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with the
ground. The wind sheer produces a vertical non-uniform velocity profile at the rotor disk,
with higher
velocities at the top and lower velocities at the bottom of the disk. Consequently, resulting
in a skewed
wake (the upper part of the wake convects faster than the lower part) and periodic
variations in AoA.
2. Yaw misalignment: It happens when the wind turbine is facing out of the incoming wind
direction. It
commonly occurs on wind turbines because the yaw system is not fast enough to respond to
sudden
changes in wind direction. Therefore, the turbine has to operate for some time in yawed
flow. Other
causes could be a lack of accuracy in the yaw system to align with the incoming wind
direction. In
yawed flow a turbine experiences two main effects, as identified by Schepers [74]:
(a) Advancing and retreating blade effect: Yaw misalignment leads to a component of
incoming velocity
in the rotor plane, which results in this effect along with constituting a skewed wake. This
effect can be easily derived from the blade section velocity triangles at various azimuthal
positions.
For a positive yaw angle (¯), a blade section will experience high AoA at the 12 o’ clock
azimuthal position and a low AoA at 6 o’ clock azimuthal position of the blade, as shown in
figure
2.2a. This high AoA at the top and low angle of attack at the bottom of rotor disc results in
a tilting moment on the turbine rotor (because the velocity triangles are symmetric about a
line
from top to bottom of the rotor disc). However, in reality, it has been observed that a wind
turbine
experiences a restoring yawing moment when it is yawed. The reason for it can be explained
through the skewed wake effect. It is to be noted, the advancing and retreating blade effect
is most
significant when the component of wind in the rotor plane (U1sin(¯)) is large enough to
make
a considerable difference between the AoA at the retreating and advancing side of the rotor
disc.
Alternatively, a lower angular velocity could also bring about this effect.
Mathematically,meaning
that this advancing and retreating blade effect is more likely to happen for lower tip speed
ratios,
where tip speed ratio (¸) is defined as:
¸Æ
R-
U1
(b) Skewed wake effect: The wake of the rotor directly influences the induction at the rotor
disc.
Therefore, an un-symmetric or skewed wake, produced during yawed flow, would cast an
imbalance
in induction on the rotor disc. This imbalance is such that the upwind side of the disc has
lower induction as compared to the downwind side of the rotor disc, as seen in figure 2.2b.
Subsequently,
a higher AoA at the upwind side and a lower AoA at the downside side results in creating
the restoring yawing moment. As this effect has to do with induction at the rotor disc;
therefore,
it is most significant at higher tip speed ratios when the induction is high. Initially, Glauert
[25]
proposed a function that varies sinusoidally tomodel this phenomenon through induction at
the
rotor:
aƯa
³
1ÅK
r
R
sinÃ
´
(2.2)
where, ¯ a is the average induction over the rotor disk, Ã is the azimuthal angle and K is a
function
of yaw angle. Since then, numerous attempts have been made in the literature to determine
the
function K. A summary of those various studies is presented by Micallef [57]. A slightly more
accurate approach, although based on Glauert’s theory, was determined by Schepers [73]
using
experimental data and based on a second order Fourier fit.
3. Local sweep effects: This effect arises when the local incident flow velocity is not normal
to the blade
section. Hence, eliciting a radial component of velocity along the blade span, as seen in
figure 2.2a for
a yawed rotor. It is seen from the figure that the sweep angle is maximum at the 3 o’ clock
and 9 o’
clock azimuthal position while it is zero at the 12 o’ clock and 6 o’ clock azimuthal position.
The radial
component of flow from sweep angle complicates the aerodynamics further and a simple 2D
blade
section analysis where each section is assumed independent is no longer a valid assumption.
This
radial velocity has a direct influence on the boundary layer over the blade; therefore,
directly effecting
the onset of stall [44].
4. Tower shadow: This periodic effect happens whenever a blade crosses in front of the
tower for an upwind
turbine, or vice versa for a downwind turbine. However, the tower shadow effect is more
pronounced
for downwind turbines because of the larger velocity deficit and shed vorticity in the wake of
the tower.
