V- UNIT THEODOLITE

A theodolite is an instrument which is used primarily to measure angles, both horizontal

and vertical. It is also used for many other subsidiary work during surveying such as setting
up of intermediate points between inter visible points, establishment of inter visible points,
prolonging a line, laying out traverse etc.
Types of Theodolite
There are different types of theodolite available. It may be classified into three broad
categories.
 Vernier or Transit Theodolite This is most commonly used. In this type of
instrument, observations are taken by using the principle of vernier caliper. The precision of
this type of instrument varies in the order of 10" to 20". A typical vernier theodolite is as
shown in Figure (a) and its sectional view in Figure (b). The schematic representation of this
type of theodolite is given in Figure (c).

 Digital Theodolite This type of theodolite provides the value of observation directly
in viewing panel. The precision of this type of instrument varies in the order of 1" to 10".
 Total Station This is an electronic instrument. In this instrument, all the parameters
required to be observed during surveying can be obtained (Figure). The value of observation
gets displayed in a viewing panel. The precision of this type of instrument varies in the
order of 0.1" to 10".

Each type of theodolite is peculiar in its construction and mode of operation. However,
inherent fundamentals of all are same. In this course, the details will be considered for
vernier type theodolite which is most popular and is being widely used. The salient parts of
a vernier theodolite have been discussed below
Leveling Head It is the lowermost part of a theodolite. It consists of two parallel horizontal
plates separated by three leveling screws.
The lower plate with a large threaded hole in its centre is called trivet or foot plate. It
provides a means to place the instrument on (tripod) stand and get it screwed. Its central
aperture provides a way for suspending a plumb bob.
The upper plate of the leveling head is called the tribrach . It contains a tapered bearing at
the centre. It has three arms each carrying a leveling screw. It provides a support for the
upper part of the instrument.
The principal use of levelling head is to provide a means for levelling the instrument.
Shifting Head It consists of a pair of horizontal plates and an annular treaded ring. One of
the plates is placed below the lower plate but above the tribrach and the other below the
tribrach. The annular treaded ring is placed in between lower plate and the tribrach which is
used to tighten/untighten the whole of the instrument. The shifting head is used for exact
centring of the instrument after leveling has been completed.
Lower Plate It is a horizontal circular plate monolithically constructed with the outer
spindle. A scale is engraved at its beveled edge with divisions in degrees and minutes
increasing in clockwise direction. It provides the main scale reading of a horizontal angle
and a means to fix / unfix the whole of the instrument.
Upper Plate It is a horizontal circular plate monolithically constructed with the inner
spindle. It is fitted with two diametrically opposite vernier scales designated as A and B.
Functions of upper plates are to support a pair of magnifiers for the verniers, a pair of plate
levels, a pair of support frames for telescope and a means to fix / unfix the upper plate of the
instrument with its lower plate.
Plate Levels Pair of level tubes are placed at right angles on the upper plate. These are used
to make the vertical axis of the instrument truly vertical i.e., for leveling of the instrument.
Standard (or a Frame) Two standards resembling the letter A are attached on the upper plate.
These provide the bearings of the pivots of the telescope allowing it to rotate on its trunion
axis in vertical plane. The vernier frame and arm of vertical circle clamp are also attached to
it.
Vernier Frame Also called T -frame or index frame, consists of a vertical leg known as
clipping arm and a horizontal bar called the index arm engraved with verniers C and D at its
ends. Each of the verniers at C and D are having two scales which increase in opposite
directions. It is used as seat for altitude bubble and also provides vernier reading for vertical
angle measurement (Figure).

Telescope The telescope of a theodolite is identical in structure and uses, as in case of a

dumpy level. But, in theodolite, the telescope is mounted on a horizontal spindle called the
horizontal axis or the trunnion axis to rotate it also in vertical plane.
Vertical Circle The vertical circle is attached with the trunnion axis. It is engraved with a
scale reading vertical angle in degrees and minutes. The vertical circle is divided into four
quadrants each reading 0° to 90° with 0° - 0° either along vertical or in horizontal. It
provides the main scale reading for vertical angle.
Altitude Bubble A sensitive level tube placed on vernier frame is called altitude bubble. It is
used to make horizontal axis truly horizontal.
Screws A theodolite instrument has number of screws as its component parts. These are
classified into different types depending on their functions.
Levelling Screws These are present in the leveling head of a theodolite in between trivet
and tribrach. These work in threaded holes in the tribrach arms and their lower ends rest in
recesses in the trivet. These screws are used for leveling the instrument i.e., to make plate
level axis truly horizontal.
Clamp Screws These are used to fix the parts of a theodolite with which these are attached.
 Lower Plate Clamp Screw
 Upper Plate Clamp Screw
 Vertical plate Clamp Screw

