Relationship between extrinsic stacking faults and

mechanical twinning in F.C.C. solid solutions with low

stacking fault energy
J.F.M. Vergnol, J.R. Grilhe

To cite this version:

J.F.M. Vergnol, J.R. Grilhe. Relationship between extrinsic stacking faults and mechanical twinning in
F.C.C. solid solutions with low stacking fault energy. Journal de Physique, 1984, 45 (9), pp.1479-1490.
�10.1051/jphys:019840045090147900�. �jpa-00209887�

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Submitted on 1 Jan 1984

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 J. Physique 45 (1984) 1479-1490 SEPTEMBRE 1984, 1479

Classification
Physics Abstracts
62.20F

Relationship between extrinsic stacking faults and mechanical twinning

in F.C.C. solid solutions with low stacking fault energy
J. F. M. Vergnol and J. R. Grilhe
Laboratoire de Métallurgie Physique (*), 40, avenue du Recteur Pineau, 86022 Poitiers, France

(Reçu le 18 janvier 1984, accepti le 12 avril 1984)

Résumé. 2014 Une analyse détaillée de la nucléation et de la croissance des macles, applicable aux matériaux C.F.C.
à basse énergie de défaut 03B3, aboutit à la conclusion suivante : la nucléation des macles n’est possible que si des
conditions déterminées, relatives à l’orientation, au sens de la contrainte appliquée, au taux de déformation, sont
satisfaites. L’étude de ces conditions et de leur interdépendance montre que le maclage mécanique est gouverné
par la nucléation et le développement de défauts d’empilement de nature extrinsèque. Le calcul de l’énergie néces-
saire à la nucléation des macles aboutit à une relation quantitative entre la taille des macles et l’énergie de défaut.
L’analyse est effectuée dans le cas où l’axe de traction (ou de compression) est [100] ou [111]. Les hypothèses sont
en bon accord avec les résultats expérimentaux relatifs à de nombreuses solutions solides C.F.C.

Abstract. A detailed analysis of twin nucleation and growth is performed for the case of face-centred cubic
2014

materials with low stacking fault energy 03B3. It is found that twin nucleation may occur only if certain conditions
concerning the crystallographic orientation, sign of the applied stress and deformation level, are satisfied. Each
of these conditions is analysed ; their interdependence leads to the conclusion that the occurrence of twinning is
controlled by the nucleation and the growth of extrinsic stacking faults. This analysis concentrates on cases where
the tensile (or compressive) axis is either [100] or [111]. The discussion of the energy of twin nucleation leads to
a quantitative relation between twin size and stacking fault energy 03B3. These assumptions are in good agreement
with experimental data on many face-centred cubic solutions.

1. Introduction. detailed analysis of the conditions which allow the

From the first theoretical analysis of twin nucleation
in face-centred cubic materials by Cottrell and Bilby
[1], mechanical twinning was considered as being
improbable, because of geometrical reasons deduced
from the crystallography of this structure. However,
after the first identification of deformation twins in
single crystal copper (Blewitt, Coltman and Redman
[2]), many experimental observations have shown that
mechanical twinning is quite possible in face-centred
cubic metals or alloys, if their stacking fault energy y
nucleation and the growth of mechanical twins,
without any hypothesis about the different possible
mechanisms which may produce the twin nucleus.
Starting from experimental data on single crystal
copper alloys which have been subject to stress under
widely varying conditions (Vergnol and Villain, [5];
Vergnol [6]) and following a scheme previously sug-
gested (Fontaine [7]), we have divided the twinning
mechanism into three stages :
-

development of an initial large stacking fault,

is low enough (Venables, [3]).
-

nucleation of a microtwin by superposition of

But twinning mechanisms are not yet completely extended faults in the neighbouring planes,
-

extension of this nucleus by propagation of the

understood, and many experimental results differ from
the theoretical predictions of Mahajan and Williams
[4]. Various aspects of twin nucleation, the kinetics of
twin propagation, the critical shear stress for twinning
and the relation between slip and twinning during
deformation are still under discussion.
twin boundary through the strained material.
We have analysed the nature of the faults (intrinsic
or extrinsic) induced by deformation in relation to
three variables :
-

crystallographic direction of the applied stress,

The purpose of the present work is to provide a -

sign of the stress (tension or compression),

-

origin of the partial dislocations bounding the

(*) L.A. 131 du C.N.R.S. faults.

