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JOB STRESS:
An Investigation o f the Impact o f Gender and Other Workplace Diversity Issues on the
Causes, Costs, Consequences, and Constructive Coping Strategies o f Job Stress

By
Pamela A. Kephart

A DISSERTATION

Submitted to
The Wayne Huizenga Graduate School o f Business and Entrepreneurship
Nova Southeastern University

in partial fulfillment of the requirements


for the degree of

DOCTOR OF BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION

2003

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UMI Number. 3083934

Copyright 2003 by
Kephart, Pamela A.

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A Dissertation
entitled

JOB STRESS:
An Investigation o f the Impact of Gender and Other Workplace Diversity Issues on the Causes.
Costs. Consequences, and Constructive Coping Strategies o f Job Stress

By

Pamela A. Kephart

We hereby certify that this Dissertation submitted by Pamela A. Kephart conforms to acceptable
standards, and as such is fully adequate in scope and quality. It is therefore approved as the
fulfillment of the Dissertation requirements for the degree o f Doctor of Business Administration.

Approved:

Dr. Barry Barnes


Chairperson

pf. Janet Jonjes


Committee member

Dr. Sabri
Committee member

Jones, D
, Schoolo usiness and Entrepreneurship

Nova Southeastern University


2003

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CERTIFICATION STATEMENT

I hereby certify that this paper constitutes my own product, that where the

language o f others is set forth, quotation marks so indicate, and that appropriate credit

given where I have used language, ideas, expressions or writings o f another.

Signed A
Pamela A. Kephart

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ABSTRACT

JOB STRESS:
An Investigation o f the Impact of Gender and Other Workplace Diversity Issues on the
Causes, Costs, Consequences, and Constructive Coping Strategies o f Job Stress

By

Pamela A. Kephart

This research study was designed to investigate the relationship o f the impact of
work-related stress and stressors on employees by testing for relationships between
demographic independent variables (i.e., age, ethnicity, gender, cross-cultural impact and
educational level) and utilization of Constructive Thinking (CT) as a job stress coping
strategy. The data for the study were provided by non-front line personnel employed by
multiple manufacturing firms in the U.S.A., Canada and United Kingdom. Epstein's
(1993) Constructive Thinking Inventory (CTI) and a personal demographic data sheet
were used to assess the hypothesized relationships. Data was compiled from 208
respondents.
The conclusions reached supported the research questions. The individual
employee demographic variables were found to be a basis for relating potential reactions
to workplace-induced stressors for particular Global scales or subscales for four of the
null hypothesis. This was for true for all scales when reviewing the relationship between
the cross-cultural impact demographic variable and the subscales and Global scale. It was
also shown that CT theory can provide a classification methodology for determining
which type o f coping strategy to employ once the relationship between the demographic
variable and the specific CTI subscale was statistically proven.

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

To my Chair Dr. Barry Barnes, thank you for spending the necessary hours and hours
getting through my head the difference between writing an excellent research study
dissertation and a “just getting done” one;

To my Committee members: The Doctors' Jones and Segal, words can not express the
level o f my appreciation for the time and effort you set aside to help me make my dream
come true;

To my peers in the D.B.A. program (especially PP and JG): without whose insight,
continual prodding, and on-going stories o f successful dissertation milestone completion.
I might not have had the internal fortitude to "reach the light at the end of a very, very
long tunnel”;

To my family: Greg, Jessica, Jennifer and Mom, without whose continued sacrifices and
support the realization o f this dream would not have been fulfilled, (Daughters of mine, if
I can do it so can you!);

To my father who died before I reached this goal, thank you for the Type-A genes you
passed on to me;

To my business associates and friends (especially JL): without whose participation in this
study and words o f encouragement, this author might not have been able to complete the
survey portion o f this process in a timely manner,

To the Lord above: Thank you for the gifts o f intelligence and perseverance;

I wish to express my deepest gratitude to all o f you—THANK YOU!!

MY DREAM HAS FINALLY, FINALLY BEEN REACHED!!

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

List o f Tables ix

List of Figures x

Chapter

1. INTRODUCTION 1

Background of theProblem 3
Statement of theProblem 6
Importance of the Topic 8
Current Research Strategies 10
Need for Further Research 12
Purpose o f the Study 14
Research Questions 15
Organization of this Research Study 1S

2. REVIEW OF LITERATURE 17

Introduction 17
Stress—Definitions, Classifications and other Research
Terms. 18
Work-Related Stress—Causes and Consequences 24
Stress Identification and Stress Management Modeling -
Current Empirical Instruments 37
Constructive Thinking Theory—Definition and Application
as a Potential Stress Coping Strategy 46
Diversity—Definition of and Impact o f Various Demo­
graphic Attributes In the Workplace 59
Gender—Demographic Attribute Definition in Relation
to Work-Related Stress 69
Wage Gap—Demographic Attribute Definition and
Impact to Work-Related Stress 81
Ethnicity—Demographic Attribute Definition and
Relationship to Work-Related Stress 85
Educational Levels—Demographic Attribute Definition
and Impact to Work-Related Stress 87
Age Segmentations—Demographic Attribute Definition
And Relationship to Work-Related Stress 94
Chapter Summary 100

VI

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3. DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY 103

Organization o f the Chapter 103


Population 103
Sample 104
Survey Instruments and Return Procedures 104
Measures 105
Design o f the Study and Development of Data Gathering
Instruments 106
Reliability and Validity 108
Research Questions 112
Working Hypotheses 112
Procedure 114
Analysis o f the Data and Strategy 115
Limitations 122
Chapter Summary 124

4. ANALYSIS AND PRESENTATION OF FINDINGS 125

Organization o f the Chapter 125


Design of the Study and Data Gathering Instruments 126
Sample 127
Demographic Measures 128
Data Analysis Procedures 130
Hypotheses and Statistical Finding 138
Chapter Summary 152

5. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 154

Organization o f the Chapter 154


Overview 154
Summary o f Survey Instruments 155
Restatement o f Research Questions 156
Hypotheses, Statistical Findings and Management
Implications/Uses 157
Limitations and Recommendations for Future Research 165
Research Study Conclusions 166

Appendix

A. Summary o f Constructive Thinking Inventory Scales and Associated


Scores 168

vii

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B. Instruction Cover Letter to Participants 171

C. Demographic Survey 173

D. Constructive Thinking Inventory Survey 175

E. Permission Statement to use CTI 183

F. SPSS detailed Data Results 186

REFERENCES CITED 236

BIBLIOGRAPHY 251

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LIST OF TABLES

Table Page

1. Summary o f Definitions 24

2. Time Famine— Who Knows Where the Time Goes? 35

3. Summary of Stress Identification and Management Measurement


Models 43

4. Ethnic % o f Working Women 86

5. Validity Scales 120

6. Descriptive Statistics - Variance of Mean & SD 133

7. Factor Analysis o f the CTI facets 136

8. Reliability o f the Internal Consistencies 138

9. Summary o f Hypotheses and Acceptance/Rejection Results 149

ix

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure Page

I. Expanded Model of Work Impact on Mental Distress 27

2. Frings’ Continuum 30

3. Stress Cycle 31

4. How Poor Constructive Thinking Leads to Physical Symptoms 52

5. Constructive Thinking Abilities versus Intellectual Intelligence


Over Age %

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CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

In real life, unlike a controlled laboratory situation, people do not all


experience the same objective sources of stress; instead they create stress
for themselves by the way they live. The overall result is that good
constructive thinkers experienced less stress in living, while at the same
time working harder, and exposing themselves to more challenging
situations (Epstein, 1998, p. 137).

This study will assess the application of constructive thinking (CT) theory as a

positive coping mechanism or strategy for dealing with job-related stressors (those factors

causing stress). This study will also investigate potential causal relationships between

demographic identifiers (i.e., diversity/ethnicity, gender, education, and age) and the

effectiveness of CT in dealing with a multitude of workplace induced stresses. The

proposition of this study is that a specific demographic attribute (e.g., male versus

female) will be shown to contribute to a higher CT score, and, therefore, respondents with

these specific attributes will be better able to cope with certain workplace stressors.

Changes in the workplace have fueled the need to investigate the impact o f job

stress created by workplace diversity issues, the aging population, and by women's

increased participation in the labor force (Keita & Hurrell, Jr., 19%). Everywhere one

turns there are reports on the implications and ramifications o f '‘stress" in the workplace,

in family life, and in the quality o f life. Occupational stress and workplace wellness have

become the focus of significant concern for labor, management, and the individual

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2

employee.

A review o f global data related to job stress reveal the following facts: The

National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSHA) in the U.S. (1988)

identified psychological disorders as one of the 10 leading work-related diseases;

Northwestern National Life Insurance Company (1991) reported that 13% o f its workers'

compensation claims involved stress-related disorders. This is a dramatic increase from

1982, when the rate was 6%. The International Labor Organization o f the United Nations

labeled “stress” as the disease of the 20th Century. It has been argued (Manz, 1999) that

stress from inner struggles and the multitude o f pressures in the workplace and home

cause even more health and psychological difficulties. The cost of "stress”-related issues

has been estimated at $200 billion annually in the United States alone.

Negative emotions have been found to escalate the negative impact o f stressors.

The ability to control one's automatic or inherent thoughts can also affect the control of

one's stress levels (Epstein, 1998). This is the basis of constructive thinking as a strategy

or technique for coping with stress. Constructive thinking (CT) has also been

demonstrated to underlie several important attributes necessary for success in the business

world. These “include thinking in ways that promote effective action, emotional

adjustment, and social competence” (Epstein, 1998, p. 101).

Landa (2001) reports evidence o f a strong connection between job stress, job

satisfaction, and job performance from his study done in Canada in 1999. The study

confirmed that over the past 10 years, businesses are finally recognizing this connection

to stress, burnout, and the workplace environment.

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The introduction to this study has attempted to lay a simple foundation for the

reader with regard to the types of stressors found in the workplace, their causes, and their

potential impact on businesses, be it in the areas of finance, personnel, productivity and

efficiency, interpersonal worker relationships, and so forth. With this foundation in

place, the next step is to consider some o f the circumstances behind the issue o f work-

related stress.

Background of the Problem

A number of economic and demographic trends have been identified as

contributing to this epidemic o f stress-related disorders (Keita & Hurrell, Jr.. 1996).

Specifically, diversity issues are significant in the United States culture. According to The

Kiplinger Letter, “the U.S. has more and larger minority groups than any other advanced

nation, totaling nearly 30% and rising steadily" (2001, p. 3). In 2001 the largest minority

groups in the United States were Hispanics at 12.5%. African-Americans at 12.3%. and

Asians at 3.6%. The majority population of other countries is much more homogeneous.

For example, in Japan 99% o f the population is Japanese; Canada is 89% European stock;

and Sweden’s population is 91% Swedes. According to Flowers (2001), gender roles (i.e.,

the increased number o f women in the workplace and their changing functions), along

with technological growth and increased global economic competition, as well as other

business practices, have forced companies to adapt to many changes in the workers'

social and economic reference points. Additionally, Fernandez (1999) suggests the

overall educational level o f the U.S. labor force has risen dramatically. As a result o f this

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socio-economic shift the fastest expanding sectors o f employment in the past few

decades have been in those areas that require higher levels of formal education (Sherman.

Bohiander, & Snell, 1998).

All o f the societal changes discussed above (Yoder. 1999; Miller, 1999) and in the

following paragraphs have the potential to create stress for the individual employee or a

specific group o f workers. For instance, an employee with 30 years seniority and a high

school education may experience stress if a college graduate with no work experience is

placed in a position similar to his or hers. This stress level and the impact on the

employee's daily job performance might be further magnified should the new hire

become the other employee's boss.

OSHA ranks stress as the number one problem for working women. Dear (199S)

says stress penetrates all occupational and income groups, and stress has been found to be

particularly acute for professional and managerial women in their 40s. According to

Cooper (2001), stress in the workplace is linked to the fundamentals of change, lack of

control, and higher workload levels.

Other aspects of the socio-economic changes mentioned above are also increasing

the likelihood o f stress-related difficulties in the workforce. The U.S. economy is no

longer dominated by either a predominately male workforce or manufacturing industries

(Fernandez, 1999). An ever-increasing number of workers are employed in service-

producing industries. The U.S. Department of Labor (1992) projects this sector of the

economy to be responsible for 94% o f the newly created positions between 1990 and

2005, with the service industry's total share of all jobs to reach 73% in 2005. This shift

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5

to a service-focused work force has a direct impact on the types of jobs available, the

types o f workers employed, and the overall characteristics of the workplace. Employees

in service industry jobs have been shown to be at an increased risk for psychological

disorders (Colligan, Smith, & Hurrell, Jr., 1977; Landy, 1992; Minirth, Hawkins, Meier.

& Flournoy, 1986), which can be directly related to stress.

Intensified international competition has led to the restructuring of many U. S.

corporations. According to Landy (1992) et al., this process, which can involve

downsizing, mergers, takeovers and bankruptcies, produces an uncertain work climate

that contributes to the creation of stress. In the United States and the United Kingdom.

Cooper (2001) reports the threat of recession and the movement toward short-term

contracts and part-time workers are business phenomena contributing to higher stress

levels.

How should one plan for the “once in a lifetime" stressors? Consider the impact

o f September 11,2001 on the United States. What is “reasonable” for employees to

expect from their employer under these circumstances? According to Nyberg (2001), on

a company-wide basis a single event of that magnitude can force the senior management

team into a crisis-management mode. Grief on an individual basis will have an impact

on the individual employee that may or may not be felt by others in the company. Three

months after the event, some employees were still “stressed” about having to fly. While

most employees work through this type o f stress in a relatively short period o f time (i.e.,

back to normal in a week for their day-to-day activities), there is still the potential

unforeseen stressor that will rear its ugly head at some future time. Nyberg (2001) also

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states that to ignore the circumstances often creates stress, anger and resentment. For

instance, following the September 11,2001 catastrophe, many companies have had to

initiate some flexibility regarding mandatory attendance policies for business-sponsored

meetings at locations that require the employee to travel. Again, employee stress levels

must be recognized, and a coping strategy implemented.

Given the many factors contributing to job-related stress, a means for reducing it

on the job could lead to improved worker productivity, fewer on-the-job accidents, and

an improved quality o f life for workers. Constructive thinking, as presented by Epstein

(1998), is one coping strategy that may aid in reducing job-related stress. Many of the

researchers cited in this study would agree with the following sentiments of two of their

fellow researchers. “There is little argument with the notion that workplace stress has

become a familiar workplace reality” (Landa, 2001, p. 12). “The workplace has been

identified as the greatest single source o f stress” (Dear, 1998, p. 40). Thus, once these

pervasive ramifications of stress in the workplace have been recognized, an effective

coping strategy can lead to many benefits for both employers and the workforce.

Statement o f the Problem

According to Tobias (1999), “every job comes with its own brand of stress. What

makes the stress unique, however, is the way each person perceives the cause of stress”

(p. 128). The negativity and tension that stress can cause in the workplace, or in the

performance of a particular job function, can be greatly reduced or controlled by

identifying and understanding how a positive or good constructive thinking (CT) style can

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7

reduce or eliminate the stressors within the employee's control. According to Epstein

(1998), what causes job stress in one person can be that “one thing” about the job that

would keep another person with a different CT style satisfied with the job.

A review of current popular and academic writings failed to identify an effective

plan to deal with workplace stressors that may be linked to specific demographic

attributes o f the employee. A repeatable, predictive model would allow an employer to

utilize an individual employee's identified demographic attributes to develop a proactive

plan to instruct the employee on how a good CT style would be most effective in dealing

with these work generated stressors.

Determining a positive or negative relationship between individual employees'

demographics (i.e., age, gender, educational level, etc.) and CT could also influence the

strategy one employs to cope with various stressors in the work environment. Research

to date (Keita & Hurrell, Jr.. 19%; Nelson & Hitt, 1992; Tobias 1999; Yang 1998) has

focused on various cause and effect scenarios among the employee, the workplace, stress

factors, and bumout. Again, no research model could be found linking specific

demographic attributes and a coping strategy, such as CT, to effectively manage

workplace stressors.

According to Epstein (1998), Landa (2001), and Tobias (1999), there are two keys

to converting the potential negative problems caused by stress into potential competitive

edge strengths. First, the employer must gain a better understanding of which

demographic variables might predict how an employee deals with job stressors.

Secondly, how effectively the employer offers assistance, based on the expected

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employee reaction to the stressor, can also become an opportunity to increase the firm's

competitive strength. Businesses will be able to more efficiently utilize one o f their most

important resources—human capital - if the management team proactively focuses time

and effort on dealing with these two sides o f the issue (Cooper, 2001; Dear, 1998; Keita

& Hurreil, Jr., 19%; Kiplinger, 2001; Landa. 2001; Martin, 2001).

Importance of the Topic

Many researchers and their various studies, including those being performed by

Girion (2000) and Osborn (2000), reiterate that the potential waste of human capital is an

issue that plagues organizations of all sizes and individuals from all walks o f life.

Businesses are more likely to feel an immense financial impact if they continue to ignore

this significant issue of job-related (or job-created) stress. The ability to measure or

predict how someone will potentially react to various types and levels of job stress in any

workplace becomes a cost savings opportunity that cannot be ignored.

The Kiplinger Letter o f September 7, 2001 reported 75% of workers do not feel

committed to their current organizations. Why is this an issue? According to Kiplinger.

employee turnover costs can consume a large percentage of firms' operating capital.

Treating workers equitably is an effective method for keeping them. A management

priority could be to identify and resolve the stressors thereby effectively enabling the

employer to retain the current workforce. This business practice could evolve further by

improving management communication techniques, encouraging workers to try new

things, helping employees in setting long-term career goals that coincide with the goals of

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9

the business, and so forth.

Companies’ losses caused by job stress can also be measured in other than strictly

financial terms. Studies by Martin (2001) have found that the likelihood of decreased job

performance exhibited by current employees was seven times higher for the depressed

employee compared to the 'only stressed' worker. Employees who have progressed from

a stressed to a depressed state, and are still employed, have doubled their absenteeism

rate. These human capital situations have far reaching consequences for all formal

organizations.

According to a 1997 study by Cooper (2001) in the United Kingdom, costs related

to stress induced issues were ten times higher than other business expenditures related to

industrial relations disputes. For the year 2000, these costs had escalated to $15.7 billion

or about $625 per employee. Cooper's (2001) study also established that stress-related

issues cause one in five employees to take time off from work and one in thirteen to

consult their personal physician about stress-related problems.

Studies by Dear (1998) in the United States have found stress to be a major

contributor to employee personal problems. Poor workplace morale, lack of

commitment, alcohol and drug abuse problems are also associated with stress. The

estimated cost to industry for these types o f stress instigated physician visits is calculated

to be between $200 billion and $300 billion a year in the U.S. alone.

Keita and Hurrell, Jr. (1996) report that one of the most significant and pressing

problems in the U.S. business environment is the negative impact on productivity,

absenteeism, turnover, and other health-related problems as a consequence of work-

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10

related stress. A 1991 study conducted by the U.S. NIOSHA estimated the cost of

disability payments and lost wages related to job stress at $15 billion. This number does

not include other health care costs and productivity losses related to the negative

consequences o f job-related stressors. Furthermore. Keita and Hurrell. Jr. (19%) found

that the greatest financial impact due to the long-term effect on individual workers'

overall mental and physical well-being has not been measured at this time so it cannot be

totally quantified in losses to the business financially or otherwise.

Current Research Strategies

According to Keita and Hurrell, Jr. (19%), current research strategies on

workplace stress can be broadly categorized and associated with one of two major

streams o f research. One body o f research focuses on defining stress and individual

employees' response mechanisms and necessary coping skills while the other stream of

research focuses on determining the causal link among demographic, economic or other

social characteristics of job-related stress.

Researchers, such as Amaro, Russo, and Johnson (1987) and others, are now

focusing on the relatively new area o f women's occupational health and stress. Much o f

the previous research in this area focuses on home-related and family-related issues for

women only, not the impact o f workplace interactions on the women's stress levels. A

number of researchers (Flowers, 2001; Jick & Mitz, 1985; Nelson & Hitt, 1992) are now

proposing that women not only experience the same workplace stressors as men but must

also deal with the additional strain relating to their entry into male-dominated and

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patriarchal organizations. Yang (1998) continues to expand this area o f research by

examining the types o f stress confronting working women from an international

perspective (i.e., cultural and/or cross-cultural impacts).

Similarly, demographic attribute studies and research addressing the issues of

aging are also scarce. Wooten. Sulzer, and Cornwell (1993) research in this area focuses

on stress-related effects o f the "older adult job loser." Among this type o f on-going

research are Staats, Partlo, Armstrong-Strassen and Plimpton's (1993) studies o f older

working widows and stress in their quality o f life. Huuhtaanen's (1993) current research

on aging is limited to the advantages of improving working conditions for older people

with regard to job-induced stressors. Why does one need to know of the particular stress

related to this segment o f the population? As this area of research is also still in its

infancy, the resulting impact on industries is not fully known. This area of study is

becoming a higher priority as there is an overall "graying" of the U.S. workforce, that is.

the average age of the American worker is higher and the older worker is staying in the

workforce longer than previous generations.

The impact o f different cultural and ethnic backgrounds can be found in the

themes o f research concerned with coping strategies, social support and the overall

relationship between workplace stress and the mental and physical well being o f the

individual worker. Bhagat, O'Driscoll, Babakus. Frey, Chokkar, Ninokumaar, et al.

(1992) centered their studies on the relative efficacies o f two styles of coping, either

problem-focused or emotion-focused. The population of the studies were gathered from

seven different countries, but the focus still remains on the individual employee and the

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extent to which he or she copes with organizational stressors. Research by Marsella

(1994) addresses some of the challenges to creating a harmonious workplace among

diverse beliefs and backgrounds. Again, Marsella's study spotlights coping mechanisms

employed by the specific individual.

Many challenges face today's corporate leaders. The findings o f The 2000 Global

Employee Relationship Report Benchmark Study (Landa, 2001) identified three primary

workplace issues challenging today's management team. They are employee morale,

employee recruitment/retention, and the impact of employee stress. The study concludes

that there is a strong connection between job satisfaction, job performance, and job stress.

Need for Further Research

The current literature on job stress clearly identifies two critical issues requiring

further research. One issue for further research is the financial and economic burden

placed on businesses today due to stress related factors. Job stress issues have become

invasive o f the day-to-day workings o f many organizations. Cooper et al (2001) stated

this considerable waste o f human capital and resulting financial costs must be addressed.

The staggering, still escalating, quantifiable costs to businesses due to stress/bum-out

require additional research. Dear (1998) and Landa (2001) both found, in their respective

studies, that research must identify ways o f either helping employees deal with stressors

or helping employers predict and positively influence the impact stress will have on their

workforce.

While many o f the studies on job stress attempt to find causal relationships among

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13

individual demographic variables, economic or societal changes, or position specific

stressors, this body of research is still in its infancy. The second issue requiring further

research is a lack of acceptance o f the results of this research (Keita & Hurrell, Jr. et al..

1996) as a basis to effect changes in how organizations identify, deal with, or even

acknowledge the impact of job stress on today’s employees.

The Kiplinger Letter (2002) states that American businesses are finally

recognizing inadequate education as a long-term labor problem. They quote statistics that

suggest there is a potential for less-educated workers, in the U.S., to become members of

entry-level worker groups. This is based on concern about the Hispanic youths who by

2008 will comprise the largest minority segment (13%) in the work force. Hispanic

youths have a still escalating high school dropout rate that is expected to reach 35-40% by

2010. This could cause a new set o f issues for human resource professionals and business

management teams. Will this cause new types or levels o f stress? Will these employees

be more susceptible to burnout due to their age or ethnic backgrounds? Or, will all job

stress issues stay constant in the workplace with no change to outcomes or methods of

achieving stress reduction in the workplace?

Business leaders must form strategies that can be implemented to minimize the

negative stress and maximize the positive stress. Landa’s ( 2001 ) studies state that

methods for addressing the problems o f ever increasing intangible costs (i.e., decreased

employee morale, the potential for remaining employees to decline into burnout levels

which would affect productivity, etc.), must also be included in future business initiated

research. Companies must have a way to address this human capital issue (Copper et al..

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14

2001 ) and still concentrate on all other areas o f resource management necessary to allow

the business to not only survive, but to thrive.

Cooper et al. (2001) reiterated this finding in their studies as to the reasons why

the impact of stress in the workplace cannot be ignored or disregarded. Without adequate

attention to the issue o f successfully utilizing its human capital resources, a company will

not thrive in today’s marketplace. Stress is being experienced globally without regard to

race, size of company, creed, earnings per share (EPS), gender, or religious affiliations.

According to Landa et al. (2001), these enormous tangible and intangible costs to the

business must be a high priority to be addressed and contained, as would any other

business expenditure o f this magnitude.

Purpose o f the Study

The purpose o f this study is to investigate and define some of the potential links

between demographic variables and constructive thinking (CT) as a coping mechanism

for job-related stress. According to Landa (2001), in order for an organization to achieve

maximum utilization of its workforce, the management team must recognize and address

the inferences gained from understanding the impact of work-induced stress and the

coping strategies necessary for employees to perform more efficiently. Identification of a

complete employee demographic profile could provide a basis from which a strategy,

such as encouraging good CT (Epstein, 1989,1993,1998), could be developed. This

would then enable the employee to apply successful coping mechanisms when work-

related stressors do occur in his or her daily work routine.

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15

The influence of gender on coping with workplace stressors will also be analyzed

in the current study. Gianakos (2000) is investigating the impact o f gender roles as

significant predictors o f coping mechanisms. If the employer knows the gender of the

employee and can predict an action, or reaction, to a “stressor’' in the workplace, then the

employer can diffuse or encourage the employee’s constructive thinking coping skills to

the benefit o f the firm and the advantage of other employees.

Research Questions

In order to investigate the relationship between job stress and individual employee

demographic (diversity/ethnicity, gender, education, and age) attributes, the current study

will seek to answer the following research questions:

1. Can individual employee demographic variables become the basis for

predicting potential reactions to workplace-induced stressors?

2. Does constructive thinking theory provide a classification methodology for

determining which type o f coping strategy employees could use for dealing

with work-induced stress?

Organization o f this Research Study

This research effort is divided into five chapters. Chapter 1 provides the

introduction to and background of the research problem. Also included is the importance

of the negative impact o f work-related stress on today’s business and current research

strategies. The statement o f the research problem (lack of a predictive model), purpose o f

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16

this study (define the links between specific demographic variables and the use of CT

coping strategies), and the research questions for further investigation are also specified.

A review o f the salient literature is presented in Chapter 2. The major areas of

research and literature review are focused on job stress and burnout, the core personality

theory (constructive thinking), employment/employee diversity/ethnicity concerns,

workplace-related gender issues including wage/earning gaps, and the potential impact of

the respondent's educational level and age. Chapter 2 closes with a concise summary that

merges the reviewed literature to the overall thrust of the dissertation research problem—

the limited research on the link between workplace demographic/diversity factors and CT

coping strategies for job stress reduction.

Chapter 3 describes the design and methodology of the study in order to provide a

basis from which to approach the research questions and analyze their statistical results.

This chapter also includes discussion of the survey instruments, and presents null and

alternative hypotheses for each relevant independent/dependent variable relationship.

The processes to be employed in data gathering, the statistical procedures to be utilized

for these analyses, and the generated results will also be presented.

Chapter 4 presents the statistical results of the analyses for each hypothesis. This

includes a brief summation as to why the relationships do or do not support the

alternative or null hypothesis.

Chapter 5 presents an overall study summary relevant to the original research

questions, as well as conclusions reached, implications arrived at, and recommendations

for further study generated by this literature review and statistical analysis.

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CHAPTER 2

REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE

Introduction

This research study is being undertaken to examine the link between job-related

stressors (Erickson & Ritter. 2001; Landa, 2001; Pihulyk, 2001; et al.) and the application

of constructive thinking theory (Epstein, 1990) as a coping mechanism. This research

will add to the body of current knowledge on this subject by investigating if any of the

employee demographic attributes reviewed affect this link. Companies searching for

ways to address the problem o f “stress” as it relates to costs and employee morale (Gold

&. Morton, 2001; Lee, 1997; Seligman, 2000) would be offered another methodology for

proactive identification and resolution. By gaining a better understanding of which

various work-related stressors might significantly impact demographic attributes and/or

how each segment of the workforce may react to specific workplace stressors, a potential

coping strategy can be proactively developed and implemented.

Chapter 2 will examine the literature relevant to the following areas o f research:

1. Terminology and definitions.

2. Work-related stress—causes and consequences.

3. Stressor identification and stress management modeling—current empirical

studies.

4. Constructive Thinking Theory—its application as a coping mechanism or


17

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18

strategy for workplace stress.

4. Diversity—from a demographic attributes perspective o f its impact on the

types o f stressors found in the workplace.

5. Summarize salient literature reviewed as it relates to the research questions, as

well as provide an introduction to Chapter 3.

The section on Diversity literature and research is further divided into the

subsections of: Gender. Wage Gap, Ethnicity, Educational Level, and Age Segmentation.

All are potential sources of work-related stress and stressors.

An in-depth review of literature, focusing on the common theorists and bodies of

knowledge relating to the research questions, was conducted. The overall research

questions are:

1. Can individual employee demographic variables become the basis for

predicting potential reactions to workplace-induced stressors?

2. Does constructive thinking theory provide a classification methodology for

determining which type o f coping strategy employees can use for dealing with

work-induced stress?

Stress—Definitions. Classifications and other Research Terms

Defining and identifying “stress" is the first step in understanding the

consequences of workplace stress. Many o f the definitions of stress come from the

mental and physical health sciences, as shown in the following section (Selye, 1956,

1976; Bruno, 1991; Herbert, 1997; Bowes, 1999; Wilkinson; 1991; Mason 2001).

As will be presented in more detail later, the terms of “stress," “burnout" and

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“depression” are defined in the order in which they appear as part of Frings' Stress

Continuum. An employee moving from one emotional state to another (stress to

burnout), and finally to a depressive mental and/or physical stale, will respond differently

to potential coping strategies. The cost o f “curing” the employee usually escalates the

farther to the right side of the continuum the employee is when help is finally sought or

offered. Therefore, when answering Research Question 2, identifying an affective coping

strategy, one must be aware o f the employee's current mental state.

The terms "stressors” and "coping process,” as they relate to this research, will

also be defined. Once again, these definitions are a mixture of mental health and

organizational behavioral science definitions.

“Stress” Defined

Stress is defined by Bruno (1991) as the rate o f wear and tear on an organism.

Selye, a Canadian physician, was an early explorer of the effects of stress on health. He

defined stress as the sum of all nonspecific changes caused by function or damage ( 1956,

1976). From his medical perspective, Selye suggests that the body responds to

physiological changes related to the "fight or flight” syndrome (1974). Bowes (1999)

concurs that the human body has been "hard-wired” throughout evolution to respond to

stress through a fight-or-flight response. She defines stress as external or internal

pressure to act. Bowes (1999) states that stress is "the body responding by activating a

complex system that produces an array o f hormones and neurotransmitters, which are

intended to help the heart and brain work better physiologically to meet the demand” (p.

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20

1233-1234).

Herbert (1997) defines stress as a general term that refers to any demand

(psychological or physical) that is outside the norm. Herbert states that stress usually

signals a disparity between what is optimal in a given situation and what actually exists.

Mason (2001) defines stress as reactions of the body to negative influences.

Mason further explains that his studies show “external stress may be positive or negative

(pleasure, challenge, divorce, work responsibilities)” (p. 316).

Wilkenson (1991) defines stress and further delineates it into four types. From a

general perspective, stress is defined as a “fashionable” term that denotes usually

disagreeable stimuli. Stress also encompasses the subjective, behavioral, and

physiological responses to the stimuli. The four main, overlapping types of stress are

segregated as: acute (e.g., an assault); sequential, with one event initiating others that

occur over some period of time (e.g., bereavement); chronic intermittent (e.g., conflicts

with neighbors); and chronic (e.g., being disabled).

Miller and Smerglia (1998) define stress as the individual's general feeling of

unease or upset in response to a traumatic life event and the accumulation of other,

concomitant problems or changes. They divide stress into two constructs: event stress

and added stress. Event (or primary) stress is defined as reactions that are directly related

to a stressful life event. Added (or coincidental contextual) stress is differentiated as the

result o f additional problems and changes that are occurring about the same time as the

primary event stress.

As part of their study on contemporary cognitive perspectives o f depression.

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Simons, Angell, Monroe, and Thase (1993) define stress in terms o f diathesis-stress

models. Diathesis is defined as a specific cognitive vulnerability. Stress is defined as a

specific negative life event Each of the models in the study are built on the basic notion

that depression occurs when diathesis interacts with stress.

According to Mason (2001), subtle, long-term stress can lead to mental or

physical illness requiring treatment to be neutralized. Lazarus (2000) agrees that this

point of long-term stress is when the individual may experience somatic illness and

maladaptive social or emotional behaviors. Bowes (1999) cautions that, over the long

term, one should think of the body behaving [to stress] like a rubber band: after each

stretch from stress, the body never quite returns to its original unstretched/unstressed

position. The longer the stress response is engaged, the more the body will be damaged.

Damage can be identified in the form of anger, depression, heart disease, immune system

dysfunction, etc. “In short, the early manifestations of distress are psychological, and the

later manifestations are physiological” (p. 1234).

“Burnout” Defined

Burnout is defined as high levels of continuous stress by Minirth et al. (1986).

Frings (2001) defines it as exhaustion of emotional or physical strength or motivation that

is usually the result o f prolonged stress or frustration. Grandey (2000) describes burnout

as the result o f an employee becoming overly emotionally involved in interactions with

employees and customers. This type of stress outcome is usually found in employees

working in help or service industries who have limited ways to replenish the emotional

resources that are being spent (Jackson, Schwab, & Schuler, 1986).

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22

“Depression” Defined

The clinical definition of depression is “a negative emotional state characterized

by sadness, self-doubt, and a loss of interest in daily living” (Bruno, 1991, p.93). While

work-related stress may be managed in the workplace by various coping strategies, most

forms o f clinical depression require medical intervention. This usually causes loss of

work time that can lead to stress on the remaining employees who have to fill-in for the

depressed colleague, and that also involves a financial cost to the company.

Depression is a negative emotional state characterized by sadness, self-doubt, and

a loss o f interest in daily living, according to Bruno (1991). Depression can be classified

as endogenous or exogenous. Endogenous depression is a depression that comes from

within the individual. It has no present known external cause. Exogenous depression is a

depression that arises from external causes. This type o f depression is also designated as

reactive depression.

Another way to segregate depression types is to classify them as either neurotic or

psychotic in nature (Bruno, 1991). People suffering from neurotic depression are still

able to maintain contact with reality and have a stable perception of time, space, and the

external world. For people suffering from psychotic depression, the individual has

impaired reality contact, including great mental confusion and possible delusions.

“Stressor” Defined

Anisman and Merali (1999) define the term stressor as a situation or event

appraised as being aversive, in that it elicits a stress response. This then taxes a person's

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23

physiological or psychological resources, as well as potentially provoking a subjective

state o f mental or physical tension. Stressors can be separated into two classifications—

psychogenic and/or neurogenic. Stressors of a purely psychological origin are called

psychogenic stressors. Neurogenic stressors usually involve a physical stimulus.

In addition, Anisman and Merali (1999) have segregated environmental stressors

as either systemic or processive. Processive stressors require appraisal of a situation

involving high-level cognitive processing of incoming sensory information. In contrast,

systemic stressors are of a physiological origin.

Simply defined, a stressor is an event that causes stress to the individual when he

or she appraises the demands as exceeding the resources (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984).

Herbert (1997) utilizes the definition o f stressor as an environmental event. Davison and

Neale (2001) concur with this definition and add that a stressor can be thought of as a

stimulus, whether positive or negative in nature.

“Coping Process” Defined

Herbert (1997) includes a definition of coping in his study of stress, the brain and

mental illness. “Coping is the process of recognizing, evaluating, and adapting to

persistent and adverse stress” (p. 369). Davison and Neale (2001) defined the concept of

coping as how people try to handle a problem or the emotion it produces. Lazarus and

Folkman (1984) identified two broad dimensions of coping: problem-focused coping and

emotion-focused coping. Problem-focused coping involves taking some sort of direct

action to solve the problem. Emotion-focused coping refers to the individual's efforts to

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24

reduce his or her negative emotional reaction to the stressor.

Table 1 is a summary of the operational definitions o f the terminology as used in

this research study.

Table 1

Summary o f Definitions

Term___________ Researcher Summary Definition

Stress Bowes, 1999; Herbert External or internal pressure to act or react

1997; Bruno, 1991; to positive or negative stimuli

and Mason, 2001

Burnout Minirth et al., 1986 High levels o f continuous stress

Depression Bruno, 1991 Negative emotional state characterized by

self-doubt, sadness, and loss of interest in

daily living

Stressor Bruno, 1991 Cause of the stress

Coping Strategy Herbert, 1997 Process of recognizing, evaluating, and

adapting to persistent stress

Work-related Stress—Causes and Consequences

Some of the researchers reviewed on work-related stress, further segregated stress

into two types: good and bad (Minirth et al., 1986). The “good" stress is also referred to

as “eustress.” This positive kind of stress is usually experienced at times o f happiness.

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25

fulfillment, or satisfaction. The “bad” stress, or “distress,” is usually the result of

excessive levels o f continuing, negative stress.

Cooper (2001) reiterates the statement that some amount of stress is necessary for

everyday living and, in lesser amounts, for learning and growth. To be an effective

employee or employer, the ability to better handle and manage these necessary life

stressors must be learned and practiced. Stressor is differentiated from stress by its

definition as a cause of stress. Stress is the effect (Bruno, 1991).

