Академический Документы
Профессиональный Документы
Культура Документы
This manuscript has been reproduced from the microfilm master. UMI films
the text directly from the original or copy submitted. Thus, some thesis and
dissertation copies are in typewriter face, while others may be from any type of
computer printer.
In the unlikely event that the author did not send UMI a complete manuscript
and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if unauthorized
copyright material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
JOB STRESS:
An Investigation o f the Impact o f Gender and Other Workplace Diversity Issues on the
Causes, Costs, Consequences, and Constructive Coping Strategies o f Job Stress
By
Pamela A. Kephart
A DISSERTATION
Submitted to
The Wayne Huizenga Graduate School o f Business and Entrepreneurship
Nova Southeastern University
2003
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
UMI Number. 3083934
Copyright 2003 by
Kephart, Pamela A.
UMI’
UMI Microform 3083934
Copyright 2003 by ProQuest Information and Learning Company.
All rights reserved. This microform edition is protected against
unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
A Dissertation
entitled
JOB STRESS:
An Investigation o f the Impact of Gender and Other Workplace Diversity Issues on the Causes.
Costs. Consequences, and Constructive Coping Strategies o f Job Stress
By
Pamela A. Kephart
We hereby certify that this Dissertation submitted by Pamela A. Kephart conforms to acceptable
standards, and as such is fully adequate in scope and quality. It is therefore approved as the
fulfillment of the Dissertation requirements for the degree o f Doctor of Business Administration.
Approved:
Dr. Sabri
Committee member
Jones, D
, Schoolo usiness and Entrepreneurship
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
CERTIFICATION STATEMENT
I hereby certify that this paper constitutes my own product, that where the
language o f others is set forth, quotation marks so indicate, and that appropriate credit
Signed A
Pamela A. Kephart
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
ABSTRACT
JOB STRESS:
An Investigation o f the Impact of Gender and Other Workplace Diversity Issues on the
Causes, Costs, Consequences, and Constructive Coping Strategies o f Job Stress
By
Pamela A. Kephart
This research study was designed to investigate the relationship o f the impact of
work-related stress and stressors on employees by testing for relationships between
demographic independent variables (i.e., age, ethnicity, gender, cross-cultural impact and
educational level) and utilization of Constructive Thinking (CT) as a job stress coping
strategy. The data for the study were provided by non-front line personnel employed by
multiple manufacturing firms in the U.S.A., Canada and United Kingdom. Epstein's
(1993) Constructive Thinking Inventory (CTI) and a personal demographic data sheet
were used to assess the hypothesized relationships. Data was compiled from 208
respondents.
The conclusions reached supported the research questions. The individual
employee demographic variables were found to be a basis for relating potential reactions
to workplace-induced stressors for particular Global scales or subscales for four of the
null hypothesis. This was for true for all scales when reviewing the relationship between
the cross-cultural impact demographic variable and the subscales and Global scale. It was
also shown that CT theory can provide a classification methodology for determining
which type o f coping strategy to employ once the relationship between the demographic
variable and the specific CTI subscale was statistically proven.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
To my Chair Dr. Barry Barnes, thank you for spending the necessary hours and hours
getting through my head the difference between writing an excellent research study
dissertation and a “just getting done” one;
To my Committee members: The Doctors' Jones and Segal, words can not express the
level o f my appreciation for the time and effort you set aside to help me make my dream
come true;
To my peers in the D.B.A. program (especially PP and JG): without whose insight,
continual prodding, and on-going stories o f successful dissertation milestone completion.