Article published online by EDP Sciences and available at http://dx.doi.org/10.1051/jphys:019840045090147900

1480
Thus, we have computed the energy required to
nucleate a twin, which varies with the nature of the
stacking faults. This computation indicates that the
nucleation and then the growth of twins is favoured
or impeded by the nature of the faults which are formed
with increasing strain.
Finally, we have compared the conclusions of this
analysis with experimental data, especially our data
for Cu-Al alloys.
2. Formation and growth of an extended stacking faults
Any perfect dislocation with Burgers vector b may be
dissociated into two partials, for example two Shockley
partials b1 and b2. The applied stress a generally
exerts on the partials two different forces which deter-
mine the sense of displacement of each dislocation and
consequently the nature of the stacking fault ribbon.
Moreover, for low enough values of S.F.E. y, the
width of this ribbon may increase enough to reach
values giving an extended fault bounded by indepen-
dent partial dislocations. The density of independent
partial dislocations and therefore the density of extend-
ed faults increases with the strain. This facilitates
different mechanisms of twin nucleation. We have
examined the possible configurations for tensile and
compressive stresses applied along 1 1 1 > and 100 ),
which are two stable crystallographic directions.
2.1 APPLIED STRESS ALONG A 111 > DIRECTION. -
Referring to the Thompson tetrahedron of figure 1 a,
the glide planes are (a), (b) and (c) for perfect dislo-
cations with Burgers vectors AD, BD and CD.
2.1.1 Tensile applied stress.
a) Dissociated dislocations gliding freely in their
slip plane. Let us consider the dislocation loop BD
after dissociation :
the resultant forces on the partials per unit length are
and 1 b) :
(Fig. 1 a,
Fig. 1. Glide planes and dissociated dislocations with a
-
tensile stress in the ( 111 ) direction, referring to the Thomp-
son tetrahedron.
We note that the two partials aD and Ba glide in
the same direction. The tensile stress a makes the
diameter of the dislocation loop BD increase with
stress.
The leading partial is aD, because faD 2fB., and
=
behind is formed a ribbon of intrinsic fault, but the
stacking fault is removed by the partial Ba.
b) Reaction junction in a glide plane.
For example, such a reaction may occur between
BD (a) and CD (a) dislocation loops dissociated in
the glide plane (a) :
The two underlined leading partials are attractive
because they have the same Burgers vector and oppo-
site sign (Fig. 2b). After their annihilation, the intrinsic
fault surface is delimited by the partial dislocations
Bat and Ca which are repulsive, but the applied stress
a exerts opposite forces on them. Hence, a reaction
is possible, either for a sufficient value of a, or with
thermal activation (we note that the energy required
to temporarily form the perfect dislocation BC(a) by
recombination is the same as the energy for cross-
slip) :
where a is the lattice parameter. The applied stress a
has no effect on the perfect dislocation BC(a), but it
exerts opposite forces on the partials Boc and Ca which
bind an extrinsic fault Moreover, these partials are
repulsive and each of them can react with the internal
partial of the initial loop (Fig. 2, stages d and e) to
give a new partial aD.
Fig. 2. Reaction between two dislocations initially dis-
-
sociated in a type (a) plane. An extrinsic fault takes place
by dissociation of the junction dislocation BC.
 1481

Hence, the final configuration resulting from a

junction reaction in a glide plane is a ring of intrinsic
faults surrounding a large area of extrinsic stacking
faults which widens with increasing applied stress
(Fig. 2, stage f).
c) Reaction on the intersection of two glide planes.
Two kinds of reaction may occur, resulting in the
nucleation of an extrinsic fault
The first possibility, for example between type (a)
and (b) glide planes, leads to an extrinsic stacking
fault in a type (a) plane.
The following reactions (with the two leading partial
dislocations underlined) are consistent with figure 3 :

