Bruce L.

Graves

A
ccording to the IEEE Brown Book
(ANSI/IEEE Standard 399-1990),
“The planning, design and operation of
a power system requires continual and
comprehensive analyses to evaluate current system
performance and to establish the effectiveness of al-
ternative plans for system expansion.”

Defining a Power System

A power system is an assembly of generators, trans-
formers, power lines, fuses, circuit breakers, pro-
tective devices, cables, and associated apparatus
used to generate and deliver electrical energy to the
intended load. A power system’s reliability is in-
fluenced by a number of factors, some of which are
environmental, weather, human error, equipment
quality, maintenance, and equipment application.
The purpose of a power system is to generate and
©1997 PhotoDisc, Inc.

deliver electrical energy safely, reliably, efficiently,

and economically to the intended load. Each of these
factors (safety, efficiency, reliability, and economy)
plays a major role in the design, modification, or ex-

Bruce L. Graves is with World Wide Technologies, Inc.

of Greenville, South Carolina. This article appeared in
its original form at the 2000 IEEE IAS Pulp and Paper
Industry Technical Conference.

14 IEEE Industry Applications Magazine ■ March/April 2001 1077-2618/01/$10.00©2001 IEEE

pansion of a power system. If any of these factors is
left unattended, it can jeopardize the future profit-
ability of the facility. Here’s how:
■ Safety: If ignored, can cause injury, loss of life,
property damage, and destruction.
■ Reliability: If ignored, can cause needless in-
terruption of power, resulting in costly man-
ufacturing outages.
■ Efficiency: If ignored, can cause excessive
equipment and energy costs, reducing the
overall profitability of the manufacturing
operation.
■ Economy: If ignored, economy or false econ-
omy can influence the initial installation
costs and long-term maintenance and repair
costs, either of which reduce the profitability
of the facility.

Performance Problems
Factors that keep a power system from doing its job
can be divided into two categories: equipment or
component failures and equipment or component
operation (intentional or unintentional).
■ Equipment or component that can fail include
cable insulation, bus insulation, transformers,
circuit breakers, and motors. Some of these
failures may be related to the original system
design and equipment or device failure.
■ Equipment, component, or erratic operation
are represented by actions such as circuit
breaker trips, fuses blowing, switch opera-
tion, and protective relay operation. Some of
those operations are correctly doing their job,
and others are operating on conditions that
should not cause power system interruptions.
Any factor that prevents a power system from
doing its job reduces the productivity of the power
system and ultimately the facility that it serves.

Improving the Productivity

Implementing the results and recommendations of
power system studies will improve the productiv-
ity of a power system.
Chapter 2 of ANSI/IEEE 399-1990 states the
following: “The planning, design, and operation of
industrial power systems require engineering
studies to evaluate existing and proposed system
performance, reliability, safety, and economics.
Studies, properly conceived and conducted, are a
cost-effective way to prevent surprises and to opti-
mize equipment selection. In the design stage, the
studies identify and avoid potential deficiencies in
the system before it goes into operation. In existing
systems, the studies locate the cause of equipment
failure and misoperation and determine corrective
measures for improving system performance.”
The most common system studies done on
power systems includes: load flow, short-circuit,
stability, motor starting, harmonic analysis,
switching transient, reliability, cable ampacity,