A 1999 study by the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health

(Atkinson, 2000) reports several aspects of work that generate stress when handled

improperly or inappropriately. They include task design (i.e., long hours, little sense of

control, heavy work loads), management style (i.e., inadequate communication and lack

of employees' participation in decision-making), and personal relationships (i.e.. little or

no support from co-workers/supervisors, inferior social environment). Increased stress

has also been associated with work roles (i.e.. uncertain or conflicting job expectations),

career concerns (i.e., job insecurity, lack of growth opportunities or internal

advancement), and environmental conditions (i.e., dangerous or unpleasant physical

surroundings).

Moses (1998) states, “an approach (to managing stress), no matter how well-

intentioned, concentrating exclusively on the individual is one that blames the victim” (p.

32). Her hypothesis is that the current level of workplace distress is not due to the

weakness o f the individual employees. Rather, her studies have shown workplace

distress to be the outcome o f a variety of social, economic, and demographic changes that

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26

affect one's work, and one's expectations of the benefits that should be derived from

work and career.

Figure 1 presents a flowchart that includes a list of potential work stressors and

shows the relationships between personal attributes, perception o f stress, and social and

personal coping resources and the final outcome, psychological response (i.e., symptoms

of mental distress). These sources o f work-related stressor groups reviewed in the

literature include intrinsic job conditions, intrinsic and extrinsic rewards, work attributes,

and extra-organizational obligations. For instance, under work attributes, the potential

work stressors o f pay classification or occupation, etc., are listed in Figure 1 and

discussed in the appropriate literature review subsection.

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27

Figure 1

Expanded Model o f Work Impact on Mental Distress

w» H P * W S P V

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T H PanapaonofJobSaaaa W S *"*— * 'K M O M .
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B. irPwmc and Extrinoe rtawanh M * ■-«• ^____ a


WL «OOiAfpioni
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Parcamad Ukathood of loamg Job HaaMi Locua of Conool
Parcapkon of VatuaMa SM s Parcapkon of CoMrol to
Pprom pd Cm v OMdoprani inAuanca Haakh
OpportM M i ToW Soaal Support Scala

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Numbar of Waakiy Work Hours
Wbrk Tanura (Sacunty)
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hflBMCvm wni rn osMwn wont m o MardM Status
O u M t OtoKgabont Numbarof CMdran
Protonot of Stoond Job Gandar

f ---------------------

From: JOB STRESS in a Changing Workforce, by Keita & Hurell, Jr., eds., 19%, p. 44.
Copyright by American Psychological Association, Washington D.C.

According to Kroeger and Thuesen (1992), stress also can be visualized as a bell

curve— the employee is at his or her best when moving up the curve, and is conversely

struggling with an overload of stress/bumout on the downsiide of the curve. At the peak.

stress creates a sense of being in control. At its ebb, lack of stress can create an apathy

that can be paralyzing.

Manifestations o f stress may vary. Kroeger and Thuesen (1992) differ from some

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28

o f the other theorists studied, in that they do not believe that stress directly causes specific

illnesses. They believe it will only heighten a predisposition or preexisting susceptibility.

Therefore, their solution is to make the individual employee more aware of his or her

personality tendencies, which forewarn one of the types o f mental minefields that may

contribute to a harmful level of stress for that employee.

Significance Principle

Carter and Underwood's studies (1998) emphasize what they term the

"significance principle" by outlining the causes and effects of anger in the workplace. In

many of their scenarios, the designation "stress” can be inserted for "anger.” Glomb's

(2002) research suggests that job stress and conflicts are a source o f workplace anger.

Job related outcomes of these situations, left untreated, could lead to workplace

aggression (i.e., "going postal” or "road rage”).

An example o f anger and/or stress is the occurrence of an employee feeling that he

or she is ignored (Carter & Underwood, 1998). Other examples o f work-created anger

and/or stress are the impact of a co-worker not following through on a job assignment, of

being unfairly criticized, and so forth. Just like stress, there are healthy and unhealthy

(i.e., good or bad), types of anger. The unhealthy angers can take the form of aggressive

expression. An example of this would be letting a person's bad temper overtake

reasoning. Or, an employee may suppress anger and pretend the stress doesn't exist.

Some employees have been found to deal with anger/stress in a passive-aggressive

manner, such as procrastination, withdrawing in punitive silence, or talking about another

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29

employee's negative traits behind his or her back. These are all issues that affect an

employee’s work productivity.

Carter and Underwood (1998) also believe that conflict is unavoidable "since any

gathering o f imperfect people with varying priorities will inevitably produce friction" (p.

111). Here the term "stress" can be substituted for "conflict" in the workplace. How an

individual responds to the conflicts, or job-induced stressors, will establish a reputation

for the employee that either enhances or diminishes opportunities for career advancement.

One’s overall success whether enhanced or diminished, will depend on how well the

employee has recognized these situations o f anger and/or stress, and how effectively he or

she has handled them while maintaining a focus on the welfare of the company. The

availability of an effective coping strategy would aid employees in their efforts to be more

productive (Carter & Underwood, 1998).

Continuous Job Stress can Lead to Burnout

One must also consider the impact o f continuous types/levels o f job-related stress.

Continuous job stress can potentially lead to job burnout (Minirth et al., 1986; Williams,

2001). Minirth et al. (1986) define burnout "as a loss of enthusiasm, energy, idealism,

perspective, and purpose. It can be viewed as a state of mental, physical, and spiritual

exhaustion brought on by continued stress" (p. 15).

Cycles o f Stress

Frings (2001) developed a continuum showing the connections among stress,

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30

burnout and depression (see Figure 2). Stress is at one end o f the continuum and

depression at the other end. Burnout is the condition that bridges stress to depression.

Prolonged stress has been shown to lead to burnout. Burnout has been shown to be a

major cause of depression.

Figure 2

Frings' Continuum

STRESS BURNOUT DEPRESSION

From: Answering Your Questions on Controlling Burnout, by C. Frings, 2001. Copyright


by Medical Laboratory Observer, 33 (1) by Nelson Publishing.

The individual employee moves from one level to the next if the previous stage

continues for prolonged periods without effective positive response by the individual.

Both the work environment and the employee's attitude must change to eliminate, or at

least decrease, the probability o f burnout and, finally, clinical depression (Frings. 2001).

Phillips (1995) describes the stress cycle in terms o f a 2 x 2 matrix (see Figure 3)

that contains the consequences to the employee o f experiencing one of the following four

types o f stress. The four types are healthy stress, unproductive stress, too little stress, and

unhealthy stress situtaions.

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31

Figure 3

Stress Cycle

STRESS CYCLE
Point of Chang*
Healthy ▲ Unproductive
Stress Stress
Efficiency Inefficiency
Fun Pressure
Productivity Concern
Positiveness Discomfort
ucnem em Alertness

•►Point of Chang*

Non-Productivity Exhaustion
Dullness Strain
Boredom Burnout
Apathy Illness
Laziness Death

Too Utde Unhealthy


Stress f Stress
ol Change

From: Controlling Your Emotions Before They Control You, by Phillips. 1995, p. 236.
Copyright by Harvest House Publishers, Eugene, Oregon.

Consequences of Burnout

According to Minirth et al. (1986), in some instances high levels of continuous

stress (i.e., burnout) may be the result o f unachievable expectations held by both bosses

and/or other employees who have worked with the employee over a long period of time

and seen him or her performing at these unsustainable levels. Most people can tolerate

acutely stressful periods for brief segments o f time if a break is forthcoming and the

employee is able to use it as a time to recharge his or her batteries. Workplace pressures

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32

and stressors will become less tolerable physically, mentally and emotionally if

experienced over long durations (Frings, 2001; Stein & Brier, 2001; Williams, 2001). If

left unaddressed, this stress can lead to burnout and possibly then to major depression and

other equally serious physical conditions.

Minirth et al. (1986) tell us that three major areas of burnout can be classified. As

burnout is the result of long-term stress, it is a potential issue that can impact employee

performance and be impacted by work-related situations (Minirth et al., 1986). These

overlapping classifications are mental, physical, and spiritual. Mental or emotional

burnout manifests itself as a feeling o f disillusionment or failure as an employee. Physical

burnout may manifest itself in the form o f physical ailments such as backaches, headaches,

ulcers, insomnia, high blood pressure, and so forth. Studies show that continued stress and

burnout can lead some employees to suffer heart attacks and strokes. The final

classification o f burnout occurs in one’s spiritual life. Individuals going through this type

o f stress/burnout often lose perspective and fail to recognize their own limitations. If the

stress is of lengthy duration, the individual may reach a crisis of spiritual beliefs (i.e., a

point o f wanting to “give up” on everything).

An extensive study by Zellers, Peirew, and Hochwarter (2000) indicates that the

consequences of job-related stress on both the company and the individual can be very

costly. This study found that specific dimensions of the individual's personality do

significantly and differentially impact the level to which any of the three components of

burnout (emotional exhaustion, diminished personal accomplishment, and

depersonalization) is experienced.

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33

“One o f the tragic paradoxes of burnout is that the people who tend to be the most

dedicated, devoted, committed, responsible, highly motivated, better-educated

enthusiastic, promising, and energetic suffer from burnout” (Minirth et al., 1986, p. 17).

This may be due to the employee holding idealistic and perfectionistic standards for

themselves. According to Stein and Brier (2001), the more competent the hard-working,

diligent, conscientious and successful person is at completing a task or job assignment

the more work the person will undertake.

Stated another way. there is little that can be done to eliminate most types o f job

stress, because most types of job stress are often beyond the employee's control (Kroeger

& Thuesen, 1992; Lush with Vredevelt 1992; Bushnell. 2001). There are ways the

employer may effectively minimize the effect o f job stressors for workers on an

individual level. This greatly decreases the number of employees “lost" to job burnout

and the associated cost for businesses to hire, replace, and/or train a new employee. Like

taxes, it [stress] comes with the paycheck (Lush with Vredevelt, 1992).

Stress is Apparent in all Types of Business

Minirth et al. (1986) believe that those employees working in the human services

fields have a greater susceptibility to stress and burnout. Reviews of Minirth et al.'s

patients' clinical records reveal an inordinate number o f people experiencing job burnout.

In these cases, many o f the patients choose to change jobs for a period of time. In the

majority o f these cases, the employee is moving away from a job or position in the human

services field to an occupation the employee perceives as less stressful.

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According to Minirth et al. (1986), another susceptible category comprises

employees described as Type-A personalities or “workaholics.” While some might

believe a “workaholic” work ethic is the best way to achieve workplace success, this type

o f personality has a greater potential for bumout. This subset o f employees (i.e..

workaholics), usually have four main characteristics in common: (a) a hectic schedule, (b)

an inability to say “no.” (c) a tendency toward frequent cardiac problems, and (d) an

orientation to exceptional (or extraordinary) achievement levels. The major drive of these

workaholic employees is a need to achieve control. This includes control of self, others,

circumstance, and one’s environment. Ninety percent of physicians and 75% of ministers

tested at the Minirth-Meier Clinic manifested these personality traits (Minirth et al..

1986).

Jamal and Baba (2001) further examined the relationship between Type-A

behavior and job stress. Conducting a study o f 420 Canadian teachers, in which they

examined the relationship between Type-A behavior, job performance, and employee

well being, Jamal and Baba found a positive correlation between Type-A behavior and

burnout, as well as turnover motivation. Type-A behavior is found to correspond

negatively to both work satisfaction and to a perception of the social support network.

Overwork can also cause work-related stress issues. Ammondson (2001) states

“The U.S. has surpassed Japan as the most overworked country in the industrialized

world” (p. 68). When compared with many other industrialized countries, U.S. workers

earn the least number o f vacation days. As a result of layoffs, the fewer remaining

employees have more work to accomplish in nearly every industry. This is leaving many

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35

employees feeling stressed to the point of burnout (Ammondson, 2001). Table 2 briefly

states some of the specific reasons why U.S. workers are experiencing increases in level

o f overwork.

Table 2

Time Famine— Who Knows Where the Time Goes?

* The average employed person now works an extra month a year compared with 25 years ago

(Schor, 1991); average yearly vacations and other paid absences decreased by 3 1/2 days over the

last decade.

* Thirty-six percent of workers experienced a health problem because of workplace stress

(Berger & Scrivener, 1995).

* Despite teleconferences and e-mails, business travel continues to increase. Business people

spent six more nights away in 1995 than the year before.

* Approximately two-thirds of working mothers and half of working fathers experience

unreasonably high stress levels (Dunberry & Higgins, 1996).

* The average working couple spends 20 minutes a day together.

* The average father talks to his child for 10 minutes a week.

* Americans have added nine hours of work to their workweek.

* The average worker today produces about 30% more goods or services than he or she did a

generation ago, with less take-home pay, less job security, and dimmer future prospects.

From: Career Intelligence, by Moses, 1998, p. 79-80. Copyright by Berrett-Koehler


Publishers, Inc. San Francisco, CA.

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36

Bushnell (2001 and Moses (1998) argue organizations need to understand that

their long-term survival depends on how they manage their employees. According to

Moses, “The stresses people are experiencing in organizations today are simply

untenable, from the point o f view of the individual well-being and long-term

organizational effectiveness" (p. 202).

According to Wojcik (2001), many companies do not take the responsibility for

their part in creating stress and stressors. Instead o f identifying and managing stress as a

form o f organizational risk management, the organization labels stress as a health-related

issue, and delegates it to the human resource department. Connelly (2001) suggests the

lack o f an effective stress management program can be very costly to any company.

According to the American Institute of Stress, nine out of ten job-stress suits are settled in

favor o f the employee. The average payout in these cases is usually four times that of

regular work-related injury claims. In 1998, it was estimated that stress accounted for

20% o f the direct costs associated with work stoppages and strikes, high job turnover, and

absenteeism in U.S. industries. This equates to a cost to companies o f more than $150

billion annually according to The Medical and Healthcare Marketplace Guide (1999).

Companies that participated in the 2001 Safety Management & Salary Survey

ranked their handling o f workplace stress dead last out of 22 safety and health issues.

Few companies were found to be immune from this “let's not worry about it now"

mentality. Yet surveys o f the health and safety representatives of some o f these same

companies found that occupational stress was a major concern by the employees. More

than 68% of those surveyed identified stress as one o f the top five concerns (Reed, 2001).

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Just as each type o f personality interprets and reacts differently to stress, so do

some individuals create their own stressors (Pihulyk, 2001). Reiterating the statement in

Chapter 1 by Kroeger and Thuesen (1992), that a negative stressor to one employee may

be interpreted as a challenge, or positive opportunity, by another employee.

Stress Identification and Stress Management Modeling—Current Empirical Instruments

This portion of the literature review is related to stress identification and

management testing and modeling applications. The reviews o f these models were

performed in an attempt to further define and explain the causal relationship between

stressors and individual and/or group outcomes, be they psychological and/or

environmental in nature. Ten of the measurement models found in the literature on stress

identification and management included:

1. Derogatis Stress Profile (Derogates, 1986).

2. PERSONALYSIS (Noland, 1986).

3. Collection of tests from Understanding and Managing Stress (Adams. 1989).

4. Stress Indicator and Health Planner (Faulkner & Anderson, 1993).

5. BarOn Emotional Quotient Inventory (Bar-On, 1997).

6. Stress Analysis System (Nelson, Schmidt, & Nelson, 1985).

7. Stress Management Questionnaire (Peterson, 1987).

8. People Performance Profile (Crosby, Scherer. & Crosby, 1985).

9. Personal Stress Assessment Inventory (Kindler, 1993).

10. Constructive Thinking Inventory (Epstein. 1986).

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See Table 3 at the end o f this section for a summary o f these stress measurement and

management models.

Stress Identification and Management Model Overviews

Derogatis Stress Profile (DSP)

The Derogatis Stress Profile (DSP) is designed to assess and represent stress at

three distinct but related levels of measurement (Derogatis. 1986). It is based on Lazarus'

(1984) interactional model o f stress, and includes the impact o f environmental events,

aspects of emotional response, and the individual's personality. The results of the

Derogatis-developed survey form a tri-level hierarchical profile of individual subscales,

primary domains, and global scores that should define the participant's overall stress

experience. Derogatis recommends that the best usage o f this model lies with health

professionals. The DSP model has been found to be a useful screening tool to determine

who might benefit from stress management interventions, as well as an outcome

assessment method for the effective use of such types o f interventions.

PERSONAL YSIS

In 1986, Noland presented his stress management model that measures individual

differences in personality characteristics and their relationship to stress. Individuals or

groups can use this self-report instrument, PERSONALYSIS. Noland based this model

on a combination o f a transactional analysis model and a Jungian four-quadrant model.

The model examines a wide range of on-the-job behaviors, including stress management.

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39

The reliability and validity of the model in its totality supports its use in many work and

family situations. The model does not have the same levels o f reliability and validity

when focused on an individual personality characteristic or its' differences.

Understanding and Managing Stress

This stress identification and management model is a collection o f self­

administered, self-scored tests that assess stress levels and health-related behaviors. It

was developed by Adams (1989) as part o f his book, Understanding and Managing

Stress. A continuum of risk scores is assigned for each o f 22 stress areas. They provide a

personal profile that offers insight into the current stress levels the individual is

experiencing, the job and lifestyle factors contributing to these stress levels, and also

suggests strategies for reducing unacceptable stress levels.

Stress Indicator and Health Planner (SIHP)

The Stress Indicator and Health Planner (SIHP) was developed by Faulkner and

Anderson (1993). This model identifies present health practices and problem areas, and

offers a plan for improved health, productivity and overall well-being. It is usually

administered to a group as a self-assessment and planning tool for managing stress.

Faulkner and Anderson recommend a trained psychologist interpret the results in order to

maximize the impact o f the SIHP model.

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BarOn Emotional Quotient Inventory (EQ-0

The BarOn EQ-i was developed by Bar-On (1997) to assess an individual's level

of emotional intelligence. The BarOn EQ-i measures 21 content areas, including Stress

Management EQ and a Stress Management sub-scale comprised o f stress tolerance and

impulse control components. Bar-On recommends that the instrument be utilized as part

of a comprehensive evaluation, although the popular literature on emotional intelligence

indicates application in a variety of business, educational, treatment, and/or medical

settings.

Stress Analysis System (SAS)

Nelson, Schmidt and Nelson (1985) published their SAS model to help identify

possible sources of negative stress in one's life and to help recognize the symptoms o f

stress. The SAS test package includes information and recommendations on stress

management techniques. The results of this self-administered, self-scored test provide

techniques for modifying the participant's reactions to negative stressors. The six areas

o f stress measured are Type “A" Controller personality, Anger-In Personality. Corollary

Health Habits, Low Accountability-Victim Syndrome, Situational Stress and Life

Readjustments, and Interpersonal Stress—all defined from a negative stressor

perspective.

Stress Management Questionnaire (SMQ)

The current version of the SMQ was finalized in 1987 by its author Peterson. It is

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41

a broad-based system of measures aimed at identifying how the subject responds to life

stressors and copes with stress. The current form of the SMQ includes seven stress-

coping skills subscales. These subscales cover a variety of cognitive/behavioral

assumptions relating to Hostility, Perfectionism, Disappointment, Negative Mood,

Relaxation, Under Achievement, and Time-Orientation. If a subject is found to score

“high” in any o f the seven subscales, the Stress Management Guide provides suggestions

for modifying unhealthy behaviors. Peterson also developed a Companion Form of the

SMQ, which can be given to others to ascertain their perceptions o f the participant's life

situation and behaviors.

People Performance Profile (PPP)

The People Performance Profile (PPP), developed in 1985 by Crosby, Scherer and

Crosby, is utilized to determine how employees in a specific organization perceive their

organization, their work team, and themselves. The PPP requires participants to score

themselves on three major areas consisting o f 20 different dimensions or items that are

presumed to have an impact on productivity and employee satisfaction. The three major

focuses are Personal Performance, Organization Performance, and Work Team

Performance. The Organization-level section addresses factors such as planning,

management procedures, etc. Additionally, an organizational stress score is calculated

from the responses to the questions in this section. The Work Team section addresses

factors such as supervision, role clarity and group productivity. It is in the section of

Personal Performance that a score for personal stress management is calculated, as well

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42

as interpersonal support and time management. According to the author, this is the one

section o f the PPP that can be omitted and still be deemed a “good exploratory research"

instrument o f employee productivity and work-team effectiveness.

Personal Stress Assessment Inventory (PSAI)

Kindler developed the current version of the Personal Stress Assessment

Inventory (PSAI) in 1993. This model is also a self-assessment instrument designed to

identify those individuals who would most likely benefit horn participation in stress-

management training. The contents of PSAI items incorporate a number of the concepts

found in stress literature, particularly focusing on Type-A and life change ideas. The

PSAI is useful for alerting working individuals to possible sources of stress on the job. as

well as for use as a teaching tool for stress management program design.

Constructive Thinking Inventory

The final model considered was the Constructive Thinking Inventory (CTI).

Epstein developed the current version of this model in 1986. This model of stress

identification and management coping strategy is based on Epstein's Constructive

Thinking Theory. It contains 108 questions requiring the individual participant's self-

reported answers based on a five-point Likert scale ranging from “always” to “never.”

The CTI is intended to score the individual on six subscales and an overall Global Scale.

From these scores, the respondent is able to assess his or her experiential system

automatic thinking style that leads to identification of a successful coping strategy.

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Table 3

Summary o f Stress Identification and Management Measurement Models

Researcher 1 Year 1 Model N a« e W hat it Considers


Derogatis 1986 Derogatis Stress Profile Designed to assess and
(DSP) represent stress at three distinct
but related levels of
measurement
Noland 1986 PERSONAL YSIS Designed to measure individual
differences in personality
characteristics
Adams 1989 Understanding and Collection o f tests that assess
Managing Stress stress levels and health-related
behaviors
Faulkner and 1993 Stress Indicator and Health Identify participant’s present
Anderson Planner (SIHP) health practices and pinpoint
problem areas, along with a plan
for improving health,
productivity and overall well­
being
Bar-On 1997 BarOn Emotional Quotient Identify an individual's level of
Inventory (EQ-i) emotional intelligence
Nelson, 1985 Stress Analysis System Identify possible sources of
Schmidt, and (SAS) negative stress in one's life, and
Nelson the ability to recognize the
symptoms o f stress
Peterson 1987 Stress Management Identifying how the subject
Questionnaire (SMQ) responds to life stressors and
copes with stress
Crosby, Scherer 1985 People Performance Profile Utilized to determine how
and Crosby (PPP) employees in a specific
organization perceive their
organization, their work team,
and themselves
Kindler 1993 Personal Stress Assessment Designed to identify those
Inventory (PSAI) individuals who would most
likely benefit from participation
in stress-management training
Epstein 1986 Constructive Thinking Designed to measure the auto­
Inventory (CTI) matic thinking characteristics of
the experiential system

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Assessment o f the 10 Models Listed on Page 44 to the Current Research Questions

DSP: Given that the DSP is not concerned with the application of independent

variables (demographics) to a dependent variable (ability to cope with work-related

stressors), this model will not be utilized.

PERSONAL YSIS: A review o f the reliability and validity of this model indicates

utility in many arenas o f at-work situations, as well as family issues, but may not be

effective in addressing any one area. For this reason, this model will also be discounted as

a possible testing instrument for the causal relationships under investigation in this

research project.

Understanding and Managing Stress: Given that the suggested primary target for

this measurement model is organizational training and staff development, this collection

o f testing instruments will also be deemed not applicable to the current research project.

Stress Indicator and Health Planner (SIHP): The main application of SIHP is as

an aid to individuals trying to gain a better understanding of their health habits and stress

levels. As this is not the potential causal relationship hypothesized in the current research

project, this measurement model will also be deemed inappropriate.

BarOn Emotional Quotient Inventory (EQ-/): Due to the author's

recommendation that the EQ-i be utilized in conjunction with other evaluation

techniques, this model will also be rejected as a measurement instrument for this current

research project.

Stress Analysis System (SAS): This model focuses specifically on negative

sources o f stress, which is a more narrow definition of work-related stress than the current

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45

research study is undertaking. For this reason, this model will also be deemed

inappropriate.

Stress Management Questionnaire (SMQ): The SMQ does not deal with potential

causal relationships among stressors, demographic attributes and coping strategies. For

these reasons, it will not be considered appropriate for this research study either.

People Performance Profile (PPP): The fact that personal participants' profiles

are not intended to be returned, along with the constraints associated with having no

information on demographic attributes plus a total company versus employee focus, will

remove the PPP from consideration as a test/survey instrument for the current research

project.

Personal Stress Assessment Inventory (PSAI): As the PSAI is usually

administered as the first session of a three-session program, it will also be rejected as a

potential stress identification and management strategy model for this research project.

The final model under review—Constructive Thinking Inventory (CTI)—was

constructed to provide a measure of people's abilities to automatically think in ways that

are important for solving problems in everyday life at a minimum level of stress. This

model o f stressor identification and stress management coping strategies is based on

Epstein's theory o f Constructive Thinking (CT).

Stress Management Models Not Related to This Research

There are numerous other stress-identification and management measurement

models mentioned in various research studies. These models were discarded, after a brief

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46

review indicated that the intended use o f the models was not applicable to this research

project These models included evaluation-only instruments such as the Jenkins Activity

Survey (JAS). The JAS's current version was developed by Jenkins, Zyzanski and

Rosenmen (1979). As JAS addressed only measurement o f Type-A behavior, only one o f

many potential sources of work-related stressors, the JAS model and others with similar

single attribute scenarios were not considered.

Constructive Thinking Theory—Definition and Application as a Potential Stress Coping

Strategy

Epstein's (1990) study suggests that there are two dimensions of automatic

thinking: content and process. Content refers to specific components of an individual's

personal theory of reality (i.e., people are either generally trustworthy or not). Process

refers to how the system actually operates. Epstein (1991) illustrates these two variables

with the following examples. A statement like "When I fail a test. 1 feel that I'm a total

failure and that I will never amount to anything," is a poor response to both content and

process. The content is overly pessimistic, and the process is one o f gross over-

generalization. When the response is something like, "When I do well on a test, I feel I'm

a success and that I will succeed in any endeavor,” the content is positive but the process

is again an extreme overgeneralization. A constructive response for both statements

would be "When I fail a test, I realize it's only one test, and I learn from the experience

without getting upset.” This statement demonstrates positive content and positive

process.

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Manzo (1998) has developed a definition of constructive thinking that includes

critical thinking and creative intellectual processes. He defines constructive thinking as

“the composition and assembly of possible solutions, including some that need to be

invented” (p. 287). Constructive thinking, then, includes both critical and creative

processes.

Constructive thinking (CT) ability has been investigated in several environments

with various populations. These multiple studies all show a significant relationship

between constructive thinking ability and physical and mental health (Epstein, 1992;

Epstein & Katz, 1992; Hoyer. Averbeck, Heidenreich, Slangier. Pohlmann, & Rossler.

1998; Katz & Epstein, 1991; Park, Moore, Turner, & Adler, 1997; Scheuer & Epstein,

1997). Additional studies reveal that positive relationships have been exhibited between

constructive thinking ability and workplace relationships, as well as in social

relationships (Epstein, 1990, 1991; Epstein & Meier, 1989; Katz& Epstein, 1991).

Epstein (1986) developed what is now called the theory of constructive thinking

(CT). This theory is defined as the ability to solve everyday problems at a minimal cost

in stress, or the degree to which a person's automatic thinking facilitates problem solving

(Epstein, 1993). Epstein's findings support his belief that there are basically two forms of

intelligence, or two minds as Epstein describes it; the intelligence of the rational mind

which is what intelligence tests measure, and the intelligence of the experiential mind,

which accounts for both practical and emotional intelligence. Constructive thinking

assumes that there are individual differences in automatic thinking that exist along a

continuum from very constructive to very destructive. Since the intelligence o f the

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48

experiential system determines an individual's place along the constructive thinking

continuum, constructive thinking is sometimes referred to as practical intelligence

(Atwater, 1992; Stewart, 1998).

Psychologists have been increasingly interested in exploring coping-relevant

dispositions (Aspinwall & Taylor, 1992; Cohen & Lazarus, 1994; Krohne, 1993; Scheier.

Carver, & Bridges, 1994; Schwartz, Lerman. Miller, & Mansy, 1995). Park, Moore.

Turner, and Adler (1997) believe that increasing the knowledge base o f how personal

dispositions are related to adjustment to stress and coping may have important

implications in both clinical work and current transactional theories o f coping and stress.

Constructive thinking is one such potentially important coping-relevant strategy.

Epstein (1998) proffers the personality theory of “two minds." The *1wo minds"

theory is divided into the experiential mind system and the rational mind system. The

experiential system automatically operates rapidly and efficiently, and supports

immediate action from a holistic view. In contrast, the rational system is analytical,

deliberative, and effortful, operating primarily through language. The theory's relative

importance is primarily determined by emotional and situational variables (Epstein,

1998). For example, interpersonal events, such as leader and/or follower relationships,

would engage the experiential system, whereas solving a mathematical equation would

likely trigger the rational system. Epstein (1998) states further that the emotional

involvement and relevant past experience o f the individual would shift the balance of

influence in the direction of the experiential system.

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49

Constructive and Destructive Thinking Styles

In reality, even very intelligent people often think destructively, even recognize

that they do so, but have great difficulty in changing their thinking patterns. Thus, “it is

clear that intellective intelligence and constructive thinking refer to very different

problem-solving abilities” (Epstein, 1991. p. 172).

One of the laboratory studies conducted by Epstein and Katz (1998) evaluated

how “good” constructive thinkers, versus “bad” or “poor” constructive thinkers, reacted

to stress and feelings of anxiety. There was a sizeable difference in the number of self-

reported negative thoughts. Poor or bad constructive thinkers worried more and reported

feeling higher levels o f stress and anxiety during and after the experiment. “It is evident

that good and poor constructive thinkers, even when they share the same objective

environment, live, subjectively, continents apart” (Epstein, 1998, p. 137.)

Epstein and Katz (1992) performed other tests on college age students that

measured whether or not poor constructive thinkers bring on stressful experiences by

their own behavior. Two types of stressors were introduced: daily hassles that people

could contribute to or cause (i.e., not getting along with fellow workers), and events over

which the person almost certainly had no control (i.e., death of a pet). The results of this

study by Epstein and Katz (1992) supported their earlier finding that when stressful

events occurred in which the person had no control, good constructive thinkers

experienced these types of stressors as frequently as poor constructive thinkers did.

According to Epstein (1998), in those stressors where the participant had some

control, the reaction was very different. Most o f the stress the poor constructive thinkers

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50

experienced was a result of their own actions. They behaved in ways that brought about

the stressor, that is, failing a course because one didn’t put enough effort into preparation.

Poor constructive thinkers also reported feelings o f being “hassled” by their fellow

students and having more problems in their jobs.

Scheuer and Epstein (1997) replicated the Katz and Epstein (1991) study of

college students in 1996. The 1997 study results support the earlier findings of good

versus poor constructive thinkers and their reactions to stress and coping in everyday life.

Good Constructive Thinkers are Adaptive

Research by Epstein (1998) et al. concludes there are three main reasons why

good constructive thinkers experience less stress than poor constructive thinkers:

1. They utilize more effective coping mechanisms for dealing with stressful

situations.

2. They interpret potentially stressful events in less stressful ways, that is. think

o f the upcoming event as a challenge instead o f a threat. They interpret

setbacks as temporary and situational determined rather than permanent and

reflecting badly on them.

3. They practice behaving in ways that create fewer distressing events in their

daily lives, and thereby produce a less stressful environment for themselves at

work and home.

“The overall result is that good constructive thinkers experience less stress in living,

while at the same time working harder and exposing themselves to more challenging

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51

situations” (Epstein, 1998, p. 138).

Good Constructive Thinking Equals Problem Solving

Epstein (1998) further states that in the workplace, good constructive thinkers will

utilize clear communication to achieve a problem-solving, task-orientation work style.

On both sides o f the line o f authority, good constructive thinkers will take actions to solve

their problems rather than exhibit anger, resentment, disappointment, or despair, thereby

reducing exposure to workplace created stress.

From his numerous studies and research. Epstein (1998) finds that one of the main

advantages of CT, as a coping strategy for stress, is that good constructive thinkers tend

to be flexible thinkers. Whether on the job or elsewhere, a good constructive thinker

flexibly alters his or her behaviors to adapt to situational demands.

This ability to adapt is the most significant characteristic missing in poor

constructive thinkers (Epstein, 1998). Poor constructive thinkers will tend to be absent

from the workplace more frequently due either to being resentful o f the business, their co­

workers, bosses, etc., or because they are highly susceptible to stress and stress induced

physical illness. Businesses need to be alert for increased absenteeism and illness, as

these may be signs of stress that are very costly to the company (Atkinson, 2001; Dear,

1998; Landa, 2001).

Figure 4 presents a flowchart of the relationship of poor constructive thinking to

sources of stress and health-related behaviors that lead to greater emotional stress and

more physical symptoms. This figure helps to illustrate why poor constructive thinkers

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52

are more prone to increased absenteeism and illnesses.

Figure 4

How Poor Constructive Thinking Leads to Physical Symptoms

From: “Constructive Thinking: the Key to Emotional Intelligence”, by Epstein, 1998. p.


145. Copyright by Prager Publishers, Westport, CT.

Siebert’s Two Types of Employees

Similar to Epstein's (1998) concept of good and bad constructive thinkers is

Siebert’s (1999) concept of two types of employees. While Type One seems to thrive on

challenges and be more resilient, Type Two is less resilient and tends to wither in

identical circumstances. Resilient employee types are open to additional information on

how they can become more resilient (i.e., become stronger under pressure [stress]

situations), while less resilient employees are not as receptive to additional information

(Siebert, 1999).

Through his findings, Siebert (1999) also mirrors Epstein's theory of constructive

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thinking, in that differences in individual characteristics, such as coping strategies and

personality, are more important than certain job conditions in predicting stress. Siebert

also concurs with Epstein’s (1998) statements that the distress an employee may feel on

the job is not a result o f what actually exists objectively, but is the result of how the

employee perceives what is happening. Siebert (1999) believes that the best approach to

helping employees deal with job-related stress is to train them to be more resilient to the

stressor before it occurs.

Personal Theory o f Reality Construct

Epstein (1990) states that the one thing that most personality psychologists agree

on is the idea that everyone constructs a personal theory of reality. Epstein (1991) defines

this personal theory as one that is developed daily by one's life experiences. People have

a need to build and maintain this model of reality.

This personal theory is developed primarily as a means of coping with life. This

is the point of differentiation for many of the various psychological schools of thought

and theorems. Psychoanalysis suggests (Epstein, 1990; Maddi, 1989) that the primary

motive o f human behavior is seeking pleasure and avoiding pain. Other schools o f

psychology might not agree (Allport, 1961; Rogers, 19S1).

According to Epstein (1990), each individual, within his or her personal theory of

reality, has an intuitive interpretation of the degree to which: (a) the world is benign, that

is, a source of pleasure versus misery; (b) the world is meaningful, predictable,

controllable, and just, versus chaotic and uncontrollable; (c) people are considered to be

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worth relating to (i.e., a source of support and affection versus threat and hostility); and

(d) the self is perceived as worthy (i.e., competent, moral, and lovable versus

incompetent, bad, and unlovable).

Other Researchers Utilizing Constructive Thinking Theory

Other researchers have utilized Epstein's Constructive Thinking Inventory (CTI),

based on his theory o f Constructive Thinking. Hurley (1989) utilized the CTI, and its

related theory o f Constructive Thinking (CT), when investigating the linkage between

constructive thinking and elevated ratings o f Self in interpersonal groups. His findings

concluded that constructive thinking and rating oneself above peers—especially for

acceptance of self— consistently correlated positively. He concluded that this relationship

suggests an underlying higher sense of self-independence.

Hurley (1991) conducted another test, on 137 American undergraduates, to test

the hypothesis that positive links exist between rational beliefs about personal conduct

and practical intelligence indicators. Using the CTI, Hurley found that rational beliefs

were firmly linked with CT.

In 1996. Hurley once again used CT and CTI to study the relationship between

constructive thinking and firm disagreement, and neuroticism and mild agreement. His

findings supported his hypothesis that individuals who inclined toward more expressive

and firmer responses tend to be more assertive, more extraverted, and more intellectually

open. He further found that increased attention to response styles enhanced the value of

psychological inventories.

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As mentioned earlier in this section on Constructive Thinking (CT), Atwater

(1992) assessed Epstein's CTI and base theory for its ability to improve the prediction of

performance beyond cognitive ability. Her study found that measures o f practical

intelligence from the CTI added significantly to the prediction of academic performance,

beyond measures of cognitive ability. Constructive thinking was also found to account

for the unique variances in predicting training performance and leadership ratings o f her

study's participants.

Green (1988) also expanded on Epstein's theory of CT and CTI. He conducted a

study among 92 public school administrators on coping with job-related stress. Green's

findings supported Epstein's earlier statements that people who were poor constructive

thinkers were sensitive to many job-related events. In this case, sensitivity is defined as

the degree to which an event is regarded as stressful when it occurs. These administrators

were also found to be particularly sensitive to interpersonal job-related events and,

therefore, more likely to experience a great deal o f stress. Green found constructive

thinking to be positively associated with job satisfaction, and negatively associated with

self-reported symptoms o f mental distress and physical illness. Green's summary of his

study indicates that what is experienced as stressful may lie more in the eye o f the

beholder than in the objective occurrence of the events.