The leading partial dislocations aD and DB are

attractive and their reaction gives rise to the stair-rod
czp (Fig. 3b). This stair-rod, repulsive for the partial Fig. 3. Reaction on the intersection of type (a) and type
-

dislocation Ba but attractive for the partial RC, reacts (b) slip planes with a tensile stress in the 111 > direction.
with the latter and gives the partial dislocation aC.
Hence, we find again the previous configuration
with two repulsive Shockley dislocations on both sides
of an intrinsic fault By recombination, they may
reverse their mutual positions (Fig. 3d) and give rise
to an extrinsic fault which extends with increasing a :

As previously, the last recombination stage needs an

activation energy.
The second possibility results in the formation of a
Cottrell barrier between type (a) and (b) glide planes
(Fig. 4, stage a). However, such barriers may be des-
troyed, either by the action of dislocations piled-up
in glide planes behind the barrier, or by thermal acti-
vation, as in the reaction (2) :

Figures 4b and 4c summarize the two possibilities

which result in the extension of two « half loops » of
extrinsic fault in the initial glide planes. In the first
case, the Frank dislocation BB lying along the line CD
of the Thompson tetrahedron, is sessile and gives rise,
by dissociation, to a first extrinsic fault surface deli-
mited by the Shockley partial Ba (Fig. 4b), then to a
second one by a similar dissociation of the Frank
partial aA.
The second possibility is the recombination of the
perfect dislocation BA, which, by dissociation, gives
the same configuration as previously.
We note that the energy needed for reaction (2) is Fig. 4. -

Formation of « half-loops >> of stacking faults

a2/18 whereas it is a2/12 for reaction (1). Thus, it is from a Cottrell barrier, with a tensile stress in the ( 111 >
easier to destroy a Cottrell barrier than to form a direction. After stage a, two possible different reactions lead
perfect dislocation from two Shockley dislocations, to the same final configuration.
1482
and such destructions are more likely to occur. Finally
it appears that a tensile stress applied in the ( 111 )
direction gives rise to intrinsic faults in the initial stage
of deformation. But as soon as these faults grow, all
the interactions between them nucleate extrinsic faults
which extend easily with increasing tensile stress.
2.1.2 Compressive stress. -
When the sign of the
applied stress is reversed, the resultant forces on the
perfect and partial dislocations are also reversed This
means that the partial dislocations are exchanged in
any dissociation, and consequently the stacking faults
formed are of opposite nature. From this evidence,
it is easy to show that, in every case, the previous
conclusions for elongation tests must be reversed for
the case of compression tests.
Consequently, a compression test in the ( 111 ) cylinder.
direction gives rise to extrinsic faults in the first stage
of deformation, and reactions between these faults
nucleate intrinsic faults which extend with increasing
applied stress.
2.2 APPLIED STRESS IN THE ( 100 > DIRECTION.
As for the ( 111 ) direction whe have made a detailed
analysis which is summarized here. The detailed reac-
tions and figures are given in appendix 1.
2 . 2 .1 Tensile stress.
1. Dissociated dislocations gliding freely in their
planes : the two Schockley partials move in the same
direction with a narrow ribbon of extrinsic fault
between them.
2. Junction reaction in a glide plane : this results
in the nucleation of an intrinsic fault which grows
with increasing stress.
3. Reaction on the intersection of two glide planes :
we have shown that if only one dislocation is not
dissociated, or has been recombined, this results i4
the nucleation of an intrinsic fault
2.2.2 Compressive stress. -For the same reasons
as given previously, the above conclusions are reversed,
i.e. compressive stress develops extrinsic faults.
2.3 CoNCLUSION. -
The nature of the stacking faults
induced in F.C.C. crystals by an increasing applied
stress on ( 111 ) or 100 > directions is as follows :
1. Stress in the ( 111 ) direction :
-
initial faults nucleated at the beginning of the
deformation, before any interaction between gliding
dislocations, are :
+ intrinsic for a tensile test,
+ extrinsic for a compressive test,
these faults widen slowly with increasing stress;
-
in the next stages of the deformation, the reac-
tion either between coplanar dislocations, or on the
intersection of glide planes, gives rise to new faults;
for the most part, the nature of these is :
+ extrinsic for a tensile test,
+ intrinsic for a compressive test;
2. With ( 100 ) direction these conclusions are
reversed
3. Computation of the energy for twin nucleation
The following computation points out the influence
of the nature of stacking faults on twinning nucleation.
We consider an idealized twin with a cylindrical
shape. The planar surfaces are coherent boundaries,
for example two stacking faults in plane (a), that we
name twin « faces ». The cylindrical surface, named
twin « front », is composed of piled-up partials (as
B0153, Ca or Da) surrounding stacking faults. The crystal
is perfect inside and outside this cylinder, bounding
a twinned volume of matrix, and the energy stored is
in consequence localized only on the surface of this
3.1 STORED ENERGY ON THE TWIN FRONT. - We
consider stacking faults of the same nature (intrinsic
or extrinsic) on contiguous planes of type (a) sur-
rounded by partial dislocations (B0153, Ca or Da) piled-
-
up in a regular array. Three typical cases are possible :
1. Intrinsic faults bounded by identical sets of three
different partial dislocations.
This structure (Fig. 5a) is typical in recrystallised
materials. The stored energy is low because each
triplet gives equivalence with the perfect crystal :
2. Intrinsic faults bounded by identical partial dis-
locations.
This type of twin front (Fig. 5b) is promoted when
one slip system is activated by the applied stress. The
interactions between piled-up dislocations are at a
maximum, and the stored energy is proportional to
b2.
3. Intrinsic faults bounded by alternate partial dis-
locations. This last structure is possible with two slip
systems being activated The equivalent crystallo-
graphic configuration is given by extrinsic faults
piled-up at a distance of two planes, since we have
(Fig. 5c) :
We notice that (Fig. 5d) :
The energy of the dipole (b’, - b’) can be neglected
The partial dislocations b3 aD are equivalent to
=
imperfect dislocations with b" - 1 b 3 Burgers vector,
piled-up on contiguous planes, and the stored energy
is proportional to b2/4. Consequently, the stored
energy on the front of two identical twins is propor-
tional to :
b2 with intrinsic faults piled-up on contiguous
planes,
 1483