Tangent Screws With each clamping screw, there is a tangent screw present in the
instrument to provide fine movement. The tangent screws work only after its clamping
screws get tightened. Thus when the upper clamp screw has been tightened, small
movement of the upper plate can be made by the upper tangent screw; when the lower
clamp screw has been tightened, small movement of the lower plate can be made by the
lower tangent screw and similarly for vertical clamp screw.

Tripod Stand The theodolite is mounted on a strong tripod when being used in the field. The
legs of the tripod are solid or framed. At the lower ends of the legs, pointed steel shoes are
provided to get them pushed into ground. The tripod head has male screws on which the
trivet of the leveling head is screwed.

Temporary Adjustment of Vernier Theodolite

At each station point, before taking any observation, it is required to carry out some
operations in sequence. The set of operations those are required to be done on an instrument
in order to make it ready for taking observation is known as temporary adjustment.
Temporary adjustment of a vernier theodolite consists of following operations:
Setting: The setting operation consists of fixing the theodolite with the tripod stand along
with approximate leveling and centring over the station. For setting up the instrument, the
tripod is placed over the station with its legs widely spread so that the centre of the tripod
head lies above the station point and its head approximately level (by eye estimation). The
instrument is then fixed with the tripod by screwing through trivet. The height of the
instrument should be such that observer can see through telescope conveniently. After this, a
plumb bob is suspended from the bottom of the instrument and it should be such that plumb
bob should point near to the station mark.
Centring: The operation involved in placing the vertical axis of the instrument exactly over
the station mark is known as centring. First, the approximate centring of the instrument is
done by moving the tripod legs radially or circumferentially as per need of the
circumstances.
It may be noted that due to radial movement of the legs, plumb bob gets shifted in the
direction of the movement of the leg without seriously affecting the level of the instrument.
On the other hand, when the legs are moved side ways or circumferentially, the plumb does
not shift much but the level gets affected. Sometimes, the instrument and the tripod have to
be moved bodily for centring. It must be noted that the centering and leveling of instrument
is done recursively. Finally, exact centring is done by using the shifting head of the
instrument. During this, first the screw-clamping ring of the shifting head is loosened and
the upper plate of the shifting head is slid over the lower one until the plumb bob is exactly
over the station mark. After the exact centring, the screw clamping ring gets tightened.
Leveling: Leveling of an instrument is done to make the vertical axis of the instrument truly
vertical. Generally, there are three leveling screws and two plate levels are present in a
theodolite instrument. Thus, leveling is being achieved by carrying out the following steps
Step 1: Bring one of the level tube parallel to any two of the foot screws, by rotating the
upper part of the instrument.
Step 2: The bubble is brought to the centre of the level tube by rotating both the foot screws
either inward or outward. The bubble moves in the same direction as the left thumb. [Figure
20.6(a)]
Step 3: The bubble of the other level tube is then brought to the centre of the level tube by
rotating the third foot screw either inward or outward [Figure 20.6(b)]. [In step 1 itself, the
other plate level will be parallel to the line joining the third foot screw and the centre of the
line joining the previous two foot screws.]
Step 4: Repeat Step 2 and step 3 in the same quadrant till both the bubble remain central.
Step 5: By rotating the upper part of the instrument through 180°, the level tube is brought
parallel to first two foot screws in reverse order. The bubble will remain in the centre if the
instrument is in permanent adjustment.
Otherwise, repeat the whole process starting from step1 to step5.

Focussing. To obtain the clear reading, the image formed by the objective lens should fall in
the plane of diaphragm and the focus of eye-piece should also be at the plane of diaphragm.
This is being carried out by removing parallax by proper focusing of objective and eye-
piece. Thus, focusing operation involves two steps:
Focusing of the eye-piece lens
Focusing of the objective lens.