CT theory was also utilized by Giancola, Shoal, and Mezzich (2001) in their study

to determine how executive functioning, constructive thinking, and antisocial behavior

were related to drug use in 282 teenage females. The female participants with substance

use disorder demonstrated lower constructive thinking abilities, lower executive

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56

functioning, and higher antisocial behavior compared with the control scores. They also

found that antisocial behavior partially mediated the relationship between drug use

involvement and constructive thinking abilities.

Ammerman, Lynch, Donovan, Martin and Maisto (2001) performed a similar

study of 551 teenagers with and without substance use disorders. The concurrent validity

and clinical correlates o f constructive thinking (defined as experiential coping) was their

area of examination. Constructive thinking was correlated with depression, anxiety, and

conduct problems. Ammerman et al. (2001) state that the Constructive Thinking

Inventory (CTI) measures were able to distinguish adolescents with and without

substance use disorders. This rating was then used as the basis for further patient

assessment and treatment.

Using Epstein's theory o f CT and cognitive/experiential self theory, Lopez (1996)

explored the extent to which retrospective reports of childhood emotional bonds with

parents and current adult attachment orientations predicted the capacity for CT. This

study involved a sample of 145 college undergraduates. Lopez found that when ethnic

and gender differences in CT were controlled for parent/child, emotional bonds and

current adult attachment orientations significantly predicted constructive thinking scores.

He also found that the participants' adult attachment orientations were effective in

mediating the potential influences of the early emotional bonds on CT.

Dominant Learning Style Determines Perception of Reality

Similar to Epstein's statement o f perception of reality is Tobias's (1999) assertion

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that everyone has a dominant learning style. This learning style is based on the

individual’s strongest perceptual and ordering capabilities. More specifically, the way in

which a person views the world is called his or her perception. The way in which an

individual leams to relate to this research influences the manner in which coping

strategies are presented to and implemented with an employee who is experiencing work-

related stress, burnout, or depression.

Tobias (1999) states that an individual can perceive things in one of two ways:

either concrete (“It is what it is"), or random (“It's not always what it seems"). The way

that the individual uses the information he or she perceives is called “ordering." Ordering

occurs in one of two ways: either sequential, that is, follow the steps one after another, or

random, that is, just get it done! From this 2 x 2 matrix, four dominant learning styles

evolve. They are:

1. concrete sequential (CS)

2. abstract sequential (AS)

3. abstract random (AR)

4. concrete random (CR)

Why are Tobias’s findings relevant to the study of stress and the workplace?

Being able to assess an employee’s dominant learning style, as well as the style of his or

her boss, can greatly enhance the productivity of any team drawn together to accomplish a

common business objective and/or goal. This is not to say that only bosses and

employees with similar learning styles should work together. Tobias (1999) maintains

that by understanding an individual’s style and that of his or her boss, or his or her

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subordinates, will enable all the employees to contribute more effectively and efficiently

to the common goal. The individual in this situation may not experience less job stress,

but should at least be able to identify the cause o f the stressors and deal with them in a

more productive manner.

Sternberg (1997) believes that the people who succeed in reaching important life

goals are those who have managed to acquire, develop, and/or apply a full range of

intellectual skills. Rather than merely depending on inert (I.Q.) intelligence to help them

succeed, these individuals have assessed their strengths and weaknesses. They are able to

enact strategies in their personal and professional lives to capitalize on their strengths and

correct for their weaknesses. Finding ways around the issues they don't excel in. or

striving to make themselves "good enough" in weaker areas, accomplishes this strategy.

This same approach is relevant in the workplace when striving to overcome stressors that

cannot be changed by the employee.

Critical Thinking is Good Constructive Thinking

According to Epstein (1999), “Thinking critically is a defense against a world of

too much information and too many people trying to convince us" (p. 1). Critical

thinking requires individuals to accept and utilize the principles of rational discussion.

This statement becomes a subset of Epstein's definition o f constructive thinking. It is

through a critical, rational discussion process that the non-rational aspects o f the situation

are reduced. By concentrating on the rational side, it is possible to reach a decision while

reducing the number and/or levels of stressors surrounding the particular thought process

and/or activity.

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Roberts ( 1998) states that learning to become critical thinkers, or good

constructive thinkers, and extending this mindset to teal-world problems, can be very

challenging. According to Roberts, this requires a paradigm shift from dependence on an

external authority to participation in the construction of knowledge. Question posing and

problem solving become the prominent methods o f inquiry when faced with decision­

making in the workplace. Individuals must learn how to relinquish the responsibility for

making choices that determine their future and the collective future of their subordinates,

peers and bosses in the organizational hierarchy. Roberts' theory also states that as the

individual thinker embraces this paradigm shift, he or she will usually become more open

to seeking alternatives in perceptions and behavior in his or her personal and social

worlds. These are some o f the characteristics of a good constructive thinker.

The next section o f this literature review will focus on the potential connections

between the diversity issues that arise from a mixture of the demographic attributes of

each employee and workplace stress and stressors. The subject o f workplace diversity

and potential stressors will be further segmented in this literature review by gender, wage

gap, educational levels, and age.

Diversity—Definition and Impact of Various Demographic Attributes in the Workplace

Fernandez (1999) states that knowledge about ethnic/cultural differences can be

helpful in the workplace. The “inside” employee group needs mentoring to recognize and

appreciate the value the “outsiders” can bring to the group. The employees treated as

“outsiders” (Gersick, Bartunek, & Dutton, 2000), due to diversity differences, need to be

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prepared to deal with the stress these hurtful interrelationships may cause. The

“outsiders” [who are] focused on proving themselves [in the workplace] in a test o f skill

may need concrete encouragement and guidance to expand their repertoires o f career

strategies [and coping mechanisms] as well as practical advice on overcoming bias”

(Gersick et al., 2000, p. 1042). Ibarra's (1995) studies and conclusions are supported by

the findings o f Gersick, Bartunek and Dutton.

According to the studies compiled by McGoldrick, Giordano and Pearce (1996),

in times o f stress, tolerance for cultural differences has been shown to diminish. For

instance, when stressed, Anglos tend to move toward stoical isolation, Jews seek to

analyze their experiences, and Italians seek solace in emotional expression o f their

feelings. When these responses are positioned in a larger ethnic context and not as

personal attacks against others in the workplace, a more constructive work relationship

can be established for times of higher stress.

Houghton (1992), then Chairman of Coming, Inc., stated:

Unless [corporate America] wants to have a very limited pool o f talent

available we must learn to value and encourage a truly diverse workforce.

Companies who do allow women, minorities, and foreign nationals to grow

and contribute their potential (i.e., smashing the glass ceiling) will have a

distinct competitive advantage. Our diversity as a nation can really work for

us if we let it (p. 1).

Makower’s research (1995) supports Houghton's perceptions. Diversity should

be seen as a powerful force that harnessed effectively, can enhance productivity and

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“propel a company to success” (Makower, 1995, p. 48). Fernandez (1999) asserts that the

status quo is not acceptable, as mismanaged diversity issues can become a large drain on

a firm's time and resources.

Anderson (1993) states “diversity can change the intellectual character of an

organization, especially its perceptions o f its place in the global marketplace” (p. 58).

Management must recognize how their “conceptualization o f diversity meshes with

existing values about quality and productivity” (Anderson, 1993, p. 59).

A study o f top management teams (TMT) by Simons, Pelled and Smith (1999)

examines four kinds of demographic diversity that tended to exist in these TMTs. The

four variables (i.e., functional background, educational level, tenure, and age) are divided

into two categories. Category One includes functional background, educational level, and

tenure diversity traits, identifying these as being more job-related since they capture

information, experience and perspectives relevant to “cognitive tasks” (Pelled, 1996;

Williams & O'Reilly, 1998). Category Two includes only age diversity, which is deemed

to be less job-related than the other three demographics (Simons, Pelled. & Smith, 1999).

Simons, Pelled and Smith (1999) further investigate the types and/or levels of

stress that can occur in the decision-making processes of the TMT. Their research states

that cognitive and educational level diversity is shown to have positive effects in the

financial performance o f an organization. Experience diversity is found to be negatively

associated with return on investment for the company.

Salk and Brannen's (2000) study on international joint venture (IJV) teams finds

that “natural cultural, though not statistically significant, remains important in explaining

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patterns of relationships in teams, but its role is far less direct and deterministic than

suggested by prior research” (p. 191). Multiple studies (Bivens & Lowell, 1966; Killing,

1983, Shenkar & Zeira, 1992) submit that the cultural differences in cross-cultural and

LTV teams are found to be a source of misunderstanding, poor performance, and

conflict/stress.

Racial/Cultural Diversities are Business Assets

In Richard's (2000) field research, racial diversity is studied for its interaction

with business strategy to determine firm performance. The quality of the productivity, the

return on equity, and the market performance are measured. The results of Richard's

report demonstrates "that cultural diversity does in fact add value and, within the proper

context, contributes to a firm's competitive advantage” (Richard, 2000, p. 164).

Morrisette's (1997) studies also found this to be true.

Bond and Pyle (1998), in exploring the resources required to support workplace

diversity, perform a collaborative inquiry process study. The four lessons from this study

are:

1. The influential role o f organizational history and tradition in shaping

diversity dynamics;

2. The power o f informal organizational processes;

3. The connections among employee, organizational, and broader cultural

values; and,

4. The importance of understanding how the employees' perceptions and

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experiences of events may differ.

These are all areas o f potential work-related stressors that should be addressed by

management.

Bond and Pyle (1998) state that support by an organization to achieve effective

workplace diversity processes and procedures can be further divided into three parts or

subcomponents. Section One includes a representational component (e.g.. the actual

representation of diverse workers at different levels of the business). Section Two

includes an organizational component (e.g., a well-established organizational value for

supporting diverse employees) (Bond & Pyle, 1994; Pyle & Bond. 1997). Section Three

includes an interactional component (e.g., members of the different groups or teams

working effectively together).

Franklin (2000) performed studies to determine the number or percentage of

minority students at the “ best" MBA schools in the country. The number of minority

students at the best MBA schools is increasing, but very slowly. For instance, in 1981

82% of the Masters degrees earned were by Whites; 5.8% by Blacks; 2.2% by Hispanics;

2.1% by Asian/Pacific Islanders; and 7.5% by non-resident aliens. By 1998, these

numbers grew marginally, with Blacks earning 7% of the Masters degrees; Hispanics

earnings 3.8% of the degrees; and Asian/Pacific Islanders earning only 4.9% o f the

Masters degrees conferred that year. By gender, in 1981, male graduates received

147,000 MBA degrees and female students received 149,000 MBA degrees. By 1998,

these numbers definitely shifted more so in favor o f the female population. Males

received 184,000 MBA degrees, compared to 246,000 MBA degrees conferred on

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females in the United States.

The question arises as to how American businesses will find executives savvy to

the ways o f an increasingly diverse workforce when there are so few minorities working

in the top ranks of the corporate structure (Franklin, 2000; Hon, Weigold, & Chance,

1999). Based on the research conducted for this current study, the need to be able to

identify, understand, and effectively address the impact of diversity on work-related stress

is an issue that can no longer be ignored. Demographic changes in the United States, and

in the student bodies of U.S. colleges and universities, are fueling the urgency of

addressing and solving diversity issues. Universities are struggling with the development

of an operational definition o f diversity. “Few issues in higher education are as timely or

complicated as diversity” (Hon, Weigold, & Chance, 1999, p. 51).

I.Q. and Diversity

I.Q., intelligence quotient or intellectual intelligence, is another issue begging

study in the area of diversity influence. According to Sternberg's (1997) results, tested

I.Q. scores indicate that racial and ethnic differences are only a small part of intelligence

in its totality. Evidence gathered in Sternberg’s studies suggests these variances or

differences are largely environmental in origin.

Diversity', as it relates to one’s cultural heritage, can be a major factor in how one

approaches his or her work life, depending on at what point the individual immigrates to

another country in his or her “family life cycle.” Adjusting to a new culture is not a

single event but a prolonged developmental process (McGoldrick, Giordano, & Pearce,

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eds., 19%). Immigration occurring during the employee’s young adult phase has the

greatest potential for ease of adaptation to the new culture, in terms o f career and marital

choice. Migration later in the life cycle usually negatively affects the individual's ability

to quickly assimilate into the workplace, as most employees in this age bracket are

leaving behind a great deal o f their socio-cultural resources and life experiences. This

negative effect can be further exacerbated in the workplace, and in other life experiences,

if the individual has not fully mastered the primary language of the new country.

Positive and Negative Effects of Diversity in Organizations

Hartel and Fujimoto (1999) presented the results of their studies as to why

diversity sometimes has positive and negative effects in organizations. They based their

findings on the results o f the Perceived Dissimilarity Openness Moderator (PDOM)

model that they developed. This theoretical model is a moderator of the link between

group process, diversity, and outcomes in organizations. The PDOM model identifies

five types of diversity. They are social category, skills and knowledge, verbal and non­

verbal, values and beliefs, and organization cohort diversity.

Organizational group process and outcomes are segregated into two

classifications. According to Hartel and Fujimoto (1999), affective and behavioral

responses are found to influence cognitive group process outcomes, and vice versa. In the

context of this model, dissimilarity refers to objective dissimilarity, while perceived

dissimilarity refers to perceived differences regardless of actual dissimilarity or similarity.

Openness to perceived dissimilarity describes individual employee viewpoints that

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differences, or dissimilarity, are positive or represent a positive thing.

Hartel and Fujimoto's (1999) study discusses how the positive and negative

effects o f diversity are a major deterrent to the full utilization o f diversity on processes

and outcomes within the organization. On the positive side, the contribution of minority

members to majority opinion is found to produce cognitive outcomes of greater creativity

and higher quality processes. The decisions of these heterogeneous groups were found to

be less susceptible to “groupthink” (McGrath, 1984; Mazanevki, 1994; Nemeth, 1986).

However, heterogeneous groups are found to be associated with negative affective and

behavioral outcomes. The groups tend to be less trusting and cohesive, as well as less

committed to the organization. Individual group members are also less satisfied with

their jobs, more stressed, more prone to turnover, have higher absenteeism rates, and

experience more communication difficulties (Greenhaus et al., 1990). Based on these

results, Hartel and Fujimoto ( 1999) conclude that potential positive impacts to

organizational group outcomes are outweighed by the costs associated with the negative

group behaviors.

Hartel and Fujimoto's (1999) studies also find that the level o f individual group

members' perceived dissimilarity or openness further mediates group outcomes, if the

individual perceives higher levels of dissimilarity to other group members, then the

outcome effects are further magnified. If, instead, the individual leans more toward the

perceived openness side o f the model, he or she is able to diminish the negative group

outcome by some degree.

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The PDOM model (Hartel & Fujimoto, 1999) and its outcomes are found to

consistently occur at three levels in the organization. First, or lowest, is at the individual

employee level. Second is perceived tolerance, or a lack thereof, toward dissimilarity at

the group level. Last is the perceived openness, or lack there of, at the organizational

level. The organization's perceived culture is found to have the greatest influence on the

behaviors o f the individual and group levels that, in turn, affect the cognitive

achievements in the organization as a whole.

International Impact o f Diversity

When studying the impact of diversity at an international level, several studies

(Black & Mendenhall, 1989; Nicholson, Sepina, & Hochwarter, 1990; Tung, 1987)

establish that inadequate awareness by employers and employees of the international

variations in cultural value systems can exacerbate stress in the day-to-day working

environment in which individuals are expected to be successful. “Given the expanding

presence and influence o f multinational enterprises (MNEs) throughout the world,

research on culture and values has grown in both amount and criticality" (Fernandez,

Carlson, Stepina, & Nicholson, 1997, p. 43). Is cultural diversity and its associated

values a cause o f stressors in the workplace, or just an additive to the overall problem of

not having the correct coping skills to be effective?

Cross-Cultural Types of Work-Related Stress

Studies completed by Bhagat, O'Driscoll, Babas, Frey, Chokkar, Ninokumar,

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Pate, Ryder, Femadez, Ford, and Mahanyele (1994) in cross-cultural samples focus on the

types o f organizational stress and coping that are inherent in the workplace that has cross-

cultural employees. Bhagat et al. find that organizational stress is significantly correlated

with psychological experience strain in the seven countries sampled. Problem-focused

coping with stress is found to be significant in the United States, India, Germany. Spain,

and Australia. Emotion-focused coping does not significantly correlate as either a

moderating or independent effect on any of the seven countries. Problem-focused coping

was defined by Lazarus and Folkman (1984) as attempts by the employee to alter or

manage the situation. Emotion-focused coping was defined as attempts by the employee

to reduce or manage the distress associated with the stress experience itself.

These patterns o f problem-focused or emotion-focused coping with stress

appeared to be true both cross-nationally and cross-culturally. “Coping [with stress] is a

transactional process whose true effectiveness is captured through process-oriented

research combining the effectiveness of problem-focused and emotion-focused coping in

a comprehensive manner and using an emic perspective” (Bhagat et al., 1994, p. 104).

“The realization that different personality types flourish in different national

cultures, together with the insight that management/leadership models are culture bound,

raises a concern” (Duchatelet, 1998, p. 96). This co-optation of like personality types

from the same culture, to the exclusion of all others, may unwittingly lead to gender and

racial discrimination. For those employees who do not fit the culturally acceptable mode,

this may lead to increases in work-related stress and less-than-maximum benefit for the

workplace environment (Duchatelet, 1998).

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Diversity as Causes o f Income Inequality

Diversity also raises issues regarding income inequality, which can be a source o f

work-related stress (Williams & O’Reilly, 1998; Allison, 1999). There appear to be

income inequalities related to ethnicity and employment in many sectors. For instance, in

the United States in 1994, the largest population of self-employed men came from a

Korean background (20.3%), followed by Hispanics (18.5%), and then Iranians (12.9%)

(Hacker, 1995). Memberships in the worlds o f medicine and academia have experienced

threefold expansion in the past 30 years. Most of the beneficiaries o f this increase have

been white women, along with a growing influx of Asians, both male and female.

Recruitment efforts in all professions result in raising the absolute numbers for African-

Americans and other minority groups, but many of the disparities between equal pay and

representation in the workplace still continue.

Diversity can be viewed as a two-edged sword (Milliken & Martins, 19%) or a

mixed blessing (Williams & O ’Reilly, 1998). Many organizations, despite their stated

Equal Opportunity policy, have daily practices that run the gamut from inclusion to

blatant discrimination (Allison, 1999). These companies subsequently are found to be

struggling with the issues of gender, racial/ethnic diversity, disability, and in some cases,

the sexual orientation of their employees (James, 19%; Minors, 19%).

Gender—Demographic Attribute Definition in Relation to Work-Related Stress

Gender can greatly impact most research-based role assumptions, as is evidenced

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by the numerous studies on its relationship to many behaviors. Studies that continue

today prove the existence o f definable stress measurement score variances or application

results attributable strictly to gender (Goleman. 1998; Lim & Teo. 19%; Burke. 19%;

Kirchmeyer, 1998; Gersick, Bartunek, & Dutton, 2000). Anisman and Merali (1999)

believe the physical interaction of the hypothalamus, pituitary gland, and gonadal organs

may contribute to the gender reaction differences often seen in behavioral disorders (e.g.

mood disorders) that may be workplace induced.

Working Mothers Experience Added Stress

Why do these statistics have relevance to the research under investigation? As

shown in numerous studies (Flowers, 2001; Moreno & Murphy. 1999; Schwartz &

Zimmerman. 1992), mothers working outside the home invariably bring a set o f potential

work stress conflicts to the job site each morning. According to the study by Schwartz

and Zimmerman (1992), this is evident not only in the way women view work but also

the way our culture views women who work.

One o f the major social changes over the past generation is employment of

mothers outside the home. This is now the norm rather than the rarity o f previous

generations. Nearly 70% o f women with children under the age of majority are currently

working outside the home. According to Moreno and Murphy (1999), when compared to

a generation ago this represents an approximately 50% increase in the number of working

mothers. Although women play important roles in business, the number of roles was very

limited until 60 years ago, at least in the United States. Flowers' (2001) research reveals

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that two monumental paradigm shifts have occurred. First, when the U.S. entered World

War II, hundreds o f thousands of women joined the workplace as replacement workers

for the working-age males called into military duty. Second, the microchip was invented,

shifting the world toward an information- and knowledge-based economy.

Based on his own studies, Goleman (1998) states that men and women seemed

equally able to increase emotional intelligence, although women seemed to be stronger in

competencies based on empathy and social skills, while men did better in those

competencies based on self-regulation.

Erickson and Ritter's (2001) review of prior studies and research lead to the

following conclusions. The experience and management o f positive, negative, and

agitated emotions, as forms of the emotional labor process, should be addressed in the

workplace. The management of agitation, the emotion most strongly linked with feelings

o f bumout and inauthenticity, is more common in women. The rationale is that women

workers experience the highest levels of job-related agitation.

Research and analysis of differences and similarities in responses by both genders

in workplace stress situations is continuing. Lim and Teo's study (19%) of information

technology (IT) personnel examined relationships between gender and coping strategies

in stressful occupations. Female IT personnel reported significantly higher scores on

stress sources emanating from factors intrinsic to their jobs: being in a managerial role,

etc. Home-to-work interface showed no differences between the genders. When

reviewing the types of coping strategies that each gender may use, female employees tend

to seek social support and talk to others about their experiences. Male employees were

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found to suppress their emotions and deal with work-stress problems in a logical and

unemotional manner.

Gender Can Determine Type of Stress Most Likely to Lead to Depression

Wang and Patten (2001) studied a group of 7,344 employees over a period o f five

years to evaluate the associations between work stress and major depression. They

concluded that there were significant associations between job stressors and depression.

The type o f work stress may be altered, however, by the gender o f the employee.

Stressors o f a physical nature caused depression in women more frequently than men.

For men, stressors o f a psychological nature were found to lead to major bouts o f

depression.

Burke's (19%) work focuses on the male gender role conflict (i.e., men do not

seek outside professional help with issues), which, until this time, has not been routinely

studied. She finds this role conflict to be associated with lower self-esteem, higher

anxiety [stress], higher depression, more sexual aggression, lower social intimacy, and

greater somatic complaints/symptoms. Burke also states that this vicious cycle will

continue until it is deemed culturally acceptable for men to seek psychological help.

Gender and Workaholics

Burke's (1999) study is designed to examine gender differences and workaholism.

The results indicate no gender difference on measurements o f work involvement, the

compulsion o f driven to work, and of work enjoyment. Female respondents, however.

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report higher levels o f workaholic job behaviors (e.g.. job stress and perfectionism) that

are likely to be associated with lower levels o f satisfaction and general well being.

Gersick, Bartunek, and Dutton (2000) studied gender differences in the lives of

academic professionals. Their findings suggest the world of men is more "inside the

center” of the profession with regard to networking and career development (Ibarra &

Smith-Lovin. 1997). The world of women in academia is found to be more "outside the

center.” This leads Gersick et al. (2000) to further state that many women tend to

approach their careers and network-building efforts through a different type o f logic than

male employees. Women usually begin from a position of insecurity, that is, a defensive

approach, rather than from an assumption o f support from essential career resources.

A longitudinal study by Kirchmeyer (1998) outlines the determinants o f success

and the differential effect they have on the progression and perceived success o f women's

versus men's managerial careers. The determinants include individual, interpersonal,

human capital, relational demography, family, and career components. The evidence

supports the hypothesis that women's and m en's careers unfold differently, especially

when one considers income and promotion gaps between the two genders that widen over

time.

Fixed Levels of Career Stress

In today's work environment, many careers have fixed levels of stress. Do

females' predisposition to added stressors impact their ability to successfully compete in

careers with certain levels of stress, as opposed to the male gender where this added

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stressor is not so prevalent? Most working mothers are constantly weighing their

business commitments against family obligations. Anderson and Leslie (1991), and

Barnett, Brennan, and Marshall (1994), document that this on-going dilemma can lead to

stress and distress in the overall quality o f women’s work and home roles.

Research by Frankenhaeuser (as cited by Austin, 2000), about work activity in

more than 1,200 men and women working lull time, found higher levels o f reported work

overload, conflict, and stress for women than men. The levels of stress, etc., were also

shown to increase relationally to the number o f children still in the home (Austin, 2000).

Further study by Frankenhaeuser (as cited by Austin, 2000) as to some o f the physical

side effects of stress (i.e., blood pressure [BP] levels), reveals that for men their BP levels

decreased sharply after 5 p.m. For women, the opposite was true, with BP staying high

and stress-hormones levels increasing after they left the workplace to go home (Austin.

2000). Although a study o f 3,800 men and women concludes that paid employment is

associated with reduced depression among husbands and wives, it is time spent at

housework that reflects increased depression symptoms for both genders (Austin. 2000).

Gender Stereotyping in Work Roles as Stress

The practice o f segregation by gender into distinct careers, or stereotyping of work

roles, is still prevalent in the workforce today, although a measured decline was recorded

from the 1970s to the 1990s (Cavanaugh, 1999; De Laat, 1999). According to 1990

census data, the majority o f working women are still represented by female careers, such

as secretary, elementary school teacher, cashier, waitress, etc., whereas the majority of

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men still hold male occupations such as production supervisor, salaried sales

representative, salaried manager, chef, etc. This phenomenon is also known as

“occupational segregation."

Geetman and Pena (1986) found this phenomenon to be especially true in their

investigation of workplace organizations and stress. Their study focused on women

employed in the Border Industry Program (BIPs). BIPs were established as a result of a

bilateral agreement between the United States and Mexico in 1966. The agreement

generated the establishment o f multiple export-oriented assembly plant operations where

most o f the hourly work force consisted of women. These women were found to be more

susceptible to stressors stemming from sexual inequalities in the workplace than other

job-related stressors. The sexual inequalities were measured in four areas: (a) division of

labor and power relations, (b) pay disparities, (c) the general overall attitude toward

women as a sub-species, and (d) differential exposure to occupational health hazards. As

Hofstede's (1970) and Fernandez, Carlson, Stepina, and Nicholson's (1997) work

suggests, Mexico is still a country running on a patriarchal power trip.

Higher Education Levels Add to Working Women's Stress

Why should employee gender or the education level reached by the employee be

considered potential attributes in the context of stressors? As o f 1997,46% of the total

United States work force is female; more than half of all women are working outside the

home full time (Groves, 1998). Currently, each year women earn more than half of the

bachelors and masters degrees conferred in the United States. Specifically, one-third of

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all the masters degrees earned in the business administration area are earned by women,

while women also earn half of the undergraduate degrees in management and business

majors.

The number o f women entering the executive, managerial, or professional ranks in

the U.S. has increased in recent decades. However, these numbers still mask the reality

that women continue to cluster near the bottom o f professional and org a n izational

hierarchies, with lower earnings, lower authority, and lower advancement potential than

their male counterparts (Davies-Netzley, 1998). Women and men of color are also facing

the additional constraints of racial discrimination and informal barriers to workplace

advancement (Collins, 1989; Higginbotham. 1994; Martin, 1994).

A study in Britain by Davidson and Cooper (1983) found that managerial women

experience greater strain, and feel more isolated at work, than do their male counterparts.

This extra pressure manifests itself in issues such as lack of self-confidence and subtle

forms of discrimination, causing these women to believe that they occupy minority status

in their organizations and in society as a whole. The so-called “glass ceiling.’' a barrier to

success for women, stems from workplace discrimination. This discrimination can be

subtle, such as a lack of job advancement opportunities, a lack of mentors, or being

presented with only stereotypical challenges. This form of sex stereotype bias is shown

by Davidson and Cooper (1983) to add to workplace stress levels.

Research by Book (2000) finds few women climbing to the top rungs o f the

corporate ladder, especially in the decade o f the 1980’s. Those who do advance do so at a

heavy price to their perceived femininity. Often, women find that to be successful they

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have to adapt to male-inspired dress codes. Their rank, or position, within the

organization becomes their primary source o f respect Winning at any cost becomes the

mantra of these women trying to fit into the “good old boy” network.

Females who want to get ahead assume male methods to excel because o f the

many negative stereotypes associated with their own gender (Book, 2000). The

conventional wisdom o f the 1980’s states that women are destined to fulfill only

supporting roles because of their inherent female weaknesses—too friendly, too helpful,

and an inability to lead or take charge of a situation.

Research performed by Book (2000) suggest models of stereotypes still persist

that female managers who employ a “feminine style” o f management will have trouble

succeeding in the workplace. Yet, in reality, examples can be found of women who excel

because of the very traits that were once deemed inferior to or weak than the alpha male

leadership style of command-and-control. According to some (Book, 2000), the model

for effective leadership is undergoing a long-needed transformation. Book believes the

"new” model of leadership will be one that is no longer gender stereotyped, but is built on

a vision o f awareness of economic issues while also promoting an environment that

supports the success of their staff and co-workers.

This is not to infer that the number of women in top management slots will

automatically spike in the next few years (Book, 2000). Professional male leaders,

however, are starting to see that they must adapt to survive. Still, there will need to be a

thread o f “feminism” mixed in with the traditional male orientation of management, when

companies strategize on how they are to operate to excel in these new and fiercely

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competitive global marketplaces.

Gender Stereotypes Exacerbate Stress Levels

Many researchers have studied the differences between male and female managers

and male versus female employees, including some of the ways in which they react to

stress, as well as some of the types o f stress specific to each gender in the workplace

(Book, 2000; Brewer, Socha, & Potter, 19%; Burke, 19%; Comer & Yammarion, 1997;

Cunnison, 1999; Evans, 1999; Jolson, Dubinsky, & Tata. 1998; Kipnis & Herron, 1994;

Kirchemeyer, 1999; Moore, 1999; Orenstein, 2000; Rosener. 1990; Osland, Snyder, &

Hunter, 1998; Schwartz, 1992; Talmud & Izraeli, 1999). Rosener (1990) notes that "men

are more likely to use power that comes from their organizational position and formal

authority, (whereas women) ascribed their power to personal characteristics like

charisma, interpersonal skills, hard work, or personal contacts rather than to

organizational stature’' (p. 121).

International Studies on the Effect of Cross-Cultural Stress

According to Yang's (1998) international study, women still face a glass ceiling in

their climb up the corporate ladder. These women also still bear primary responsibility

for family and home chores. Yang states that these and other factors lead to higher stress

levels among women than men. Female employees can help themselves by "recognizing

and exploiting their superior abilities in interpersonal relationships” (p. 16). Businesses

can help lower the stressors that their female workforce face by providing better

mentoring, training and guidance, and by increasing their sensitivity to the female

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79

employees' work/home conflicts that may blend into the workplace.

Chiu and Kosinski (1995) conducted research on the influence and potential

damage of work-related stress on employees from different cultures. Chui and Kosinshi

stated, "stress is influenced by cultural and social variables such as values, attitudes, and

perceptions" (p. 98). The collectivism/individualism construct was used to measure

cultural values in an attempt to explain the variance in stress-reaction behaviors between

Eastern (collectivism culture norms) and Western (individualism culture norms)

employees. The results of this study showed that the impact of work stress on the

employee depended heavily on the employee's interpretation o f the importance o f the

situation, as well as his or her assessment of the likelihood o f obtaining the desired

outcome. In other words, the impact of the stressor depends more on the person's

perception o f the stressor than on the actual stressor itself. In turn, the employee's

perceptions and behaviors are greatly influenced by his or her cultural values and

background. This belief, of the country’s cultural value system influencing the individual

employee, is also seen in the studies by Hofstede (1970), Hofstede and Bond (1984 &

1988) and Fernandez, Carlson, Stepina, and Nicholson (1997).

Gender Attributes as Cultural Predictors

The concept of gender can be used to address attributes of an individual or o f a

country. Fernandez, Carlson, Stepina, and Nicholson (1997) reexamine Hofstede's 1970s

research on the classification o f 40 countries by their underlying work-related value

structure (i.e., masculine or feminine). Hofstede's study on the relationship between

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80

national culture and work-related values is one of the most frequently cited results and

theory (Bhagat & McQuaid, 1982). Hofstede’s research helped further the understanding

o f cross-cultural management theory and practice by revealing that individuals o f

different cultures and societies assume divergent values concerning the nature o f

organizations (such as businesses) and interpersonal relationships within them, that is,

employee-to-employee, employee-to-boss, and so forth (Fernandez et al., 1997).

From Hofstede's original 1970’s research of 40 countries, and the more current

1990's 10-country study, the results regarding country classification of masculine or

feminine are found to be changing only if the country itself has gone, or is going through,

significant economic development, political upheaval, or other major external

environmental change (Fernandez, Carlson, Stepina, & Nicholson, 1997). For instance,

the U.S. score on Hofstede's study is near the mean masculine classification.

Fernandez's, et al. (1997) study moves the score of the United States to well below the

masculine mean score. This moves the U.S. more toward a feminine orientation, which is

perceived to be the result of more women in the workforce and more women having

increasingly higher positions o f power in both government and the private sector.

Germany is another country that moves from a higher masculine ranking on Hofstede's

scale to a classification o f feminine, based on the more recent data o f Fernandez et al.

China scores the highest in the rankings o f masculine countries. It is stated that

this possibly reflects the more traditional role separation of men and women in the home

and the workplace in that country (Fernandez, Carlson, Stepina, & Nicholson, 1997).

Russia also scores above the mean, maintaining its position as a masculine value-oriented

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country similar to China. The reason put forth for this is that although women may now

be working along side their male counterparts, it is still the men who hold the higher

positions o f power in business and government.

Mexico, Chile and Japan are also classified as masculine countries (Fernandez.

Carlson, Stepina, & Nicholson, 1997). These countries all share the masculine

characteristics o f favoring men for positions o f power in organizations, and preferring a

more singular than dualistic role for both women and men in their societies. France.

Venezuela, and Yugoslavia all score below the mean, making these countries more

feminine in their values. If one subscribes to the findings presented by Hofstede et al..

which demonstrate that countries may present a masculine or feminine orientation, then

the impact o f this orientation to everyday stressors, and how to cope with them, must also

be studied (Fernandez et al., 1997).

The next demographic attribute to be reviewed is wage level. This attribute is

impacted by gender, ethnicity and age, as well as educational level.

Wage Gap—Demographic Attribute Definition and Impact to Work-Related Stress

In 1963 and 1964, the United States Congress passed two landmark laws designed

to remove discrimination from workplace relations in the United States. First was the

Equal Pay Act o f 1963, which prohibited the standard business practice o f paying female

employees less than their male counterparts when performing the same job. In 1964,

Congress passed the Civil Rights Act, which included a comprehensive fair employment

section (Title VII) that was intended to ban discrimination against minorities and women

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in all conditions and terms of employment (Patrick & Ross, 2000).

Research by Patrick and Ross (2000) shows that in the 35 years since these laws

were ratified, strides have been made by minorities and women into the mainstream o f the

U.S. workplace. However, “discriminatory practices continue to impede progress for

minority women” (p. 522), which continues as a potential source of work-related stress.

The U.S. Census Bureau has formulated a Standard Statistical Establishment List.

The Council o f Economic Advisors (1998) reviewed these studies of statistical data

collected in 1990 and successive years. The Council concludes that a “gender gap” in

wages between men and women stilt exists 33 years after the enactment of the 1963

Equal Pay Act. Although the gender pay gap has narrowed from a ratio of 57% in 1969

to 68% in 19%, it still impacts the day-to-day lives of most American workers. After

allowing for job experience factors, job classification, industry idiosyncrasies and union

status, there still remains 12 percentage points of wage discrimination that are not

explained. The result of studies performed by Schwartz and Zimmerman (1992) to

measure this discrimination by looking at pay differences by gender in very similar jobs,

or against specific measures of productivity, support the conclusion that women still face

negative differential job treatment.

This wage gap is even larger in non-profit organizations. The average male chief

executive officer (CEO) still out-eams his female counterpart by 47% in similar-size

organizations in 1998 and 1999 (Lipman, 2001). This same wage gap study by GuideStar

states that women are not only paid less, but are far less likely to even hold the top job at

the larger non-profit groups. Similar differences in wage scales are found in comparing

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all the top positions such as chief information officer (CIO) and chief financial officer

(CFO) in non-profit organizations.

A wage gap also appears when measuring median income levels and various job

classification pay scales among ethnic groups in the United States. This is sometimes

referred to as the ‘‘racial income gap" (Hacker. 1995). Although there are many factors

that can skew the amount o f income variance among the races (i.e., whites usually have

more two-income earning families than blacks), the relative inequality trends are still

present. For instance, in 1994 white families had a median income of $38,909, whereas

black families had a median income of only $21,161.

Interestingly, even when factors are normalized, that is, same education level or

same employment status, black females, while still earning, on average, less than their

white counterparts, are statistically closer to the white income scale than when black men

and white men are studied. For instance, a white female worker with a master's degree

and average annual earnings of $60,000 is only $3,660 higher than her equivalent in the

black community. For males, the annual average income gap is nearly $7,800 lower for

black males with a master's degree than their white counterparts, all other factors being

equal (Hacker, 1995). So, while the income disparity between men and women appears

to continue through most ethnic classifications, in the instance of black versus white,

females are closer to reaching equal status than males.

Do any o f these inequalities add to the distress levels of the work environment? If

one could remedy any o f these inequalities, would it lead to measurable decreases in job-

related stress, or would other stress causing factors just become more prevalent (Hacker,

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84

1995)?

Earnings Ratio as Potential Work-Related Stress

Earnings ratio, or the inverse o f wage gap, varies by race, ethnicity and gender

(Yoder, 1999). Earnings ratio is the percentage of any ethnic group or gender, other than

white males, to white male earning power. This numeric formula is used as a

comparative baseline. If the income o f white males is the denominator, then white

females have an earnings ratio o f 71.2%, 53.4% for Latinas, and 64.2% for African

American women. African American men earn 75.9% of what their white counterparts

earn, and Latinos earn only 63.3%.