I might not have had the internal fortitude to "reach the light at the end of a very, very
long tunnel”;
To my family: Greg, Jessica, Jennifer and Mom, without whose continued sacrifices and
support the realization o f this dream would not have been fulfilled, (Daughters of mine, if
I can do it so can you!);
To my father who died before I reached this goal, thank you for the Type-A genes you
passed on to me;
To my business associates and friends (especially JL): without whose participation in this
study and words o f encouragement, this author might not have been able to complete the
survey portion o f this process in a timely manner,
To the Lord above: Thank you for the gifts o f intelligence and perseverance;
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
List o f Tables ix
List of Figures x
Chapter
1. INTRODUCTION 1
Background of theProblem 3
Statement of theProblem 6
Importance of the Topic 8
Current Research Strategies 10
Need for Further Research 12
Purpose o f the Study 14
Research Questions 15
Organization of this Research Study 1S
2. REVIEW OF LITERATURE 17
Introduction 17
Stress—Definitions, Classifications and other Research
Terms. 18
Work-Related Stress—Causes and Consequences 24
Stress Identification and Stress Management Modeling -
Current Empirical Instruments 37
Constructive Thinking Theory—Definition and Application
as a Potential Stress Coping Strategy 46
Diversity—Definition of and Impact o f Various Demo
graphic Attributes In the Workplace 59
Gender—Demographic Attribute Definition in Relation
to Work-Related Stress 69
Wage Gap—Demographic Attribute Definition and
Impact to Work-Related Stress 81
Ethnicity—Demographic Attribute Definition and
Relationship to Work-Related Stress 85
Educational Levels—Demographic Attribute Definition
and Impact to Work-Related Stress 87
Age Segmentations—Demographic Attribute Definition
And Relationship to Work-Related Stress 94
Chapter Summary 100
VI
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
3. DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY 103
Appendix
vii
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
B. Instruction Cover Letter to Participants 171
BIBLIOGRAPHY 251
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
LIST OF TABLES
Table Page
1. Summary o f Definitions 24
ix
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure Page
2. Frings’ Continuum 30
3. Stress Cycle 31
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
This study will assess the application of constructive thinking (CT) theory as a
positive coping mechanism or strategy for dealing with job-related stressors (those factors
causing stress). This study will also investigate potential causal relationships between
demographic identifiers (i.e., diversity/ethnicity, gender, education, and age) and the
proposition of this study is that a specific demographic attribute (e.g., male versus
female) will be shown to contribute to a higher CT score, and, therefore, respondents with
these specific attributes will be better able to cope with certain workplace stressors.
Changes in the workplace have fueled the need to investigate the impact o f job
stress created by workplace diversity issues, the aging population, and by women's
increased participation in the labor force (Keita & Hurrell, Jr., 19%). Everywhere one
turns there are reports on the implications and ramifications o f '‘stress" in the workplace,
in family life, and in the quality o f life. Occupational stress and workplace wellness have
become the focus of significant concern for labor, management, and the individual
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
2
employee.
A review o f global data related to job stress reveal the following facts: The
National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSHA) in the U.S. (1988)
Northwestern National Life Insurance Company (1991) reported that 13% o f its workers'
1982, when the rate was 6%. The International Labor Organization o f the United Nations
labeled “stress” as the disease of the 20th Century. It has been argued (Manz, 1999) that
stress from inner struggles and the multitude o f pressures in the workplace and home
cause even more health and psychological difficulties. The cost of "stress”-related issues
has been estimated at $200 billion annually in the United States alone.
Negative emotions have been found to escalate the negative impact o f stressors.
The ability to control one's automatic or inherent thoughts can also affect the control of
one's stress levels (Epstein, 1998). This is the basis of constructive thinking as a strategy
or technique for coping with stress. Constructive thinking (CT) has also been
demonstrated to underlie several important attributes necessary for success in the business
world. These “include thinking in ways that promote effective action, emotional
Landa (2001) reports evidence o f a strong connection between job stress, job
satisfaction, and job performance from his study done in Canada in 1999. The study
confirmed that over the past 10 years, businesses are finally recognizing this connection
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
The introduction to this study has attempted to lay a simple foundation for the
reader with regard to the types of stressors found in the workplace, their causes, and their
place, the next step is to consider some o f the circumstances behind the issue o f work-
related stress.
contributing to this epidemic o f stress-related disorders (Keita & Hurrell, Jr.. 1996).
Specifically, diversity issues are significant in the United States culture. According to The
Kiplinger Letter, “the U.S. has more and larger minority groups than any other advanced
nation, totaling nearly 30% and rising steadily" (2001, p. 3). In 2001 the largest minority
groups in the United States were Hispanics at 12.5%. African-Americans at 12.3%. and
Asians at 3.6%. The majority population of other countries is much more homogeneous.
For example, in Japan 99% o f the population is Japanese; Canada is 89% European stock;
and Sweden’s population is 91% Swedes. According to Flowers (2001), gender roles (i.e.,
the increased number o f women in the workplace and their changing functions), along
with technological growth and increased global economic competition, as well as other
business practices, have forced companies to adapt to many changes in the workers'
social and economic reference points. Additionally, Fernandez (1999) suggests the
overall educational level o f the U.S. labor force has risen dramatically. As a result o f this
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
socio-economic shift the fastest expanding sectors o f employment in the past few
decades have been in those areas that require higher levels of formal education (Sherman.