Relations among Fundamental Lines

In a perfectly adjusted instrument, the fundamental lines bear relations (Figure) as follows:
1. The vertical cross hair should lie in a plane perpendicular to the horizontal axis .
2. The axis of each plate level should lie in a plane perpendicular to the vertical axis
3. The horizontal axis should be perpendicular to the vertical axis .
4. The axis of the telescope level should be parallel to the line of sight
5. The line of sight should be perpendicular to the horizontal axis at its intersection with the
vertical axis . Also, the optical axis , the axis of the objective slide , and the line of sight
should coincide.
An instrument is said to in permanent adjustment if it satisfies all the relations among its
fundamental lines. The permanent adjustment of an instrument usually gets disturbed after
long or prolonged use. So, the state of relationship among different fundamental lines
should be checked occasionally and corrections are required to be done, if necessary. The
operations are based on the geometry of the fundamental line and thus, may get upset one
relation while rectifying other. In order to avoid such possibility, the permanent adjustment
should be made in the order.
 Adjustment of Vertical cross hair;
 Adjustment of plate level axes;
 Adjustment of line of sight;
 Adjustment of horizontal axis;
 Adjustment of the axis of the telescope;
 Adjustment of vertical circle index.
Permanent adjustment of Vertical Cross Hair of telescope of transit
The vertical cross hair should lie in a plane perpendicular to the horizontal axis.
Test : To conduct a test for this, first the instrument is to be temporarily adjusted on any
station and sight a well defined point object at a distance of about 100m. Get the object
point bisected on the vertical cross hair . Keeping both the upper and lower plate main screw
clamped, swing the telescope in vertical direction. If the point appears to move continuously
on the vertical hair, the cross hair lies in a plane perpendicular to the horizontal axis (Figure
21.2a).

Adjustment : If the point object appears to depart from the cross hair (Figure 21.2b), loosen
two adjacent capstan screws and twist the cross-hair ring in the telescope tube, so that the
point appear on the vertical cross hair. Tighten the two screws. Carry out the test again and
make adjustment, if required, until the point traverses the entire length of the hair as the
telescope is swung in vertical direction.
Permanent adjustment of Plate Level Axes of transit

The axis of each plate level should lie in a plane perpendicular to the vertical axis.
Test : In order to test it, one of the level tubes is brought parallel to any two of the foot
screws, by rotating the upper part of the instrument (by clamping the lower plate main screw
and opening the upper plate main screw). The bubble is brought to the centre of the level
tube by rotating foot screws. The level tube is then brought over the third foot screw again
by rotating the upper part of the instrument. The bubble is then again brought to the centre
of the level tube by rotating the third foot screw. These operations are repeated by rotating
the upper part of the instrument in the same quadrant and levelling till the bubble remains
central in both the positions. Now clamp the upper plate main screw and open the lower
plate main screw and rotating the whole instrument through 180°. If the bubble in the plate
level remains in the centre, the axis of the plate level lie in a plane perpendicular to the
vertical axis. Similar, test has to be carried out for the other level tube also.