In the United States, the female-to-male earnings ratio hovers around 71.5%. The

highest earnings o f maie-to-female wage ratios (90%) can be found in Tanzania. Iceland.

France and Australia all have narrower gaps than the United States. Only Japan (50%),

Korea, Cyprus, and Egypt had lower earnings ratios than the United States in 1991

(Hartmann, Allen, & Owens, 1999).

Two general explanations are offered by social scientists to explain the causes of

the gap differential (Wittig & Lowe, 1989). The first is referred to as "human capital

theory," or the person-centered approach, which focuses on differences in qualification

and personal investments, that is, women are deficient in some areas relative to men, and.

therefore, deserve lower compensation levels. A situation-centered approach, or

"discrimination theory," relies on outside factors to explain the differences. Examples of

these outside factors could include hiring biases, sexist discrimination, or differential

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access to opportunities (Yoder, 1999).

Why are these wage and earning factors important (Hartmann, Allen, & Owens,

1999; Wittig & Lowe, 1989; Yoder, 1999)? Could these be sources of work-related

stress'7 If so, could the levels o f these stressors be reduced by more active involvement of

management?

Ethnicity—Demographic Attribute Definition and Relationship to Work-Related Stress

The United States population is made up of so many diverse ethnic groups that the

relevance to work-related stressors and stress issues can no longer be ignored. The U.S.

is experiencing its highest level o f immigration in more than 100 years (Me Goldrick.

Giordano, & Pearce, (Eds.), 1996). More than one million legal and undocumented

immigrants arrive on United States soil annually, most from Asia or the Hispanic world.

With these new immigrants expressing and enjoying their unique cultures, diversity and

all its implications has had an immense impact on the "character” of American society

and the way that these new employees interact in the workplace.

In 1994, women accounted for 46% o f the workforce in the United States (United

States Department of Labor, 1995). According to Yoder's (1999) studies, the

participation rates (more than 70%) of women in the work force between the ages of 20-

52 vary little by race/ethnicity. Sixty percent of Asian and Pacific Islander women are

working outside the home. For white women the rate is 58.9%, African Americans have

58.7% o f their women in the workforce, and 55% of Native American women and 52.9%

of the Latinas are also working outside the home. This equates to 57 million employed

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women in the United States alone. Relevant percentages of gender and ethnic groups in

the workplace are itemized in Table 4.

Table 4

Ethnic % o f Working Women

1994 versus 1999: 46% of the workforce was female, versus 69% of all
single and 49% of all married females now work outside
the home
Caucasians: 58.9% work outside the home
Asian/Pacific Islanders: 60.0% work outside the home
African Americans: 58.7% work outside the home
Native American: 55.0% work outside the home
Latinas: 52.9% work outside the home

As stated by Me Goldrick et al. (1996), “Ethnicity, is marked by an ongoing

cultural evolution. We are all always in the process of changing ethnic identity, from

incorporating ancestral influences to forging new and emerging group identities” (p. xi).

Families or individuals who live in a heterogeneous setting will probably move closer to

the dominant value system in the United States than those individuals who live and work

within neighborhoods o f the same ethnicity, or who are strongly reliant on religious

affiliations, which reinforce certain ethnic values. Ethnic differences in mental health

practices will have a strong impact on how the individual worker performs under various

job-related stresses.

Occupational choice reflects both personal necessity and known group values.

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For instance, the Irish are currently over represented in politics and police work;

Germans, in engineering; Koreans, in food stores; Greeks and Chinese, in the restaurant

business, and Jews, in small business, medicine, and above all, the mental health fields

(Me Goldrick et al., 19%).

Ethnic distinctions generally play a less powerful role among the most educated

and upwardly mobile segments o f a given group (Me Goldrick et al., 19%). This is

because the individuals in these class segments tend to disassociate themselves from their

ethnic roots.

Research performed by Gutierres, Saenz, and Given (1994) concluded, "both

structural and social contextual factors in the workplace may adversely affect the health

outcomes o f ethnic minority employees” (p. 108). Examples of these factors are

proportional representation of one's ethnic group in the workplace that might influence

the degree to which the employee finds and feels acceptance. On-the-job levels o f

perceived discrimination of the ethnic group are also found to increase levels of stress.

Most of the studies conducted on stress and minorities in the workplace have been

very limited—limited in the number of empirical studies performed and limited in which

minority groups were studied, i.e., most studies deal with African Americans and try to

make comparisons to White employees. Clearly, further research is needed in this area

(Gutierres, Saenz, & Given, 1994).

Educational Levels—Demographic Attribute Definition and Impact on Work-Related

Stress

There are few studies on the relationship between education level and job-related

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88

stress. It has been shown, however, that stressful interactions in the workplace require

compromise and communication. The view o f education by Becker (1993) and

Mirowsky and Ross (1998) is that education is an investment in human capital. This

position is supported by the assertion that education's personal and social (i.e.,

workplace) benefits go above and beyond economics. It is, therefore, important to

conduct further research on the potential causal links between educational levels and

work-related stressors.

The realization o f human capital (Gardner, 1993) to its lull potential, and the

specific role education has in this growth process, is a topic of much discussion in many

countries. Institutions such as banks and national governments are convinced that “the

ingredients for human progress, success, and happiness are closely linked to better

educational opportunities for their client citizenry” (Gardner. 1993. p. 368).

The highest formal education level obtained by an employee also plays a

significant role in why the wage gap between men and women increases as the employee

ages (Yoder, 1999). This field of study reveled that in the older generations in the United

States, more men than women are recipients o f higher education, whereas, in contrast

younger male/female workers have a similar education level as they enter the workforce.

“In 1993-94, women earned 59% of all associate degrees, 54% of all bachelors degrees,

55% o f all masters degrees, 39% of all Ph. D's, and 41% of all professional degrees”

(United States Department of Education, 19%, p. 253), providing evidence that the

educational gap is beginning to close. The overall educational level of citizens in the

U.S. is on the rise. More than 80% of college students are working outside the home, so it

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89

is assumed that one or both o f these dual-career spouses attended college (Sherman,

Bolander, & Snell, 1998).

Workforce 2000 (Miller, 1999) addresses the significant demographic changes

taking place in the U.S workforce. One of these demographic variables is education

level. Workforce 2000 reports that college graduates will fill nearly one-third o f the jobs

created in the year 2000, because more than half of the jobs created will require education

beyond a high school diploma level. Deshpande (1997) suggests that in the U.S.

workforce the employers, as well as employees, need to prepare for these demographic

composition changes.

According to Hacker (1995). "Exacerbating the situation today is the fact that

millions of jobs are being filled by legal and illegal aliens, largely from Latin America

and Asia" (p. 109-10). Few o f the positions that these individuals undertake require

special skills. In most cases, these workers are acquiescing to working conditions and

wages that most African American or White Americans are unwilling to accept. What

additional work-related stress does this situation create?

Businesses are making substantial strides in addressing the demands of the

workplace for an overall higher level o f employee education. A well-educated, qualified

workforce is a significant resource having a positive influence on the firm's competitive

advantage (H. G. Heneman & R. L. Heneman. 1994). Many organizations will reward an

employee, financially or hierarchically, for obtaining a certain level of education.

Attaining a higher level of education is found to enhance one's sense o f control.

The inability to control can bring about emotions of depression and anxiety in the worker.

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90

causing higher levels of work-related stress (Ross & Mirowsky, 1989; Ross & Van

Willigen, 1997; Turner & Noh, 1983). When difficulties do arise in the workplace, the

sense o f control can foster flexibility in coping and effective problem solving

management (Ross & Huber 1985; Ross & Mirowsky, 1989; Turner & Roszell, 1994).

Therefore, the association between education level and anger/stress reveals that as the

education level increases, the individual employee is more capable of effective

management of workplace anger/stress (Schieman, 2000).

Higher Education Levels can Lower Job-Related Stress

Igbaria (1993) examined job satisfaction using the level of education as a

moderating variable. His studies indicated that a number of different personal variables

could act as moderators o f the individual’s responses to role stressors. He focused his

research on the length of service in an organization and the level of education as the best

moderating variables, as their affect in moderating job satisfaction and role stress has

previously been demonstrated (Beehr & Newman, 1978; van Bergeijik, 1997;

Parasuraman, 1989; Schuler, 1984; Snell, 1980). Igbaria (1993) concluded that the level

o f education and organizational tenure moderated the relationship of role stressors and

job satisfaction. This moderation was due to the significant interaction effects of

education and role ambiguity on satisfaction with promotion, supervision, and overall job

satisfaction. His study also established that gender did not moderate any o f the

relationships between role stressors and job satisfaction.

Sternberg (1997) states that formal education, which emphasizes and expands the

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91

concept o f “good reasoning” capabilities (i.e., practical intelligence/good constructive

thinking), will positively impact intelligence scores. More and more businesses in

today’s competitive environment are encouraging continuing education. They realize that

the employee's value to the firm is enhanced as the employee continues to develop skills

and abilities that are useful to the business beyond those acquired through formal

education prior to being hired.

The occupation of physician is one that most people will agree requires a high

level of formal education. Revicki and Whitey (1997) performed a study o f 484

emergency medicine residents and the effect o f stress on psychological distress and work

satisfaction. They found that participants experiencing role and task ambiguity, along

with an absence of perceived support in the work setting, were more likely to report

occupational stress. Work-related stress was also associated with increases in symptoms

of depression. Strong and cohesive support peer and work groups were found to decrease

work-related stress, and moderate the stress-psychological distress relationship. Women

residents and residents earlier in their postgraduate training were found to be

experiencing more symptoms of depression. Once again role ambiguity, and its effect of

increasing work-related stress, contributed significantly to symptoms o f depression.

Although not specifically tied to the education level of the employee, researchers

such as Christopherson (1991) suggest a potential causal relationship. Christopherson's

research indicates that people higher in the organizational hierarchy do not experience the

same degree o f loss of control over their workplace assignments, or the same increase in

predictability in their work schedules. Many people occupying the higher ranks of larger

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92

companies tend to be managers, professionals and technical workers, where some level of

higher formal education is usually required for entry. A stance might be taken about the

positive impact that higher education level has on lowering some types of job>related

stress (Christopherson, 1991; Mone, 2000). Mone (2000) suggested that formal

education provided the worker or employee with the necessary tools that enabled him or

her to work more competently on the job, as well as providing a personal level of

perceived mastery that contributed to effort and satisfaction.

Currently, many organizations reward employees for individual performance

(Heneman & Heneman, 1994). At these firms, obtaining a higher level of formal

education can provide an immediate source of fiscal gratification. Monetary gains,

coupled with personal satisfaction, are two of the major reasons cited for a portion of the

overall rise in educational levels. Organizational practices have shown a reliance on a

qualified workforce that is well educated as one of the key resources impacting a

company's competitive advantage (Heneman & Heneman, 1994).

It is also proposed by van Bergeijik (1997) that the less-educated employee is

socialized to develop different (lower) job-related expectations than his or her more-

educated counterpart. The more formal education a person obtains, the more likely he or

she may expect much higher levels of success (recognition) in a specific occupation,

particularly in the form o f promotions. Higher levels of ambiguity in job tasks and

activities, and uncertainty as to job-related expectations, tend to heighten dissatisfaction

levels. Thus, the less educated employee requires more supervisor interaction. These

unmet expectations can lead to higher levels of job stress for both the employee and the

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93

supervisor (van Bergeijik, 1997).

Results of studies by Park, Moore, Turner, and Adler (1997) on the association of

educational level to CT abilities indicate that a “which came first, the chicken or the egg"

relationship exists. One assessment is that good CT abilities, which lead to better coping,

may result in greater perseverance on the pan of the individual, leading them to seek

higher education accomplishments. The other stream of thought on this issue is that

possessing more advanced educational levels contributes to better adaptive coping

techniques in handling stressful situations (i.e., good constructive thinkers).

Gender as a Precurser to Education Levels Achieved

The variable of gender is also a factor in reviewing educational activities and

achievements (Scwartz & Zimmerman, 1992). Organizations are being, and will continue

to be, faced with the need to fully utilize female talent to ensure the firm's competitive

edge (Nelson & Burke, 2000). According to Flowers (2000), participation in the labor

force by more educated and more career-oriented women will continue to rise as Baby

Boomers continue to advance in the workplace. A study by Nelson and Burke (2000)

indicates that the percentage of older males participating in the workforce will continue to

decline, while the average educational levels of males continues to grow.

Empirical studies have been conducted that focus on demographic variables. In

many cases, education level has been one o f these variables. It may be one of the primary

independent variables (as is the case in this research project), or it may be a variable

ancillary to the primary theory building (King & Miles, 1994). Education literature

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studies o f the relationships between education level and various work outcomes have

reported a very diversified set of positive and negative results (Glenn & Weaver. 1982;

Gruenberg, 1980; Jackson & Griggs, 1988; Jurik, Halemba, Musheno, & Boyle, 1987;

Wright & Hamilton, 1979).

Age Segmentations—Demographic Attribute Definition and Relationship to Work-

Related Stress

In all facets o f life, chronological, intellectual, and emotional age can be viewed

as a plus or minus, dependent on the situation at hand. Nowhere is this more evident than

in the workplace. Age diversity has its own set o f issues (Kennedy. 1998). Many age

groups now in the workplace share only a few workplace values. The employees in the

various age groups differ on major values such as the role that managers should play,

employer/employee loyalty, technical competence, and teamwork. These differences can

lead to misunderstandings or conflicts/anger, or even to outright animosity that inhibits

the productivity o f the workforce. Kennedy (1998) states that “Communicating cross-

generational ly means packaging the message in several ways so that every listener

[employee] understands it” (p. 9). This is a skill that managers must acquire to deal

effectively with age diversity and the work-related stress issues it may generate.

When reviewing age and ethnic background, a new term has been coined: the

“Sandwich Generation” (SG) (Remez, 2001). This age segment is a group o f Americans

between the ages o f 45 and 55 with both young children and living parents. Seven percent

o f these Sandwich Generation members have three or more generations living under the

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95

same roof. Asian Americans make up the largest percentage o f this group (52%). African

Americans, who make up 11% of the SG, are faced with more potentially stressful

situations due to the make up o f their “family” (i.e., fewer married heads o f households,

who include siblings in their definition of family members). Job or career concerns

accounted for 18% o f this group's key day-to-day concerns as possible sources of stress

and conflict

Park, Moore, Turner, and Adler (1997) believe that age may be related to higher

levels o f constructive thinking. This relationship may be due to the average life

expectancy o f people increasing from previous generations. This gives the individual

additional time to learn from his or her experiences and acquire more successful ways o f

dealing with work-related stressors and stress.

Epstein's (1998) studies confirm that constructive thinking improves with age.

This improvement is directly related to the maturing process that people experience as.

over time, they accumulate wisdom and knowledge. One should be aware that this is not

an absolute guarantee of improvement in the level of constructive thinking; it is a

statement that all the factors that would allow one to improve with age are present. Only

the individual can consciously and deliberately take advantage of this opportunity.

Epstein (1998) makes a clear distinction between intellectual intelligence and

constructive thinking ability. If one were to plot the comparison of constructive thinking

abilities to intellectual intelligence over one’s life span, the curved lines would be nearly

opposite. The intersection o f the two measures occurs around age 35, with constructive

thinking abilities improving until age 50 and slightly declining around age 60.

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%

Intellectual intelligence usually reaches its peak in an individual's early twenties. See

Figure S for graphical presentation of this information.

Figure 5

Constructive Thinking Abilities versus Intellectual Intelligence Over Age

130

123

120
c
J IIS

110

10) 9
© e m s s

From: “CONSTRUCTIVE THINKING: The Key to Emotional Intelligence”, by


Epstein, 1998, p. 162. Copyrighted by Praeger Publishers, Westport, CT.

Epstein (1998) documents that young people can withstand considerable stress,

but that the accumulated effects of stress will begin to show when he or she reaches the

mid-forties. “It is shortsighted, therefore, for either an individual or an organization to

ignore the issue o f health and the benefits o f constructive thinking as a stress reducer” (p.

112).

Siebert (1999) also studies the relationship between the reaction to stressors and

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97

age. His studies concluded that the type of stress would have a direct relation to whether

younger or older workers are better prepared to deal successfully with the stress. For

example, the change to a new computer system may cause stress in the older employees

and excitement in the younger ones. But put these same two age groups of employees

together and introduce a major crisis, and the older workers will take control and the

younger employee group will be “stressed out.”

According to Anisman and Merali (1999), there are differing opinions on what

impact age has on the ability o f a person to handle or deal with stress. Some o f their

research would support the idea that as a person ages that person loses his or her ability to

quickly assess the source of the stress and deal with it appropriately. The other school of

thought suggests that as a person ages that person acquires more life experiences that

better enable him or her to identify and deal with various stressors.

Why does age matter? In 1988,39% of the nation's workforce was 40 years old

or older (United States Department of Labor, 1990). In 1999, 77% of women between the

ages o f 25-44 worked outside the home, along with 67% between the ages o f 45-64.

These participation levels by women in the workforce have followed an increasing trend

since the 1970's. For men in 1998, the participation percentages in those age brackets are

higher as well; 88% o f all men aged 35-44 and 76% of men aged 45-61 work outside the

homes, according to the United States Census Bureau Statistical Abstract o f the U.S.:

2001. It is predicted that by 2008,52 % of the U.S. workforce will be over 40 (Brandon,

2000). In other words (Keita & Hurrell, Jr., 1996), in the U.S. at least, there is an overall

“graying” o f the workforce that must be recognized as it relates to potential work

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stressors.

Kogan (2001) reports that the term generation gap is also applicable in workplace

scenarios. While some managers believe that intergenerational diversity is an asset,

others are finding it very difficult to meet the needs and mind-sets o f each separate

generation that have varying workplace expectations. Accommodating the needs of

employees who may range in age from 18 to 80. and motivating such a diverse workforce,

requires much forethought on the part o f management.

Aging Workforce Breeds Unique Stress

The younger generation is less willing to let their identity be defined by their job.

and is more casual about their work than are their seniors (Aeppel. 2001). "Managers say

it's partly a confidence issue, with many older workers fearful o f struggling to learn

something alongside newer hires," (Aeppel, 2001, p. 1). According to Aeppel (2001).

this presents another form of potential work-related stress.

The findings o f Wooten, Sulzer, and Cornwell (1995) show that age is predictive

of a variety o f career and employment expectations and related stressors. This extends

the work o f Kanfer and Hulin (1985), which theorizes that there is a direct correlation

between depression and losing a job late in adult life. These adults exhibit less

willingness to search for, or even to investigate, employment opportunities. The two

studies together reinforce the hypothesis that "older employees whose jobs have been

terminated constitute an at-risk population from a mental health perspective" (Wooten et

al„ 1995, p. 177).

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Siu, Spector, Cooper, and Donald (2001) concluded, from their study o f 634 Hong

Kong managers, that age was positively related to well being. In their study, well-being

was defined as job satisfaction and mental well-being. They found that older managers

self-reported better coping abilities and fewer sources of stress.

Females, Age, and Stress

Burke's (19%) findings support the hypothesis that women who subscribe to the

traditional feminine role stereotype are particularly susceptible to stress and depression in

middle age. This type o f stress or depression is linked to those women who believe that

they lack control over their environment. This results in facing life issues with what is

known as "learned helplessness.” In such cases, the woman believes she is incapable of

doing the things she needs to do to appropriately and successfully deal with life's

stressors.

The United States Bureau of the Census (1992) states that "Of the 13.7 million

widowed workers in the U.S., 11.3 million are women.” Studies by Staats. Partlo.

Armstrong-Stassen, and Plimton (1994) on the stress experiences and quality o f work life

o f the older, working widow reveal that generally the older workers present a positive

image by stating that they experience more daily "uplifts” than daily work hassles (stress

producers). "Uplifts” are defined as events that make the employee feel good, joyful,

glad or satisfied. Staats et al. also state that uplifts are found to be good stress-coping

buffers. "Increasing daily work uplifts is a promising route to the improvement o f job

satisfaction, stress reduction, and stress management” (p. 192).

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too

A classic view o f age and work can be found in the age-stage career theory

(Lawson, 2000). This relates to an individual's age, or stage of adult development, versus

his or her place on the career/employment continuum. Per this theory, everyone moves

along the time spectrum from “early career” to “mid career” to “early late career” and

finally to “late career” stages, with a “peak career” reached some time just before or after

“mid career.” The flaw of this theory is that it is based on the assumption that all adults

and their respective career phase could be identified based solely on age, and that these

phases must occur for everyone in neat, orderly chunks. As lifestyles (i.e., longevity,

quality o f life, etc.) have evolved, so must this theory if it is to remain relevant.

Chapter Summary

In this literature review, we have seen that various studies have been performed,

and research results described, for each of the independent demographic variables. Some

of these studies have also addressed the link between specific types of gender/age/other

diversity issues and work-related stress, with constructive thinking as a coping

mechanism. For instance, a study conducted in 1999 by Landa (2001), found that the

major contributing factors to CEO stress and declining success levels in Canada are

issues such as lower levels of trust in employers (only 30% had high levels) and lower job

satisfaction (only 40% stated satisfaction). These findings are confirmed in the 2002

Global Employee Relationship Report Bench Mark Study. This study suggests that

employers in North America are not keeping their employees satisfied, in either the

workplace employing them or in their job position in the business. This lack (Landa,

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2001) leads to a higher instance of stress, resulting in job dissatisfaction and finally to

employee underperfonnance.

Epstein (1998) advances the theory that constructive thinking (CT) displays a

pattern relative to age. According to Epstein, the more chronologically mature the

individual is, the more improvement will be seen in his or her coping abilities. This is

directly related to the fact that accumulated wisdom and experience levels usually

improve with age, as does an individual's social, practical, and emotional intelligence.

People over 40 have been found to be slightly better constructive thinkers than younger

adults. This is not always true, however, as the individual may choose to become a

poorer constructive thinker by embracing more negative or rigid thinking patterns.

In another study, Tobias (1999) states that one should find nondiscriminatory

methods for determining the best fit for an individual employee within a specific

organization. The end result would be an employee who is consistently working at his or

her best. This should be evident by experiencing either lower levels of negative stressors,

or by the employee knowing how to recognize and control potential stressors.

The “’human," or organizational behavioral, element of this research must not be

overlooked. While many of the researchers and theorists agree that an argument can be

made for a causal relationship, which factor is the "cause" and which variable is the

"effect" could not be determined without some degree of uncertainty. Since this is an

"organizational behavior"-based study, as were most of those reviewed, the primary

consistency factor was the "human element.” All o f the literature and studies strove to

explain "how” or "why” humans react the way they do. As this is not a stagnant variable.

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it is understandable that the results were mixed for or against a particular position or

statement.

Chapter 3 presents the design and statistical analysis methodology for the current

study, along with a brief history o f the development of the major survey instrument—

Constructive Thinking Inventory. The validity and reliability of the instrument, and some

of its previous applications for testing o f other hypotheses, will be reported. The one-

page demography collection sheet is also discussed. The alternative four hypotheses to be

tested are detailed in Chapter 3, along with their associated null hypotheses. The

numerical equivalents assigned to the demographic variables for scoring and analyzing

are also described.

This analysis will be performed to accept or reject the null hypotheses resulting

from our original research questions of:

1. Can individual employee demographic variables become the basis for

predicting potential reactions to workplace-induced stressors?

2. Does constructive thinking theory provide a classification methodology for

determining which type o f coping strategy employees could use for dealing

with work-induced stress?

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CHAPTER 3

DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY

O rganization n f the C h ap ter

This chapter examines the methodology and design o f the study. It includes a

description of the design of the study, the research question and associated hypotheses,

the population to be surveyed, and the survey instruments used to gather the data. It also

describes the procedures used for the participant selection and education, survey and

demographic data collection, and the results of the data analysis.

Population

The survey population for this study, drawn from light commercial/industrial

manufacturing industries, is any manager or non-frontline employee. The sample will be

drawn from 12 various divisions of multi-national manufacturing firms with headquarters

in the United States or Canada. The current study will include only employees who work

full time and are not frontline or indirect support production workers. The sample will

include individuals ranging in age from 18 to 65+ from different genders and different

ethnic and educational backgrounds.

103

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Sample

The writer intends to contact a population of approximately 500-600 full-time

employees. In order to determine the appropriate sample size, the suggested formula and

Table for Determining Sample Size from a Given Population, developed by Krejcie and

Morgan (1970), has been used. The formula is as follows:

8 = X2 NP (1 - P) /d 2 (N -1 ) + X 2 P (1 - P)

Where 8 = the required sample size, X 2= the table value for chi-squared for 1 degree of

freedom at the desired confidence level (3.841), N = the population size. P = the

population proportion (assumed to be .50, as this provides the maximum sample size),

and d = the degree o f accuracy expressed as a proportion (.05). Based on the Krejcie and

Morgan's chart, this researcher expects to generate complete and valid data sets from a

minimum o f 196 of the employees. The sample (s = 1%) will represent a population that

includes voluntary participants. Relevant demographic data will be exhibited once the

data collection is complete.

Survey Instruments and Return Procedures

Two instruments will be used for this study. The Constructive Thinking Inventory

Survey will be used to determine the participant's rating as it relates to his or her

indications o f his or her characteristic constructive and deconstructive automatic thoughts

and ways o f coping with stress in the work world. (See Appendix D for survey sample.)

This focus will be narrowed by demographic variables, including gender, education,

ethnicity, and age. Demographic information will be gathered from the respondents'

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answers to a generic demographic template included in the participant's package. (See

Appendix C for demographic form sample.) The package presented to the participant for

completion will also include a cover letter explaining the time commitment involved, the

mechanics o f completing the survey, and how and where to return the survey (Appendix

B). The survey author. Dr. Seymour Epstein, graciously gave permission for the use of

this instrument A copy of the permission statement is included as Appendix E.

Measures

The demographic data will be assigned numerical equivalents to ease the input of

the data in a consistent record structure.

Gender

Gender is Question 1 of the demographic template, and will be data entered, as a

“ 1” for male and a “2” for female.

Ethnicity

Different ethnicities will each be assigned numerical equivalents of 1 to 8 for data

entry. This involves Question 4 with choices of: Caucasian, Asian Indian, Asian, Native

American/Eskimo, Black/African American, Pacific Islander, and Hispanic. There is also

a category labeled “Other.”

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Cross-Cultural Impacts

Potential cross-cultural stressors. Question 3, will be accounted for by reviewing

whether or not the country in which the participant was bom is the country in which he or

she now works. A “0” will be assigned if the countries are the same, and a “ F will be

inserted if they are different.

Age Segmentation

Age segments. Question 2, will be assigned a numerical equivalent from 1 to 5.

youngest to oldest, respectively. The segment choices are: under 21,21 to 32 years old.

33 to 44 years old, 45 to 55 years old, and over 55.

Education

The highest educational level achieved by the respondent at the time that the

survey was answered, (Question 5). will each be assigned equivalent, consistent

numerical values o f 1 to 6. One is assigned to some high school grades completed, and

“2” is assigned to high school diploma earned. Three is the numerical equivalent

assigned to some college/technical school courses taken, and **4" correlates to 2-or 4-year

college degree obtained. The number **5” is associated with some post-graduate courses

taken, and “6” represents post-graduate degree completed.

Design of the Study and Development of Data Gathering Instruments

This investigation seeks to determine the potential relationships between job

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stress and workplace diversity in the areas of gender, ethnicity, age. and educational

levels, as measured on the Constructive Thinking Inventory (CTI). The CTI is a measure

of constructive thinking abilities. This study proposes that CT is an acceptable coping

mechanism or strategy for helping employees and employers deal effectively with work-

related stressors. These results will be analyzed to shed light on previous findings that

state that the most desired outcome is to identify a good constructive thinker (i.e.. higher

ratings on global constructive thinking, emotional coping, and behavioral coping, and

lower relative scores on the other subscales) (Epstein. 1989).

The Constructive Thinking Inventory (CTI) Scale

The Constructive Thinking Inventory Scale consists of 108 questions. This list of

questions can be further divided, or identified, by which o f the six sub-categories it falls

into. Responses on the instrument are indicated via a Liker format that rates the

respondent's perceptions about feelings, beliefs, and behaviors. The participants will be

told before beginning the questionnaire that it contains some "silly” items for the purpose

of verifying where people may have been careless or lost their place. Items are also

included in the questionnaire to verify if the respondents are attempting to make

themselves look too good (or bad).

Respondents rate the items in the instrument on a five-point scale to indicate the

degree to which they feel about the particular question, with a "1” indicating the item is

definitely false, a "2” indicating if the item is mostly false, a "4” if it is mostly true to a

"5” that indicates the item is definitely true. An answer of "3” is to be used only when

the respondent cannot decide if the item is mainly true or false, i.e., undecided or if the

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statement is equally false and true in the respondent's opinion. The respondents in this

study will also be asked to indicate with an T the appropriate response to a variety of

demographic questions included in the first page of the instrument.

Reliability and Validity

The current version of the CTI has presented impressive internal consistency

reliability. The Global scale, along with all six o f the subscales, has exhibited internal

reliabilities that exceed the suggested statistical cut-off of 0.70. The Global Constructive

scale has demonstrated internal consistency reliability of 0.89 in adults. Using a large

population of college students, the Global scale exhibited internal consistency reliability

of 0.90, and test-retest reliability of 0.86 (Epstein, 1989).

The construct validity of the Constructive Thinking Inventory (CTI) is based upon

several studies, many of which assessed the relation of the CTI scales to other self-report

instruments (Epstein & Meier, 1989). The CTI has been investigated in relation to many

personality scales and other measures of coping ability, such as the Primary Emotions and

Traits (PETS) scale, the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI), the NEO Five Factor

Inventory, the Attribution Style Questionnaire (ASQ), the Internal-External Locus of

Control scale, the Hardiness scales, and the Life Orientation test (LOT). The pattern of

correlations provided support for the discriminant and convergent validity o f the CTI

scales, particularly the Global Constructive Thinking scale (Epstein, 1993). Epstein and

Meier (1989) assert, “the specific scales o f the CTI produced differential and coherent

relationships that attested to their discriminant and construct validity." Some of these

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comparative studies are outlined in greater depth, with specific analysis data below.

Spirrison and Gordy (1993) have presented findings that support the validity of

the CTI validity scale. Hurley (1989) utilized the CTI when investigating the link

between constructive thinking and elevated rating of self in interpersonal groups. His

findings concluded that constructive thinking and rating one's self above peers—

especially for acceptance of self—consistently correlated positively. He concluded that

this suggests an underlying higher sense of self-independence.

Hurley (1991) conducted another test on 137 American undergraduates to test the

hypothesis that positive links exist between rational beliefs about personal conduct and

practical intelligence indicators. Using the CTI. Hurley found that rational beliefs were

firmly linked with CT.

Hurley (19%) once again used the CTI in conjunction with his study on

constructive thinking and firm disagreement versus neuroticism and mild agreement.

With the statistical results of his study. Hurley supported his hypothesis that individuals

who inclined toward more expressive and firmer responses would tend to be more

assertive, more extraverted, and more intellectually open. He further stated increased

attention to response styles might enhance the value of psychological inventories. Hurley

used the Neuroticism Extraversion Openness-Perscnality Inventory (NEO-PI) Form S and

the CTI in his study in 19%.

Atwater (1992) assessed Epstein's CTI and base theory for its ability to improve

the prediction o f performance beyond cognitive ability. Her study found that measures of

practical intelligence from the CTI added significantly to the prediction of academic

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performance, beyond measures of cognitive ability. Constructive thinking was also found

to correctly account for the unique variances in predicting training performance and

leadership ratings o f her study's participants. The participants in this study, in addition to

completing a shorter version o f the CTI, also completed a 16 Personality Factors Test,

provided current GPA and SAT admission scores, as well as information provided by

superiors and subordinates with regard to performance measures.

According to the analysis performed by Atwater (1992) for her study, the two

measures of constructive thinking were significantly correlated (r = .46). This correlation

is comparable to the Epstein and Meier study (1989) which found r = .45. The

personality traits measured were found to be significantly correlated. They had an r = . 19.

All testing had a p score o f > .05.

Green (1988) expanded on Epstein's theory o f CT and CTI. He conducted a study

of 92 public school administrators on coping with job-related stress. Green's findings

supported Epstein's earlier statements that people who were poor constructive thinkers

were sensitive to many job-related events. In this case, sensitivity is defined as the degree

to which an event is regarded as stressful when it occurs. These administrators were also

found to be particularly sensitive to interpersonal job-related events and, therefore, more

likely to experience a greater degree of stress. Green found constructive thinking to be

positively associated with job satisfaction, and negatively associated with self-reported

symptoms of mental distress and physical illness. Green's summary of his study indicates

that what is experienced as stressful may lie more in the eye of the beholder than in the

objective occurrence o f the events.

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CTI was also utilized by Giancola, Shoal, and Mezzich (2001) in their study to

determine how executive functioning, constructive thinking, and antisocial behavior were

related to drug use in 282 teenage females. The female participants with substance use

disorders demonstrated lower constructive thinking abilities and lower executive

functioning, and higher antisocial behavior compared with the control scores. It was

further found that antisocial behavior partially mediated the relationship between drug use

involvement and constructive thinking abilities.

Ammerman, Lynch, Donovan, Martin, and Maisto (2001) performed a similar

study of 551 teenagers with and without substance use disorders. The concurrent validity

and clinical correlates of constructive thinking, defined as experiential coping, was their

area o f examination. Constructive thinking was correlated with depression, anxiety, and

conduct problems. Ammerman et al. states that the CTI measures were able to

distinguish adolescents with and without substance use disorders. This rating was then

used as the basis for further patient assessment and treatment.

Using Epstein's theory o f CT and cognitive-experiential self-theory, Lopez (1996)

explored the extent to which retrospective reports of childhood emotional bonds with

parents, and current adult attachment orientations, predicted the capacity for CT. This

was performed on a sample of 145 college undergraduates utilizing a 29-item Global

Constructive Thinking (GCT) scale, the Parental Bonding Instruments (PBI) which

contained 50-items, and the Adult Attachment Inventory (AAI). This 13-item survey

contained two scales of measurement for this study.

Lopez found that when ethnic and gender differences in CT were controlled for.

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both parent/child emotional bonds and current adult attachment orientations significantly

predicted constructive thinking scores. He also found that the participants’ adult

attachment orientations were effective in mediating the potential influences o f the early

emotional bonds on CT (Lopez, 19%).

The analyses to support these findings are Chronbach alpha o f .91 on the GCT.

Care and Protection scales from the PBI reaching Chronbach alphas o f .94 and .87. while

the AAI had Chronbach alphas of .77 and .74. In the Epstein and Meier study (1989), a

Cronbach alpha o f .90 for the GCT scale was reached (Lopez, 19%).

Research Questions

This study will address the following research questions.

1. Can individual employee demographic variables become the basis for relating

potential reactions to workplace-induced stressors?

2. Does constructive thinking (CT) theory provide a classification methodology

for determining which type of coping strategy employees could use for dealing

with work-induced stress? That is to say, will the results o f the participant's

score(s) on the Global scale, or one o f its six subscales, indicate which coping

approach will be most helpful to the employee when dealing with work-related

stressors?

Working Hypotheses

The following hypotheses, in both the null and alternative form, will be examined.

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113

Hypothesis 1

H OI: The participant's ethnic group (independent variable) has no correlation to

the results on the six sub-categories or Global scales of the CTI (dependent variables).

HA 1: The participant's ethnic group (independent variable) has a correlation to

the results on the six sub-categories or Global scales of the CTI (dependent variable).

Hypothesis 2

H02: The participant's gender (independent variable) has no correlation to the

results on the six sub-categories or Global scales of the CTI (dependent variables).

HA2: The participant's gender (independent variable) has a correlation to the

results on the six sub-categories or Global scales of the CTI (dependent variable).

Hypothesis 3

H03: The participant's age group (independent variable) has no correlation to

the results on the six sub-categories or Global scales of the CTI (dependent variables).

HA3: The participant's age group (independent variable) has a correlation to the

results on the six sub-categories or Global scales of the CTI (dependent variable).

Hypothesis 4

H04: The participant’s education level (independent variable) has no correlation

to the results on the six sub-categories or Global scales o f the CTI (dependent variables).

HA4: The participant's education level (independent variable) has a correlation

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to the results on the six sub-categories or Global scales o f the CTI (dependent variable).

Hypothesis 5

HOS: The participant's country of birth and current country of work being the

same (independent variable) has no correlation to the results on the six sub-categories or

Global scales o f the CTI (dependent variables).

HA5: The participant's country o f birth and current country o f employment

being the same (independent variable) has a correlation to the results on the six sub-

categories or Global scales o f the CTI (dependent variable).

Procedure

Data Collection

The data collection phase of this investigation will be conducted in the Winter of

2002/2003. The Constructive Thinking Inventory, along with a cover letter (see Appendix

B), will be delivered to all office locations via mail to the human resource manager of

each division, who will then distribute the instruments according to the parameters set as

to the intended participant audience (i.e., non-hourly, non-production (factory) workers).

The cover letter will give a brief description of the study and clarify to the participant that

all answers given are confidential and that under no circumstance would their identity be

revealed (see Appendix G). The human resource managers will be instructed by the

researcher to present their non-frontline, full-time employees with the survey, and ask

each employee to complete the survey, individually and anonymously. Under no situation

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will the participant be asked to identify him or herself, nor should they indicate their

identity by any means on the survey. The participant should not, under any circumstance,

discuss their responses with their co-workers, in order to avoid potential answer biases.