lbrce on the unit surface of a cylindrical nucleus with

radius r is :

In the following computation, we only consider the

energy stored at the front of the twin nucleus (for the
computation with the energy of the total surface, see
§ 3.3.1).
From previous results of Kroner [8] and de Wit [9],
we may write the energy of the twin front as follows :

where G and v are respectively the shear modulus and

the Poisson ratio, h the thickness of the twin, p the
density of dislocations (with Burgers vector b) on the
front of the twin. If this front is constituted of n piled-
up dislocations, we have p =
n/h and therefore :

The critical stress (J c is proportional to the back force

f2 on the unit length of dislocation at the front of the
twin, and this back force is J2 F/n, hence we may
=

write :

Fig. 5.-

Structure of a twin front composed of piled-up

dislocations on type (a) planes. Three typical arrangements
where A depends on the radius r.
If we neglect the energy of the dipoles (bi, - b’),
(a, b, c) of partial dislocations are drawn with two equivalent
possibilities for (c) arrangement. the configuration given by intrinsic faults piled-up on
contiguous planes is equivalent to that given by
extrinsic faults piled-up at a distance of two planes,
since each configuration is equivalent to dislocations
b2/4 with extrinsic faults piled-up on alternate with Burgers vector b/2 on contiguous planes (Fig. 5c).
planes, where b = b1I =b2 =b3 . Thus, the critical stress (J c does not depend on the
nature of the stacking faults building up the twin
Except for the configuration (5a) which is the most nucleus.
interesting but also the less probable with only one
or two glide planes, the last configuration is the one 3.2.2 Applied stress in the 111 > direction. -

which requires the least energy. The following computation may be applied both for
the cases of a compressive or a tensile stress in the
3.2 TOTAL ENERGY FOR TWIN NUCLEATION. The
-

( 111 ) direction.
final energy for the nucleation of a twin depends also Let us consider a twin on n contiguous planes. If
on the nature of the piled-up stacking faults. We shall it is composed of ni intrinsic faults bounded by, for
successively examine the cases for the 111 > and example, the same partials aD, we have ni n and =