Adjustment : If the bubble in any level tube gets displaced from centre, bring it back
halfway by adjusting two foot screws parallel to it (Figure) and other half by adjusting the
capstan screws fitted at one end of the plate level tube. Rotate the whole instrument through
180° and repeat the steps of testing and adjustment if required till the bubble remains central
for all positions of the instrument as it revolved through 360° about the vertical axis.
Permanent adjustment of Line of Sight of transit
Test : In order to test it., first the instrument is temporarily adjusted on a station and sight a
point say, X (Figure) about 150 m away from the station point with telescope in the direct
position. Keeping main screws of both the upper and lower plates of the instrument
clamped, plunge the telescope and set another point Y in the opposite direction of the
transit. Open the lower plate clamp screw and swing the instrument about the vertical axis to
bring X again on the vertical cross hair. Tighten the lower plate clamp screw and plunge the
telescope as before; if Y appears on the vertical cross hair, the line of sight is perpendicular
to the horizontal axis.
Adjustment : If Y does not appear on the vertical cross hair, set a point Z on the line of
sight of the instrument. Mark another point P, one-fourth of the distance from Y to Z, and
adjust the cross-hair ring (by means of the two opposite horizontal screws) until the line of
sight passes through P. Tighten the diaphragm screws, keeping the vertical hair in that
position. Repeat the test and adjustment till X and Y points, before and after plunging, is in
the same line of sight of the telescope. The points sighted should be at about the same
elevation as the transit
Permanent adjustment of Horizontal Axis of telescope / transit
The horizontal axis is required to be perpendicular to the vertical axis.
Test : In order to test it, first the instrument (in face left condition) is temporarily adjusted in
front of high building or structure on which a well-defined point, say X, can be marked at
considerable height. Then opening the vertical clamp, sight at the point X in such a way that
the point appears on the vertical cross hair of the telescope. Now, with the horizontal
motions clamped, depress the telescope and set a point Y on or near the ground. If the
horizontal axis is perpendicular to the vertical axis, X and Y will be in the same vertical
plane. Then, bisect the point X again in the face right condition. On depression of the
telescope as before, if the line of sight falls on Y, the horizontal axis is perpendicular to the
vertical axis (Figure).
Adjustment : On depression of the telescope (on face right condition), if the line of sight
does not falls on Y, but at some other point say Z (Figure), the instrument requires
adjustment. Now, select another point say Q, halfway between Y and Z and at the same
level should be marked. The telescope is then focused the point in such a way using upper
plate tangent screw that Q appears on the vertical cross hair and then, elevate the telescope
until the line of sight is beside X; loosen the screws of the bearing cap, and raise or lower
the adjustable end of the trunnion axis until the line of sight is intersects X.
When the trunnion axis has been adjusted, the line of sight intersects both X and Q as the
telescope is rotated about the vertical plane about the horizontal axis.
Raising or lowering the trunnion axis may cause movement of the vertical crosshair away
from the point Q. So. After each movement of the adjusting screw, the point Q on the staff
should be checked. If necessary, it should be adjusted using one of the horizontal tangent
screws. (Figure).
Permanent adjustment of Axis of the Telescope of transit
Test and adjustment: This is carried out by the two-peg method as discussed for dumpy
level. The difference is that: With the line of sight set on the rod reading established for a
horizontal line, the correction is made by rising or lowering one end of the telescope level
tube until the bubble is centered.
Permanent adjustment of vertical Circle Index of transit
The object of this adjustment is to set the vertical circle to zero when the line of sight is
horizontal and the altitude bubble is centered.
Test : Set an instrument in face left condition and get it temporary adjusted. Center the
altitude bubble and read the vertical vernier. Now, change the instrument in face right
condition and the vertical vernier after centering the altitude bubble. If the 0 of the vernier
scale coincides with the 0 or 90 of the main scale , there is no vernier index error in the
instrument.
Adjustment : If the vernier does not read zero, loosen it and move it until it reads zero.
Care should be so taken that the vernier does not bind on the vertical circle as the telescope
is rotated about the horizontal axis.
Terms used
(1) The vertical axis. The vertical axis is the axis about which the instrument can be rotated
in a horizontal plane. This is the axis about which the lower and upper plates rotate.
(2) The horizontal axis. The horizontal or trunnion axis is the axis about which the telescope
and the vertical circle rotate in vertical plane.
(3) The line of sight or line of collimation. It is the line passing through the intersection of
the horizontal and vertical crosshairs and the optical centre of the object glass and its
continuation.
(4) The axis of level tube. The axis of the level tube or the bubble line is a straight line
tangential to the longitudinal curve of the level tube at its centre. The axis of the level-lube
is horizontal when the bubble is central.
(5) Centring. The process of setting the theodolite exactly over the station mark is known as
Centring.
(6) Transiting. It is the process of turning the telescope in vertical plane through 180 0 about
the trunnion axis. Since the line of sight is reversed in this operation, it is also known as
plunging or reversing.
(7) Swinging the telescope. It is the process of turning the telescope in horizontal plane. If
the t1'esco pe is rotated in clock-wise direction, it is known as right swing. If telescope is
rotated in the anti-clockwise direction, it is known as the left swing.
(8) Face left observation. If the face of the vertical circle is to the left of the observer, the
observation of the angle (horizontal or vertical) is known as face left observation.
(9) Face right observation. If the face of the vertical circle is to the right of the observer, the
observation is known as face right observation.
(10) Telescope normal. A telescope is said to be normal or direct when the face of. the
vertical circle is to the left and the "bubble (of the telescope) up".
(11) Telescope inverted. A telescope is said to inverted or reversed when of the vertical
circle is to the right and the "bubble down".
(12) Changing face. It is an operation of bringing the face of the telescope from left to right
and vice versa.