Self-addressed, stamped envelopes will be provided to the participants for individual

return o f the demographic sheet and survey to this researcher.

Analysis of the Oata and Strategy

This researcher will utilize a computer-generated Statistical Product and Service

Solutions (SPSS) database o f individual participants' demographics and associated

survey answer selections to score the Constructive Thinking Inventory (CTI) scales. Each

participant will answer 108 questions with a 1 to 5 Likert rating scale. A score of “1"

indicating strongly disagree to a scoring of “5” indicating the participant strongly agrees

with the statement for each o f the questions that will be presented. Additionally, each

respondent will have provided necessary demographic data on their personal demographic

data sheet. The grading guide provided by Dr. Epstein will be referenced to determine

actual rating calculation methodologies. Each participant will be assigned a rating on

each of the six subscales as well as an overall Constructive Thinking, or Global scale,

score. The main scale, the six subscales, and the associated test questions for each scale

will be defined and detailed below.

1. The Global scale is a broad bipolar scale that includes items from all of the six

subscales, except the scale for Naive Optimism. By being a bipolar scale, the

Global Constructive Thinking (GCT) scale includes items whose answers are

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indicative of both constructive and deconstructive thinking styles and potential

coping strategies.

Respondents with high GCT scores are, above all else, flexible thinkers.

They are optimistic, able to adjust their thinking to appropriately meet the

issue at hand, and are accepting o f others as well as self-accepting. In a given

situation, good GCT respondents attempt to control, but are also willing to

accept those things that they cannot control. They usually give others the

benefit of the doubt.

Because the Global Constructive Thinking (GCT) scale is composed o f 29

items from the other scales, it can be defined in terms of those scales. For

instance, good constructive thinkers usually have high scores on the

behavioral coping and emotional coping subscales. Good constructive

thinkers were also found to have low scores on the subscales of categorical,

superstitious and esoteric thinking.

2. The Behavioral Coping (BC) subscale contains 1S questions/items and is also

a bipolar scale. The 14 questions can be further divided into three

subsections. They are: positive thinking, action orientation, and

conscientiousness. Respondents with high scores on this scale tend to be

optimistic, enthusiastic and energetic, as well as conscientious. They are

quick to act after taking the time to plan an appropriate response to the

situation at hand. They are usually extroverted and enthusiastic people,

accepting of others and not holding grudges.

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3. The Emotional Coping (EC) subscale contains 25 items that can be further

divided into four subsections. Those subsections are: self acceptance, absence

o f negative overgeneralization, non-sensitivity, and absence of dwelling. This

too is a bipolar scale, but is the one more strongly associated with the Global

scale than any o f the other subscales. Respondents who rate high in emotional

coping abilities are self accepting, able to deal with distressing situations

without producing or adding to undue stress, are not excessively sensitive to

failure, disapproval or rejection by others, and do not take things too

personally. Documentation from the CTI manual and Epstein's (1989, 1991.

1992, etc.) writings state that these higher-scoring emotional coping

respondents experience less stress in living than do others.

4. The Personal Superstitious Thinking (PST) subscale contains seven items with

no further subdivisions. This subscales indicates the degree to which the

respondents endorse private superstitions. Trains of thought, such as if

something good happens then something bad is sure to follow, would be an

example o f private superstitious. Respondents with higher scores on this

subscale tend to be oriented more toward defending oneself against threats

than looking toward personal fulfillment.

5. The Categorical Thinking (CaT) subscale contains 16 items (questions) that

can be further subdivided into three subsections. The subsections are:

polarized thinking, distrust of others, and intolerance. Respondents who score

high on this subscale tend to view the world in terms of black and white only

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118

by overlooking important distinctions. While this can be a positive in

facilitating decisive action, it can be a negative in that those solutions will

tend to be simplistic and prejudicial in nature.

6. The Esoteric Thinking (ET) subscale contains 13 o f the 108 questions. It too

can be further subdivided into two subsections. They are: belief in the unusual

and formal superstitious thinking. This subscale reveals the degree to which

the respondent believes in unusual and scientifically questionable phenomena

such as ghosts, good and bad omens, etc. While very high scores on this

subscale are indicative o f a lack of critical thinking and an excessive reliance

on feelings and unsubstantiated impressions, within moderate score limits,

however, the respondents’ degrees of open-mindedness to unproven

phenomena is revealed.

7. The Naive Optimism (NaO) subscale contains 15 items, and can be further

divided into three subsections. The subsections are: positive over-optimism,

stereotypical thinking, and Pollyanna-ish thinking. This scale indicates the

degree to which the respondents may be unrealistically optimistic. This is a

scale o f mixed signals. On a positive note, persons who rated high on Naive

Optimism have high spirits and are usually well liked by others. On the

negative side, a high rating could indicate a simple-minded orientation to life

and an unwillingness or failure to face the unpleasant realities o f life and take

appropriate actions.

A summary table o f the different Constructive Thinking Inventory scales and

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subscales, along with the questions that are positively or negatively associated with that

scale (subscale), and a scoring for mean, standard deviation and alpha, is included in

Appendix A. Examples o f positively and negatively scored items are also included in the

appendix for each scale or subscale.

In addition to the main Global scale and the six subscales defined previously, the

CTI also has three validity scales. The scores from these scales add no substantive

information about the respondents; they are simply included in the CTI as validity checks.

These three scales are: the validity scale, the defensiveness scales, and the lie-free scale.

According to Epstein (1989), a score o f greater than 30 on the validity scale

indicates that the respondent understood the items/questions on the CTI as presented, and

that he or she was not careless in taking the survey. The defensiveness scale, which

indicates if the respondent was deliberately trying to portray himself/herself in an

unrealistically favorable view, is considered invalid with a T score of 70 or greater. The

final validity check comes from the lie-free scale. This scale is evaluated in conjunction

with the respondent's score on the Global scale. If the T score for the lie-free scale is ten

points below the Global scale, then there is reason to suspect that the participant has tried

to present an excessively favorable picture o f him or herself. On the other side o f the

coin, if the T score for the lie-free scale is ten points or more above the Global scale, most

likely the participant has tried to present an excessively unfavorable view o f him or

herself.

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Table 5

Validity Scales

Name o f scale Examples o f positive (P) scored Item Items Mean (M).
and a brief items and negative (N) scored items numbers that numbers that standard
description o f within the scale are scored are scored deviation (SD)
the scale’s positive negative and Alpha (A)
focus within the within the o f the scale
scale scale

Validity scale (P) two + two = four. 50,74.84, 27,33,42.


(N) 1 never learned to read. 106 67

Defensive (P) What others think o f me bothers 19,61,64. 13,22 M = 18.33


(lie) scale me not in the least. 72, 80, 87 SD = 4.42
(N) 1 sometimes get annoyed by A = 0.65
people who express unreasonable
views.

Lie-free scale (P) Most people regard me as a 62, 105 24. 34.46. M = 33.27
tolerant and forgiving person. 48,71.77, SD = 4.43
(N) The only person 1 completely 107 A = 0.56
trust is myself.

The statistical analysis o f data will be conducted using difference-of-means tests

(T tests) to compare the scores of all respondents on the six subscales of constructive

thinking and the independent demographic data.

Based on the suggested methods (Babbie, 1995) o f data analysis that are cognizant

o f the types o f data to be analyzed, the following analysis plan has been tentatively

formulated. A multivariate analysis will be used to take into account the possible

influence o f other factors on the resultant information. The main advantages of this

method are that it can be used when independent variables have not been experimentally

manipulated, and it can process categorical independent variables. It also allows for an

easy understanding of how means change when the controls are introduced. From this

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analysis, this researcher will be able to determine significant relationships, plus factor out

those variables that account for the least amount o f variance in the relationships under

investigation. The independent variables will be ethnicity, age brackets, gender,

education level, and cultural symmetry.

Hypotheses will be tested at the one-tailed 0.05 significance level. The focus of

this study is to empirically test for correlations between levels o f constructive thinking

and its various subcomponents, which have been validated as a predictor of stress-coping

abilities with gender and other demographic workplace diversity issues. Research

questions such as ’‘Does one gender rate statistically higher than the other in terms of

global constructive thinking, emotional coping, categorical thinking, esoteric thinking,

personal superstitious thinking, naive optimism, and/or behavioral coping?" have been

developed into a formal hypothesis format with the related null hypotheses stated. The

instrument results will also be analyzed for possible correlations between education

levels, age brackets, ethnicity, and so forth.

The analytical portion of the research will involve the scoring o f the participants'

responses, the dependent metric variable, in addition to assignment o f the independent

variables such as gender and other non-metric diversity attributes. At this time, variable

reduction through multi-dimensional scaling (with appropriate dimension assignment)

and other factor analysis techniques were utilized in the analytical models. Data analysis

and testing will be completed within the parameters of analysis o f variance (ANOVA) or

multivariate analysis o f variance (MANOVA). Due to the combination of metric and

non-metric variables, a canonical model to identify statistically significant levels of

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122

correlations, reliability, validity, etc. will also be completed before a determination is

made as to whether the research alternative hypothesis or the null hypothesis is supported.

The results from tests, such as Type I error and Type II error, will also be considered

(Brightman & Schneider, 1994). These findings will be further reviewed for T test levels

and other appropriate statistical analysis, with all hypotheses tested at the .05 significance

level.

Epstein and Meier (1989), Spirrison and Gordy (1993), Hurley (1991, 1996),

Atwater (1992), Green (1988), Gioncolaet al. (2001), and Ammerman et al. (2001) have

all used combinations o f the statistical methods outlined above. Each researcher or

research team chose whichever analysis method or combination of methods was most

appropriate for use with the sample data (i.e., all metric variables, what p [significance]

level was desired, etc.) to properly support or disprove his or her of their hypothesis(es).

Limitations

The limitations o f the study can be separated into three parts. Those limitations

are linked to the type o f data collection instrument, in this case two surveys: the

population/sample biases, and work/economic factors in place at the single research

measurement point, as this is not a longitudinal study (Babbie, 1995).

First to be examined are the issues inherent in the use of surveys. According to

Babbie (1995), “like other methods of observation in social scientific research, surveys

have unique strengths and weaknesses” (p. 273). The strengths of the instrument lie in

the usefulness o f a survey to describe the characteristic of a large population. Self-

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administered surveys make large samples feasible. In this study, 400-600 surveys will be

distributed. Standardized questionnaires, such as the CTI, have the added strength of

measurement generality.

According to Babbie (1995), the potential weakness o f a standardized

questionnaire is that the instrument may result in “fitting of a round peg into a square

hole” (p. 273). This can occur because questions often represent that the least common

denominator is assuring attitudes, circumstances, orientations, and/or experiences.

Bias can exist if the sample selected from the possible population is not random

(i.e., a convenience sample). This is the case of this researcher’s sample selection. The

potential bias or skewing o f data, as a result o f the convenience sample selection or the

sample size itself in relation to the population size, must be accounted for in the selected

analysis methodologies.

Finally, as this is not a longitudinal study, the socio-economic status of the

participants, in relation to the company that employs them, may also create some

unintended biases. For instance, are the target companies experiencing major lay-offs or

adding employees? This will have an effect on the overall state-of-mind that the

respondent (employee) will have when assimilating the questions and deciding on a

favorable to unfavorable level of response.

Once the data analysis has been performed on the respondents' surveys selections,

the actual impact of the various types of potential study limitations will be statistically

evident. The statistically significant limitations will be discussed in more depth in

Chapter 4, with regard to their relationship to the accept/reject decision o f the various

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124

hypotheses.

C hanter Sum m ary

In Chapter 3, a research model and its related five hypotheses were developed.

These research hypotheses were derived from the in-depth literature reviewed in

conjunction with the problem statement and research questions.

A research design and methodology were also presented to examine the working

hypotheses. Additionally, the data collection procedures, data analysis strategy, and

research study limitations were detailed.

Chapter 4 will present the results o f the empirical analysis performed in this

research study. A presentation of the descriptive statistics gathered from the demographic

survey responses (i.e., the breakdown of demographic attributes) will be shown.

Secondly, the results o f the empirical statistical analysis of the data collected from the

two survey instruments will be discussed, along with the findings that support or dismiss

the working null hypotheses. Further discussion on the type of data analysis used on the

survey data will also be included in Chapter 4.

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CHAPTER 4

ANALYSIS AND PRESENTATION OF FINDINGS

O rganization o f the C h ap ter

In Chapter 1 the reasons for further testing of the causes, costs and consequences

associated with workplace stress were presented. Research questions were developed to

focus this mammoth issue to the current study to be undertaken. In Chapter 2 an in-depth

literature review of salient researchers on job stress, constructive thinking theory and

coping strategies was presented, along with these researcher’s findings that were relevant

to workplace stress and stressors. Chapter 3 involved the transformation of these research

questions into five testable hypotheses. The testing methodologies were also presented.

This chapter examines the results of the analysis methodologies used to answer

the following research questions:

1. Can individual employee demographic variables become the basis for

relating potential reactions to workplace-induced stressors?

2. Does Constructive Thinking Theory provide a classification methodology

for determining which coping strategy employees could use for dealing

with work-induced stress?

The statistical findings o f the study, which used demographic variables and the

125

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126

Constructive Thinking Inventory (CTI) results that were relevant to each o f the tested

hypotheses sets, are also presented. The contents of this chapter also include a

description o f the population/sample utilized, the demographic data collected from the

sample respondents, and the hypotheses' acceptance/rejection criteria.

Design o f the Study and Data-Gathering Instruments

This investigation sought to determine the potential relationships between

job stress and workplace diversity issues such as gender, ethnicity, age, and educational

level, as measured on the Constructive Thinking Inventory (CTI). The CTI is a measure

o f constructive thinking (CT) abilities. This study proposed that CT is an acceptable

coping mechanism or strategy to help employees and employers deal effectively with

work-related stressors.

The Constructive Thinking Inventory Scale

The Constructive Thinking Inventory (CTI) Scale consists of 108 questions. This

list o f questions can be further divided or identified into six subcategories. Responses

on the CTI instrument were indicated via a Likert-like format that rates the respondent's

perceptions about feelings, beliefs, and behaviors.

Respondents rated the items in the CTI instrument on a five-point scale that

indicated the degree o f feeling they had about the particular question. An answer o f one

(1) indicated that the item was definitely false, a two (2) indicated that the item was

mostly false, a four (4) that it was mostly true, and a five (S) indicated that the item was

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definitely true. An answer o f three (3) was used only when the respondent could not

decide if the item was mainly true or false (i.e.. undecided), or if the statement was

equally true or false in the respondent's opinion.

Sample

This research consisted of a population o f 496 full-time employees who were

initially presented with surveys and completion instructions. This study required that

enough surveys be returned to generate 196 (40%) complete and valid data sets from the

voluntary adult employees. The minimum sample (s = 196) needed o f voluntary

participants' returning instruments was exceeded by 25 responses. S = 196 was derived

from the Table for Determining Sample Size from a Given Population, developed by

Krejcie and Morgan (1970). (See Chapter 3 — Sample section for more detail on sample

size selection.) Eleven o f the returned surveys were not fully completed, so they were

discarded from the analysis database. Two o f the surveys failed the Validity Scale of the

CTI, so their responses were not included in the final database. Relevant demographic

data are exhibited in a summary table format at the end o f the next section.

Return rates o f other studies utilizing the CTI were not available, as all survey

studies investigated were given in a controlled environment to a targeted group o f people.

Sample sizes in the studies however ranged from 92 public school administrators (Green,

1988) to Hurley’s 1991 study o f 137 American undergraduates, to Lopez's (1996) 145

college undergraduates. Giancola, Shoal and Mezzich (2001) had a group o f 282 female

teenagers for their sample group while Ammerman, et al. (2001) had 551 teenagers in

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their study. Epstein stated in 1989 that the CTI survey had multiple testing samples

during its development and application. Epstein (1983) analyzed the result of the CTI for

124 college students during his development phase. Epstein's (1989) final version of the

CTI, upon which the standardized scale scores, validity, reliability and factor analysis

results were derived, was based on the results of 1,500 college students and 158 adult

survey participants.

Demographic Measures

The following demographic variables were selected as the focus-independent

variables for this study. Literature and research reviewed showed that these particular

variables were those that could be found in any sample group of employees. Individually,

the previous research had already indicated a potential link between some of the

demographic items and the type or severity o f work-related stress that a participant might

experience. The demographic data was assigned numerical equivalents when the survey

instruments results were inserted into a consistent data record structure within Statistical

Product and Service Solutions (SPSS) parameters.

Gender

Gender, Question 1 of the demographic template, was entered as a “ 1” for male

and a “2” for female. The useable responses came from 132 males and 76 females.

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Ethnicity

For the returned surveys, different ethnicities were each assigned numerical

equivalents o f 1 to 7. This was Question 4 o f the demographic survey, with choices o f

“Caucasian,” “Asian Indian.” “Asian,” “Native American/Eskimo,” “Black/African

American,” “Pacific Islander,” and “Hispanic,” respectively. The response results were

182 Caucasian, 9 Asian Indian, 5 Asian, 3 Native American/Eskimo, 1 Black/African

American, 1 Pacific Islander, and 7 Hispanic. Due to the low frequencies o f some o f the

categories (1 Pacific Islander and 1 Black/African American, for example) compared to

the main category o f Caucasian, which was selected by 182 o f the respondents (87.5%).

the statistical analysis performed on this demographic attribute was restated as only two

categories — “Caucasian” and “Other.”

Cross-cultural Impacts

For Question 3, a zero (0) was assigned if the countries of work and birth were the

same. A one (1) was inputted if the countries o f birth and work were different, which

could then account for potential cross-cultural stressors. The response tabulations

illustrated 186 responses with the same country o f birth and work, and 22 responses

where the country of birth and work were not the same.

Age Segmentation

Age segments, Question 2, were assigned a numerical equivalent from 1 to 5,

youngest to oldest, respectively. The segment choices were “under 21,” “21 to 32” years

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(30

old, “33 to 44” years old, “45 to 55” years old, and the final segment of “over 55” years

old. The results from the useable respondent surveys were 3 responses under 21 years of

age, 23 responses in the 21 to 32 year age segment, 77 responses in the 33 to 44 year age

segment, 72 responses in the 45 to 55 age segment, and 33 responses in the over 55 age

segment.

Education

The highest level of education reached by the respondent, Question S, at the time

that the survey was answered, was assigned equivalent, consistent numerical factors of 1

to 6. “Some high school grades completed” was true for 6 o f the respondents, “High

School diploma earned” was true for 24 of the respondents, “Some college/technical

school courses taken” was true for 50 o f the respondents, “2 or 4 year college degree

obtained” was correct for 86 o f the respondents, “Some post graduate courses taken” was

the choice o f 24 of the respondents, and “Post graduate degree completed” was true for 18

o f the respondents.

Statistical Product and Service Solutions (SPSS) generated detailed frequencies

results are included in Appendix F. Mean, mode, median, and standard deviation are also

provided for each of the variables.

Data Analysis Procedures

This researcher utilized a computer-generated SPSS database, comprised of data

on the individual participants' demographics and associated survey answer selections, to

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131

score the Constructive Thinking Inventory (CTI) Scales. Each participant answered 108

questions with a 1 to 5 Likert-like rating scale. The grading guide provided by Dr. Epstein

was referenced to determine actual CTI rating calculation methodologies. Each

participant was assigned a rating on each of the six subscales, as well as an overall

Constructive Thinking, or Global Scale, score. The main scale and the six subscales are

briefly defined.

1. The Global Scale is a broad bipolar scale that includes items from all of

the six subscales, except the scale for Naive Optimism. By being a bipolar

scale, the Global Scale includes items whose answers are indicative of both

constructive and deconstructive thinking styles and potential coping strategies.

2. The Behavioral Coping Subscale contains 15 questions/items, and is also a

bipolar scale. The 14 questions can be further divided into three subsections.

They are: (a) positive thinking, (b) action orientation, and (c)

conscientiousness. Respondents with high scores on this scale tend to be

optimistic, enthusiastic, and energetic, as well as conscientious.

3. The Emotional Coping Subscale contains 25 items that can be further

divided into four subsections. Those subsections are: (a) self acceptance, (b)

absence o f negative overgeneralization, (c) non-sensitivity, and (d) absence of

emotional dwelling. This too is a bipolar scale, and is the one more strongly

associated with the Global Scale than any o f the other subscales.

4. The Personal Superstitious Thinking Subscale contains seven items with

no further subdivisions. This subscale indicates the degree to which the

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respondents endorse private superstitions.

5. The Categorical Thinking Subscale contains 16 items (questions) that can

be further subdivided into three subsections. The subsections are: (a)

polarized thinking, (b) distrust of others, and (c) intolerance. Respondents

who score high on this subscale tend to view the world in terms of black and

white only, while overlooking important distinctions.

6. The Esoteric Thinking Subscale contains 13 of the 108 questions. It can be

further subdivided into two subsections. They are: (a) belief in the unusual,

and (b) formal superstitious thinking. This subscale reveals the degree to

which the respondent believes in unusual and scientifically questionable

phenomena such as ghosts, good and bad omens, etc.

7. The Naive Optimism Subscale contains 15 items, and can be further

divided into three subsections. The subsections are: (a) positive over

optimism, (b) stereotypical thinking, and (c) Pollyanna-ish thinking. This

subscale indicates the degree to which the respondents may be unrealistically

optimistic.

Initial scoring o f the responses revealed variances between the scales' means and

standard deviations from the descriptive statistics in the Scoring Guide for the CTI

(Epstein, 1993) populations, versus the collected research overall sample data descriptive

statistics. Summaries o f these scores and variances are presented in the following table to

provide the reader with an understanding of how varied or closely approximated the scale

scores were between the standardized scores and the current research sample scores.

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Table 6

Descriptive Statistics — Variance o f Means and Standard D eviations between the CTI

Scoring Guide (N = 158 Adults) and the Current Study Sample (s = 208 A dults>

Mean o f Mean o f S.D. o f S.D. of

scale scale Variance scale scale Variance

from from of from from of standard

Scale scoring current means scoring current deviation

measured guide sample (SG - CS = V3 guide sample fSG-CS=Vi

Global

CT scale 107.8 109.4 -1.6 14.7 12.1 2.6

Behavioral

subscale 56.0 54.5 1.5 7.0 4.9 2.1

Emotional

subscale 88.5 85.3 5.2 14.8 12.5 2.3

Personal

supersti­

tious

Subscale 13.5 19.8 -5.8 4.2 2.3 1.9

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Table 6

Categorical

subscale 37.2 47.5 •10.3 9.4 4.9 4.5

Esoteric

subscale 26.6 28.6 2.0 9.6 6.4 3.2

Naive

optimism

subscale 47.8 49.2 -1.4 8.2 6.9 1.3

Validity Mean of scale Mean o f scale Variance S.D. of scale

check from scoring from current of means from scoring

scales guide sample fSG - CS = V) guide

Defensive

scale 19.1 22.0 -2.9 5.0

Lie-free

scale 33.9 36.7 - 2.8 4.9

Based on the suggested methods (Babbie, 1995) o f data analysis, this study used

one-way ANOVA and t-tests on the various independent and dependent variables of the

hypotheses. From this analysis, this data was used to determine significant relationships,

as well as to factor out those variables that accounted for the least amount o f variance in

the relationships under investigation. Hypotheses were tested at the .05% (one-tailed)

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135

significance level. The possibility of a Type I or Type II error occurring, as a result of the

interpretation o f the data, was also considered when analyzing the statistical results of

each hypothesis se t

Usually, a factor analysis of the response variables would be performed. The

results of the analysis would attempt to identify those factors (i.e., underlying variables)

that explain the pattern o f correlations within the set o f observed variables. This analysis

was not performed on the current 108-item responses, as Epstein (1989) had already

performed a factor analysis with varimax rotation of the items comprising 18 a priori

scales derived from alpha reliability coefficient computations and comparisons. An

oblique factor analysis was also performed by Epstein (1989) that mirrored the results of

his orthogonal factor analysis. Six interpretable factors emerged with loadings of greater

than .30. Additional factor analysis was performed on the data sets from the 1.500

college students and 158 adult participants. The results from this factor analysis are the

basis o f the current CTI 108-item composition and standardized scoring results. The

item-stmcture o f the Global CTI scale, and all but the Naive Optimism subscale, were

reproduced in this factor analysis. The table below presents the results o f Epstein's 1989

factor analysis o f the CTI facets.

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Table 7

Factor Analysis o f the CTIfacets - N = 1500 & correlations o f > 4 0 recorded

CTI Scale Factor 1 Factor 2 Factor3 Factor 4 Factor 5

Emotional coping

Self acceptance 85

Absence o f negative
80
overgeneralization

Non-sensitivity 79

Absence o f dwelling 77

Behavioral coping

Positive thinking 67

Action orientation 41 81

Conscientiousness 87

Categorical thinking

Polarized thinking 80

Distrust 71

Intolerance 59

Esoteric thinking

Belief in the unusual 89

Formal superstitious 89

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137

Table 7

Thinking

Naive Optimism

Over-optimism 85

Stereotypical thinking 66

Pollyanna-ish thinking 65

From: Manual for the Constructive Thinking Inventory by Epstein, 1993. Copyrighted
by: University of Massachusetts Press; Amherst, Massachusetts.

Tests o f the reliability o f the current research sample scale's results were also

performed. Reliability analysis defines the relationship between the measurement scales

and the items that they are comprised of. By testing the Alpha (Cronbach) model of

reliability statistics, internal consistency based on the average inter-item correlation can

be calculated. The standardized results of the reliability scores o f each of the scales (N =

158) is compared with the reliability statistics o f the current research study (s = 208) in

the following table.

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Table 8

Reliabilities o f the Standardized Internal Consistencies o f the CT1 Scales Versus Internal

Consistency Scores o f the Current Research Study

Epstein’s Current Variance of internal

CTI Scale reliability study consistency scores

(alpha) reliability (E - C = V)

Global scale 0.89 0.86 0.03

Emotional coping scale 0.90 0.89 0.01

Behavioral coping scale 0.82 0.69 0.13

Personal superstitious
0.73 -0.34 1.07
thinking scale

Categorical thinking scale 0.82 0.26 0.56

Esoteric thinking scale 0.86 0.63 0.23

Naive optimism scale 0.80 0.74 0.06

* “Because increasing the number o f items, even with the same degree o f intercorrelation,
will increase the reliability values, researchers must place more stringent requirements for
scales with large number of items” (Hair, Anderson, Tatham & Black, 1998). In this
instance, measurement of the reliability o f the personal superstitious thinking scale, the
opposite is true. It is the smallest of the six subscales, with no further subdivision, which
measures the respondents' belief in superstitions and/or the supernatural. While this is a
recoded subscale of the Global Thinking scale, it is more a point of interest about the
subjects than a suggestive outcome o f a coping strategy, as was the intent o f this study.

Hypotheses and Statistical Findings

To answer the research questions, the following hypotheses, in both null and

alternative form, were analyzed.

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Hypothesis 1

H OI: The participant's ethnic group (independent variable) has no correlation to

the results on the six subcategories or Global scales o f the CTI (dependent variables).

HA1: The participant’s ethnic group (independent variable) has a correlation to

the results on the six subcategories or Global scales of the CTI (dependent variables).

Ethnicitv # of responses % o f total

Caucasian 182 87.5%

Asian Indian 9 4.3%

Asian 5 2.4%

Native American/Eskimo 3 1.4%

Black/African American 1 0.5%

Pacific Islander 1 0.5%

Hispanic 7 3.3%

Totals 208 100%

After an adjustment of the data from seven different response possibilities to two

(i.e., White or Other), an Independent Samples Test (including mean, standard deviation,

standard error mean, and Levene's Test for Equality of Variances) was performed, as well

as a t-test which gave t values, degrees o f freedom (df), significance (two-tailed = < . 1),

mean difference, and standard error (SE). The review of Levene’s Test for this

hypothesis stated that equal variances were assumed, except for the Categorical Subscale

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140

that had a significance o f .001. The two-tailed t-test for equality o f means, with a

significance level o f p > .OS, found that the null hypothesis (i.e., there is a significant

relationship between ethnicity and the Global CTI scale or any o f its six subscales) would

be accepted for the Global scale (t = -1.89 and p = .06), the Emotional Coping subscale (t

= -1.312 and p = .191), the Personal Superstition subscale (t = 0.18 and p = .857),

Catergorial subscale (t = -0.926 and p=.362), the Esoteric subscale (t = -1.936 and p =

.054) and the Naive optimism subscale (t = 0.706 and p=.481). The t-test levels and

respective p scores would cause one to reject the null hypothesis on the Behavioral

Coping subscale.

Hypothesis Scale/subscale Results Test o f the null

1-Ethnicity Global scale t = -1.890 p = .060 d f = 206 Fail to reject

Behavioral

Coping subscale t = -2.548 p = .012 d f = 206 Reject

Emotional

Coping subscale t = -1.312 p = .191 d f = 206 Fail to Reject

Personal supersti­

tion subscale t = 0.180 P = .857 D f = 206 Fail to Reject

Categorical t = -0.926 p = .362 d f = 8.06 Fail to Reject

subscale

Esoteric subscale t = -1.936 p = .054 d f = 206 Fail to reject

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141

Naive optimism

subscale 1 = 0.706 p = .481 d f= 2 0 6 Fail to Reject

Hypothesis 2

H02: The participant's gender (independent variable) has no correlation to the

results on the six subcategories or Global scales o f the CTI (dependent variables).

HA2: The participant's gender (independent variable) has a correlation to the

results on the six subcategories or Global scales o f the CTI (dependent variables).

Gender Male % Female %

208 surveys 132 63.5% 76 36.5%

An Independent Samples Test (including mean, standard deviation, standard error

mean, and Levene's Test for Equality o f Variances) was performed, as well as a t-test

which gave t values, degrees o f freedom (df), significance (two-tailed), mean difference,

standard error (SE) difference, and upper and lower level for 95% confidence interval of

the SE difference. The review of Levene's Test for this hypothesis stated that equal

variances were assumed, except for the Esoteric Subscale (sig. = .081) and the Naive

Optimism Subscale, which had a significance o f .098. The one-tailed t-test for equality of

means (with a significance level of p > .05) found that the null hypothesis (i.e., there is a

significant relationship between a participant's gender and the Global CTI Scale or any of

its six subscales) would be accepted for the Behavioral Coping subscale (t = -2.42 and p

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142

= .016), the Personal Superstition subscale (t = -0.866 and p=.388) subscale (t = -4.156

and p = .000), the Categorical subscale (t = -0.239 and p=.811) and the Naive optimism

subscale (t - -1.184 and p = .238). The t-test levels and respective p scores would cause

one to reject the null hypothesis for the Global Scale and the Emotional Coping and

Esoteric subscales.

Hypothesis Scale/Subscale Results Test o f the Null

2-Gender Global scale t - 2.424 p —.016 df = 206 Reject

Behavioral

Coping subscale t = -0.381 p = .703 df = 206 Fail to Reject

Emotional

Coping subscale t = 4.156 p = .000 d f = 206 Reject

Personal

superstition

subscale t — 0.866 p —.388 df —206 Fail to Reject

Categorical

subscale t - -0.239 p = .811 d f = 206 Fail to Reject

Esoteric subscale t = -3.373 p = .001 d f =143.9 Reject

Naive optimism

subscale t = -1.184 p = .238 d f = 206 Fail to Reject

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Hypothesis 3

H03: The participant's age group (independent variable) has no correlation to

the results on the six subcategories or Global scales of the CTI (dependent variables).

HA3: The participant's age group (independent variable) has a correlation to the

results on the six subcategories or Global scales o f the CTI (dependent variables).

Age <21yrs. 2 1 -3 2 y rs. 33-44 yrs. 45-55 yrs. Over55yrs.

208 3 23 75 74 33

One-way ANOVA testing, which produces a Sum of Squares, df. Mean Square. F.

and Significance levels, was used to test for accept/reject of null hypothesis 3.

Correlations found by review o f Pearson's Correlation values, as well as significance

(two-tailed) results, were also analyzed. The F scores and significance levels o f p >.05

for the two-tailed test of the null hypothesis, (i.e., there is a significant relationship

between the respondent’s age and the Global CTI Scale or any o f the six subscales) would

cause this researcher to accept the null for the Behavioral Coping Subscale (F = 1.649 and

p = .163), the Emotional Coping Subscale (F = 1.256 and p = .289), the Personal

superstition scale (F = 1.039 and p=.388), the Esoteric Subscale (F = 2.364 and p = .054)

and the Naive optimism subscale (F-1.966 and p=.101). The other relationships between

age and the Global Scale and Categorical subscale did not have a p > .05. Therefore, the

null hypothesis would be rejected for theses subscales.

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144

Hypothesis Scale/subscale Results Test o f the null

3-Age Global scale F = 2.672 p = .033 df = 4 Reject

Behavioral

Coping subscale F = 1.649 p = .163 df=4 Fail to Reject

Emotional

Coping subscale F = 1.256 p = .289 df = 4 Fail to Reject

Personal Supersti­

tion subscale F = 1.039 p = .388 df = 4 Fail to Reject

Categorical

subscale F = 3.204 p = .014 df=4 Reject

Esoteric subscale F = 2.364 p = .054 df = 4 Fail to reject

Naive optimism

subscale F = 1.966 p = 1 0 1 df = 4 Fail to Reject

Hypothesis 4

H04: The participant's education level (independent variable) has no correlation

to the results on the six subcategories or Global scales o f the CTI (dependent variables).

HA4: The participant's education level (independent variable) has a correlation

to the results on the six subcategories or Global scales o f the CTI (dependent variables).

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Educational level # ofresDonses % o f total

Some high school grades completed 6 2.9%

High school diploma 26 12.5%

Some college/tech school 48 23.1%

2 or 4 yr. college degree 85 40.9%

Some post-graduate courses 25 12.0%

Post-graduate degree 18 8.7%

Totals 208 100%

One-way ANOVA testing, which produces a Sum of Squares, df, Mean Square, F,

and Significance levels, was used to test for accept/reject o f null hypothesis 4.

Correlations found by review of Pearson’s Correlation values, as well as significance

(two-tailed) results, were also analyzed. The F scores and significance levels of p >.05

for the one-tailed test o f the null hypothesis (i.e., there is a significant relationship

between the respondent's educational level and the Global CTI Scale or any of the six

subscales) would cause this researcher to accept the null for the Global Scale (F= 1.616

and p=.157), Behavioral Coping subscale (F= 1.23 and p=.297), Emotional Coping

subscale (F= 1.096 and p = .364), Categorical subscale (F = 1.642 and p = .. 155) and the

Naive Optimism subscale (F = 0.465 and p = .805). Other relationship between age and

the subscales o f personal superstition and esoteric did not have significant two-tailed

values o f p > .10. Therefore, the null hypothesis would be rejected for theses subscales.

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Hyg>thesis Scale/subscale Results Test of the null

4-Education level Global scale F = 1.616 P = .157 df = 5 Fail to Reject

Behavioral

Coping subscale F = 1.230 p = .297 d f = 5 Fail to Reject

Emotional

Coping subscale F —1.096 p = .364 d f —5 Fail to Reject

Personal supersti­

tion subscale F = 2.492 p = .032 d f = 5 Reject

Categorical

subscale F = 1.624 p —. 155 d f = 5 Fail to Reject

Esoteric subscale F = 2.259 p = .050 d f = 5 Reject

Naive optimism

subscale F = 0.465 p = .802 d f = 5 Fail to Reject

Hypothesis 5

H05: The participant's country of birth and current country of work being the

same (independent variable) has no correlation to the results on the six subcategories or

Global scales of the CTI (dependent variables).

HA5: The participant's country of birth and current country o f employment

being the same (independent variable) has a correlation to the results on the six

subcategories or Global scales of the CTI (dependent variables).

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147

Cross-cultural impact # of responses % o f total

Birth country = work country 186 89.4

No equality 22 10.6

Totals 208 100%

An Independent Samples Test (including mean, standard deviation, standard error

mean, and Levene's Test for Equality of Variances) was performed, as well as a t-test that

gave t values, degrees o f freedom (df), significance (two-tailed), mean difference,

standard error (SE) difference and upper and lower level for 95% confidence interval of

the SE difference. The review o f Levene's Test for this hypothesis stated that equal

variances were assumed for the Global Scaie and all subscales. The two-tailed t-test for

equality of means (with a significance level of p > . 1) found that the null hypothesis (i.e.,

there is a significant relationship when the participant's country of birth and work are the

same and the Global CTI Scale or any of its six subscales) would fail to be rejected for

the Global Scale (t = -.2432 and p = .808) and all the subscales, as p levels were greater

than 0.05 in all cases.

Hypothesis Scale/subscale Results Test o f the null

5-Cross-cultural Global scale t = -0.243 p = .808 d f = 206 Fail to Reject

impact

(birth country = Behavioral

work country) Coping subscale t = -0.646 p = .519 df= 206 Fail to Reject

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148

Emotional

Coping subscale t = 0.230 p = .818 df = 206 Fail to Reject

Personal supersti­

tion subscale t = 0.076 p = .939 df = 206 Fail to Reject

Categorical

subscale t = -1.312 p = .191 df = 206 Fail to Reject

Esoteric subscale t = -0.362 p = .718 df = 206 Fail to Reject

Naive optimism

subscale t = -0.053 p = .958 df = 206 Fail to Reject

A review o f the results of Pearson Correlation testing found the following

significant correlations between the independent variables of age and education and the

dependent variables o f the Global CTI Scale and its six subscales. Correlations were

found to be significant between the independent variable of age and the dependent

variables of Global CTI Scale (p = .004), the emotional subscale (p = .034), the

categorical subscale (p = .002), and the esoteric subscale (p = .021). All other age-to-

dependent subscale correlations were found to be insignificant.