100 ) directions. the formation of this twin under the applied stress a
At first we determine the critical stress for a twin induces a variation of length hi of the crystal, where
nucleus with extrinsic or intrinsic faults.
(Fig. 1) :
3 . 2 .1 Critical stress on the twin front. The critical
-

stress (Ie for the growth of a twin nucleus is reached

when equilibrium is achieved between the resolved The expended energy is :
force f i on the unit length of each dislocation loop
constituting the front of the nucleus, and the back
force f2 resulting from the energy stored on the sur- If the same twin is composed of ne extrinsic faults
face of the nucleus during its growth. This energy bounded by the same partials (Ba or Ca) we have
is equivalent to a surface tension E and the back now ne n/2, and with these ne faults, the changes
=
1484

in length he and energy We are : It appears that for the four cases considered (tension
and compression in the 111 ) and ( 100 ) directions)
twins are preferentially formed with extrinsic faults :
-

in the 111 ) direction because, for the same

expended energy, the critical size of the nucleus is more
But a’ D = 2 6 a’, and consequently : rapidly attained,
-

in the 100 ) direction because, for the same

twin size the energetic cost is lower.
The greatest probability for twinning occurrence
Thus, twinning on n planes induces a variation of the corresponds with the strain conditions which induces
extrinsic faults in the crystal. Table I summarizes
length which is four times smaller for extrinsic faults these conclusions.
as compared with intrinsic faults. Alternately, a defi-
nite change in length is induced by a twin four times
as thick if piled-up faults are extrinsic. We note that 3.3 MINIMIZATION OF THE ENERGY OF A TWIN NUCLEUS.
the expended energy is nearly the same for both cases, - Up to this point, we have compared twins which
because the energetic density on the twin front is four only differ by their thickness and the nature of their
times as small with extrinsic faults. constitutive stacking faults, and we took only into
As a result, the nature of the constitutive faults, in account twin front energy. We now compute the total
twins induced by an applied stress on the ( 111 > energy of a twin nucleus composed with extrinsic
direction, cannot be predicted from the consideration faults, according to the above conclusions.
of expended energy of twin growth. The minimization of this term will give the optimum
However, we note that the twin nuclei with extrinsic distribution of the total energy between the twin
faults will reach their critical size (for a critical stress front and the faces for each stage of the growth.
(J c) before the other nuclei, if we assume that this According to the hypothesis of Sumino [11], we consi-
critical size is not dependent on the nature of the der that this minimization determines the dynamic
faults. Since further growth of the « extrinsic .nuclei » equilibrium of the twins during deformation at cons-
tant strain rate.
may occur for stresses lower than a, (Friedel [10]),
it can be predicted that only twins composed of
extrinsic faults will appear during plastic strain in the 3.3.1 Qualitative features of the model. - Let us
consider a circular loop (radius r 1) of partial dislo-
I I I > direction. cation bounding an extrinsic fault (area Sl, S.F.E.y).
3.2.3 Applied stress in the 100 > direction. A
-

The dislocation loop energy is a function F(rl). The

similar analysis (see appendix 2) for two twins of the total energy Ei of the set « dislocation loop + stacking
same thickness, composed either of ni intrinsic faults, fault » may be written as :
or of ne n; j2 extrinsic faults, gives the following
=

relation between the change in length hi or h., and the

energy Wor W e :

Table I. -

Effect of a tensile or compressive stress o

applied in the 100 > or 111 > direction, on the nature
In consequence, the same energy W allows twinning of nucleated faults, and resulting twinning occurrence.
on n planes, either with ni = n intrinsic faults or

ne =
n/2 extrinsic faults, with the same change in
length h (for both tensile and compressive stresses).
But the energetic density on the twin front is four times
as low with extrinsic faults. Consequently, for plastic
strain in the 100 > direction, the expended energy
promotes twinning with extrinsic faults. For a different
reason this conclusion is the same as that with the
stress in the 111 > direction.