All o f the societal changes discussed above (Yoder. 1999; Miller, 1999) and in the
following paragraphs have the potential to create stress for the individual employee or a
specific group o f workers. For instance, an employee with 30 years seniority and a high
school education may experience stress if a college graduate with no work experience is
placed in a position similar to his or hers. This stress level and the impact on the
employee's daily job performance might be further magnified should the new hire
OSHA ranks stress as the number one problem for working women. Dear (199S)
says stress penetrates all occupational and income groups, and stress has been found to be
particularly acute for professional and managerial women in their 40s. According to
Cooper (2001), stress in the workplace is linked to the fundamentals of change, lack of
Other aspects of the socio-economic changes mentioned above are also increasing
producing industries. The U.S. Department of Labor (1992) projects this sector of the
economy to be responsible for 94% o f the newly created positions between 1990 and
2005, with the service industry's total share of all jobs to reach 73% in 2005. This shift
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
5
to a service-focused work force has a direct impact on the types of jobs available, the
types o f workers employed, and the overall characteristics of the workplace. Employees
in service industry jobs have been shown to be at an increased risk for psychological
disorders (Colligan, Smith, & Hurrell, Jr., 1977; Landy, 1992; Minirth, Hawkins, Meier.
corporations. According to Landy (1992) et al., this process, which can involve
that contributes to the creation of stress. In the United States and the United Kingdom.
Cooper (2001) reports the threat of recession and the movement toward short-term
contracts and part-time workers are business phenomena contributing to higher stress
levels.
How should one plan for the “once in a lifetime" stressors? Consider the impact
expect from their employer under these circumstances? According to Nyberg (2001), on
a company-wide basis a single event of that magnitude can force the senior management
team into a crisis-management mode. Grief on an individual basis will have an impact
on the individual employee that may or may not be felt by others in the company. Three
months after the event, some employees were still “stressed” about having to fly. While
most employees work through this type o f stress in a relatively short period o f time (i.e.,
back to normal in a week for their day-to-day activities), there is still the potential
unforeseen stressor that will rear its ugly head at some future time. Nyberg (2001) also
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
6
states that to ignore the circumstances often creates stress, anger and resentment. For
instance, following the September 11,2001 catastrophe, many companies have had to
meetings at locations that require the employee to travel. Again, employee stress levels
Given the many factors contributing to job-related stress, a means for reducing it
on the job could lead to improved worker productivity, fewer on-the-job accidents, and
(1998), is one coping strategy that may aid in reducing job-related stress. Many of the
researchers cited in this study would agree with the following sentiments of two of their
fellow researchers. “There is little argument with the notion that workplace stress has
become a familiar workplace reality” (Landa, 2001, p. 12). “The workplace has been
identified as the greatest single source o f stress” (Dear, 1998, p. 40). Thus, once these
coping strategy can lead to many benefits for both employers and the workforce.
According to Tobias (1999), “every job comes with its own brand of stress. What
makes the stress unique, however, is the way each person perceives the cause of stress”
(p. 128). The negativity and tension that stress can cause in the workplace, or in the
identifying and understanding how a positive or good constructive thinking (CT) style can
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
7
reduce or eliminate the stressors within the employee's control. According to Epstein
(1998), what causes job stress in one person can be that “one thing” about the job that
would keep another person with a different CT style satisfied with the job.
plan to deal with workplace stressors that may be linked to specific demographic
plan to instruct the employee on how a good CT style would be most effective in dealing
demographics (i.e., age, gender, educational level, etc.) and CT could also influence the
strategy one employs to cope with various stressors in the work environment. Research
to date (Keita & Hurrell, Jr.. 19%; Nelson & Hitt, 1992; Tobias 1999; Yang 1998) has
focused on various cause and effect scenarios among the employee, the workplace, stress
factors, and bumout. Again, no research model could be found linking specific
workplace stressors.
According to Epstein (1998), Landa (2001), and Tobias (1999), there are two keys
to converting the potential negative problems caused by stress into potential competitive
edge strengths. First, the employer must gain a better understanding of which
demographic variables might predict how an employee deals with job stressors.
Secondly, how effectively the employer offers assistance, based on the expected
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
employee reaction to the stressor, can also become an opportunity to increase the firm's
competitive strength. Businesses will be able to more efficiently utilize one o f their most
and effort on dealing with these two sides o f the issue (Cooper, 2001; Dear, 1998; Keita
& Hurreil, Jr., 19%; Kiplinger, 2001; Landa. 2001; Martin, 2001).