IEEE Industry Applications Magazine ■ March/April 2001 15

 ground mat, and coordination studies. The three
studies addressed in this article are short-circuit,
coordination, and harmonic studies.
Short-Circuit Studies
A short-circuit study is the analysis of a power sys-
tem that determines the magnitude of the currents
that flow during a fault. These magnitudes are de-
termined at various points in time after the fault
inception. They are then compared to the ratings of
the electrical components in the power system.
The comparison determines the suitability of the
equipment for use in the analyzed power system.
Components
The list below outlines the various components
that comprise a short-circuit study. With the
availability of computer software that can com-
plete the calculations, some of these components
may actually be performed by the software:
■ Define the study scope (what are the bound-
ary points of the study scope?).
■ Gather data on the power system (including
that of the utility serving the facility) and the
associated equipment (either in the field for
existing power systems or from manufactur-
ers’ data sheets for new systems).
■ Categorize and tabulate the data.
■ Create a power system one-line diagram (or
update an existing one).
■ Convert the raw data into usable data.
■ Create or construct needed impedance diagrams.
■ Calculate the fault current flows throughout
the power system, especially at major points
of interest (usually related to equipment or
device ratings).
■ Read and compare the results of the calcula-
tions to the ratings of the associated equip-
ment (this is commonly called a protective
device evaluation).
Table I. Typical Electrical Equipment Fault
Current Ratings
Type of Equipment Typical Fault Current Ratings
in kilo amps
Fuses (600-V class) 10 kA, 50 kA, 100 kA, etc.
Molded case circuit breakers 14 kA, 25 kA, 35 kA and up
(600-V class)
Air power circuit breakers 35 kA, 50 kA, 65 kA and up
(600-V class)
Switchgear bus bracing (600-V class) 35 kA, 50 kA, 65 kA, 100 kA, etc.
Motor control center bus bracing 35 kA, 50 kA, 65 kA, 100 kA, etc.
(600-V class)
Medium voltage switchgear Momentary and interrupting ratings
of 58 and 28 kA
16 IEEE Industry Applications Magazine ■ March/April 2001
■ Tabulate the results of the protective device
evaluation, which should include recommen-
dations for corrective actions where they may
be required.
Results
The result of a short-circuit study is a compilation
of data (usually from a computer analysis) indicat-
ing the available fault current at all major compo-
nents of a power system. These results are then
compared to the ratings of the equipment (existing
or proposed). The comparison is commonly called a
protective device evaluation. The protective device
evaluation is made to determine where and if the
electrical components are exposed to current mag-
nitudes greater than the ratings of the equipment.
This portion of the study should also provide rec-
ommendations on corrective actions.
Why a Short-Circuit Study?
The specification and purchase of new electrical
power equipment is dependent on selecting the
equipment with the proper ratings for the applica-
tion. The selection of the equipment is partially
based on the magnitude of the fault currents that
can flow through the equipment. The equipment
selected must be designed and built so that it can
successfully handle (carry and interrupt) the fault
currents that flow during a short circuit. A short-
circuit study is needed to determine the magnitude
of these fault currents. It is imperative that the rat-
ings of the selected equipment equal or exceed the
magnitude of the calculated values of the short-cir-
cuit currents that can flow during a fault.
After the initial design work is completed suc-
cessfully, many power systems experience changes
that result in the need for new short-circuit studies.
Table I lists a few of the various types of equip-
ment and their ratings. This table is not intended to
be complete. It is suggested that the reader refer to
the appropriate manufacturers’ data sheets and the
appropriate equipment standard (IEEE, ANSI,
NEMA, or UL) for a complete listing of ratings.
How Often Is a Short-Circuit Study Performed?
Short-circuit studies should be performed as a
part of the initial design of an electrical power sys-
tem and at any time a significant modification is
anticipated. The original or base study must be
completed so that the electrical power system com-
ponents can be properly selected.
After a power system design has been com-
pleted and placed into operation, the usual expec-
tation is that the loads will grow with the
expansion and growth of the facility. The expan-
sion and growth will usually involve the addition
of new motors and loads, necessitating the installa-
tion of new motor control centers, circuit breakers,
switchgear, switchboards, transformers, and asso-
ciated electrical system components.
 As motor loads increase, their fault contribu-
tion to the existing system increases, exposing the