3.2.4 Conclusion concerning the occurrence of ’ twin-

ning. The energetic cost for the formation of a twin
-

nucleus was determined by the computation of two

typical parameters :
-

the energetic density on the twin front,

-

the thickness of the twin, connected to the shear

of the crystal.
 1485

The variation of sample in length, induced by the A moreaccurate computation (see appendix 3) based
growth of this loop is the same as that induced by n on previous results (de Wit [9]) leads to a relation
identical loops, coaxially piled-up, bounding a stack- which is nearly the same as that obtained with the
ing faults, with Sn S1/n and r.
of this twin
= =
r,l.,,In-.
The total above approximation :
energy En of
nucleus, composed these n
faults, is the energy of the two faces (with a surface
density y/2) and of the front :

Figure 7 shows the corresponding curves. The most

With a determined value rj, i.e. for a definite strain
of the crystal, the first and the second terms are res-
pectively decreasing and increasing functions of n.
Then En takes a minimum value EN for a definite value
N of n, as shown in figure 6.
3.3.2 The physical meaning and computation of N.
Influence of the S.F.E. y. From a mechanistic point
-
important feature of this result is that the critical
value N increases with y/G, i.e. with the S.F.E. y
(generally the modulus G does not vary very much
in comparison with y).
Consequently we expect a significant variation of
the thickness of twins when the S.F.E. y varies signi-
ficantly.
3. 3. 3 Conclusions concerning the energetic cost of the

twin nucleation. -

These conclusions may be summa-

of view, the growth of one extrinsic stacking fault S,
is exactly equivalent to the growth of n identical extrin-
sic fault loops, such as Si nS,,, for all possible values
=
of n. But the energetic cost varies with n and the most
favourable mechanism is realized when n N. Then,
=
starting from its critical size, determined by N, nucleus
twin growth takes place by simultaneous extension of
the N loops, each of them in its own glide plane.
The thickness of such a nucleus is 2 N d111, where
d 1111 is the distance between the { 111 } planes in the
F.C.C. structure. Then, assuming that :
we condense n partial dislocations b into one dislo-
cation (nb), and write, with G shear modulus :
rized in two points :
a) whatever the conditions of nucleation (sense and
direction of the applied stress a), the energetic density
of the twin front is a minimum when the piled-up
dislocations constituting this front delimit extrinsic
faults;
b) a definite shear may be related to a single twin,
formed by a number n of extrinsic faults which may
vary. The total energy of this twin is lowest when n
is equal to a definite value N which depends on the
material through the S.F.E. y, the modulus G, the
Burgers vector b. This value N increases with the
S.F.E. y. In the next paragraph, we compare these
theoretical predictions with different experimental
results.

With aEn/an =
0, we find :

Fig. 7. -

Computation of the energy En of a twin vs.

Fig. 6. -

Energy En of a twin nucleus vs. the number n number n of extrinsic stacking faults and stacking fault
of piled-up stacking faults. energy y.
1486

4.Comparison with experimental results.
Among the published results concerning the plastic
deformation of F.C.C. metals and solid solutions, a
brief review of those concerning the monocrystalline
materials with low stacking fault energy has been
made by Vergnol (1980). These results as well as our
set of data about Cu, Cu-Al and Cu-Si solid solutions
are in good agreement with the main points of the
above theoretical conclusions. This agreement bears
upon three main points which are : i) the relation
between the orientation of the crystal and the occur-
rence of twinning, ii) the role of junction dislocations
and iii) the relation between the S.F.E. y and the
thickness of twins within a strained material.
4.1 THE RELATION BETWEEN THE ORIENTATION OF THE
CRYSTAL, THE SIGN OF THE STRESS AND THE OCCURRENCE
OF TWINNING. Our tensile tests on Cu-Al over the
-
Tensile and compressive tests in various conditions,
with different materials, give satisfactory confirmation
of our above predictions (on Ag : Miura, Takamura
and Narita, [12] ; Narita and Takamura, [13] ; Ramas-
wami, Kocks and Chalmers, [14]. On Au : Nakada,
Kocks and Chalmers, [15]. On Cu : Takeuchi, [16].
On Cu Si : Nakayama, Ito and Mabuchi, [17]. On
Cu Ge : Mori, Fujita and Takemori, [18]).
4.2 THE R6LE OF JUNCTION DISLOCATIONS AND EXTRIN-
SIC FAULTS IN TWINNING. - Our set of results, as well
as others quoted above, show that whatever the
crystal orientation and the sign of the stress are when
twinning occurs, it always takes place after a severe
strain, and never before the end of stage II, i.e. never
before the formation and extensive dissociation of the
junction dislocations. Indeed, a high density of
broadened extrinsic faults is revealed by transmission