Many researchers and their various studies, including those being performed by
Girion (2000) and Osborn (2000), reiterate that the potential waste of human capital is an
issue that plagues organizations of all sizes and individuals from all walks o f life.
Businesses are more likely to feel an immense financial impact if they continue to ignore
this significant issue of job-related (or job-created) stress. The ability to measure or
predict how someone will potentially react to various types and levels of job stress in any
The Kiplinger Letter o f September 7, 2001 reported 75% of workers do not feel
employee turnover costs can consume a large percentage of firms' operating capital.
priority could be to identify and resolve the stressors thereby effectively enabling the
employer to retain the current workforce. This business practice could evolve further by
things, helping employees in setting long-term career goals that coincide with the goals of
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
9
Companies’ losses caused by job stress can also be measured in other than strictly
financial terms. Studies by Martin (2001) have found that the likelihood of decreased job
performance exhibited by current employees was seven times higher for the depressed
employee compared to the 'only stressed' worker. Employees who have progressed from
a stressed to a depressed state, and are still employed, have doubled their absenteeism
rate. These human capital situations have far reaching consequences for all formal
organizations.
According to a 1997 study by Cooper (2001) in the United Kingdom, costs related
to stress induced issues were ten times higher than other business expenditures related to
industrial relations disputes. For the year 2000, these costs had escalated to $15.7 billion
or about $625 per employee. Cooper's (2001) study also established that stress-related
issues cause one in five employees to take time off from work and one in thirteen to
Studies by Dear (1998) in the United States have found stress to be a major
commitment, alcohol and drug abuse problems are also associated with stress. The
estimated cost to industry for these types o f stress instigated physician visits is calculated
to be between $200 billion and $300 billion a year in the U.S. alone.
Keita and Hurrell, Jr. (1996) report that one of the most significant and pressing
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
10
related stress. A 1991 study conducted by the U.S. NIOSHA estimated the cost of
disability payments and lost wages related to job stress at $15 billion. This number does
not include other health care costs and productivity losses related to the negative
consequences o f job-related stressors. Furthermore. Keita and Hurrell. Jr. (19%) found
that the greatest financial impact due to the long-term effect on individual workers'
overall mental and physical well-being has not been measured at this time so it cannot be
workplace stress can be broadly categorized and associated with one of two major
streams o f research. One body o f research focuses on defining stress and individual
employees' response mechanisms and necessary coping skills while the other stream of
research focuses on determining the causal link among demographic, economic or other
Researchers, such as Amaro, Russo, and Johnson (1987) and others, are now
focusing on the relatively new area o f women's occupational health and stress. Much o f
the previous research in this area focuses on home-related and family-related issues for
women only, not the impact o f workplace interactions on the women's stress levels. A
number of researchers (Flowers, 2001; Jick & Mitz, 1985; Nelson & Hitt, 1992) are now
proposing that women not only experience the same workplace stressors as men but must
also deal with the additional strain relating to their entry into male-dominated and
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
11
aging are also scarce. Wooten. Sulzer, and Cornwell (1993) research in this area focuses
on stress-related effects o f the "older adult job loser." Among this type o f on-going
research are Staats, Partlo, Armstrong-Strassen and Plimpton's (1993) studies o f older
working widows and stress in their quality o f life. Huuhtaanen's (1993) current research
on aging is limited to the advantages of improving working conditions for older people
with regard to job-induced stressors. Why does one need to know of the particular stress
related to this segment o f the population? As this area of research is also still in its
infancy, the resulting impact on industries is not fully known. This area of study is
becoming a higher priority as there is an overall "graying" of the U.S. workforce, that is.
the average age of the American worker is higher and the older worker is staying in the
The impact o f different cultural and ethnic backgrounds can be found in the
themes o f research concerned with coping strategies, social support and the overall
relationship between workplace stress and the mental and physical well being o f the
(1992) centered their studies on the relative efficacies o f two styles of coping, either
seven different countries, but the focus still remains on the individual employee and the
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
extent to which he or she copes with organizational stressors. Research by Marsella
diverse beliefs and backgrounds. Again, Marsella's study spotlights coping mechanisms
Many challenges face today's corporate leaders. The findings o f The 2000 Global
Employee Relationship Report Benchmark Study (Landa, 2001) identified three primary
workplace issues challenging today's management team. They are employee morale,
employee recruitment/retention, and the impact of employee stress. The study concludes
that there is a strong connection between job satisfaction, job performance, and job stress.