Correlations were found to be significant between the independent

variable o f educational level and the dependent variables of Global CTI Scale (p = .032),

the personal superstitions subscale (p = .004), and the esoteric subscale (p = .018). All

other educational level-to-dependent subscale correlations were found to be insignificant.

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Table 9

Summary o f Hypothesis and Acceptance/Rejection Results

Hypothesis Scale/subscale Results Test of the null

1-Ethnicity Global scale t = -1.890 p = .060 df = 206 Fail to reject

Behavioral

Coping subscale t = -2.548 p = .012 df = 206 Reject

Emotional

Coping subscale t = -1.312 p = .191 df = 206 Fail to Reject

Personal supersti­

tion subscale t = 0.180 p = .857 df = 206 Fail to Reject

Categorical

subscale t = -0.926 p = .362 df= 28.06 Fail to Reject

Esoteric subscale t = -1.936 p = .054 df = 206 Fail to reject

Naive optimism

subscale t = 0.706 p = .481 df = 206 Fail to Reject

2-Gender Global scale t = 2.424 p = .016 df = 206 Reject

Behavioral

Coping subscale t = -0.381 p = .703 df = 206 Fail to Reject

Emotional

Coping subscale t = 4.156 p = .000 df = 206 Reject

Personal supersti­

tion subscale t = -0.866 p = .388 df = 206 Fail to Reject

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ISO

Table 9

Categorical

subscale t = -0.239 p = .811 d f = 206 Fail to Reject

Esoteric subscale t = -3.373 p = .001 df=143.9 Reject

Naive optimism

subscale t = -1.184 p = .238 df = 206 Fail to Reject

3-Age Global scale F = 2.672 p = .033 df = 4 Reject

Behavioral

Coping subscale F = 1.649 p = .163 df=4 Fail to Reject

Emotional

Coping subscale F = 1.256 p = .289 df=4 Fail to Reject

Personal supersti­

tion subscale F = 1.039 p = .388 df = 4 Fail to Reject

Categorical

subscale F = 3.204 p = .014 df = 4 Reject

Esoteric subscale F = 2.364 p = .054 df = 4 Fail to reject

Naive optimism

subscale F = 1.966 p = .101 df = 4 Fail to Reject

4-Education level Global scale F = 1.616 p = .157 df = 5 Fail to Reject

Behavioral

Coping subscale F = 1.230 p = .297 df = 5 Fail to Reject

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ISI

Tabic 9

Emotional

Coping subscale F = 1.096 p = .364 df = 5 Fail to Reject

Personal supersti­

tion subscale F = 2.492 P=.032 df = 5 Reject

Categorical

subscale F = 1.624 p = .155 df=5 Fail to Reject

Esoteric subscale F = 2.259 p = .050 df = 5 Reject

Naive optimism

subscale F = 0.465 p = .802 df = 5 Fail to Reject

5-Cross-culturaI

impact Global scale t = -0.243 p = .808 d f = 206 Fail to Reject

(birth country = Behavioral

work country) Coping subscale t = -0.646 p = .519 d f = 206 Fail to Reject

Emotional

Coping subscale t—0.230 p = .818 d f = 206 Fail to Reject

Personal supersti­

tion subscale t = 0.076 p = .939 d f = 206 Fail to Reject

Categorical

subscale t = -1.312 p = .191 d f = 206 Fail to Reject

Esoteric subscale t = -0.362 p = .718 d f = 206 Fail to Reject

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Table 9

Naive optimism

subscaie t = -0.053 p = .958 df =206 Fail to Reject

C h a p te r Sum m ary

In Chapter 4, three different statistical models (i.e., t-tests, one-way ANOVAs,

and correlations) were used to analysis the applicable hypotheses. The research

questions’ answers were also discussed in light of the findings of the hypotheses sets that

were individually tested for acceptance or rejection of the null hypothesis.

A presentation o f the descriptive statistics gathered from the demographic survey

responses (i.e., the breakdown of demographic attributes) was shown at a summary level.

Additionally, the results o f the empirical statistical analysis o f the data collected from the

two survey instruments were discussed, along with the findings that supported or

dismissed the null hypotheses. See Table 9 above for a summary of the accept/reject

hypotheses results.

Chapter 5 will present a summary of the study, along with various conclusions

drawn from the literature review and hypothesis data analysis results. Recommendations,

including suggestions for future study and/or possible expansions to the current research

findings, will also be discussed. In addition, “lessons learned” (for application by

management or others in the work place) from the conclusions drawn from the accepted

hypothesis will also be detailed. The chapter will end with a summary of the value o f this

research to the current body o f knowledge on job stress and its implications for further.

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future use.

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CHAPTER 5

SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMENDATIONS

O rg an izatio n o f the Chapter

This chapter examines the implications for academia as well as the management

practitioner o f the analytical findings o f the study. Each hypothesis's results will be

applied to the behavioral characteristics and associated constructive coping strategies

needed for employees dealing with job stress. The contents o f the chapter include a

section on recommendations for future research as well as a restatement of the limitations

o f this study and the use of its findings.

Overview

This study examined the relationship between demographic identifiers and

constructive thinking coping strategies to minimize stress in the workplace. The study's

population included non-frontline manufacturing personnel with 211 respondents from

4% questionnaires dispersed across three countries and six firms. The survey

instruments consisted of a one-page demographic classification sheet and the 108-item

Constructive Thinking Inventory. The demographic questions were limited to age,

gender, ethnicity, level o f education and whether the respondent was dealing with cross-

cultural issues from working in a country different from the land o f their birth.
154

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Summary of Survey Instruments

To recap, in addition to a demographic sheet, the respondents each answered 108-

items on the Constructive Thinking Inventory (CTI) survey. The demographic factors

were ethnicity, gender, age, educational level, and cross-cultural impact The main scale

and the six subscales o f Constructive Thinking (CT), a coping strategy, as measured by

the CTI are briefly redefined below.

1. The Global Scale is a broad bipolar scale that included items from all o f the six

subscales except the scale for Naive Optimism. The Global Constructive

Thinking (GCT) scale included items indicative of both constructive and

deconstructive thinking styles and potential coping strategies.

2. The 14 question Behavioral Coping Subscale is also a bipolar scale. The items

are further divided into three subsections: (a) positive thinking, (b) action

orientation and (c) conscientiousness. Respondents with high scores on this scale

tend to be optimistic, enthusiastic, and energetic as well as conscientious.

3. The 25-item Emotional Coping Subscale is further divided into four subsections:

(a) self acceptance, (b) absence o f negative overgeneralization, (c) non-sensitivity

and (d) absence of emotional dwelling. This scale is the one more strongly

associated with the Global Scale then any of the other subscales.

4. The seven question Personal Superstitious Thinking Subscale had

no further subdivisions. This subscale indicated the degree to which the

respondents endorse private superstitions.

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5. The 16 item Categorical T h in k in g Subscale is further subdivided intn three

subsections: (a) polarized thinking, (b) distrust of others, and (c) intolerance.

Respondents who score high on this subscale tend to view the world in terms o f

black and white only while overlooking important distinctions.

6. The 13 question Esoteric Thinking Suhscale is further subdivided into two

subsections: (a) belief in the unusual and (b) formal superstitious thinking. This

subscale reveals the degree to which the respondent believes in the unusual and

scientifically questionable phenomena such as ghosts, good and bad omens.

7 The 15 item Naive Optimism Subscale is further divided into three subsections:

(a) positive over optimism, (b) stereotypical thinking, and (c) Pollyanna-ish

thinking. This subscale indicates the degree to which the respondents may be

unrealistically optimistic.

Restatement o f the Research Questions

This study's research questions are:

1. Can individual employee demographic variables become the basis for relating

potential reactions to workplace-induced stressors?

2. Does constructive thinking theory provide a classification methodology for

determining which type o f coping strategy employees could use for dealing

with work-induced stress?

The analysis o f the five pertinent hypotheses resulted in the following conclusions that

addressed these research questions.

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Hypotheses. Statistical Findings and Management Implications/Uses

Hypothesis One

The participant’s ethnic group has a correlation to the rating on the six

subcategories or Global scales of the CTI. The analysis proved that this null hypothesis

would be accepted for the Emotional Coping (EC) subscale, Personal superstition

thinking (PST) subscale. Categorical (CaT) subscale and the Naive Optimism (NO)

subscale.

For management, these findings would indicate that issues of ethnicity would

need to be dealt with in the everyday workplace in order to minimize work-related stress.

The individual's ethnic group membership will have an impact on the employee's ability

to embrace an overall coping strategy o f constructive thinking style. Ethnicity will also

play a role in the ability of the employee to meet his/her duties with self-acceptance, an

absence of overgeneralizations and an absence of emotional dwelling to sensitivity. The

mixture of ethnic backgrounds will also lead to a high level of endorsement o f private

superstitions and a tendency to view problems in terms of black and white only.

Employers need to be cognizant that the employees' personal belief systems may cause

the employees to deal with potential job stressors in an unrealistically optimistic manner.

The original expectation of the relationship between ethnicity and constructive

thinking had been that the varied cultural acceptance or expectations of behavior in the

workplace would be unequal. This would cause the employing firm to make some

adjustments in job design or performance expectations for differing ethnic backgrounds.

This was based on the portion of the literature review from studies of ethnic differences

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and how ethnicity impacted a person's personal frame o f reference in working and coping

with other employees outside his/her own ethnic group.

The lack o f relationship between ethnicity and the other CTI subscales (i.e..

Global scale, behavioral coping, and esoteric subscales) may be caused by many

circumstances. Most o f the restatement o f data that would be required to deny or confirm

other potential subscales correlations to independent demographic variable of ethnicity is

outlined in the limitations and further/future research section of this chapter. These

would include substitutions such as a larger sample/ higher response rate, a sample from a

different population, or possibly screening responses to arrive at a more ethnically diverse

set o f participants. Although this would normally be seen as creating a bias in the study,

since the ethnic diversity is the issue under scrutiny, then this type o f diversity must exist

within the sample database.

Hypothesis Two

The participant's gender has a correlation to the results on the six subcategories or

Global scales o f the CTI. The statistical analysis confirmed that the null hypothesis

would be accepted for the Behavioral coping (BC), Personal Superstitious thinking

(PST), Categorical thinking (CaT), and Naive Optimism (NO) subscales.

For management this would indicate that an employee's gender does have an

effect on how well he/she proactively, conscientiously and with a positive mindset copes

with job stressors. This positive attitude may even reach unrealistic optimistic levels.

Once again, the gender groups will hold different levels o f private endorsement of

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superstitions as well as a tendency to see stressors and stress in terms o f black and white.

Management will have to tailor their coping strategies accordingly.

Based on the literature review, the original expectation of the relationship between

gender and CT, was that there would exist a difference in the ratings o f male versus

female on the scales. A plethora of literature exists on studies that outline major

differences in how men versus women approach everything from parenting skills, to job

role expectations, to time management and managerial styles. Epstein's studies did not

note any such relationships or differences due to the sex of the respondent ( 1983; 1986;

1993).

The lack of relationship between gender and the other CTI subscales (i.e.. Global

Scale, Emotional Coping (EC) and Esoteric subscales) may be caused by many reasons.

Most o f the alterations that would be necessary to compute these statistically dependent

subscales relationships to the independent demographic variable of gender are outlined in

the limitations and further/future research section o f this chapter. These revisions to the

database might include a larger sample size or securing a higher response rate than the

current study (40%). Obtaining a sample from a different population (i.e., retail

merchandisers) might also alter the outcomes. Although a bias would occur in any study

if the participants' answers were screened to guarantee a 50%male versus 50% female

sample database, different results (more relationships between gender and subscales)

might be achieved.

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Hypothesis Three

The participant's age group has a correlation to the results on the six subcategories

and/or the Global scale of the CTI. The analysis of the null hypothesis caused this

researcher to accept a relationship between age and the BC (i.e., positive thinking, action

oriented, and conscientiousness), EC (i.e., self acceptance, absence o f negative

overgeneralizations and emotional dwelling), PST (i.e., high degree of endorsement of

private superstitions), and NO (i.e., degree of unrealistic optimism) subscales.

The original expectation o f the relationship between age and CT had been that as

the respondent moved into the “older” age segments that he/she would score higher on

the Global Scale. This would be due to the increased range of emotions, experiences, and

personal triumphs and failures the respondent had incurred indicatory of having lived

longer and matured. Both the literature review on age and Epstein's CTI studies noted

this phenomenon was consistently true.

What does this mean for management? As a worker progresses through the

various stages (age segments) o f life, the manner in which job created stress and stressors

will impact his/her performance with a minimum of stress will change. Management

must, therefore, be aware o f the effect o f an “aging” workforce and adjust its coping

strategies accordingly. If the industry under consideration is one with high employee

turnover (i.e., a cadre of fresh-faced college graduates who stay for only short periods o f

time) management in this case will also have to align its stress management techniques to

the appropriate age bracket. This may mean more hands-on supervision or additional

mentoring or an overall adjustment o f job performance expectations consistent with the

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161

age bracket and level of life experiences of the employees.

The lack o f relationship between age and the other CTI subscales (i.e.. Global

Scale (i.e., constructive thinking abilities), Categorical subscale (i.e. viewing everything

in terms o f black and white - no shades of grey permitted), and Esoteric subscale (i.e.,

high level o f belief in the unusual and scientifically questionable) can have many causes.

Most o f the changes that would be required in the current study to recalculate other

potential dependent subscales relationships to the independent demographic variable of

age are outlined in the limitations and further/future research section of this chapter.

These adjustments to the study might include changes such as a larger sample size or

securing a higher response rate or gathering a sample from an entirely different

population. A statistically favorable bias might occur, but the study database could be

manipulated if the responses were screened to ensure an even grouping between the

various independent variable age segments.

Hypothesis Four

The participant’s education level has a correlation to the results on the six

subcategories or Global scales o f the CTI. The statistical analysis performed on the null

hypothesis caused this researcher to accept the null for the global scale, behavioral

coping, emotional coping, categorical thinking, and naive optimism.

From the literature review it was expected that the higher the education level of

the employee, the higher would be the ratings on the Global scale and supporting

subscales. It was implicitly anticipated the highly educated employee would more likely

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embrace constructive thinking as an affective stress coping strategy.

For management, this significant relationship with the Global scale tends to

indicate that stress coping strategies need to be amended for educational level

prerequisites o f particular positions. There would be a need for coping strategies to be

revised when new job-related stress or stressors are experienced by employees with

higher levels of education that have resulted in promotion to higher positions in the

organization.

The lack of relationship between the independent variable o f educational level and

the other CTI subscales (i.e.. Personal Superstitious Thinking and Esoteric subscale. In

other words, the higher the level of education of the respondent, the less likely he/she is

to endorse private superstitions or believe in unusual or scientifically questionable

phenomenon such as ghosts) may be influenced by many different research components.

Most o f the changes that would be required to the current study to search for other

statistically significant relationships between the CTI subscales and the independent

variable of educational level are outlined in the limitations and further/future research

section o f this chapter. These changes might include a larger sample size, or a sample

from a different population, or perhaps securing a higher response rate. Although bias

would occur in the data set, the study database could be manipulated, if the responses

were screened, to secure an even distribution between the various educational levels.

Hypothesis Five

The participant’s country of birth and current country of employment being the

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same has a correlation to the results on the six subcategories or Global scales o f the CTI.

The statistical analysis supported the null hypothesis. It was therefore accepted for the

Global Scale and all the subscales, as significance levels were met in analysis o f the

scales.

For management application this would indicate that cross-cultural issues will

have a significant impact on how an employee deals with job-related stress or what types

o f cultural oriented work stressors will cause the employee to feel stressed.

The original expectation o f the relationship had been exactly that which was

analytically confirmed by the literature review. In many of the studies on cross- cultural

issues (e.g., being bom in one country and working in another) situational stress was

found to be the norm. Not understanding all the nuances o f the language o f the country of

work, not having the same cultural memories that come from being steeped in that

country’s traditions and expectations since birth were all potential job-related stressors.

Additional untested facets may have caused the relationship between the cross-

cultural impact and the CTI subscales to test to such a strong significance level. Some of

the changes that would be required to retest this database to reconfirm the links between

the Global Scale and/or six subscales and the cross-cultural impact variable are outlined

in the further/future research section o f this chapter.

Correlation Testing and Findings - Age and Constructive Thinking

A review of the results of Pearson Correlation testing found significant

correlations between the independent variables o f age and education and the dependent

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variables o f the Global CTI Scale and its six subscales. Correlations were found to be

significant between the variable o f age and four of the scales. They are the Global CTI

Scale, Emotional subscale. Categorical subscale, and Esoteric subscale.

This correlation replicates the finding of Hypothesis Three with the addition o f the

relationship o f the Emotional subscale. The Emotional subscale most closely resembles

the Global Scale in it's high ratings o f self-acceptance, non-sensitivity, absence of

emotional dwelling and absence o f negative overgeneralizations (i.e., the respondent is

more in tune with constructive stress coping strategies).

Correlation Testing and Findings - Educational Level and Constructive Thinking

Correlations were found to be significant between the variable o f educational level and

the Global CTI Scale, Personal Superstitions subscale, and Esoteric subscale. These

findings imitate Hypothesis Four along with the addition of the correlation of education to

the Global CTI Scale.

For management, this test result would tend to support the proposition that

educational level will have an impact on how well the employee is able to proactively

deal with work-related stress. The higher the educational experience the more quickly an

acceptable constructive thinking coping strategy will be developed and implemented. As

this is proactive from the employee, employers will not need to expend as much effort on

dealing with stressors for their highly educated professionals.

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Limitations and Recommendations for Future Research

Current Study

In addition to the individual independent/dependent variable oriented suggestions

alluded to for each of the hypothesis, explorations possible from this current research

study might also include surveying a more ethnically diverse sample. The overwhelming

number o f “Caucasian” respondents, against the reclassified category of “Other” (i.e., 182

versus 26 respondents with different ethnic classifications) may have biased the results

with regard to how various ethnic groups respond to job-related stress and stress

management techniques. Taking the sample from a different population (i.e., service

industry workers, etc.) might results in differing conclusions. A higher response rate than

the 40% achieved in this study could potentially result in different statistically significant

relationships. Revising the study to look at the relationship between each independent

demographic variable and specific CT subscales might further focus the use of

constructive thinking as a stress coping strategy.

Other Areas o f Future Research

Due to multiple social and economic reasons previously presented further research

on job stress is needed. Future studies should include the manifestation of the physical

effects o f stress and stressors as well as the emotional or psychology impact o f work-

related or job-created stress on employees. This research could follow two different

streams o f emphasis (i.e., the physical implications of stress versus the psychological

issues). The inference being that potential stress reduction solutions would differ if the

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166

stressor had a physical impact on the participant versus a psychological one.

Psychological and/or emotional impacts o f job related stress require further study

in many areas. Developing behavioral coping strategies that can be incorporated into

managements’ culture would be one relevant area. This assumes a level o f priority as

pertains to treatment o f the businesses' human capital resources.

The study and development of proactive stress coping strategies for various

industries and varied populations could do much to lessen the financial burden that the

cost o f current reactive stress management techniques has placed on businesses.

Further study specifically aimed at the female worker and the family/job stressors

she must constantly juggle is also needed. This could prove to be very helpful as more of

the work force in academia as well as industry is coming from the female sector.

Research Study Conclusions

This research study was undertaken to examine the relationship between

demographic identifiers and constructive thinking coping strategies to minimize stress in

the workplace. The conclusions reached supported the research questions to some degree

(i.e., some relationships between the demographic variable and the global scale or

subscale were found). The individual employee demographic variables were found to be

a basis for relating potential reactions to workplace-induced stressors, again in some of

the hypothesized relationships. The only demographic found to have a total (i.e.,

statistical relationship exists between subscale and demographic) CT relationship to its

hypothesis was the cross-cultural impact (i.e., being bom in a country different than the

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167

one currently working in). It was also shown that Constructive Thinking (CT) theory can

provide a classification methodology for determining which type o f coping strategy to

employ once the relationship between the demographic variable and the specific CTI

subscale was statistically proven.

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168

APPENDIX A

SUMMARY OF CONSTRUCTIVE THINKING INVENTORY SCALES AND


ASSOCIATED SCORES

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169

Name o f Scale and a Examples o f Positive (P) Item numbers Items Mean (M),
brief description o f die scored items and Negative that are scored numbers that Standard
Scale’s focus (N) scored hems with in positive within are scored Deviation
the scale the Scale. negative (S.D.) and
within the Alpha (A) o f
Scale the Scale
GLOBAL SCALE - (p) 1don’t let little things 9, 14, 16,29, 3.8. 18.21. M = 98.51
Overall measure o f bother me. 4 1,45,47,51, 26, 30,32, S.D. = 15.84
Constructive Thinking. (n) 1 take failure very 60,79,85.91. 36. 54,70. A = .90
Problem-oriented rather hard. 92,98 78,81,89.
than judgmental. 103. 104
Flexible thinkers. Self-
confident Handle
negatives with minimum
of stress. (Epstein, 1998,
.E J 5 ) . _ _
BEHAVIORAL (p) 1 try to make and all- 9, 16,37,41. 3, 30,34, 70 M = 52.29
COPING out effort in most things 1 45,47,51,82, S.D. = 7.31
Thinking in ways to do. (n) 1 avoid challenges 102, 105 A = 0.82
promote effective because it hurts too much
positive action (Epstein, when 1 fail.
1998, p. 43)
BC - Positive Thinking (p) 1 believe it is best, in 9,41.47,51 N/A M = 15.23
most situations, to S.D. = 2.74
emphasize the positive A = 0.76
side o f things.
BC - Action Orientation (p) 1 look at challenges 16,45. 102 3, 30, 34, 70 M = 25.74
not as something to fear, S.D. =4.47
but as an opportunity to A = 0.75
test myself and lcam.(n) It
is so distressing for me to
try hard and fail, that 1
rarely make an all-out
effort to do my best
BC - Conscientiousness (p) When 1 realize 1 have 37, 82, 102, N/A M = 15.25
made a mistake. 1 usually 105 S.D. =2.28
take immediate action to A = 0.57
correct it
EMOTIONAL COPING (p) 1 like to succeed, but 14, 29, 49,60, 18,21,25, M = 78.34
Ability to deal don’t take failure as a 68,79, 85,91, 31,32.36, S.D. = 16.47
effectively with the inner tragedy, (n) 1 am very 92 38,44, 54, A =92
world o f feeling and the sensitive to being made 57,63,65,
outer world o f event fun of. 73, 78, 83,
(Epstein, 1998, p. 42) 108
EC - Self Acceptance (p) 1 am tolerant o f 60,68, 79,92 18,54,57 M= 23.8
mistakes as 1 feel they ate S.D.=5.09
a necessary part o f A =80
learning, (n) 1take failure
very hard.
EC - Absence o f (n) When something bad 31,38,68, M= 14.13
negative happens to me, 1 feel like 83 S.D.= 3.17
Overgeneralization a total failure and that 1 A= .74
won’t go far in life.

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170

EC - Non-sensitivity (p) 1 don't worry about 14,29,49 25, 32.36, M = 21.31


things 1 can do nothing 65, 73 S.D. = 6.32
about (n) 1 am very A = 0.84
sensitive to rejection.
PERSONAL (p) If something good 2,5, 12,26, N/A M = 16.88
SUPERSTITIOUS happens to me, 1 tend to 31,75,104 S.D. = 4.86
THINKING assume it was luck. A = 0.79
CATEGORICAL (p) The only person 1 8, 10,23.35, 6 2 ,9 0 ,9 8 M = 37.68
THINKING completely trust is myself, 46,55,71,77. S.D. =8.54
Rigid thinkers. (n) Most people regard 81,93,96. A = 0.80
Judgmental and me as a tolerant and 103, 107
intolerant. (Epstein, forgiving person.
1998, p. 43)
CT- Polarized Thinking (p) 1 believe once a 23.46.55, 77. N/A M = 12.90
criminal, always a 93, 107 S.D. =4.07
criminal. A =0.72
CT - Distrust o f Others (p) 1 tend to classify 8, 35,71,81, N7A M = 12.84
people as either fro me or 103 S.D. =4.12
against me. A = 0.74
CT - Intolerance (p) 1 feel that if people 10 62. 90,98 M = 9.13
treat you badly, you S.D. = 2.48
should treat them the A = 0.58
same way. (n) 1 try to
accept people without
judging them.
ESOTERIC THINKING (p) 1 believe in ghosts, (n) 4, 7.20,28. 15. 97 M = 31.80
Openness to new ideas or 1 do not believe in any 39,43, 53,66. S.D. =9.85
lack o f mental discipline. superstitions. 86,94, 101 A =0.86
(Epstein, 1998, p.44)
ET - Belief in the (p) 1 believe in flying 4, 7,28,53, N/A M = 14.39
Unusual saucers. 94, 101 S.D. =5.45
A = 0.84
ET - Formal (p) 1 have at least one 20, 39,43,66. 15.97 M = 17.41
Superstitious Thinking good-luck charm, (n) 86 S.D. =5.40
Astrology will never A = 0.73
explain anything.
NAIVE OPTIMISM (p) 1think everyone 1, II, 17,24, N/A M = 48.58
Extreme form o f positive should love their parents. 39, 47,48, 52, S.D. =7.19
thinking. Convinced 56, 59,69, 76. A = 0.76
everything will work out 88, 95, 100
for the best. (Epstein,
1998, p. 46)
NO - Positive Over- (P) 24,48, 52,56, N/A M = 15.39
optimism 88 S.D. =3.41
A = 0.72
NO - Stereotypical (P) 17,69.95 N/A M = 9.57
Thinking S.D. =2.37
A = 0.45
NO - Pollyanna-ish (P) 1, 11,39,47, N/A M = 23.62
Thinking 59, 76, 100 S.D. =3.76
A =0.65

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APPENDIX B

PARTICIPANTS’ INSTRUCTION COVER LETTER

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172

Winter 2002/2003

Dear Participant,

The attached survey is designed to study the relationship between demographic

factors and the various ratings on the Constructive Thinking Inventory scale. It will be

used to evaluate the impact of gender, country of birth and work, age and education level

on constructive thinking performance predictability. This should take no more than

twenty to thirty minutes of your time to complete. This survey was written and designed

by Dr. Seymour Epstein, who has graciously given permission to me to use this in

collecting data for my doctoral dissertation.

The information you provide will be kept completely confidential and will never

be associated with your name. To ensure confidentiality o f your answers, please do not

write your name on the questionnaire. You may decline to answer questions that do not

seem reasonable to you, but the validity o f the findings will be greatly enhanced if all the

questions are answered.

Thank you very much for your interest and time in helping make this study

possible.

Respectfully,

Pamela A. Di Bacco Kephart

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APPENDIX C

DEMOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SHEET

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174

Please complete the attached survey and return in the self-addressed stamped

envelope at your earliest convenience. Please do not write your name or any extra

comments on the pages to ensure your complete confidentiality.

Please check the appropriate boxes in each section with information accurate as of

the day you complete the survey:

(1) GENDER: Male Female

(2) AGE: under 21 21-32 33-44 45-55 over 55

(3a) COUNTRY OF BIRTH: USA Canada UK Other

(3b) COUNTRY OF WORK: USA Canada UK Other

(4) ETHNICITY/RACE. Caucasian Asian Indian Asian

Native American/Eskimo_____ Black/African American_______ Pacific Islander

Hispanic o r Other (please state race)__________________

(5) Highest EDUCATION LEVEL obtained to date:_____ Some high school grades

completed o r High school diploma earned o r Some college/technical

school courses taken o r _______ 2- or 4-year college degree obtained or________ Some

post-graduate courses taken o r_______Post-graduate degree completed

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APPENDIX D

CONSTRUCTIVE THINKING INVENTORY SURVEY

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t*A~C+ «

CTI
Haaae write your — l directly on the qursrioaaairi Record afl n ^pam ia
the space provided to the left of the concapoadmgquestioa.

Use the scale below to rme the Endowing aatmwnti ^ o ut fadings. britoft. mi
behaviors Scon ~riflhe«alam eal is definitely false. "7* ifil is omady false, V if it is
mostly true, sad “5" if it is definitely true Use '*3“ only if you cannot decade if tin m u is
■Italy n w or Mm.

Tna

This qucsrionwaire contains some “silly" item, such as “I never «iw anyone with
Mue eyes." The purpose ofthese item it to check whether people have been cardess or
Ion their p fitt FIm m m w v th n t fetus comedy. TV ywtw fw iiiff fito
itetns to check whether people hive made themselves look too good (or bad) If you
idoct the beat (or worse) men u , instead of answering honestly. your ta t will be found
invalid. Do aot hiss o«er aay one item, u no single ictm is veiy important Pteise simply
respond honestly and rapidly

Copyright 1917 Seymour Epstein

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177

* > a 4 S

a rM td f aw *i K a i ir ta tly MMWIl
N la Wa fataa mm Tna

i.I b e lie v e a l a o s t a l l paopla a r t b a s i c a l l y sood a t ha a r t .

2 . 1 s o a a ti a a s t h in k t h a t I f 1 want s o a a th ln g t o happen to o b ad ly , i t w i l l koap i t


f r o a h ap p e n in g .

3. whan I hava a l o t o f work t o do by a d a a d l l n a , I w asta a lo t o f t i a a w orrying


ab o u t i t I n s ta a d o f j u s t doing i t .

a . I bo H a v a s c a t p ao p la hava th a a b i l i t y t o ra a d o th a r p a o p la 's th o u g h ts .

5. whan s a a a th ln g good happans to a a , I b a l l a v a I t i s llk a ty to ba b a la n c a d by


s o a a th ln g b ad .

6. I f I do v a ry w a ll on a t a s t , I r a a l l z e 1 t i s o n ly a s ln g la t a s t , an d I t doosn’t
aa k a a a f a a l g a n a r a lly c o a p a ta n t.

__ 7. I b e lie v e t h a r a a r a paopla who can p r o j a c t t h a l r th o u g h ts in to o th a r p a o p le 's


a ln d s .

8 . I ta n d t o c l a s s i f y paopla a s a l t h a r f o r a a o r a g a in s t aa .

g. wnan d o in g u n p la a s a n t c h o ra s, 1 aak a t h a b a s t o f i t by th in k in g p la a s a n t o r
I n t a r a s t l n g th o u g h ts .

10. 1 f a a l t h a t i f p aopla t r a a t you b a d ly , you sh o u ld t r a a t th a a th a s a a a way.

11. whan I hava la a r n a d t h a t soaaona I lo v a lo v a s a a , i t has aada a a f a a l H k a a


w ondarful p a rso n and t h a t I can a c c o a p lis h w h atav ar l want to .

1 2 . I f s o a a th ln g good happans to a a , 1 ta n d t o a s su a a 1 t was luck.

1 3 . whan 1 hava a v a ry f rlg h ta n ln g e x p e r ie n c e , t h a th o u g h t of 1 t i s l l k a l y to coaa


back t o B ind s a v a r a l t i a a s .

14. I don’t l a t H t t l a th in g s b o th a r a a .

IS. A stro lo g y w i l l n av a r a x p la ln a n y th in g .

16. 1 look a t c h a lla n g a s n o t as s a a a th ln g t o f a a r , b u t a s an o p p o rtu n ity t o t a s t


a y s a l f and lo a r n .

17. 1 th in k a v a ry o n a sh o u ld lo v a t h a l r p a r o n ts .

18. I ta k a f a l l u r a v ary n ard.

19. What o th e r s t h in k o f a a b o th e rs a a n o t t h a l e a s t .

20. I b a lla v a 1f I th in k t e r r i b l e th o u g h ts a b o u t so aao n a, 1 t can a f f e c t t h a t


p a r s o n 's w e ll- b e in g .

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178

• s a 4 S
m a n a i ar
( • a lly Oertanalr
raise <m m r a M mm
Tna
•w Trwa

21. I spend Mich more t l e e a e n t a l l y r e h e a rs in g ay f a i l u r e s th a n ra a a a o e rin g ay


successes.

22. I s o a e tla e s g e t annoyed by p e o p le uho e x p re s s u n re a so n a b le view s.

23. I b e lie v e t h a t I t i s a l a o s t alw ay s b e t t e r t o c o s e t o f i r a d e c is io n s th a n t o


c o a p ro a ls e .

24. I f soaaona I know w ere a c c e p te d a t an la p o r ta n t jo b In te rv ie w , I would th in k


t h a t he o r sh e would alw ay s be a b le to p e t a good Jo b .

25. I a a very s e n s i t i v e t o r e j e c t i o n .

26. I ’ve le a rn e d n o t t o hope to o h a r d , because what 1hope f o r u s u a lly d o e s n 't


hapoen.

27. host b ir d s can run f a s t e r th a n th e y can f l y .

26. I b e lie v e th e aoon o r t h e s t a r s can a f f e c t p e o p le ’ s th in k in g .

26. I f I s a id s a a a th ln g f o o l i s h when I spoke up 1n a g ro u p . I would ch alk 1 t up t o


e x p e rie n c e and n o t w orry ab o u t I t .

30. When fac ed w ith a la r g e aa o u n t o f work t o c e a p l e te , I t e l l a y s e lf 1 can never


g e t i t done, and f e e l l i k e g iv in g up.

31. when sa a a th ln g bad h app en s t o a e , I f a s ' .h a t a o r e bad th in g s a r e lik e ly to


fo llo w .

32. The s l i g h t e s t I n d ic a tio n of d is a p p ro v a l g a ts a a u p s a t.

33. 1 n e v e r le a rn e d t o r e a d .

34. I t 1s so d i s t r e s s i n g f o r a s t o t r y hard and f a l l , t h a t 1 r a r e ly naka an a l l - o u t


e f f o r t to do ay b e s t.

35. 1 b e lie v e t h a t a o s t p e o p le a r e o n ly I n te r e s te d In th e a s e lv e s .

36. I w orry a g r e a t d e a l a b o u t what o th e r p eo p le t h in k o f ae.

37. when I r e a l i z e I have a a d e a a 1s ta k e , I u s u a lly ta k e la a e d la te a c tio n t o c o r r e c t


It.

36. I f I do p o o rly on an im p o rta n t t e s t , 1 f e e l lik e a t o t a l f a i l u r e and t h a t I


won’ t go f a r in l i f e .

39. i b e lie v e i f I w ish h a rd enough f o r so a e th m g , i t can aak e i t happen.

40. I b e lie v e in t r u s t i n g my f i r s t ia p r e s s io n s .

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179

1 Z s 4 s
MMSCtesW ar
OaflMMIy lam lly WHSly m n M ttii
Falsa "Talas Falas ana Trwa
True

41. when 1 am fa c e d w ith a d i f f i c u l t t a s k , I th in k en co u rag in g th o u g h ts t h a t h e lp m


do a y b e a t.

42. I b e l ie v e t h a t p e o p le who wear g la s s e s u s u a lly can se e b e t t e r w ith o u t t h e i r


g la s s e s .

43. I b e l ie v e t h a t s a a e people can make e e aware o f theai j u s t by t h in k i n g ab o u t ne.

— 44. Ny a in d o f te n d r i f t s t o u n p le a s a n t e v e n ts f r o a th e p a s t.

45. I a a th e k in d o f p erso n who ta k e s a c tio n r a th e r th a n J u s t th in k s o r c o a p la ln s


abo u t a s i t u a t i o n .

46. T here a r e two p o s s i b le answ ers t o e v e ry q u e s tio n , a r i g h t one and a wrong one.

47. I b e l ie v e i t i s b e s t , in a o s t s i t u a t i o n s , t o ea p h as lze th e p o s i t i v e s id e o f
t h in g s .

46. I f so aeo n e I know d o es w ell on an ia p o r t a n t t a s t , I f e e l t h a t he o r sh e i s a


t o t a l s u c c e s s and w i l l go v ery f a r in l i f e .

49. I d o n 't w orry a b o u t th in g s I can do n o th in g ab o u t.

50. I have washed ay hands b e fo re e a t i n g a t l e a s t once in th e p a s t a o n th .

51. I f I have som ething u n p le a sa n t t o d o , 1 t r y t o aaka th e b e s t o f i t by th in k in g


In posit*, /e t e r a s .

52. I f I do w e ll on an ia p o r ta n t t a s t . I f e e l lik e a t o t a l su c c e s s and t h a t I w ill


go f a r 1n l i f e .

53. I b e l ie v e 1n g h o s ts .

54. I f e e l l i k e a t o t a l f a i l u r e i f I d o n 't ac h ie v e th a g o a ls X s e t f o r a y s e l f .

$5 . T here a r e two k in d s o f people in t h i s w o rld , w in n ers and l o s e r s .

56. I f I w ere a c c e p te d a t an I a p o r ta n t jo b In te rv ie w , I would f e e l v e ry good end


th in k t h a t 1 would alw ays be a b le t o g e t a good jo b .

57. u n le s s I do a p e r f a c t jo b , I f e e l l i k e e f a i l u r e .

56. when I ta k e an e x a m in a tio n , I u s u a lly th in k I d id much worse th a n I a c tu a lly


d id .

5 9 . when som ething good hapoens t o a e . I f e e l t h a t more good tn ln g s a r e lik e ly to


fo llo w .

60. I am t o l e r a n t o f ny m istak e s a s 1 f e e l th e y a r e a n e c e ssa ry p a r t o f le a rn in g .

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180

1 a a « s

a w M td r *«51W r n eatly • •fin ite ly


raiaa Mm ralaw ana True T na
True

61. Wien u n p le a s a n t th in g s happen t o w . I d o n 't g iv e th a n a saeono th o u g h t.

62. M ost p a o p la regard a a a s a t o l a r a n t and f o r g iv in g p a rso n .

63. I f I Mara r e je c te d a t an ia p o r t a n t jo b In te r v ie w , 1 would f a a l v ary low ana


t h in k t h a t I would n av ar ba a b la t o g a t a good jo b .