existing power equipment to higher available fault
current magnitudes. These additions can reach a
point where the fault currents equal or exceed the
ratings of the installed electrical equipment.
Adding load to a power system must not expose the
existing equipment to fault current magnitudes in
excess of the equipment ratings.
Continued evaluation of the short-circuit cur-
rents associated with the modifications must be
completed to ensure that the fault current magni-
tudes are not allowed to increase to a point above
the equipment ratings. If modifications to a facil-
ity are constant, then short-circuit studies must be
completed regularly in anticipation of the modifi-
cations. The frequency of the studies should follow
the frequency of the modifications to the facility.
Some facility owners have adopted a regular sched-
ule of updating their studies every five years, when
little or no change is made to a facility. Planned
regular updates will catch changes made by the
utility as well as the plant.
Some facility owners prepare five-year plans for
their facility’s operation and growth. Short-circuit
studies should be used as a tool in assisting in the
preparation of these plans. They can be used to as-
sist in evaluating proposed changes and additions
to facilities and determine how the facility can best
spend capital for new electrical equipment. De-
pending on the magnitude of the proposed
changes, the costs of the new electrical equipment
can impact the costs of the project significantly.
Short-circuit tables and curves are found in ap-
plication literature. These tables and curves are of-
ten used as a quick means of determining short-
circuit currents. They are based on assumptions un-
known to the user and do not cover the entire power
system being evaluated. Some of these may match
equipment ratings to transformer ratings. A word of
caution is in order: tables and curves do not replace
exact engineering calculations.
Coordination Studies
A coordination study is the process of determining
the optimum characteristics, ratings, and settings
of the power system protective devices. The opti-
mum settings are focused on providing systematic
interruptions to the selected power system seg-
ments during fault conditions.
Engineers in process-related industries whose
processes can cause equipment damage and/or hu-
man injury in case of an unplanned shutdown will
design the protective system on the operating phi-
losophy consistent with the safety of the process.
Design and coordination of these systems requires
special considerations that are beyond the scope of
this article.
Those industries’ engineers whose processes can
afford limited outages generally design and coordi-
nate their electrical system in a manner so that elec-
trical equipment damage is minimized and the
power system outage is limited to the smallest se-
lected portion of the power system.
Components
The list below outlines the various components
that make up a coordination study. Computer soft-
ware may be able to perform many of these tasks.
■ Define the study scope (what are the bound-
ary points of the system included in the study
scope?).
■ Gather data on the power system (including
that of the utility serving the facility) and the
associated equipment (either in the field for
existing power systems or from manufactur-
ers’ data sheets for new systems).
■ Categorize the data.
■ Create a power system one-line diagram (or
revise an existing one).
■ Review the protective device characteristics,
ratings and settings.
■ Define the desired results (level of selectivity).
■ Select preliminary device characteristic, rat-
ing or setting.
■ Prepare the final settings and/or time current
curves.
■ Tabulate the results and recommendations.
Several of the above items are similar to those of a
short-circuit study. One usually gathers field data
for both a short-circuit and a coordination study at
the same time.
The results of a coordination study are recom-
mendations on the proper protective device charac-
teristic, rating, or setting selection for all of the
system protective devices. These recommendations
should provide, when implemented, a power system
whose protection devices will provide the level of
system protection and selectivity planned.
Why a Coordination Study?
A coordination study and the implementation of
the resulting recommendations will minimize de-
vice erratic operation and (i.e., nuisance power out-
ages) electrical equipment damage and provide
improved power system reliability.
A coordination study is needed:
■ When the initial power system is designed,
■ When new loads are added to the power system,
■ When existing equipment is replaced with
equipment whose ratings are higher,
■ When a fault on the periphery of the system
shuts down a major portion of the system,
■ When the utility or source short-circuit cur-
rent changes, and
■ When new relays are installed to replace or
upgrade the existing relays.
Properly coordinated power system protective
devices will result in a power system that is highly