Snel et al. [85] divided the non-stationary effects on a wind turbine into two parts: unsteady airfoil
aerodynamics
and dynamic inflow. These effects have completely different magnitudes of time scales; hence, as
a simplification, can be analyzed separately. Dynamic stall is an unsteady viscous effect that falls
under the
umbrella of unsteady airfoil aerodynamics, along with Theodorsen’s effect which is of non-viscous
nature.
While dynamic inflow describes the lag in the inflow velocity at the rotor plane due to trailing
vorticity in
the wake. Nonetheless, Leishman [48] advocates a different perspective. He is of the view that
dynamic stall
effects cannot be studied in isolation; a better understanding of the phenomenon needs just
treatment of the
wake vorticity. Because the trailing vorticity in the wake creates a non-uniform inflow velocity profile
at the
rotor plane; thus, exhibiting a non-uniformangle of attack (AoA) distribution.
In the subsequent sub-sections, some of the above mentioned unsteady aerodynamic effects on
wind
turbines will be discussed in detail.
2.1.1. Dynamic Inflow
From momentum theory, the axial induction at the rotor depends on the axial force exerted by the
rotor on
the wind. Whenever this axial loading is changed, a subsequent change in induction at the rotor is
expected.
However, due to the large mass of air passing through the rotor, the flow cannot respond to these
changes
instantaneously. Hence, there is a lag in the development of new induction at the rotor. This
phenomena is
termed as dynamic inflow or dynamic induction [77]. Dynamic inflow is closely associated with the
trailing
vorticity in the wake, and it can be easily explained through lifting line theory. For example, a sudden
change
in axial loading, through a step in pitch angle, changes bound circulation on the blade and trailing
vorticity.
The new strength trailing vorticity is convected slowly in the wake with a local velocity.
Consequently, the
wake is dominated by the old strength trailing vorticity which is still influencing induction at the
rotor. As a
result, induction at the rotor changes gradually as the new vorticity is convected downstream. It
reaches a
steady state once the new trailing vorticity has traveled 2-4 rotor diameters. At this stage, the effect
of the old
trailing vorticity is minimalistic. Dynamic inflow is typically modeled with a first order differential
equation
2.3, as mentioned in Schepers [77]. Where, ¿ is a time constant directly proportional to the rotor size,
ui is the
induced velocity at the rotor, and CT is the axial thrust force coefficient.
¿
dui
dt
Å4ui (1¡ui ) ÆU1CT (2.3)
Apart from a step change in pitch angle, change in rotor speed and wind speed can also change the
induced
velocity through changing axial loading on the rotor; thus, exhibiting dynamic inflow. However,
Schepers
[77] mentioned that a change in wind speed does not produce dynamic inflow effects like changes in
rotor
speed or pitch angle. The reason being, changes in wind speed do not change induced velocity at the
rotor
but, instead, they change ratio of induced velocity to free-stream velocity, called the axial induction
factor a.
Where, Cl ,3D is the corrected lift coefficient for three dimensional effects and Cl ,2D is the lift
coefficient
from 2D airfoil data. This correction is only applicable till 80 percent radial position and a maximum
AoA of
30 degrees. After 30 degrees, the lift correction has to linearly decrease to zero at 50 degree AoA.
Another often
overlooked three dimensional effect is that of local sweep angle on a rotating blade section [48];
however,
strong evidence of this effect on wind turbines is still lacking. Dynamic stall with sweep was observed
to increase
the maximumandmean lift coefficient while delaying stall to a higher AoA in comparison to dynamic
stall with zero sweep. Moreover, Leishman suggested that sweep causes a lower convection velocity
for the
shed leading edge vortex; hence, delaying the dynamic lift to a higher AoA. He also made
modification to the
original Beddoes-Leishman model to incorporate these effect [45], documenting an improved
prediction of
unsteady loads.
Traduction
Snel et al[85] ont divisé les effets non stationnaires sur une éolienne en deux
parties : l'aérodynamique instationnaire des profils d'aile.
et de l'afflux dynamique. Ces effets ont des échelles de temps d'ampleur
complètement différentes.
une simplification, peut être analysée séparément. Le décrochage dynamique
est un effet visqueux instationnaire qui s'inscrit dans le cadre de la stratégie de
décrochage.
parapluie de l'aérodynamique instationnaire des profils de voilure, avec l'effet
de Theodorsen qui est o