6 4 . Whan l do p o o rly a t s a a a th ln g , s o long a s 1 know 1 hava dona my b a s t, i t d o as


n o t b o th a r a a a t a l l .

e s . 1 ta n d t o ta k a th in g s p a r s o n a lly .
_ _ 6 6 . I hava a t la a s t ona 900 a - lu c k charm.

_<?. 1 hava n av a r soon anyont w ith b lu a a y a s.

66. 1 d o n ’t f a a l t h a t I hava t o p a r form e x c e p tio n a lly w a ll in o ro a r t o c o n s id e r


m y se lf a w orthw hila p arso n .

69. P a o p la should t r y to look happy, no m a tta r wnat th a y f a a l .

70. 1 a v o id c h a lla n g a s bacausa i t h u r ts to o much whan 1 f a i l .

71. Tha o n ly parson I com plataly t r u s t i t m y sa lf.

72. i t d o a s n 't b o th a r ma whan p ao p la who know la s s tn a n 1 a c t s u p a r io r and g iv e ma


a d v ic e .

73. 1 aa v a ry s e n s itiv e to b ein g maoa fu n o f .

74. A lthougn woman sometimes wear p a n ts , th a y do n o t w ear them, on th a a v e ra g e , a s


o f t e n a s man.

75. I hava found t h a t ta lk in g ab o u t s u c c e s s e s t h a t I an lo o k in g forw ard t o can keep


them from happening.

76. w henever good th in g s happen t o me, I have th a f e e l i n g I d e se rv e d i t .

77. l th i n k th e r e e r a many wrong w ays, b u t o n ly ona r i g h t way, t o do alm o st


a n y tn m g .

7 9 . 1 spend a lo t o f tim e th in k in g ab o u t my m ista k e s even i f th e r e i s n o th in g I can


do ab o u t th e n .

79. 1 l i k e t o su cceed , out I d o n 't ta k e f a i l u r e a s a tr a g e d y .

80. At tim e s when I 'v e been 111 o r t i r e d , 1 have f e l t l i k e going t o bea e a r l y .

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181

I < a 4 s
■ M l a a ar
a fM ttli la m iir S aflnttely
raia a 'ra ia a raia a awe ^frwB,r Trua
Trwa

81. I t I s f o o l i s h t o t r u s t anyons coop l a t e l y , a s I f you o o , you a r a bound t o p a t


h u rt.
f
8 2 . Whan I h av a a l o t o f I a p o r ta n t t h i n g s t o ta k a c a r a o f , I a a k a a p la n and s t i c k
t o 1 t.

8 3 . Whan so a a o n a I lo v a has r e je c te d a a , I t h a s aa d a a a f a a l In a d e q u a te and t h a t I


w i l l n a v a r b e a b le to a c c a a p lls h a n y th in g .

8 4 . I f you d o n ’ t e a t , you can d ie .

85. I ta n d t o d w e ll a o r a on p le a s a n t th a n u n p le a s a n t i n c i d e n t s f r o a th e p a s t.

8 6 . I b e l i e v e In good and bad o a e n s.

67. I a a n o t b o tn e r e d in th e l e a s t when p e o p le I n s u l t a e f o r no good reaso n .

8 6 . when so a e o n e I know i s loved by a p a r s o n th a y lo v a , I f a a l t h a t th e y a re a


w o n d e rfu l p a r s o n and can a c c a a p lls h w h a te v e r tn e y w an t t o .

8 9 . I g a t s o d i s t r e s s e d when I n o tic e t h a t 1 a a d o in g p o o r ly 1n s o a a th in g t h a t I t
m akes a e do w o rse.

90. I t r y t o a c c e p t p eo p le a s th a y a r a w ith o u t ju d g in g th em .

91. when u n p le a s a n t th in g s happen t o a a , I d o n 't l e t t h e a p r a y on a y mind.

92. I f 1 do v a ry p o o r ly on a t a s t , I r e a l i z e i t i s o n ly a s i n g l e t e s t , and i t
d o e s n 't make a a f e e l g e n e r a lly in c o a p e ta n t .

93. I b e l i e v e o n c e a c r im in a l, alw ays a c n a i n a l .

9 4 . I b e l i e v e t h e r e a r a p eo p le who can s e e I n t o th e f u t u r e .

9 5 . I b e l i e v e t h a t anyone who i s n ' t la z y c a n alw ay s f i n d a jo b .

96. I f i n d 1 t h a r d t o changa ay a in d o n ce X h av a a a d a a d e c i s i o n .

9 7 . 1 d o n o t b e l i e v e in any s u p e r s t i t i o n s .

98. I d o n ’t g a t v a r y d i s t r e s s e d o v e r t h a a l s t a k e s o f o t h e r s , b u t t r y t o d ea l w ith
them 1n a c o n s t r u c t i v e way.

99. When f a c e d w ith a c h a lle n g in g s i t u a t i o n , I t r y t o la a g i n e t h e b e s t outcome and


a v o id d w e llin g on wnat m ight go w rong.

100. I b e l i e v e t h a t i f I do som ething go o d , th e n good t h i n g s w i l l happen to me.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
182

1 s a « S

■WWIWlT ■ s e lb HraVfW lf
h ie 'm e fmtmm w e T ha
1M

101. I believe in flying saucers.


102. I try to aska an all-out effort 1n aost things I do.
103. I have lea mod froa bitter experience that aost people ere not trustworthy.
104. when I as faced with a new situation, I tand to think the worst possible
outccae will happen.
105. When faced with upcoalng unpleasant events, I usually carefully think through
how I will deal with than.
100. Two plus two equals four.
107. There ara basically two kinds of people in th is world, good and bad.
108. when soaathlng unfortunate happans to aa, 1t raalnds ea of all the other things
wrong 1n ay Ufa, which adds to ey unhappiness.

PLEASE DECK THAT YOU HAVE ANSWERED EVERY QUESTION


A THAT EVERY QUESTION HAS ONLY flE ANSWER.

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183

APPENDIX E

PERMISSION FOR USE OF THE INSTRUMENT

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184

Dear Pamela,

I am delighted to hear about the research you are planning. You appear to have an

excellent sample. My oflf-the-top-of-my-head comments follow:

If appropriate for your sample, use answer sheets that can be machine scored, as

this will save you much time and will be less error-prone than hand scoring. On the other

hand, if the participants are not used to answer sheets, they may find them distracting and,

if so, it would be better to have them make their responses directly on the questionnaires.

It might be a good idea to try out the answer sheets with a few o f them and get their

opinion about whether you should use them.

In addition to self-report tests by participants, in which you can get information

about their frequency o f illness missed work days, job satisfaction, etc., obtain whatever

objective information is available or that you can make available, such as recorded

absences, work output, and ratings o f performance and of cooperativeness by supervisors

of fetlow-workers.

If saving time or reducing the length of the CTI for other reasons is important,

retaining only the emotional coping, behavioral coping, and categorical thinking scales

and their subscales can make a very useful abbreviated version. When analyzing the data,

it is important to separate the participants into relatively homogeneous groups, such as

supervisors versus supervised employees.

Do you have a copy o f the CTI, scoring key, and manual? If not, let me know, and

I will send them to you. Also let me know if you would like reprints of any o f the studies

summarized in the manual.

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185

I will look into my files to see if I can find other materials that might be helpful to

you. Several years ago, an undergraduate student did an honors thesis under my direction

in which she related the work performance o f nonfaculty staff at the University o f

Massachusetts to CTI scores. If I am able to locate her material, I will send you whatever

I think would be useful to you.

In answer to your question, I don't know o f any authority that has done similar

research with the CTI.

If you have any other questions, please don't hesitate to ask them.

Best wishes,

Sy Epstein

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186

APPENDIX F

SPSS DETAILED DATA RESULTS

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
N n a . DHMtai VMM
KUUP » sc n sr1 is im a im
QU3ML 20i m ans ia .o n n 14ASH
EMOT 207 nnao i a .n m m m
PEMUP an w ow 2.27M S.1S7
CATNMK an 47.4HM 4M B 210S7
EBOTHMK an a im s s.4ans 41.344
uabC
fWTK an «2W A sm s 47.333
V H H N (M rin) ao7

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
188

R E L X A B X L I T Y A N A L Y S I S - S C A L E (ALPHA)

M of
S ta tis tic * fo r H ean V a ria n c e S t d D ev V a ria b le s
SCALE 1 0 9 .3 8 4 6 1 4 5 .6 5 8 1 1 2 .0 6 8 9 29

R e lia b ility C o e ffic ie n ts

N o f C ases - 2 0 8 .0 n o f I te a s - 29

A lp h a - .8 5 6 0

H e th o d 1 (sp ace sa v e r) w ill b e u se d fo r th is a n a ly s is

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
189

R E L I A B I L I T Y A N A L Y S I S - S C A L E (ALPHA)

N of
S ta tis tic s fo r N aan V a ria n c e S t d Do t V a ria b le s
SCALE 8 9 .3 2 3 7 1 7 3 .9 2 8 7 1 3 .1 8 8 2 25

R e lia b ility C o e ffic ie n ts

N o f C ases - 2 0 7 .0 N o f Ite s u - 25

A lp h a - .8 9 1 0

Reliability
* * * * * * M e th o d 1 ( s p a c e s a v e r ) w ill b e u sed fo r t h i s a n a ly s is

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190

R E L I A B I L I T Y A N A L Y S I S - S C AL E (ALPHA)

N of
S ta tis tic * fo r M a in V a ria n c e S t d D av V a ria b le s
SCALE 5 4 .4 5 6 7 2 4 .1 2 3 7 4 .9 1 1 6 14

R e lia b ility C o e ffic ie n ts

N o f C ases “ 2 0 8 .0 N of Ite a s - 14

A lp h a - .6 8 8 3

M e th o d 1 (sp a c e sa v e r) M ill b e u s e d fo r th is a n a ly s is

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
191

R E L I A B I L I T Y A N A L Y S I S - S C A L E (ALPHA)

N of
S ta tis tic * fo r M an V a ria n c e S t d D ev V a ria b le *
SCALE 1 9 .8 2 6 9 5 .1 9 7 0 2 .2 7 9 7 7

R e lia b ility C o e ffic ie n ts

N o f C ases - 2 0 8 .0 n o f I te a s • 7

A lp h a - - .3 4 1 9

M e th o d 1 (sp a c e sa v e r) w ill be u sed fo r t h i s a n a ly s is

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
192

R E L I A B I L I T Y A N A L Y S I S - S C A L E (ALPHA)

N Of
S ta tis tic s fo r Ms a n V a ria n c e std D ev V a ria b le s
SCALE 4 7 .4 9 0 4 2 4 .0 9 C S 4 .9 0 8 8 16

R e lia b ility C o e ffic ie n ts

N o f C ases - 2 0 8 .0 N of Ite a s - 16

A lp h a ” .2 5 7 6

M e th o d 1 (sp ace sa v e r) w ill be u sed fo r th is a n a ly s is

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
193

R E L I A B I L I T Y A N A L Y S I S - S C A L E (ALPHA)

N of
S ta tis tic s fo r M san V a ria n c e S t d D ev V a ria b le s
SCALE 2 8 .S 9 1 3 4 1 .3 4 4 3 6 .4 3 0 0 13

R e lia b ility C o e ffic ie n ts

N o f C ases - 2 0 8 .0 n o f Ite m s - 13

A lp h a - .6 3 4 0

M e th o d 1 (sp a c e sa v e r) M ill b e u s e d fo r th is a n a ly s is

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
194

R E L I A B I L I T Y A N A L Y S I S - S C AL E (ALPHA)

N of
S ta tis tic * fo r N aan V a ria n c a S t d D ev V a ria b le s
SCALE 4 9 .2 3 5 6 4 7 .8 3 3 1 6 .9 1 6 1 15

R e lia b ility C o e ffic ie n ts

N o f C ase* - 2 0 8 .0 n of Ita a s - 15

A lp h a - .7 4 4 9

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
S taE fiar
O il M iili N M an SM-OMteten Maw
O M SC A N O T w w IB ■ t j h h t 1*1*4
OM l as 108.0306 11.Q2S3S 213223
B ih m M C flp in g M i WMl m 972253 5.1S37S 23425
OM l M S0.S3SS 56730 1.14204
Emadenal CaHm% S a te WMl ib ss.7 sar 1233804 .38362
O hara as 323046 1224443 240133
P iio H i StqaraBan wmb IB 14600 3.53073 •63806
S a te om n 23 14.3077 533*37 1.14323
C ite o te i ^ G ii m m IB 37J374 3.04310 .5386
O tte n as 3S.S81S 1243373 243040
EaotaricScala VMM* 16 as.S7*i 3.52534 63104
OHam as 20.3346 3.33388 1.04147
n pv upvm n x v t m m 1B 512747 30.38401 223770 I
O hm as 4S.SS15 8.33740 1.84104 1

Twl

Lauana'aTaatter
Equate of Vtataneoa

P Ota-
om m i scaia ocom
.813 .340
Equal uartantaa

Bahaaionl Coptng S o la Equal uartancaa


.387 .415
Equal uahoneaa

Emotional CeoteQ Sotea


aaaunod .003 .028
Equal uartaneaa
notaaoumad
Poraonal SioaaOon
Scate .135 .714
Equal uahancae
not aaaianad
Cg^Qfieii Sctft Equal uarianeaa
aaaunad 10.571 .001

nalaaaumad

aaaianad 1.887 .104


Equal uartaneaa
nalaaaumad
NateaOoMaknScaia Equal uadaneaa
aaaunad .084 .300
Equal uadaneaa
not aaaianad

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
H talterE i auaafrcTMaana

Maan
t dr Sta. Q 4 M OOkiaiHja
J lb U f a f td c o m e g d t iM i -tan 206 on -4.ion
SSS23** -1.783 31.626 083 -non
BafMwtanf Coping S o li Equal uariancaa
MUMd -2 .54a 206 .012 -2.8132
Equal uariancaa
•2.399 90.017 028 -28132
EmoMoflri CopfciQ S a lt
•Minri -1.312 200 iai •3.6918
Equal varianoaa
-1.3n 34.066 .171 •9.6318
Panonal S is a M o n Equal ariancaa 208
S c* aaaumad in .887 .3132
Equal uariancaa 236 42.312 .612 .3132
C afegarialSala E p ria to M 20*
a m d -1278 206 •23242
Equal w rtan aa
notaaaunad -.820 28.067 .982 •23242
E ao M cS ala Equal uariancaa
aaaumad -1.838 206 .084 -38066
Equal uariancaa
•taoi 31.178 m •3.8066
Naha OpOittim S a l t Equal uariancaa
708 206 .481 4.3132
■ tiw d
Equal uariancaa
nalaaaumad 1.491 112.679 .183 4!3132

R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
MamairEmmfcflfldaana
00% Coaidanea Maamal
SM.Enar afOwNtoanca
Loaar uaaar
1
I
S
!il!
Baftariom Coping Sctfa Equaluartancaa
217440
121884
1.10407
120671
-0.31004
-0.70240
•4.10002
-5272S2
.17716
90282
-.03040
-.38308
Emodontf Coping iem E fi« im 102772
2.70010 •0.00140
2.80004 •0.00000 1.64622
rw w v^vvm i m oH 1.73084 3.74217
-3.11900
Equal wannt—
notaaaunad 1.30020 •2.32041 206270
C g^odnlSM li Equal wrianoaa 1.02340 -8.01030 127001
aaaumad
EqudvrtncM
not aaaumad 2.81034 •7.40803 201747
EaaM eSato Equal wortoneaa 1.01030 -7.07470 .00371
aaaumad
Equal uariancaa 1.04000 .46430
nalaaaumad -7.47920
iw v upsM m o m ebhb w w
0.10043 10.30028
-7.72000

MMumad*1* 3.00087 •1.03100 1028746

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
SM-Enor
Gandor N Mm SUOoMOon Mn
MM J titt
FM k 7» 103.1878 10.44887 1.18084
W M onlCc|h|SQ rii MM 132 87.4887 8.38006 .48674
M l 76 87.7832 8.33083 21241
EmoaanMCoping SeM MM 132 81-8804 11.08281 1.04033
FMM 76 84.3884 14.00837 120088
Fononal SippPMon MM 132 14.2048 808380 .84372
Solo FMM 7g 182386 4.82308 .08471
CatagoricatScM MM 132 37.8182 • 08084 .78212
FMM m 38.1184 020084 .04812
EaoloricScM MM 132 04.7727 0.14243 .70871
FMM 78 28.0000 0.01288 1.03381
fpfm opdndMi ScPi MM 132 48.8242 7.33038 83803
FMM 78 83.8818 47.10088 8.41308

T«t
levene'aTMfar
riaiaMiiofVdrianeaa

F Sin.
GMPSMSOM EgMMMnCM
M IW l) 012 211
Equal aariancao
notaaaunad
Bofuworal Coping SeM Equilvariancae .670
aaaunad .183
Equal wariancaa
Emotional Coping ScoM Equal voriancoa 292
aaaunad 1.116
Equal uariancM
notaaaunad
Poroonol SuponOOon Equal Mancaa
ScM aaaunad .170 .680
Equal Mioncoo
notooounod
CMporiMScM Equal wrtoncoo .074
aoaunod .001
Equal Mrtancaa
notaaounad
EM M SeM Equ* uariancaa .001
aaaunad 3.078
Equal vorianoao
notaaaunad
NW V^PmTmBmRSKBS E ajdM M H 2.764 .088
Equal uariancaa
notaaaunad

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
M autarEuuahrofM aana

Maui
t dr S n -P U im Manama
q h m 9e m scorn
1 1434 MS .010 3.0007
EquaiwrianeM 2.410 183.808 .017 3.0M7
M w io ral Coping Scrii
-M 1 200 .703 ■2330

•M l 100.013 .703 -1830


E tn o iral Coping Scoio * 4.1M 208 .000 7.8240
Equal M lM M 3.M3 137.238 .000 7.8240
Paiaonal SusaraOOon Equal vartanoaa
S o la MMIMd •ME 200 -3M •1.0323

notaaaunad -1.017 203.372 .310 -1.0323


CUaoortcalScala Equal vartanoaa
aaaunad ■230 200 .011

i
Equal uariancaa
■244 107.417 .007

ft
E M M c ta k Equal uariancaa
aaaunad -3.408 208 .001 •41273
Equal uariancaa
-3373 143.000 .001 -41273
iw v voonm * IqoP M rtn p n
WMnod -1.104 200 M0 •4.0073
EpOi MhOMM
notonumod -.000 77.0M .388 •4.0073

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
200

SaaptnTnt
____ b t t *
66%CanManea Monal
SH-Enw
OOtaanea Lmar Uaaar
orouMhranea
i
1
S
ill!
1.48620 87134 6.92788
1.44360 saass 856000
Bahavioial Cepftig Scala EqutfMrtancaa Tgqqq -1.81127 1J 2436

Emaaonat Coping Seala


m TmummT*
Etpuhwtanoaa
.7B8M •1.81314 1-22824
1.83444 4.00732 11-24088

notaaaunad 111434 3.83088 1140842


Fuaanal ffi^ir— nn Equal wrtancaa 1.18343
Sort* aaaunad •3.38323 1.31883
Equal «artanoaa 1.0192S -303408
nal aaaunad .08860
Caaagortaal Soaia Eoulwrtanoaa 1.28712
aaaunad •2.77870 2.17823
CquU urtancao 1.22806 •2.72874
notaaaunad 2.12826
Eaotartcicata Equal varianeaa
aaaunad 121M •4.43188 •1.82287
Equal uariancaa 1.25341 •4.70479
notaaaunad •1.74878
Nafca OptoMn Sctfa Equal vadanoaa 4.1M11 -13.21044 328677
aaaunad
EtMahurianeaa 9.45132 -15.81210 5.88743

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
201

Oneway

UW M
SWWfc dfl dB So.
G to M S cd iS can " ■ m r 4 203 .*21
BewMawiCBWn5oe> .132 4 203 •70
r a n n i u p n |X H 1.003 4 203 378
R m m lS w a w e a n .730 4
s a le 203 .53*
C l g n r tc H H •32 4 203 .447
EaoM ricSctfi .471 4 203 757
N M Q p a n w n iS a ti 3.1*1 4 203 .014

ANOVA

Sun*
T aarae « MoonSauom F Si*.
O to M M o so o n ■ M o o io m p i 1 1#.l*6 4 J* i.* i* 2072 .033
WWdn Group* 21415.713 203 105.4*8
Tow 22543300 207
B d iid n lC o |in |ic d i ■ aW w nG m oa 1*5.473 4 40.35* 1.049 103
M N nO m oi S707.2** 203 2*115
TcW 5*02.7** 207
EmoOona Copk* Soolo M aadnO raupo •75.043 4 210701 1450 490
WMNnQraupo 363*3.0*7 203 174202
ToM 30230111 207
P v io n d StaoWMen BWMonGraupd 2*4.47* 4 71.120 1.03* 3**
Son VMMnOraup* 13*04.132 203 00.444
ToM 14170*11 207
C oagortcaS ald •O M in O m o i •32403 4 233.173 3404 .014
V N N nO m pi 14773425 203 72.775
TcW 1570641* 207
E coW fcicae B a ta a n G ratae *•015* 4 174.040 2.304 .054
VMNn Group* 14042.M* 203 73010
TaW 15*3*.06* 207
iw v am M M w O nw •637.527 4 1034.302 1.900 .101
VMMnGraw* 16*752.*3 203 431.296
TaW 1752*04* 207

Poat Hoc Teals

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
M—n
OM.nd.rtVy*. my tOAg. <K0 8U.Enw
GMMWrtseoM <21 yn oh 21 -syn au lsH6 Us
33-44yn.au 22465 604966 .000
4S-9Syn.aU -2535 606232 1.000
>56mart -1.8192 6.10372 1.000
21-32yn art <2lynaU -6.3790 626076 .006
33-44yn.aU -4.1204 240466 .900
4S-96yn.aU -6.6300 2.42003 .119
>56yn.au •7.6002 2.78646 .000
33-44yn.aU <21yn aU -2.2466 604906 .000
21-32fi.au 4.1204 2.40406 .900
48-56ynau •2.9006 1.60016 000
>96ynaU •3.7606 2.14129 .546
4S-S6ynaU <21yn aU 2636 6.06232 1.000
21-32ynaU 6.6360 2.42003 .119
33-44ynaU 2.9066 1.60010 .000
>S6ynaU -12913 2.19010 .007
>S6ynaU <21yn aU 1.8192 610372 1.000
21-32ynaU 7.6002 2.79646 .000
33-44ynaU 37608 2.14129 .549
46-86ynaU 12813 2.19010 .007
■drtort CopingSort. <21yn aU 21-32yn aU 4.7617 324700 .703
33-44ynau 3.6630 3.12114 .044
49-96ynaU 2.4863 3.12443 .161
»86ynaU 2.1212 610743 .070
21 -32yn oU <21ynaU ■4.7617 324700 .703
33-44ynau •1.0667 124192 .040
48-96ynaU •2.3333 124077 .402
»86ynaU •2.6708 1.42247 .476
33-44ynau <21yn aU -3.6630 3.12114 .044
21-32ynau 1.0067 124192 .040
46-96ynau -12346 .07202 736
>96yn aU •1.8718 1.10630 .732
46-96ynaU <21ynaU •2.4803 612443 .061
21-32ynaU 2.3333 124077 .402
33-44ynaU 12346 .07202 .736
>96ynaU -.3371 1.11466 .000
>96ynaU <21yn aU -2.1212 3.10743 .070
21-32ynau 26706 1.42247 .476
33-44ynau 1.8710 1.10630 .732
49-66ynoU .3371 1.11466 .900
EmaOonrtCopingScrt> <21yn aU 21-32ynaU .8417 9.08244 1.000
33-44ynoU -1.0076 7.76014 1.000
49-96ynau -4.0683 7.77733 .002
>96ynoU •9.3030 7.09004 .977
21-32yn aU <21ynoU -.5417 600244 1.000
33-44ynoU -2.4496 600040 .900
46-86ynoU -9.9000 3.11003 .930
>S6ynaU -6.0386 I 654000 .901

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
X nPn

Mmh
ONmnca
O M M V k ta M i (JIAm SU-Enar . So.
EmdoMl GG0M0 U l l <21 y n au 1.1076 770014 1.000
2 1 -32 y n a t e 2.4466 3.00040 .960
4 5 -5 6 y n a t e -3.0604 2.17062 .740
» 56 m ate -3.4660 2.75154 .900
45 - 56 yn. ate <21 y n a te 4.6603 7.77733 .062
2 1 -3 2 y n a te 5.5000 3.11003 .636
33-44 y n a t e 3.0004 2.17082 .740
> 55 i n ate .4360 277466 1.000
>56 y n a te <21 y n a te 5.3030 7.06004 .977
2 1 -3 2 y n a te 5.0366 3.54000 .561
3 3 -44 y n a te 3.4660 2.75164 608
4 5 -5 6 y n a te .4306 2.77480 1.000
Pm m J <21 y n a te 2 1 -3 2 y n a t e 4.3750 5.06621 .945
S cat 33-44 y n a t e 6.1536 4.06003 .009
4 6 -5 5 y n a te 60276 4.07406 .621
>56 y n a te 7.0406 4.60606 .660
21 • 32 yn. old <21 y n a te •4.3750 5.00621 .946
33-44 y n a te 17766 1.03711 .932
48 - 56 y n a te 1.6526 1.04000 .940
>56 y n a te 3.4736 2.21644 .664
33-44 yn.aU <21 y n a te •6.1536 4.66003 .609
21 -3 2 y n a t e •1.7706 1.03711 .932
46 - 56 y n a te -.1257 1.36066 1.000
>66 y n a te 1.6060 1.72471 .915
4 5-56 y n a te <21 y n a te •6.0276 4 67406 .621
2 1 -3 2 y n a t e •1.6620 1.04060 .040
33 - 44 y n a te .1257 1.30060 1.000
>56 m a t e 1.0207 1.73616 .006
>56 y n a te <21 y n a te •7.0406 4.66006 .660
21 - 32 y n ate •3.4736 2-21844 .664
33 -44 y n a te •1.6650 1.72471 .915
45 -5 6 y n a te •1.6207 1.73616 .696
Categoric* in to <21 yro.aU 21 -32 y n a te 1.7063 5.22403 .099
3 3 -44 y n a te .6026 5.02153 1.000
46 - 56 y n a te 4.7500 5.02602 .026
>66 y n a te 5.6061 5.14428 .066
2 1 -3 2 yn. ate <21 y n a te -1.7003 522403 .600
33-44 y n a te -.6057 1.00746 .966
46 - 56 y n a te 3.0417 2.01073 .663
>56 y n a te 47006 2.26667 .500
33-44 y n a te <21 y n a te -.6026 5.02153 1.000
21 -32 y n a te .0057 1.60746 .966
46 - 56 y n a te 3.0474 140297 .069
> 8 6 y n a te 5.1066 1.77944 .067
4 5 - 5 6 y n ate <21 y n a te •4.7500 5.02662 .925
21 -3 2 y n a te •3.0417 2.01073 .663
33 - 44 y n a te •3.0474 1.40297 .000
> 66 y n a te 1.1561 1.79333 .901

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
Moan
DUUmmm
SU -E m r _ su .
c A g f lf a n >Wytm.oU < 2 ly n .a U M i.
-6.9061 ' i u O X r*W
2 1 -3 2 yrm.aU -42006 226667 .900
3 3 -4 4 yrm.aU •6.1066 1.77644 .007
46-96yrm .au •1.1961 179333 461
EmaUricSatm <21 yrm. aU 21 - 32 yrm. aU -02917 529364 .047
33-44yrm.aU -44009 5.09026 430
46 - 96yrm.aU •3.0136 5.09961 .900
>96 ytm.aU -2.1212 9.17372 467
2l-32yrm .aU <2lyrm .aU 92917 529364 .947
33-44yrm.aU 3.7626 200666 .473
46 - 96ytm.aU 92776 202224 .151
>66ytm.aU 6.1706 230166 .131
33-44yrm.aU <2lyrm .aU 49066 5.00026 .939
2 1 -3 2 yrm. aU -3.7626 200669 .473
49 - 96yrm.aU 1.4646 1.41100 .960
> 56 yrm. aU 2.3676 1.79002 .770
49-96yrm.aU <21 yrm. aU 3.0136 5.09961 .906
21 - 32 yrm. aU •62776 202224 .191
33-44ytm .aU •1.4646 1.41100 .960
> 96 yrm. aU .9027 1.00360 .963
>96yrmaU <2lyrm .aU 21212 6.17372 .967
21 - 32 yrm. aU •6.1706 230160 .131
33-44yrm.aU -23676 1.70962 .776
46 - 96 ytm.aU -.0927 1.00360 .963
Now* O yU M n ScUm <21 yrm. aU 21 -3 2 yrm. aU -.4963 1749604 1.000
33-44yrm.aU 1.4474 16.97164 1.000
49 - 96 ytm.aU 26067 16.90663 1.000
>96 yrm.aU •13.4946 17.36047 .903
21 - 32 yrm. aU <21 yrm.aU .4963 17.60604 1.000
33-44ytm .aU 1.3067 6.79066 .996
49 - 96yrm.au 21290 6.79001 .906
>99 ytm.aU -129662 7.73406 .506
33-44 yrm. aU < 21 yrm. aU •1.4474 10.67164 1000
21 - 32 yrm. aU •1.9057 6.79060 990
4 9 -9 6 yrm.aU 12163 4.74172 .996
>96 yrm.aU -14.9016 6.01073 .193
49-96 yrm.aU <21 yrm.aU -26667 16.90963 1.000
21 - 32 yrm. aU -3.1290 6.79901 .996
33-44yrm .aU -12193 4.74172 .969
>99 yrm.aU •16.1212 6.06107 .137
> 59 yrm. aU < 21 yrm. aU 13.4948 17.36647 .963
21 -32yrm.aU 129062 7.73406 .509
3 3-44 ytm.aU 14.9019 6.01073 .193
4 9 -9 9 yrm.aU 16.1212 6.06107 .137

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
98% Canidfw H m d
Loaur Bound I te a r Bound
QMMMIKM < 21y n OH 21- JZy n OH " -lilH4 aiS is
3 3 -4 4 y n oU •16.8488 21.0411
4 8 -S 8 y n .aU •18.0782 16.8816
>98m . oM -20.7701 17.7306
21 - 32 y n aid <21 y n aU •28.8286 13.1706
33-44 y n .aU •116068 3.3471
4 S -S S yn.aU •14.1860 .8872
> 9S m aU •16.4883 6760
3 3-44 yn. aU <21 yn. aid -21.0411 16.5488
21-32 y n.aU -3.3471 11.8088
4 S -S 8y n .aU -7.7606 2.7418
>S S m aU •10.4174 2.8886
4 S -5S y n.aU <21 yn. aU •18.8618 18.0782
21-32 yn.aU -.8672 14.1880
3 3 -4 4 y n .aU -2.7416 7.7800
> S 8m aU •7.0837 5.4812
> 9S yn.aU <21 y n aU •17.7388 20.7701
21-32 y n a u -.6760 16.4663
33-44 y n o U -2.8066 10.4174
4 6 -9 6 y n o U -6.4612 7.8637
Bafcawarai CaUng ScUa <21 y n aU 21 - 32 y n aU ■ta -t. i A. 14.8886
H is
33-44 y n a U 13.3866
46 - 88 y n a u 12.1718
> S S m aU 12.0613
21 - 32 yn. aU <21 y n o U •14.8666 8.3026
33 - 44 y n o U -4.8663 2.7606
49-56 y n o U •66186 1.8819
> S 6m aU •7.0028 1.7517
3 3-44 y n o U <21 y n o U -13.3888 6.0100
21-32 y n a U -2.7600 4.9683
48 - 56 y n o U -3.0486 1.4763
> S 6ynaU -6.0062 1.8647
48 - 58 yn. aU <21 y n oU •12.1718 76846
21-32 y n a u •1.5618 66186
33 - 44 y n o U -1.4783 3.9496
> 56 y n oU -3.8023 3.1281
> 56 y n aU < 21 y n oU -12.0813 7.8189
21 -32 y n a U -1.7517 7.0026
33 - 44 y n o U -1.8847 5.0082
4 8 -5 8 y n a U -3.1261 3.8023
EmaMonal Coping ScUd <21 y n aU 21 - 3 2 y n aU -24.5848 29.8862
33-44 y n a u •26.0606 226447
48 - 86 y n a U -28.1384 196197
> 56 y n aU -30.1386 19.3480
21 • 32 yn. aU <21 y n o U -28.6682 24.5849
33 - 44 y n o U -12.0668 7.1878
48 - 56 y n o U -15.1712 4.1712
> 56ynaU •16.9432 5.0720

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
66%Canfld
OaMnMVWMto
EffloWnMCapMgaeMa fl-U y re o id
. .
<51y n a ld
LaNarBauU (Uaar Bound
•422447
21 -3 2 y n .a u -7.1676 120666
4 6 -8 6 yreoU •67164 3.6876
>56 vra aU -12.0400 5.0679
4 6 -5 6 yn .aH <21 yreoU •162167 26.1364
2 1 -3 2 y ra .a u -41712 16.1712
3 3 -4 4 yra.aU -3.6676 6.7664
>66 v n . aU -6.0612 6.1600
>66 yra.U6 < 2 ly n .a U •163460 30.1366
21 -3 2 yra.aU -60720 16.6432
3 3 -4 4 yra.aU •6.0676 120400
4 6 -5 6 y ra.aU -61600 6.0612
PtnanU StuanW an < 2 ly reaU 2 l-3 2 y ra .a U -11.3747 20.1247
ScoU 3 3 -4 4 y re .a u •66667 212627
4 6 -6 6 y n .a u -61274 21.1630
>66 y n .a u -7.6606 23.3670
2 i-3 2 y re aU <21 yra aU •20.1247 11.3747
3 3 -4 4 y reaU •42436 7.0006
4 6 -6 6 yra aU •4.4003 7.7140
> 6 6 vra aU •3.4263 10.3732
3 3-44yreaU <21 yra aU -212627 0.0087
21 -3 2 yra aU •7.6006 42436
4 6 -6 6 y ra.aU -4.3666 4.1040
>86 vra aU •36666 7.0667
4 6-U y ra.aU <21 yra aU •21.1030 8.1274
2 l-3 2 y ra .a U -7.7146 4.4063
33 -4 4 y ra.aU •4.1040 4.3666
>56 y n .aU •3.9600 72274
> 86 y n aU < 21 yra aU •23.3676 7.6606
2 1 -3 2 yra. aU -10.3732 3.4263
3 3 -44yra.aU •7.0667 3.6668
4 6 -8 6 vra aU •72274 3.3600
CaugarteUScaU < 21 y n oU 21 - 32 yra aU •14.8320 17.6467
3 3 -4 4 yra aU •14.0062 16.4138
46 -5 6 y re.aU •10.6773 20.3773
>56 v n .aU •10.0633 21.8015
21 -3 2 y red u < 21 yra aU -17.9487 14.5320
3 3 -4 4 yra aU -7.1154 5.3040
4 5 -6 6 yra. aU *32092 62626
>96 y n .aU •29136 11.3154
33-44yra.aU < 21 yra. aU -16.4135 14.8062
21 -3 2 yra aU -6.3040 7.1154
4 6 -8 6 y ra .a u -.4141 6.3068
>56 v n .aU -.4223 10.6362
46-96yra.aU < 21 yra aU -20.3773 10.8773
2 1 -3 2 yra. aU •02626 32062
3 3 -4 4 yra.aU •6.3066 .4141
> 66 yra aU •4.4160 6.7342

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
WKCaUU MM
L o an Bound U tav Bound
cm gortem aeo n > W in . old <51 yrm. d f ~ -21.9019 i6.fi4i3
21 - 32 y n oU •114164 2.9139
33-44 y n a U •10.6362 .4223
4 6-56 v n o U -6.7342 4.4160
E souricS oU «21ynoU 21 -32 yra oU •244290 9.0417
33-44 y n o U -204060 11.1914
49-96yra.aH -16.7307 12.7029
>96 yra.aU -162062 13.9628
21 -3 2 y ra.au <21 yra. aU •6.0417 24.6290
33 - 44 yra. aU -24623 10.0291
46-96yra.aU -1.0069 11.9646
> 56ynaU -.9990 13.3296
33 - 44yn.aU < 2 ly ra a U -11.1914 204060
21 - 32 yra. aU •10.0261 2.4623
46 - 96 y n .a u -2.6016 9.9614
> 5 6 y n aU -3.1729 7.9460
46 - 96 yn. aU <21 yn.aU -12.7029 16.7307
21 -3 2 y n .a u -11.9648 1.0009
33 - 44 yn. aU -6.6914 2.9916
>96 y n o U •4.7143 6.4967
> 96ynaU <21 yra. aU -13.9629 164062
2 l-3 2 y ra.aU -13.3296 .9990
33-44 y n o U •7.9460 3.1729
48-86 v n a U •6.4667 4.7143
Nowa OpUnMm ScoU <21 yra. aU 2 1 -3 2 y n .aU •96.3471 54.4304
33 - 44 y n o U •61.3137 944068
48-96 y n a u •90.1901 56.4634
> 66ynaU •67.9063 40.5662
21 - 32 pm. ok) <21 y n oU •64.4304 56.3471
33-44 y n o U •19.0619 22.9029
46-66 y n o U -16.0017 244917
> 56 y n aU •37.0422 11.0496
33-44 y n aU <21 y n o U •644066 51.3137
21-32 y n a u -22.9629 19.0615
46-96 y n o U -13.5217 15.9603
>96 y n o U •33.9660 3.7941
45 - 96 yra. att < 21 y n aU -66.4634 50.1901
21-32 y n o U -244917 16.0017
33-44 y n o U -19.9603 13.5217
> 9 9ynaU -34.9637 2.7213
>66 y n o U < 21ynaU •40.9362 67.5063
21-32 y n o U •11.0466 37.0422
33 - 44 y n o U -3.7941 33.5990
46 - 96 y n o U -17213 34.9937

HomogwMOtis Subsets

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
208

acnw
Tubed tor
a p t* -
.06
N 1
2 i-3 Z y iaa H *4 100.2617
33-44ym .dd 75 104.4211
< 21 yra aU 3 106.6667
45-96ym .aU 72 106.6306
> 55ym. oU 33 106.1616
SU .463

a. Maan Sample Sba *11965


b. The group • unequal. The hannonic mean d toe group aim a ueed. Type Ierror leva* am nd guaranteed.