The current literature on job stress clearly identifies two critical issues requiring
further research. One issue for further research is the financial and economic burden
placed on businesses today due to stress related factors. Job stress issues have become
this considerable waste o f human capital and resulting financial costs must be addressed.
require additional research. Dear (1998) and Landa (2001) both found, in their respective
studies, that research must identify ways o f either helping employees deal with stressors
or helping employers predict and positively influence the impact stress will have on their
workforce.
While many o f the studies on job stress attempt to find causal relationships among
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
13
stressors, this body of research is still in its infancy. The second issue requiring further
research is a lack of acceptance o f the results of this research (Keita & Hurrell, Jr. et al..
1996) as a basis to effect changes in how organizations identify, deal with, or even
The Kiplinger Letter (2002) states that American businesses are finally
recognizing inadequate education as a long-term labor problem. They quote statistics that
suggest there is a potential for less-educated workers, in the U.S., to become members of
entry-level worker groups. This is based on concern about the Hispanic youths who by
2008 will comprise the largest minority segment (13%) in the work force. Hispanic
youths have a still escalating high school dropout rate that is expected to reach 35-40% by
2010. This could cause a new set o f issues for human resource professionals and business
management teams. Will this cause new types or levels o f stress? Will these employees
be more susceptible to burnout due to their age or ethnic backgrounds? Or, will all job
stress issues stay constant in the workplace with no change to outcomes or methods of
Business leaders must form strategies that can be implemented to minimize the
negative stress and maximize the positive stress. Landa’s ( 2001 ) studies state that
methods for addressing the problems o f ever increasing intangible costs (i.e., decreased
employee morale, the potential for remaining employees to decline into burnout levels
which would affect productivity, etc.), must also be included in future business initiated
research. Companies must have a way to address this human capital issue (Copper et al..
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
14
2001 ) and still concentrate on all other areas o f resource management necessary to allow
Cooper et al. (2001) reiterated this finding in their studies as to the reasons why
the impact of stress in the workplace cannot be ignored or disregarded. Without adequate
attention to the issue o f successfully utilizing its human capital resources, a company will
not thrive in today’s marketplace. Stress is being experienced globally without regard to
race, size of company, creed, earnings per share (EPS), gender, or religious affiliations.
According to Landa et al. (2001), these enormous tangible and intangible costs to the
business must be a high priority to be addressed and contained, as would any other
The purpose o f this study is to investigate and define some of the potential links
for job-related stress. According to Landa (2001), in order for an organization to achieve
maximum utilization of its workforce, the management team must recognize and address
the inferences gained from understanding the impact of work-induced stress and the
complete employee demographic profile could provide a basis from which a strategy,
would then enable the employee to apply successful coping mechanisms when work-
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
15
The influence of gender on coping with workplace stressors will also be analyzed
in the current study. Gianakos (2000) is investigating the impact o f gender roles as
significant predictors o f coping mechanisms. If the employer knows the gender of the
employee and can predict an action, or reaction, to a “stressor’' in the workplace, then the
employer can diffuse or encourage the employee’s constructive thinking coping skills to
Research Questions
In order to investigate the relationship between job stress and individual employee
demographic (diversity/ethnicity, gender, education, and age) attributes, the current study
determining which type o f coping strategy employees could use for dealing
This research effort is divided into five chapters. Chapter 1 provides the
introduction to and background of the research problem. Also included is the importance
of the negative impact o f work-related stress on today’s business and current research
strategies. The statement o f the research problem (lack of a predictive model), purpose o f
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
16
this study (define the links between specific demographic variables and the use of CT
coping strategies), and the research questions for further investigation are also specified.
research and literature review are focused on job stress and burnout, the core personality
workplace-related gender issues including wage/earning gaps, and the potential impact of
the respondent's educational level and age. Chapter 2 closes with a concise summary that
merges the reviewed literature to the overall thrust of the dissertation research problem—
the limited research on the link between workplace demographic/diversity factors and CT
Chapter 3 describes the design and methodology of the study in order to provide a
basis from which to approach the research questions and analyze their statistical results.
This chapter also includes discussion of the survey instruments, and presents null and
for these analyses, and the generated results will also be presented.
