectives from which the

mechanical properties can be assessed. Static property includes tensile strength, yield

strength, and ductility. In comparison with wrought materials PM (particulate matter) Ti-

6Al-4V has higher tensile strength but the ductility is lower than what is required. Both

porosity and impurities are known to be damaging to fatigue performance because it has

been confirmed that fatigue cracks usually recruit from pores at the surface of the specimen.

Research and development is now focusing on non-conventional methods of

manufacturing PM (particulate matter) Ti. A major point of concern is the titanium powder

because of the cost performance trade off. To achieve a low cost trade off sintering of TiH2

has shown some promising development. This was first reported in 1998 by Yolton who

consolidated hydrogenated Ti-6Al-4V.