Measurement of Direction using Theodolite

The different ways by which the direction of a line is depicted in surveyig are computed
either from horizontal angles or from vertical angles or both. Thus, primary elements of
observation during surveying are the horizontal angles and the vertical angles . These
quantities can be observed directly in the field using theodolite.
Measurement of Horizontal Angle
To represent the direction of a line, the horizontal angle of the line from a reference line is to
be measured. The steps required to be adopted are as follows:

1. Two points one on each of the lines, say P and Q, are to be marked.
2. A transit theodolite is to be set at the point of intersection of the lines, say at
O. Initially, the instrument is in the face left condition and its temporary adjustment
is to be done over the point O.
3. Both the lower and upper plate main screws are to released and get the
vernier A set to 0° (or 360°) mark on the main scale. After clamping the upper main
screw, index of vernier A is to be brought exactly to the zero of the main scale using
the upper plate tangent screw.
4. At this stage the reading of the vernier B should be 180°.
5. Swing the telescope in the horizontal plane and point it to the left station, say
P. Tighten the lower plate clamp screw, and bisect the signal at P exactly using the
lower plate tangent screw. Record the readings in the form of Table
 6. Loosen the upper plate main screw and turn the telescope the signal at Q is
sighted. Tighten the upper clamp screw and bisect the ranging pole at Q exactly
using the upper plate tangent screw.
7. Read both the verniers A and B and record the readings. The reading of the
vernier A is the angle POQ. The vernier B gives the value of angle POQ after
deducting from it 180°. The mean of two values of the angles obtained from the
verniers A and B is the required angle P'O'Q'.
8. Change the face of the instrument to the face right by transiting the telescope
and swinging it by 180°.
9. Repeat steps 3 to 8 and determine another value of the angle P'O'Q'.
10. The mean of the face left and face right observations is the final required
angle P'O'Q'.

Method of Repetition
When the precision of measurement of a horizontal angle is desired to be more than the least
count of the instrument, repetition method is used. In this method, the desired angle is
measured several times, and average of the observed values is considered as the value of the
angle. The precision thus attained is to a much finer degree than the least count of the
vernier. The steps involved in the measurement of the horizontal angle, say POQ at O
(Figure) by method of repetition are as follows:

Steps 1 to 7 is same as given in method of measurement of horizontal angle but record

readings in the form of Table
8. Unclamp the lower plate, and turn the telescope to sight the signal P again. Tighten the
lower clamp. Use the lower plate tangent screw for exact bisection of the signal P. (The
vernier readings should be as it was during previous reading).
9. Release the upper clamp and turn the telescope to sight the signal Q. Tighten the upper
clamp. Bisect the signal Q exactly using the upper tangent screw. The vernier A will give
the value which is about twice the angle POQ.
10. Repeat steps (8) and (9) once again. The final reading of the vernier A will be
approximately thrice the angle POQ.
If necessary, more repetitions can be done.
11. Divide the final reading by the number of repetition to obtain the value of the angle
POQ. For every completed revolution of the circle to the final reading, if necessary, add
360°.
12. Change face of the instrument to the face right. The telescope will be in the inverted
condition. Repeat steps (2) to (9), with the face right, and determine another value of the
angle POQ.
13. Determine the average value of the angles obtained with the face left and face right.
The method of repetition eliminates different errors present in measurement of horizontal
angle. These are as follows:
1. The errors due to eccentricity of verniers and centres get eliminated as
readings from both the verniers are taken.
 2. The errors due to inaccurate graduations get eliminated as the readings are
observed at different parts of the circle.
3. The errors due to lack in adjustment of line of collimation and the horizontal
axis of the instrument get eliminated for considering both faces readings.
4. Errors due to inaccurate bisection of the object, eccentric centering etc are
eliminated partially as these get counter-balanced in different observations.
However, the errors due to slip, due to displacement of station or its signal do not get
eliminated and moreover, these errors are of cumulative in nature.

Method of Reiteration
Method of reiteration for measurement of horizontal angle is usually adopted in case several
angles of well distributed points/ objects are to be measured from the same instrument
station with high precision. In this method, angles are measured successively starting from a
point termed as initial station (Figure). The angle between the terminating station and the
initial station is the last observation during a set of measurement of horizontal angle by
method of reiteration. This process of measuring the angles at an instrument station round
the point is to obtain a check on their sum being equal to 360° and is called closing the
horizon. When the horizon is closed, the final reading of the vernier should be the same as
its initial reading if there is no discrepancy. Figure shows a instrument station O where the
angles POQ, QOR and ROS have to be measured by method of reiteration. The steps
involved in the measurement of the horizontal angles by method of reiteration are as
follows:

Steps 1 to 7 are same as given in measurement of horizontal angle and record readings in
Table.
8. Loosen the upper plate clamp screw and turn the telescope clockwise until the station R is
sighted. Tighten the upper clamp screw. Use the upper tangent screw for placing the object
R on the vertical cross hair. Read both the verniers, and record readings in the Table.
Compute the angle QOR. And note down in the table.
9. Likewise, determine the angle ROS.
10. Finally, close the horizon by sighting the reference object P again. Note down the
readings. The vernier A should now read zero (or 360°).
11. Now change the face left of the instrument to the face right by transiting (plunging) the
telescope and swinging it through 180°. Repeat steps 3 to 10 in the anti-clockwise direction.
12. The average value of each angle obtained with the face left and the face right provides
the observed values of the angles.

Measurement of Vertical Angle

A vertical angle is the angle between the inclined line of sight and the horizontal plane
through the trunnion axis of the instrument. Prior to the measurement of vertical angle,
instrument is required to be leveled with reference to the altitude level. Figure shows
vertical angles.

The procedure for measuring a vertical angle is as follows:

1. The temporary adjustment of the instrument is to be done on the station.
2. Then, leveling of theodolite is to be done using altitude level (the operations
involved are same as leveling using plate level).
3. Loosen the vertical circle clamp, and direct the telescope towards the object
whose vertical angle is required to be measured. Clamp the vertical circle, and bisect
the point by turning the vertical tangent screw.
4. Read and record the scale with vernier C and D in Table
5. Change the face of the instrument and read the vertical angle again.
6. The required vertical angle is the average of the values in steps 4 and 5.
Setting out direction of a line in field (using theodolite)
To layoff a line in the field it is usually accomplished through laying off a horizontal angle
between the reference and considered line. The following procedure may be used to layoff
an angle say POQ (Figure ). Let us consider that the value of the angle is 31° 23' 20".
1. Set up the instrument at O and carry out temporary adjustment of the
instrument.
2. Set the vernier A to 0° (or 360°) using the upper plate clamp and tangent
screws.
3. With upper plate clamp screw fixed and lower plate clamp screw open, turn
the instrument and sight station P. Tighten the lower plate clamp screw and bisect P
accurately using the lower tangent screw. The vernier readings should be as it was in
step2.
4. Loosen the upper clamp and turn the upper plate until the vernier A reads
about 31° 23' 20". Clamp the upper plate, and use the upper tangent screw to set it
exactly at 31° 23' 20". The line of sight is now in the required direction OQ.
5. Depress the telescope and establish point Q on the ground along the line of
sight. The angle POQ laid on the ground is equal to the required angle.

Errors in measurements of angles and Directions

An error in the measurement of angle causes error in direction as well as in the computed
value of distance. Thus, it is important for a surveyor to:
(1) visualize the effect of errors in terms of both angle and distance,
(2) appreciate what degree of care must be exercised to keep certain errors within specified
limits, and
(3) know under what conditions various errors can be eliminated. Errors in transit work may
be instrumental, personal or natural.
Elimination of Errors
Errors due to instrumental imperfections and/or nonadjustment are all systematic, and
without exception they can be either eliminated or reduced to a negligible amount. This can
be achieved by obtaining the mean of two values one observed before and the other after a
reversal of the horizontal plate by plunging the telescope and rotating it about the vertical
axis. Further, the error in either horizontal or vertical angle due to inclination of the vertical
axis can be eliminated, so far as its systematic character is concerned, by leveling the plate
bubbles again in addition to the reversal of the plate. However, for precise work the usual
practice would be to make the vertical axis truly vertical by means of the telescope level,
and then to proceed in the ordinary manner.
The personal errors are random and hence cannot be eliminated. They form a large part of
the resultant error in transit and theodolite work. Of the personal errors, those due to
inaccuracies in reading and setting the vernier or reading and setting of the optical
micrometer and to not sighting exactly on the point are likely to be of greater magnitude.
Natural errors are generally random, but under certain conditions systematic errors may
arise from natural causes. On surveys of very high precision, special attempt is made to
establish a procedure which will as nearly as possible eliminate natural systematic errors.
Mistakes in reading or laying of direction of a line using Theodolite
 Reading the wrong vernier scale
 Misreading the vernier
There are two sets of vernier scales marked on a single vernier. While taking
reading, use that set of figures which increase in the same direction as the figure in
the main direction.
 Reading the vernier in the wrong direction.
 Turning the wrong tangent screws
 Failing to tighten the clamp screw.
 Reading the numbers on the horizontal scale from the wrong row.
 Reading angles in the wrong direction.
 Sighting on the wrong signals or setting up over the wrong station
 Booking the wrong values
 Missing the wrong right or left in deflection angle
 Using haphazard field procedure.
Trigonometric Leveling
 For rapid leveling or leveling in rolling ground or for inaccessible points,
trigonometric method of leveling is being used. In this method, theodolite (an
instrument which can measure angle) is being generally used as an instrument for
taking different measurements.