electron microscopy when twinning operates. Some

entire range of solid solution show that:
of these have been observed in stage II, after their
-

twinning always occurs on the 111 > direction, nucleation and before their extension (i.e. during
in a temperature range which depends on concentra- stage f in figure 2) as on micrograph of figure 8.
tion, In the same way, the importance of the junction
-

twinning never occurs on the 100 > direction. dislocations in relation with the microtwinning for

Fig. 8. Nucleation of an extrinsic stacking fault after reaction between two dissociated dislocations. This extrinsic fault
-

is bounded by two intrinsic faults in the same slip plane. This configuration agrees exactly with the stage f of figure 2.
 1487

Cu-Si solid solutions has been cleady shown by are dissociated at the first steps of deformation lead
Coujou, [19]. All these results tend to corroborate to the nucleation and the growth of extended stacking
the prominent part of junction dislocations in the faults ; most of them are :
nucleation of twins. -

extrinsic with tensile stress in the 111 >

direction or with compressive stress in the 100 >
4. 3 EXTENSION AND THICKNESS OF THE TWINS. -
In the model that we propose, a nucleus which has direction,
-

intrinsic when the above combinations are

reached its critical size gives a twin with the same
reversed.
thickness by a simultaneous extension of the disloca-
tion loops which form its front. Then, by an analysis of the crystallographic and
This model may explain the following experimental energetic conditions for twin nucleation and growth,
observations : we have shown that, whatever the strain conditions,
-

the very high speed of twin growth; -

the extrinsic stacking faults are always the most

-

the extension of the twin front as a whole, favourable for twinning occurrence,
without any variation of thickness. This was fre- -

when twinning occurs, the minimization of the

quently and clearly evidenced in our records of formation energy of the nucleus provides a relation
in situ tensile tests (Denanot, Vergnol and Villain, between its thickness, the stacking fault energy y and
[20]); the shear modulus G of the material. It is shown that
-

the increase of the mean thickness e of the
twins with the S.F.E. y of the material. These mean
values of e are quoted in table II, with corresponding
values of y/G.
The proportionality between e and (yIG)0.42 is
not exactly verified, but various phenomena may
explain the discrepancy (Vergnol, [6]).
Many other experimental results, more qualitative,
may be explained with our model; for instance the
the thickness of twins increases as (yIG)215.
The predictions which arise from this twin growth
model are in good agreement with our experimental
data on Cu-Al, over the whole range of solid solution,
as well as with other results on various face-centred
cubic crystals.
Further progress in this field implies :
-

improvement of our twinning model, taking

existence of only one twin system for low concen- into account the temperature (indeed twinning occurs
trations c of Al ( 10 % at) and two or three twin in a temperature range which depends on solute
systems for higher concentrations. Finally, we note concentration),
that our model for twin growth implies no particular -

more refined experiments using in situ tests to

hypothesis concerning the nucleation mechanism. confirm the influence of junction dislocations and of
extrinsic stacking faults in twinning mechanism.
5. Summary and conclusions.

Twinning appears as a deformation process which is L

likely to occur in parallel with slip during plastic Appendix
strain of face-centered cubic materials, with a medium
or low stacking fault energy y. We have successively APPLIED STRESS IN THE 100 > DIRECTION. The -

analysed the three stages resulting in the formation
of a twin.
At first, for the development of one large stacking
fault we have established that, in the particular case
of crystals strained in the 111 ) and 100 > direc-
tions, the reactions between the dislocations which
Table II.-
four planes of the Thompson tetrahedron are identi-
cally stressed, and the four edges are the Burgers
vectors of the perfect glissile dislocations. We examine
successively tensile and compressive stresses, as for
the 111 > direction.
1. Tensile applied stress.
A) Dissociated dislocation gliding freely (Fig. 9a)