TiliaOb**
SubMt fbr
ato h e-
.06
*fb N 1
21 -32ym .au 24 95.0750
33-44 yra.aU 70 96.0737
49 - 95 yra. aid 72 sqbQfT
>96yra.dd 33 96.5455
<21 yra. oU 3 60.6567
• I _________ .320
Maanatargraupo in
a Mean Sample S to e-11.506.
b. The g ra n d m unequal Tha hannonic maan d toe group aim is uaad. Type I error lavaia are nd guaranteed.

ScnaO**"
Subodtar
•* •» «
OS
An N 1
2T - 3 2 ym.au 24
<21 yraaU 3 60.0000
33 - 44 ym.aU 70 07.6076
45 - 55 yn.aU 72 00.0503
> 55 yra. old 33 61.3630
A t _________ .063
Means tor grouped
a Uan Hannodc Sample a n - 11.569.
b. Tha group imequal Tha harmonic moon d 6m group aim ■ uaad. Type l error loaolam nd guaranteed.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
209

'jlImO**
Suboatfcr
«*■ «
06
N 1
*1* J1
> H in .a b 33 120102
33-44 yra. aU 76 14.5132
4 5-55 yra aU 72 14.0300
2 1-32 yra aU 24 102917
<21 yraaU 3 20.0007
J i __________ 271
wB PBB^B^BBOBfl^PB

a. Uaaa Hanaortc Mm i Sampta 3Ue • 11.909.


k T,~ h~~~'------ -*‘‘‘- r —r^ — ------ - ~rr~1— 1— t n n uin n iiii

Cu*§mk* Scsto
•ffiii . ^ * fc
9QW
Subaattor
aypta*
.06
*•» N 1
>59 yra. oh 33 36.d009
46 - 56 yn-oM 72 302900
2 1-32 yra. oU 24 302017
33-44 yn.aU 70 40.1974
<21 yraaU 3 41.0000
M __________ .907
Mtans for groift in honogvwoui tutoMti m dtaplnynd-
a Uaaa Harmonic Maan Samp* Staa - 11506
b. Tha grai^ a i w m unaquaL Tha h a n m ic maan of »m greup a n a ia uaad. Typa l aoor iMah m im( gummaad.

E io M e M i
Ca4^lkl
9QWW
Suboatfcr
alpha*
06
N 1
<21 yra a d 3 22& 3
>55 yra.aU 33 24.4945
45-95yra.aU 72 29.3472
33-44yra.aU 70 26.0421
2 1-32 yra.aU 24 302290
s* 293
Mm w for poupi in honoEM M MbMtoMdhEi^fid.
a Um Hvnonic M m Snmpte S in ■ 11.966.
fc Tfc“ir-r*i------- —t-i r _— ■
— rt •^TT-T- T- r i flifinnt[)|,fWI)„ |1

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
210

M w O pM iiiM i
aow
Subaattor
afcha-
06
N 1
49 - 96yn. OH H 4 ? i& 3
3 3 -4 4 y n OH 79 493628
<21 y n o U 3 80.0000
21 - 32 y n aid 24 80.4903
> 8 9 y n a ld 33 034846
SiO. .771
MaanatorgraupainhamaganaouaauOaatoandtoplByod.
a Uaaa8anHonfcMaan3anpto3toB> 11.886.
b Tha group aim a n imgual.'lfcaliamianieiiiaanaroia group aim iauaad.TypalanwlawatoanmguarMaa&

R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
211

Oneway
w w VM wl
U m ne
dtl dB SB.
QtaMScdiSCOT 'I S 5 m sii
M w M C o f in |8 a li 1.134 S 208 .344
cm ora Mpnp eOR .753 S 208 .556
Pmmm I StpanBPm 2.745
Soto 5 202 .080
CalagoricP Serii .536 5 202 .625
Eaclarie Scale 1.756 S 202 .117
Nan* OpMmUm Scale 1.356 S 202 .231

ANOVA

Sum of
•w * ataan S M re F s*.
Global Scala S een S ii2 mM 1.616 .157
WANn G rape 21575.355 208 107.305
TcW 22843.305 207
I
I

Batm en G rape 174.064 5 34.011 1230 857


WANn G rape 5715.716 202 25.310
TeM 5052.755 207
Emoional CflAO Ocala Beaman G rape •56.505 5 151.352 1.006 354
WANn G rape 36251.301 202 174.660
TaW 35235.111 207
Paraonal SupanOton Batm an G rape 623754 5 154.753 2.452 .032
Scale WANn G rape 13364.547 202 05113
Toad 14170.511 207
Categorical Scale S alm an G rape 507.114 5 121.423 1.624 .166
WANnGmpa 15005.504 202 74747
Total 15706.515 207
EaotaricScPe Beaman G rape 025.185 6 166.532 2850 .060
WANnGmpa 14510J00 208 73.321
ToM 15535065 207
Naiwa OpOaMm Scale Beaman G rape 1052.623 5 355506 .465 .502
WANnGmpa 173257.53 208 567.511
TcW 175250.45 207

Poet Hoc Teets

R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
212

su. Sig.
*3* T iB O
2.1250 ooo
•1.7236 1.000

- 2.1000

-6.1111 .064
460170 1.000
2.52247 .670

•1.4643 2.32166

2.60166
3.17630 ■602
S5Si^h5R 5r*" .000
School G r a ta * .670
2 o r 4 yra. C ta g a
.510

1.7236 4.37676 1.000


1.4643 2.32156
1.07031 .510

1.000
Wo*Grata* D on .002
a O n VUkA
T ^ itrli
SKnQ ■O
nli 2.1000
M tfi School G r a ta * 1.0306
42250 741

.3766 1.000

-3.0111 .071
5.1111 .064
H g h School G r a ta * 4.0410 002
7.2381 275
2.68776

3.0111

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
213

HMHIptoGoRpstaiM
Sdwflb

9M. So.
«T
an
.an
an
2.7121 .131
an
1.18946 ion

1.63146 von
.8167 an
an
.927

1.31233 987
1-47066 an
an
ion
i.ma .927

ion
1.9467 on
•8364 .907
i.osn 1.31233 987

an
1.64476 an
m
ion
an
1.36063 von
12200 1.64476 on

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
214

Moan
O t—onoo
O M n d M tV rtM i fflE P jca-n (JtE ta O o n M S— Errar Sta.
EffiOtiMi COpftlQ SGM «nnv n ^ i j u im - 0 1 S d - t G ra ta— 2.0120 690662 1.000
Sarno C t—g-Todt
8 d —tC o w o o i 3.0033 5.72266 .000
2 a r4 y ri. Cd—g i
G r a ta - •1.9030 5.90294 1.000
Sow P ot P i t a -
Cm — -.9633 6.00003 1.000
P o t G ra ta —O otoo 31007 0.23003 .090
H|pi School G ra ta — to n s n p i w w -2.0120 5.90602 1.000
SomoCaOogtTodt
S tra tC o —wo 1.0706 321014 1.000
2 o r4 y n .C t-g o
-3.5107 206104 .023
Soma P o t-G ra ta —
Cm — -2J002 3.70100 .006
P o t G r a ta - Oograo -6.1706 4.06220 .006
SomoCoO^oA'och — no H p id w l -3.0033 5.72206 .906
S d n tC o - i— High 8 d —- G r a ta — •10706 321014 1.000
2or4yra.C oM go
G ra ta — -4.9073 230612 .906
S o m o P ot-G raP a-
Co—m o •4.0367 329662 .000
P o t G ra ta —Oooroo •0.2900 3.69260 .711
2 or 4 y n Co—g i SOOMH ip i p — 1.9030 5.90294 1.000
G r a ta - H«h School G r a ta - 3.5167 206104 .023
So—o Co—goSTacfi
School Co— • 4.9673 230612 .906
Son—P o t O ra P a -
Co—loo .9600 3.00606 1.000
P o t G ra ta —Ooaoo -1.6627 3.42902 .900
S am P a—G n ta — ooffli n p n w iim .9633 6.00003 1.000
Cotwoo Hp t School G ra ta— 2.9862 270100 .906
SanoC o—gtTocti
School Co— i 4.0367 329062 900
2or4yra.C o—go
G ra ta — -.9906 3.00606 1.000
P o t G r a ta - Dograo
-22133 4.00931 .909
P o -d ro P a - nogr— 9BR—n4, p i OUIM
t^ B A t^^Bl
31667 623003 .909
Hgh School G ra ta — 51706 4.06229 .696
SonaCoO ogtrach
Softool C0— 0 62800 3.66260 .711
2 or 4 yro. Co—go
G r a ta - 1.6627 242902 .900
Sow—P o t G ra ta—
Co——a 22133 4.00631 .909

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
215

Scho*

Moon
OMwdico
Sid. Error ---- s * ----
rim o ifw in s o n np< w n Hgh School n ro ra io •4 .0 %
Scad SomaCcgagaffiadi -6875 3.52062
School Cotfooo 1.000
2or4yra.C o6aga 3.43463 999
Graduate 1.6118
SonwPooMSraduad 20000
C oaaoa 366640 .966
Pool Qioduora Oograo 2.1667 3.63269 997
Hgh Schod Graduate M m n p i acnooi 4.0766 3.66262 .942
SomoCoaogolToch 3.3664 1.97964 711
School C om m
2 or 4 yr* CoOogo
5.6667 182225 .099
Oraouora
Somo Poot-Graduale 6.0766 227757 217
Couraoo
P od Gradual* Oograo 62436 2.49314 295
SamoCaOogdToch 8QM9 * ilW .6879 3.52062 1.000
School Com o* H0« S d to d Graduate -3 3864 197964 711
2 o r4 y ra Codage 2.2963 1.46605 763
Graduate
Same Poot-Graduale 2.00546 876
C om m 2.6875
P od Oradurao Oograo 2.6642 224729 899
2 ar4 y ra. Ca6ago Some H 0 i Schod -1.6116 3 43463 999
Gradual* Hgh Schod Oradurao -56667 1.62225 .066
Somo CoOogofToch
-22993 1.46605 .763
School Couraoo
SomoPod-Qradueio 1.64966 1000
Couraoo .3662
P od Gradumo Oograo .5649 2.10966 1.000
Soma Pod Graduate Same Hgh Sdtod •2.0000 3.66640 996
COMT— Hgh School Gadualo •6.0769 227757 217
SamoCodogon’och 200546 .876
School Couraoo •2.6675
2 or 4 yra. CoOogo
-3682 1.64965 1.000
Oradurao
P od Gradumo Oograo 1667 251346 1.000
P ad GraduaM Dograa h„1
w r a« rvpi
US|di ocnm -2.1687 3.83299 997
Hgh Schod Gradumo •6.2436 249314 285
Somo Cdtogo/Toch -2.8542 224729 699
School C o m m
2 ar4 y ra. Cadogo -.5549 2.10968 1.000
Graduoio
Somo P od Graduate -.1667 2.51346 1.000
Com o*

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
216

Moon
D U oino
O y r n m fV m m * mEducudon ( J tE U o n (MJ 3M. Error SM
9CM H g h W w erarad u n 3.81888 1.000
S o m C n g ^ T o ch
School Couraoo -4.3881 3.7438* .828
2ar4yn.C o8M 8 -1.117*
Q radun 3.86200 1.000
S o n Pool Ora* 1 o
Cauooo -3.7200 3.83038 .070
Poor O r a m Oooroo -.1887 4.07988 1000
Hgh School G rad u n Somo School -.0388 3.81988 1.000
Sam C alogoffoch
School Couraoo -4.4343 2.10929 .401
2ar4yra. CoOogo
G radun -1.1881 1.8379* .988
S o n Pool Q radun
C om -37886 2.42172 .780
Pool G n d u n Oograo -2081 2.08083 1.000
S o n Caaogaffdcfi A nal
w n v n p i acnooi 4 3888 .828
3.7438*
School CouraM Hgh School O w n 4.4343 210828 .491
2 or 4 yra. CoOogo
Q radun 32782 1.8*088 .484
S o n Pool Q radilo
Comoo .8788 2.13238 1.000
Pool Q radun D o n o 42282 2.38892 .800
2 dr4 yra. Coitoga W nf OUmH 1.117* 2*8200 1.000
G ro a n School G rad u n 1.18*1 1.8379* .8*8
S o n CoOogo/Toch
School C o m -32782 12808* .484
S o n Pool Q radun -2.8024
Couraoo 1.98704 .8*2
Pool G rad u n Oograo .8810 224320 .88*
Som PoM -G radun fiiuM
m v nM^n ft n ■11
p i auum 3.7200 383035 .970
Couraoo Hgh School G rad u n 3.7888 242172 .700
S onC aaogan’och
School Couraoo -.8788 2.13239 1.000
2or4yn.C oaogt 2.8024 1.98704
G radun .882
Pool G rad u n O o g n 2.87294 .880
3.8533
Po« Q ra d u n Pop** S o n Hgh School 1887 4.07968 1.000
School G rad u n 2061 2*6083 1.000
SonCodogolToch
School Couraoo -42282 238882 .6*0
2 or 4 yra. Cologo
G radun -.8510 224320 .880
Som PoM -G radun 2*7294
Comoo •3.8633 .800

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
217

S dalle

Moan
Oddiaiua
O M ndM lV M N i fl) EAoMon fJIEducoSen SH. Error Sta.
Eaolartc scale W V^pi 9BM I k (p scnooi graduate T W F 3.07810 1.000
Soma CoOagaSTetfi
School C om aa -21875 3.70778 .087
2 o r4 y n . CoOage
Graduate -12000 3.81702 1.000
Sama Peat-Graduala 308280
C om aa 20133 .800
Peat Graduate Decree 3.0333 4.03854 .070
Hgh 4d«ool G radual O TB n p i MMn I 1.1087 3.87810 1.000
SomoCeOagafl’ech
School C em aa -1.0200 2.00808 .000
2 or 4 yra. Colaga -0041 1.81002 1.000
Graduate
S om aPoaM indudi
C om aa 4.0000 230062 .716
Pool Graduate Oograo 5.0000 262564 .605
SomeCoOagafrech Some Mgh School 21075 3.70770 .907
School Com ae Hgh School Qraduala 1.0200 208800 .900
2 o r4 y ra. Coflago
Oroduaaa .0287 1.54600 .906
Sama Poet Graduate
C em aa 5.1008 211108 .327
Poet Graduate Oearao 60200 238083 200
2or4yra.C a0age ^ ----
w n it^ M l9u i m 12000 3.61702 1.000
Graduate Hgh School Graduate .0041 1.01802 1.000
Some CaOagaflOch
School C em aa -.0287 1.54600 .900
Some Foat-Gmdueta
C om as 4.1741 1.84810 .470
Peat Qraduala Oograo 5.0041 222171 .300
Somo Pnel O rU ate 9onw nUbHlp i ta lm l
9uVw -2.8133 3.00280 .980
C om as H fr School Graduate -4.0000 230052 716
SomoCoaagafTach
School C om aa •5.1000 2.11188 .327
2 or 4 yro Codoga
Graduota -4.1741 1.84810 470
Poal Graduola Oagraa
.8200 264883 1.000
Poet Graduate Degree w n nUpUii QUwU
Crduud -3.0333 4.03854 .970
Hgh Stfwol Graduate -5.0000 2.82554 605
SomaCaOagaffech
School Counoa •6.0200 236083 268
2or4yra.C a0age
Graduola •5.0841 222171 .389
Somo Poat-Graduata
Couraaa -.8200 264893 1.000

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
218

Moon
OdMorau
m r n r tf a n (AEducratan 0-J) SU. Error Sfc.
N lW O p M M fft S C S I 9 w W r ^ l Q G nB P M p School SraduoM -1 .4 3tt 13-26681 1 .0 0 0
Somo CoaogoTToch
School Counoo -•3333 12.88290 .984
2or4yra.CadM o
Gradualo -•729 12.37248 1 .0 0 0

SamePoM-GraduaM -3.4087
Coraooo 13.31946 1 .0 0 0

Pool Oradurao O aano -3689 13.80746 1 .0 0 0


Mgh School Graduate Sanw Mgh School 1.4360 13.28861 1 .0 0 0
Some CoOogtfTodi -••0 7 4
School Counoo 7.13230 .987
2 or 4 yra. CoOogo
OraduoM .9633 6.96427 1 .0 0 0

Somo Pool Oran mo


Counoo -18708 820449 1 .0 0 0

Pool Oradurao Doarao 1.0470 • 98080 1 .0 0 0


SomoMMgPToch Somo Mgh School • 3333 12.86290 .984
School Coum o H tfi School OraduoM 8.8874 7.13230 .967
2or4yraC adogo 9.26631
Oraduolo 7.4808 .890
Somo Pool Oradi Mo 4.8287 722423
Couraoo 993
Pool Oraduolo Ooarao 7.8444 8.09636 .986
2 or 4 yra. CoOogo 1 m wm U
n b^Mi M
I MI N
m I
w I .1729 12.37240 1 .0 0 0
Graduate Mgh School Qreduon -.9633 6.96427 1 .0 0 0
Some Codegeffoch
School Counoo -7.4608 9.28831 .890
Somo Pool Oradurao -2.9341 8.86404 1 .0 0 0
Coraooo
Pool Oraduolo Ooarao .4837 7.98866 1 .0 0 0
SomoPool-GraduMo «m i b n p i O U I W 34067 13.31646 1000
Couraoo Mgh School Oraduolo 18706 820449 1 .0 0 0
Somo Cadogoffech 722423
School Couraoo -4.8267 .983
2 or 4 yra. CoOogo 2.9341 8.06404 1 .0 0 0
Graduolo
Pool Oraduolo Oograo
3.0178 9.06416 1 .0 0 0
ULM ---- *
Pool OraduoM Oograo w n v n ^ i m in i .3868 13.80749 1 .0 0 0
Mgh School Oraduolo -1.0470 8.98090 1 .0 0 0
Somo CodogofToch •7.9444
School Coraooo 8.09636 .986
2ar4yraC adogo
Oraduolo •4837 7.99966 1 .0 0 0

Somo Pool Oraduolo


Coraooo •3.0178 9.09418 1 .0 0 0

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
219

•m ConO d
D M nM V M M i (!) Education <J) Education Louar Sound UBoar Bound
o m a i scaio ooora som a odgh School H fiK W ia M u M i -44.6^4 15.4070
SamaCaOagaffioch
S d m i C om aa -120404 17.1004

GradSato C°aa** -16.4200 120616


SomaPoot-Graduaii
C om aa •17.0262 13.7262
Pool Qraduala Oooraa •21.6221 112006
rapi w ir h v n N n a o M v n p ia o w -15.4670 16.0364
SomaCoOagafl'acIi
School C om aa •6.0620 10.6714
2or4yra.C odago
Qraduala -62963 6.3477
Soma Poal-Graduala
Com ao -11.8022 7.0207
Root Qraduala Ooarao •166163 5.6326
Samadadagoffoch Sama l d » School •17.1004 120404
S dtod Com aa H 0 i School Gradual! •10.0714 6.0620
2 or 4 yra. Coaaga
Qraduala •10.1340 24360
SomaPootGraduala
Couraoo •12.3114 4.3614
Pool Qraduala D om e -16.0670 23667
2or4yra"£5ogo Soma Mgh School -12.0616 16.4200
O n*** H ? t School Graduola •6.3477 0.2563
SomaCodagafl’odi
School Counoo •2.4360 10.1340
Soma Poal Gradual! -62971
Couraoo 7.5441
Pool Qraduala Oaoraa -124202 5.6450
ttoam
W nv ^ra BaaSySouSmte
rvirW B U H i o o m Ulo^a AuImmiI
n ^ l OUKW -13.7262 17.0262
C om aa H tfi School Gradual! -70207 11.5622
Somo CodagafToch
School Couraoo •4.3614 126114
2 o r4 yra. CoOogo
Oraduolo •7.5441 62071
Pool Qraduala Oograo
-13.7725 7.7503
Pool Oraduolo Oograo Soma Hgh School •112060 21.5221
H p School Graduola •6.6325 15.5163
Soma CoOagafTach
Sdiool Counoo •23667 16.6570
2 or 4 yra. Ccaogo
Graduola •6.6460 12.4202
Soma Pool Qraduala
C om ao •7.7603 13.7725

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
98%Conddi nco Moraol
O m ndM tV M rtli m rftin jin n UlEducodon L om rSoind Udoor Sound
W m o t J C opnf S ctft •M i n ^i Hgh school Graduate -10.9408 9.3149
Somo CadogmToch -46604
School Comoo 4.4281
2 or 4 yra. Cadogo
Oraduora -10.4314 4.4744
SamoPaafrGraduate
Couraoo -10.0794 4.1922
Pool Oraduora Oograo •11.9064 91428
H * t School Graduate M ffli MMBI •9.3144 10.9900
SamoCaOogaffach ■24944
School Couraoo 91199
2 or 4 yra. Cadogo
Oraduora •4.1034 3.9110
Somo Pool Oraduora
Com oo -4.1733 9.9441
Pool Graduate O om o •9.9474 9.0991
Somo CaOogteTach MRW n^1 MnMI •4.4241 8.4894
S d e d Coioiee Hgp School Graduote •41199 24999
2 or 4 yra. Cadogo •9.1902 11887
Graduote
Somo Pool Oraduolo -9.4403 3.3903
Couraoo
Pool Graduate Ooarao -7.1921 2.4921
2 or 4 yra Codogo MW n^l M W •4.4749 10.4310
Graduate Mgh School Graduate •3.9110 4.1038
Somo Codogoffoch -1.2087
School Couraoo 8.1902
Somo Pool Graduate •3.1389
Couraoo 9.0001
Pool Graduote Ooarao ■4.9277 4.3912
Somo Pool Graduate M m npi w P p •4.1922 10.0798
Com oo Hgh School Graduote •9.4441 4.1733
Somo Codoguffoch
School Counoo -3.3903 9.4403
2 or 4 yra. CoOogo
Graduote -9.0001 3.1389
Pool Oraduora Oograo •4.7474 4.3074
Pool Gradumo Oograo 9onw n ^ i u u u u •91026 11.9489
Hgh School Graduote -9.0991 8.9974
Somo CodogorToch
School Couraoo -2.4821 7.1921
2 or 4 yra. Cadogo
-4.3912 4.8277
Graduate
Somo Pool Graduate -4.3074 4.7474
Couraoo

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
221

SS»Condd
jp B A e fe i (JIGduraOon Lourar Sound UOoorBaum
dm aintm c o p tif s c m som i scvm i Ugh soram oraduora -10.1027 H .H /U
SooraCaOogon'oeh -16.1405
School Coraooo 22.3191
2 or 4 yra. CoOogo -202649
Oraduolo 172570
SomoPooKVraOrara •21.1442
Couraoo 192375
Pool Oraduora Oograo -241036 17.7703
Hgh School Gradual* 9onw n^n o u v u -22-1264 19.1027
SamoCaOogofToch
School Couraoo •0.7446 11.9965
2 or 4 yra. CoOogo -13.4704
Oraduolo 6.4370
Somo Pool Oraduolo -154069
Coraooo 9.4746
Pool Oraduora Ooarao •10.7978 9.4399
Som*C&ragmr*tfi oom n p i s o w -22.3151 16.1496
School C ounw Hgh School Gradumo -11.9869 9.7446
2 or 4 yra. CoOogo -12.6062
Oraduora 3.4316
Somo Pool Oraduolo
Couraoo -14.0911 69178
Pom Oraduolo Ooarao •18.S2S4 60254
2 or 4 yra. CoOogo w n i n ^ i 9UIM -17.2570 202949
OraduoM Hgh School Oraduolo -64370 13.4704
SomoCalogon’och
-3.4316 12.9092
School Couraoo
Sam* Pom-Gradual* •9.3644
Couraoo 10.6566
Pom Oraduora Ooarao -13.1864 9.9610
Som* PoatGraduora 9oni so n •19.2375 21.1442
Counoo H 0 i School Oraduolo •9.4746 15.4009
SamaCaOogaffOch
School Cainoo •6.9178 14.9911
2 or 4 yra. Cadogo
Oraduora -10.6696 9.9644
Pom Oraduora Oograo
•19.9426 11.9199
I
1
f

9BRW n ^1 OUIM -17.7703 24.1036


H tft School Oraduora -64398 19.7976
Soon Calogon’och -6.0254
School Counoo 19.9254
2 or 4 yra. Codogo
Oraduolo -9.6610 13.1964
Somo Pom Oraduora
Couraoo -11.5199 15.9426

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
222

SM h

90% C anfldm a m m h
n iM n H M H tetli m E to g o n M )E * aao n lourarBouid 1 Uooar Bound
rpm vpw p sMi^iMnooi n piw w w W H -164629 *4*60
S c* s o m Coaageffioch
School C om ae -12.5197 11.1447
2 or 4 y n . Codoge
Graduate •9.9306 13.1543
S o m ta K M o h
C um •10.4223 14.4223
Pool feo d u m Doom •10.7140 16.0460
H * School Q radum S a m H g i School •s^tso 16.4628
S a m Caaogofl’och
School Courooa -32646 10.0433
2 or 4 yra. CaBogo
feo d u m -.4353 11.8128
S a m Pool Graduate
C em aa -1.5772 13.7310
Pool Q radum Doom •2.1360 14.6222
SamCaaogorTotfi Some Mgh School -11.1447 12.6187
Sdm lCM OO t ^ iS d io e l Qraduala -10.0433 32646
2 or 4 yra. Cadaga
Graduate •2.6343 72326
S a m Pool-Gradualo
C om aa •4.0621 0.4271
Pool Graduola Oaaraa •4.6662 10.4065
2ar4yra.Ceaogo S am H g h S d m l -13.1643 9.9306
G rafem School feodum -11.6128 .4353
SamCaaogoffiach
School C om aa -72326 2.6343
S a m Pool-Gradualo
C em aa •6.6266 6.6063
Pool G radum Ooarao -6.5360 7.6446
WnVnwvwUBI gontn^iQon •14.4223 10.4223
C aw m Hfch School Graduola -13.7310 1.5772
S a m Cadagafrach
School C om aa •6.4271 4.0621
2 or 4 yra. Coaoga
G radum •6.6053 5.8286
Pool Graduola Dogma
•6.2802 8.6135
Pci* feodum D agm S a m *6gh School -15.0460 10.7146
H * i School G radum •14.6222 2.1350
S a m CalagarTach
School C em aa •10.4065 46862
2 a r4 yra. Cadogo
Q radum -7.6448 6.5350
S a m Pool Qraduala
C om aa -6.6136 6.2802

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
223

S9% CooddmcoMMraol
LaumrBouid UOoorOowtd
bHIBnBMPf flVMirapi 9BVOI rapi OIIINi WHP>
ScmoCcOagoffioch
Sdiool C m n m -16.9789 0.1083
2 or 4 y*t. Cadogo
Gradumo -13 3807 11.1884
S tM ta M n d u k
C o rn u •16.9206 04005
Pw Q M h m Ov m -13.M32 13.8208
n^ivnoQiQVHUM i a o m n ^ iw i -13.1977 13.1200
SomoCBMgirToch
School Co m m -115003 2.6407
2 o rd y n . Cadogo
GraduoM -7.0878 8.3884
Somo Pom OraduoM
Couraoo -11.0870 4.3001
Pool Graduolo Ooarao -0.1140 0.7037
SamoCadogofTach Somo high School -0.1883 16.0780
School Couraoo high School Oraduolo •2.8407 11.8003
2 or 4 yra. Cadogo
OraduoM •1.1878 8.8240
Somo Pool QradimM
Couraoo •8.4904 7.0420
Pool OraduoM Ooarao -3.8012 12.2886
2 ar4 y riC aio g o Somo Mgh School -11.1884 13.3007
OraAioM Mtfi School GraduoM -5.3854 7.6676
SamoCadogafl’ach
School Couraoo -0.8240 1.0676
Somo P en OraduoM
CouraM -82129 4.0082
Pool OraduoM Ooarao -8.8878 0.4006
SamoPoMGnduoM Somo Mgh School -0.4088 16.0288
C om o Mgh School GraduoM -4.3001 11.0070
Somo CodogofTach
School CouraM •7.0420 64004
2 or 4 yra. Codogo
OraduoM •4.0082 92120
Pool OraduoM Oograo
-8.4281 12.5340
Pod OraduoM Oograo SomoMghSchool •13.8298 13.0632
Mg> School OraduoM -0.7037 8.1140
Somo CodogofToch
School CouraM •12.2805 3.0012
2 or 4 yra. Codogo
GraduoM •0.4096 6.5878
Somo Pool OraduoM
CaiaMo -12.5348 9.4281

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
224

Schafb

95%Condd m M v m I
O m n d M V aM h (DEduodon (J) Edurcdnn Lower S o u * Udbst Bound
sn v K am M n tn p iac n o B i -14.1*6 11.6865
S o m C c h g itric ti
School Courara •14.6481 10.2731
2 or 4 yra. Cologo
Graduolo •13.4163 10.0047
Somo Pool Oraduolo
Couraoo -101686 15.9063
Pool Graduolo Oograo •0.7320 17.3067
Hgh School Graduolo Somo Hgh School -11.6065 14.1906
Sooio CoOogo/Toch
School Couraoo -6.0281 5.9664
2 o r4 y n .C o lo g o
Graduolo -6.5433 6.3550
Sonra Pod-G radualt
Couraoo •3.9606 12.1406
Pool Graduolo Dogno •3.6235 13.6235
Somo CedagaSrcch Somo Hgh School -10.2731 14.6481
School C o tn o t Hgh School Graduolo -5.9664 8.0281
2 or 4 yra. CaOogo
Graduolo -42689 61223
Somo Pool-Graduolo
Couraoo -1.9967 12.1964
P od Graduolo Oograo -1.9326 13.9742
2 ordyra. CoOogo Somo H 0 i School -10.6607 13.4163
Grararam Hgh School Graduolo •6.3560 6.5433
Somo CoOogoTToch
School Coraooo -6.1223 4.2689
Somo PooMSraduoio
Couraoo -2.3731 10.7213
Pool Graduolo Oograo •2.3723 125605
Somo Pool-Graduolo Somo H gh School -15.9663 10.1686
Couraoo H tft School Graduolo •12.1406 3.9606
Somo CoOogoH'cch
School Couraoo -12.1964 1.9967
2 or 4 yra. Codogo
Graduolo -107213 2.3731
Pool Graduolo Oograo
-7.9754 9.6154
Pool Graduolo Oograo Sam* H tfi School -17.3967 9.7320
Hgh School Graduolo -13.8235 3.6235
Somo CodogofToch
School Couraoo -13.9742 1.0326
2 or 4 yra Codogo
Graduodo •12.5605 2.3723
Somo Pool Graduolo
Couraoo -9.8154 7.9754

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
1 08% ConSdonco Udorad 1
OooondodVlraMhra (OEducdfcn (JtE dcdton
H Jm ^flnim
^^UP^aUVra^iim
OdOVWB a li Sams
O^raOOOU^UHbli School
O^raOOOO^U^U H
V o t school ^S^W m dOU
^OOB U
^UUs^P -rtd iW 43.1458
Sam* CaOogoffioch
School Coraooo -00.0063 342087
2 o r« in .C o fe (i
Gradudo -42.4020 40.7000
Somo Pod OroduoOo
Couraoo -40.1002 41.3419
P ad Graduate Ooarao -46.7008 46.0132
UMt
n p i sC^uurf
qob w w um Cmvmo nUkA
so ^ ix Sn oi ^BJi •43.1406 46.0175
S am C al^o ffach
Schod Coraooo •30.6666 17.0717
2 or 4 yra. CaOooo
Oraduora -21.4866 226235
Somo Pool-Graduale
Couraoo -28.0430 20.6010
Pod Gradudo P orno -29.1348 312260
PaiAM/fMra
SQffli W B |raiC sn S i^ m H y sU
JWIS s^ ^W ra -342987 009063
Schod Coraooo Mgh School Graduate -17.0717 30.0666
2 or 4 yra. CoOoao
Oraduolo •10.3113 202329
Somo Pod Graduolo •18.3614
Coraioo 292047
Pod Oraduolo Ooarao •10.2612 36.1301
2 oir4 yra. Cadogo Somo Mgh Schod •40.7060 42.4320
Oradudo Mgh Schod Graduate -22.6235 21.4866
Somo CdtegoSTech -252329
School Couraoo 10.3113
SomoPad-Qraduolo
Couraoo •24.0296 19.0614
Pod Oraduora Ooarao -250061 26.0234
S a m PoatG nduato S a m H 0i Schod -41.3419 46.1002
Coraooo Mgh School Graduolo •20.6010 29.3430
SamCa6ogo7Tach -29.2047
School Coraooo 19.3014
2 a r4 y ra Cadogo -19.0614 24.9296
Graduate
P od Oraduora Oograo -27.4101 33.4436
Pod Oraduora D ogm S a m Mgh Schod •46.0132 46.7909
ULd| Trtinnl VHHUMI
n ^ l OUUI -312299 29.1349
SomoCadogofl’och
School Couraoo -30.1001 19.2612
2 or 4 yra. CoOogo -26.0234
Oraduora 20.0061
S a m Pod-Gradudo -334456
Couraoo 27.4101

Homogeneous Subsets

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
226

QMal Soto Scow


90WIV
Subaattor
apha-
_ OS
rrturaOon N 1
sam abalagarroch
School Counaa 40 102.3750
Cm
m w* n p i o t b i 6 104.9000
r ^ i s o n unouH i as 104.7002
2 or 4 yra. Ctetega
Graduola as 106.2236
Sowa Pool Qraduala
Com aa 25 100.0000
Poai Graduola Oograo 10 100.0111
s* .400
Maona tor orauga In homogamoua auhoate am teaglayad
a. Uaaa Harmonic Maan Samgla Stea ■ 16003.
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a Uaaa Hannanie Maan Sampla Stoa «11.003.
b. The group ataeo am unoquaL The harmonic maan of bio group atoaa ia uaad. Type I amor tomfa am net guanntaad.

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County of 0 H i> SM. Enor
CouftvortM oik N Maan SM. Davteton Maan
s o M S c u i scorn County or
tM raCowteyortetafc IBS 10S.3P17 10.30138 .79120
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No 22 402273 1.30337 1.77029
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n r a ^ o n y or n o n 1SS 90.0999 30.71906 229243
No _22 61.0466 5.91960 124091

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M ^torE— frrotMwm
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2-< -5.00777 425212


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NeweOplmMm Scale Equol 0.57000 -13.31275 1201000
Equal 257144 •5.42106 4.72070

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Nafco
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Seala Seala Seala
agM S O H H M Paaraen ConaMan -444" -.300- .644
S*(MaOad> .000 .000 030
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9g.(2-M M) .001 .012 036
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Enadanal Caolns Scrii Paanen ConoMen • 404" 210“ -.030
* 0 -(2-Mad) .000 .003 .671
N 200 200 206
Pm onri SupH iM n Paanon cenaMan .301- T u­ -.036
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N 200 200 200
CaMgortcd Seala Paanon ConaMan 1 .104- -.030
»0.(2M ad) .006 407
N 200 200 200
Eaoiartc Seala Paanon ConaMan .104- 1 -.036
» » (M M ) .006 612
N 200 200 200
Nate* OpanMn S o la Paanon CenaMan -.030 -.036 1
8fe(2M ad) .007 .612
N 200 200 200
Aflt Paanon CanaMan -.211- -.161* .107
Sig. (2-Mad) .003 .021 125
N 200 200 200
Education Paanan ConaMan .000 -.166* -.030
So. (2-Mad) .000 .016 .671
N 200 200 206

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.. _
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O oM S cM S oot Romon com m on 1*F mF
Sis 0-Mod) .00* .032
N 200 208
BohMoM Casing S a b Romon ComMon .128 .078
8*(2-Mod» .080 481
N 208 200
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*0- (2-Mod) .034 .000
N 208 208
Pononb SamOOon Roaraon ConabOon -.118 -187“
S ab SSO SM .081 .004
N 208 208
CabgortcbScm RoooonConoMon -411“ .000
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EaobrtcSab Rooraon ComMon -.W -.188*
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Noia OpOrnMn S a b Rooraon ComMon .107 -.020
Sis (MoOad) .128 .871
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AS* Rooraon ComMon 1 .148*
Sis (2-Mod) .038
N 208 208
Education Rooraon ConabBon .146* 1
#S (2-Mod) .028
N 200 208
ComMon b tf g n ta t * ft* 0.01 M b (M M ).
*. CairiM anlooisnWcOTH ioO .O Sm bg m H).

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236

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