 Let us consider two stations T and X on rolling ground whose difference in

elevation is required to be determined (Figure) by trigonometric method of leveling.
At T, a theodolite instrument is set up. TT ' is the height of the instrument above the
point T (to be recorded at the time of observation). A leveling staff is held at X. At
 the vertical angle of elevation of the actual line of sight , let x1 is the observed staff
reading. The difference in level between T and X is given by


 where xt' xh is deviation of the horizontal line of sight due to curvature of the
earth and refraction of light (given by 0.0675 T' x h2 ). xh x1 is T' x1 sin or T' x h
tan , T' x1 is the inclined distance from the instrument to the staff and T' xh is the
horizontal distance between the points, x1 X is the staff reading at X.
Traverse
Fundamentally, there are two types of traverses:
Open Traverse
An open traverse originates from a point whose position may be known or unknown but
terminates to a point whose position is not known. In this type of traverse, computational
check is not possible to detect error or blunder in distances or directions. To minimize error,
repeated observations for measurements need to be taken. In Figure consider a traverse
ABCDE that originates from the point A which may be unknown or may be defined with
reference to known point P lying on the line PQ of known azimuth, but it terminates to an
unknown point E. Thus, traverse ABCDE is an open traverse. An open traverse is generally
used for exploratory purpose such as mine surveying. It should generally not be used in civil
engineering works unless situation dictates. So no further discussion on this will be done.

Closed Traverse.
A traverse consists of a series of straight lines connected successively at established points,
along the route of a survey. The points defining the ends of the traverse line are called
traverse stations or traverse points. Distances between traverse stations are known as
traverse side and are measured either by direct measurement using a Tape or Electronic
Distance Measuring (EDM) equipment, or by indirect measurement using tacheometer. At
stations where a traverse side changes its direction, relative direction are measured with a
transit or theodolite.

When a traverse originates from a known position and also terminates to known position
then it is called a closed traverse. (If the origin and terminating points are the same then it is
called closed-loop traverse (Figure a). This type of traverse permits an internal check on the
accuracy of angular measurements, provides an indication of the consistency of measuring
distances as well as angles. But detection of systematic errors in linear measurement or
errors in the orientation of the traverse, is not possible. This type of traverse is
recommended for minor projects). A closed traverse that originates from a known point and
terminates to another known point (Figure b) is the most reliable. This type of traverse
henceforth called as open looped close traverse provides computational checks allowing
detection of systematic errors in both distance and direction and, therefore, preferred to all
other types of traverse.
Traverse Surveying
Surveying for establishment of control points of a traverse consists of different steps of
operation. These are
Reconnaissance During reconnaissance, extensive inspection and examination of the entire
area to be surveyed is carried out in order to identify suitable location for traverse stations;
to ensure inter visibility among traverse stations; to decide the method of traversing and type
of instruments suitable to field condition; to collect miscellaneous information related to
traverse surveying such as: (i) Transport facilities; (ii) Availability of food and water for the
survey party; (iii) Camping ground or stay arrangements; (iv) Availability of labour etc
Selection of stations sites During selection of sites for traverse stations, following
considerations are required to be taken into account:
1. Location should be such that the basic principle of surveying, i.e., working
from the whole to the part gets implemented.
2. Number of stations should be as minimum as possible but the possible
figures joining the stations should be well conditioned.
3. Length of the traverse lines better be as long as possible to reduce the effect
of centering error.
4. The intervisibility among stations and at least between adjoining stations is
required.
5. Stations may be positioned on firm and level ground.
Marking of stations After finalizing the sites for locations of traverse stations, their positions
are marked on the ground. The station mark should be of permanent nature, so that same
stations can be used in future also, if required. For that necessary monument is constructed.
Field measurements The field measurements in traverse surveying consist of measurement
of length and direction of traverse sides and thus involve
 Linear measurements and
 Angular measurements.
Computations. The details of computation leading to determination of coordinates of
stations