reliable and minimizes equipment damage during
IEEE Industry Applications Magazine ■ March/April 2001 17
 faults. It will also afford operation with the least
exposure to outages.
In many cases, coordination studies reveal areas
where exact coordination between two devices is not
possible. In these cases, engineering judgment is used
to select the most desirable configuration—usually
one that will minimize equipment damage.
Harmonic Analyses
A harmonic analysis evaluates the steady-state ef-
fects of nonsinusoidal voltages and currents on the
power system and its components. Some of the
sources of these wave shape disturbances are: DC
rectifiers, adjustable-speed drives, arc furnaces,
welding machines, static power converters of all
kinds, and transformer saturation.
Why Harmonic Analysis?
Electrical equipment used to generate, distribute,
and utilize electrical energy is designed for use on
power systems that supply pure sine waves. When a
voltage or current wave shape is distorted, it causes
abnormal operating conditions in the system and
equipment. Various types of equipment are affected
differently by these wave shape distortions.
Some examples are:
■ Voltage distortion can cause additional heat-
ing in induction and synchronous motors and
generators.
■ Voltage distortion with high peak values can
weaken insulation in cables, windings, and
capacitors.
■ Voltage wave shape distortion can also cause
malfunction of electronic devices that use
wave shape for timing.
■ Harmonic currents in motor windings can
cause higher noise emissions.
■ Harmonic currents cause additional heating
in transformers.
■ Harmonic currents flowing through cables
cause higher heating over and above the heat-
ing expected from rms currents.
■ Harmonic currents flowing through switch-
gear can increase heating and losses in the
switchgear and circuit breakers.
■ Resonant current flows can cause capacitor
failures and/or fuse failures in the capacitor or
other electrical equipment.
■ Protective relays and circuit breakers can trip
falsely due to harmonic currents.
When Is a Harmonic Analysis Needed?
A harmonic analysis is usually needed when any of
the following conditions exists:
■ During the design phase of a facility that con-
sists of a large harmonic-generating load (arc
furnaces, rectifier lines, a large concentration
of variable-speed drives),
■ When a utility limits its distortion to the sys-
tem voltages and currents,
18 IEEE Industry Applications Magazine ■ March/April 2001
■ Plant expansions that include large amounts
of harmonic generating loads,
■ Installation of power-factor-correction ca-
pacitors on power systems that contain large
harmonic generating loads, and
■ History of capacitor fuse failures.
What Completes a Harmonic Analysis?
The same data needed to complete the short-circuit
study is needed for this work. In addition to that
data, a good understanding of the power system
serving the facility is needed by the engineer per-
forming the analysis. The engineer must know if
there are capacitors on the utility system that may
affect the results of the study. Additionally, he or
she must also know: 1) the utility harmonic voltage
spectrum at the point of common coupling, 2) data
on all system capacitors, 3) specific system config-
urations and operating characteristics and proce-
dures on all converter circuits to be studied, and 4)
any utility limitations on distortion limit.
Results
The result or solution to a harmonic problem is to
shift the harmonic resonant point to some other
frequency not generated by the equipment in the
system. Through the course of the evaluation, the
system power factor may also be adjusted to an im-
proved point. The use of filters may be required to
shift the resonant point. The analysis may reveal
that some system components require derating due
to the heating caused by harmonic currents.
The net result of the harmonic analysis, once the
recommendations of the analysis are implemented,
is a power system whose components are not ex-
posed to voltages or currents that exceed their ca-
pability or the mill or utility requirements.
It is important that these studies, along with
others, be given the attention needed at the appro-
priate times throughout the life of a facility.
References
[1] IEEE Recommended Practice for Power Systems Analysis, IEEE
Std. 399, 1990.
[2] IEEE Recommended Practice for Electric Power Distribution for
Industrial Plants, IEEE Std. 141, 1993.
[3] D. L. Beeman, Ed, Industrial Power Systems Handbook. New
York: McGraw-Hill, 1955.
[4] J.L. Blackburn, Protective Relaying Principles and Applications.
New York: Marcel Dekker, 1987.
[5] IEEE Recommended Practice for Protection and Coordination of
Industrial and Commercial Power Systems, IEEE Std. 242,
1986.
[6] IEEE Recommended Practices for Harmonic Control in Electric
Power Systems, IEEE Std. 519, 1992.
[7] C.K. Duffey, “ESA’s Practical Guide To Power System Har-
monics,” ESA seminar notes.
[8] R.H. McFadden, “Power-System Analysis: What It Can Do
for Industrial Plants,” IEEE Trans. Ind. Applicat., Mar./Apr.
1971.