Chapter 4 presents the statistical results of the analyses for each hypothesis. This
for further study generated by this literature review and statistical analysis.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
CHAPTER 2
Introduction
This research study is being undertaken to examine the link between job-related
stressors (Erickson & Ritter. 2001; Landa, 2001; Pihulyk, 2001; et al.) and the application
will add to the body of current knowledge on this subject by investigating if any of the
employee demographic attributes reviewed affect this link. Companies searching for
ways to address the problem o f “stress” as it relates to costs and employee morale (Gold
&. Morton, 2001; Lee, 1997; Seligman, 2000) would be offered another methodology for
how each segment of the workforce may react to specific workplace stressors, a potential
Chapter 2 will examine the literature relevant to the following areas o f research:
studies.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
18
The section on Diversity literature and research is further divided into the
subsections of: Gender. Wage Gap, Ethnicity, Educational Level, and Age Segmentation.
knowledge relating to the research questions, was conducted. The overall research
questions are:
determining which type o f coping strategy employees can use for dealing with
work-induced stress?
consequences of workplace stress. Many o f the definitions of stress come from the
mental and physical health sciences, as shown in the following section (Selye, 1956,
1976; Bruno, 1991; Herbert, 1997; Bowes, 1999; Wilkinson; 1991; Mason 2001).
As will be presented in more detail later, the terms of “stress," “burnout" and
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
“depression” are defined in the order in which they appear as part of Frings' Stress
burnout), and finally to a depressive mental and/or physical stale, will respond differently
to potential coping strategies. The cost o f “curing” the employee usually escalates the
farther to the right side of the continuum the employee is when help is finally sought or
The terms "stressors” and "coping process,” as they relate to this research, will
also be defined. Once again, these definitions are a mixture of mental health and
“Stress” Defined
Stress is defined by Bruno (1991) as the rate o f wear and tear on an organism.
Selye, a Canadian physician, was an early explorer of the effects of stress on health. He
defined stress as the sum of all nonspecific changes caused by function or damage ( 1956,
1976). From his medical perspective, Selye suggests that the body responds to
physiological changes related to the "fight or flight” syndrome (1974). Bowes (1999)
concurs that the human body has been "hard-wired” throughout evolution to respond to
pressure to act. Bowes (1999) states that stress is "the body responding by activating a
complex system that produces an array o f hormones and neurotransmitters, which are
intended to help the heart and brain work better physiologically to meet the demand” (p.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
20
1233-1234).
Herbert (1997) defines stress as a general term that refers to any demand
(psychological or physical) that is outside the norm. Herbert states that stress usually
signals a disparity between what is optimal in a given situation and what actually exists.
Mason further explains that his studies show “external stress may be positive or negative
Wilkenson (1991) defines stress and further delineates it into four types. From a
physiological responses to the stimuli. The four main, overlapping types of stress are
segregated as: acute (e.g., an assault); sequential, with one event initiating others that
occur over some period of time (e.g., bereavement); chronic intermittent (e.g., conflicts
Miller and Smerglia (1998) define stress as the individual's general feeling of
unease or upset in response to a traumatic life event and the accumulation of other,
concomitant problems or changes. They divide stress into two constructs: event stress
and added stress. Event (or primary) stress is defined as reactions that are directly related
to a stressful life event. Added (or coincidental contextual) stress is differentiated as the
result o f additional problems and changes that are occurring about the same time as the
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
Simons, Angell, Monroe, and Thase (1993) define stress in terms o f diathesis-stress
specific negative life event Each of the models in the study are built on the basic notion
physical illness requiring treatment to be neutralized. Lazarus (2000) agrees that this
point of long-term stress is when the individual may experience somatic illness and
maladaptive social or emotional behaviors. Bowes (1999) cautions that, over the long
term, one should think of the body behaving [to stress] like a rubber band: after each
stretch from stress, the body never quite returns to its original unstretched/unstressed
position. The longer the stress response is engaged, the more the body will be damaged.
Damage can be identified in the form of anger, depression, heart disease, immune system
dysfunction, etc. “In short, the early manifestations of distress are psychological, and the
“Burnout” Defined
is usually the result o f prolonged stress or frustration. Grandey (2000) describes burnout
employees and customers. This type of stress outcome is usually found in employees
working in help or service industries who have limited ways to replenish the emotional
resources that are being spent (Jackson, Schwab, & Schuler, 1986).
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
22
“Depression” Defined
by sadness, self-doubt, and a loss of interest in daily living” (Bruno, 1991, p.93). While
work-related stress may be managed in the workplace by various coping strategies, most
forms o f clinical depression require medical intervention. This usually causes loss of
work time that can lead to stress on the remaining employees who have to fill-in for the
depressed colleague, and that also involves a financial cost to the company.
a loss o f interest in daily living, according to Bruno (1991). Depression can be classified
within the individual. It has no present known external cause. Exogenous depression is a
depression that arises from external causes. This type o f depression is also designated as
reactive depression.
psychotic in nature (Bruno, 1991). People suffering from neurotic depression are still
able to maintain contact with reality and have a stable perception of time, space, and the
external world. For people suffering from psychotic depression, the individual has
impaired reality contact, including great mental confusion and possible delusions.