Experimental values of the twin thickness e

and corresponding values of the quantity (yIG)0.42. Let us consider the dislocation loop AB(c) :

For the same reason as for the 111 > direction, the
resulting forces fAy and fYB per unit length on partial
dislocations are such that ::

Thus the leading partial dislocation is Ay and the

faulted ribbon is extrinsic.
1488

B) Reaction junction is a glide plane (Fig. 9a)

For example, the dislocation loops AB(c) and AD(c)
may react in three stages :
annihilation of the leading underlined
-

partial
dislocations,
-

formation of the perfect dislocation DB(c) by

reaction between the repulsive partial dislocations
yB and yD,
-

dissociation with formation of an intrinsic fault

delimited by the same dislocations as previously but
in reversed configurations.
The following reactions summarize these three Fig. 9. Reactions between dissociated dislocations with
-

stages : a tensile stress in the ( 100 > direction : a) in the same slip
plane (c); b) on the intersection of type (b) and type (c)
slip planes.

C) Reaction on the intersection of two glide planes

For example, dislocation loops AB(c) and AD(b) or ne nl2 extrinsic faults. Between the correspon-
=

may react as summarized in figure 9b. These dislo- dant thicknesses hiand h,, and the energies Wi and
,

cations are dissociated as follows : We respectively expended for the formation of these
twins with the same applied stress a in the ( 100 >
direction (Fig. 10) we have the following relations :

The leading partial dislocations (underlined) cannot

react, but are attractive. Hence, the Shockley BD can
be stopped and then recombined with the Shockley
AV to again give the perfect dislocation DA(b). A
reaction is easy between the attractive dislocations
DA and Ay :

The Shockley partials Dy and yB are repulsive, but

may reverse their positions by a temporary recombi-
nation as previously. Finally, an intrinsic fault is
formed easily and extends under increasing applied
stress.
We conclude that a tensile stress in the ( 100 >
direction produces extrinsic faults in the first stage
of deformation. But as soon as these faults grow,
their mutual interactions nucleate intrinsic faults
which extend with increasing stress.
2. Compressive stress.
When the sign of the applied stress is reversed, the
resultant forces on the partial dislocations are also
reversed Hence it is easy to show that the previous
conclusions for tensile stress must be also reversed.
Consequently, a compressive stress in the ( 100 >
direction nucleates at first intrinsic faults which react
to give rise to extrinsic faults which easily extend

Appendix 2.
With the previous notations, a twin on n contiguous Fig. 10. Thompson tetrahedron and applied stress along
-

planes may be composed with ni = n intrinsic faults, the 100 ) direction.

 1489

Appendix 3.
The purpose of this computation is to provide an analytical expression for the total energy of a set of n identical
dislocation loops, circular, glissile and coaxial, with a radius r,,
For two identical circular loops with the Burgers vector b, lying in two parallel planes, the mutual energy
H2 has been determined by de Wit [9] :

where K and E are the elliptic integrals of first and second kind respectively and with (Fig. 1) :

For n identical loops separated by a height h and building up a cylinder of height L, the energy H. is given by :

with

Now, we suppose that R > L > h. These restrictive conditions are in good agreement with many TEM obser-
vations.
Thus one can write :

It is well known that :

Fig. 11. -

Schematic configuration of two identical dislo-

cation loops with the same Burgers vector b.
1490

Therefore, H2 is reduced to :

where M depends only on G, band n.

Starting from this result, we can compute Hn by writing that the mutual energy of n loops is the amount
of mutual energies of all the loops considered as interacting pairs with increasing spacing taking successive
values equal to h, 2 h, 3 h... nh. Therefore, according to the hypothesis of the linear elasticity, H. is the sum
of (n - 1) terms :

The computation of the function F(n, r1) in the § 3. 3 .1 is achieved if we observe that R =
rn = rl n-1/2. Finally,
we find :

We have computed this relation for different values of the SFEy, and with rl lo’ A. This value corresponds
=

to one dislocation loop with a surface equal to the cross-section of our tensile specimen by a { 111 } slip plane.
Then the optimal value N is an increasing function of y, and the relation between N and y deduced from the
previous expression is given by equation (3) in section 3.3.2.

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