“Stressor” Defined
Anisman and Merali (1999) define the term stressor as a situation or event
appraised as being aversive, in that it elicits a stress response. This then taxes a person's
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
23
state o f mental or physical tension. Stressors can be separated into two classifications—
Simply defined, a stressor is an event that causes stress to the individual when he
or she appraises the demands as exceeding the resources (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984).
Herbert (1997) utilizes the definition o f stressor as an environmental event. Davison and
Neale (2001) concur with this definition and add that a stressor can be thought of as a
Herbert (1997) includes a definition of coping in his study of stress, the brain and
persistent and adverse stress” (p. 369). Davison and Neale (2001) defined the concept of
coping as how people try to handle a problem or the emotion it produces. Lazarus and
Folkman (1984) identified two broad dimensions of coping: problem-focused coping and
action to solve the problem. Emotion-focused coping refers to the individual's efforts to
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
24
Table 1
Summary o f Definitions
daily living
into two types: good and bad (Minirth et al., 1986). The “good" stress is also referred to
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
25
Cooper (2001) reiterates the statement that some amount of stress is necessary for
everyday living and, in lesser amounts, for learning and growth. To be an effective
employee or employer, the ability to better handle and manage these necessary life
stressors must be learned and practiced. Stressor is differentiated from stress by its
A 1999 study by the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health
(Atkinson, 2000) reports several aspects of work that generate stress when handled
improperly or inappropriately. They include task design (i.e., long hours, little sense of
control, heavy work loads), management style (i.e., inadequate communication and lack
has also been associated with work roles (i.e.. uncertain or conflicting job expectations),
surroundings).
Moses (1998) states, “an approach (to managing stress), no matter how well-
intentioned, concentrating exclusively on the individual is one that blames the victim” (p.
32). Her hypothesis is that the current level of workplace distress is not due to the
weakness o f the individual employees. Rather, her studies have shown workplace
distress to be the outcome o f a variety of social, economic, and demographic changes that
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
26
affect one's work, and one's expectations of the benefits that should be derived from
Figure 1 presents a flowchart that includes a list of potential work stressors and
shows the relationships between personal attributes, perception o f stress, and social and
personal coping resources and the final outcome, psychological response (i.e., symptoms
literature include intrinsic job conditions, intrinsic and extrinsic rewards, work attributes,
and extra-organizational obligations. For instance, under work attributes, the potential
work stressors o f pay classification or occupation, etc., are listed in Figure 1 and
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
27
Figure 1
w» H P * W S P V
OrQanizsfeOftfll:
jT w iu ta S iir
T H PanapaonofJobSaaaa W S *"*— * 'K M O M .
A M rinie Job CmfKoni
Payeftolopcal Jop Oamands (Catnandk)
daem on Lakhrda (Conkol)
Oamand « Conkof Inmackon Tarm
ToW Physical Ejpoaura
c wutAMbum
Pay a sa iik c akon
Occupation
Numbar of Waakiy Work Hours
Wbrk Tanura (Sacunty)
WbrkaMI
umon M r a m n p L ta M N lM k M M
Suparviaor Raaponstokfy *«•
Raoa
D. Exfra-Otgangkbonal Q tkqakons Educated
Cto ^ - - - ~ lay j — - -*
Famdir incoma
hflBMCvm wni rn osMwn wont m o MardM Status
O u M t OtoKgabont Numbarof CMdran
Protonot of Stoond Job Gandar
f ---------------------
From: JOB STRESS in a Changing Workforce, by Keita & Hurell, Jr., eds., 19%, p. 44.
Copyright by American Psychological Association, Washington D.C.
According to Kroeger and Thuesen (1992), stress also can be visualized as a bell
curve— the employee is at his or her best when moving up the curve, and is conversely
struggling with an overload of stress/bumout on the downsiide of the curve. At the peak.
stress creates a sense of being in control. At its ebb, lack of stress can create an apathy
Manifestations o f stress may vary. Kroeger and Thuesen (1992) differ from some
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
28
o f the other theorists studied, in that they do not believe that stress directly causes specific
Therefore, their solution is to make the individual employee more aware of his or her
personality tendencies, which forewarn one of the types o f mental minefields that may
Significance Principle
Carter and Underwood's studies (1998) emphasize what they term the
"significance principle" by outlining the causes and effects of anger in the workplace. In
many of their scenarios, the designation "stress” can be inserted for "anger.” Glomb's
(2002) research suggests that job stress and conflicts are a source o f workplace anger.
Job related outcomes of these situations, left untreated, could lead to workplace
or she is ignored (Carter & Underwood, 1998). Other examples o f work-created anger
and/or stress are the impact of a co-worker not following through on a job assignment, of
being unfairly criticized, and so forth. Just like stress, there are healthy and unhealthy
(i.e., good or bad), types of anger. The unhealthy angers can take the form of aggressive
reasoning. Or, an employee may suppress anger and pretend the stress doesn't exist.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
29
employee's negative traits behind his or her back. These are all issues that affect an
Carter and Underwood (1998) also believe that conflict is unavoidable "since any
gathering o f imperfect people with varying priorities will inevitably produce friction" (p.
111). Here the term "stress" can be substituted for "conflict" in the workplace. How an
for the employee that either enhances or diminishes opportunities for career advancement.
One’s overall success whether enhanced or diminished, will depend on how well the
employee has recognized these situations o f anger and/or stress, and how effectively he or
she has handled them while maintaining a focus on the welfare of the company. The
availability of an effective coping strategy would aid employees in their efforts to be more
One must also consider the impact o f continuous types/levels o f job-related stress.
Continuous job stress can potentially lead to job burnout (Minirth et al., 1986; Williams,
2001). Minirth et al. (1986) define burnout "as a loss of enthusiasm, energy, idealism,
perspective, and purpose. It can be viewed as a state of mental, physical, and spiritual
Cycles o f Stress
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
30
burnout and depression (see Figure 2). Stress is at one end o f the continuum and
depression at the other end. Burnout is the condition that bridges stress to depression.
Prolonged stress has been shown to lead to burnout. Burnout has been shown to be a
Figure 2
Frings' Continuum
The individual employee moves from one level to the next if the previous stage
continues for prolonged periods without effective positive response by the individual.
Both the work environment and the employee's attitude must change to eliminate, or at
least decrease, the probability o f burnout and, finally, clinical depression (Frings. 2001).
Phillips (1995) describes the stress cycle in terms o f a 2 x 2 matrix (see Figure 3)
that contains the consequences to the employee o f experiencing one of the following four
types o f stress. The four types are healthy stress, unproductive stress, too little stress, and
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
31
Figure 3
Stress Cycle
STRESS CYCLE
Point of Chang*
Healthy ▲ Unproductive
Stress Stress
Efficiency Inefficiency
Fun Pressure
Productivity Concern
Positiveness Discomfort
ucnem em Alertness
•►Point of Chang*
Non-Productivity Exhaustion
Dullness Strain
Boredom Burnout
Apathy Illness
Laziness Death
From: Controlling Your Emotions Before They Control You, by Phillips. 1995, p. 236.
Copyright by Harvest House Publishers, Eugene, Oregon.
Consequences of Burnout
stress (i.e., burnout) may be the result o f unachievable expectations held by both bosses
and/or other employees who have worked with the employee over a long period of time
and seen him or her performing at these unsustainable levels. Most people can tolerate
acutely stressful periods for brief segments o f time if a break is forthcoming and the
employee is able to use it as a time to recharge his or her batteries. Workplace pressures
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
32
and stressors will become less tolerable physically, mentally and emotionally if
experienced over long durations (Frings, 2001; Stein & Brier, 2001; Williams, 2001). If
left unaddressed, this stress can lead to burnout and possibly then to major depression and
Minirth et al. (1986) tell us that three major areas of burnout can be classified. As
burnout is the result of long-term stress, it is a potential issue that can impact employee
burnout may manifest itself in the form o f physical ailments such as backaches, headaches,
ulcers, insomnia, high blood pressure, and so forth. Studies show that continued stress and
burnout can lead some employees to suffer heart attacks and strokes. The final
classification o f burnout occurs in one’s spiritual life. Individuals going through this type
o f stress/burnout often lose perspective and fail to recognize their own limitations. If the
stress is of lengthy duration, the individual may reach a crisis of spiritual beliefs (i.e., a
An extensive study by Zellers, Peirew, and Hochwarter (2000) indicates that the
consequences of job-related stress on both the company and the individual can be very
costly. This study found that specific dimensions of the individual's personality do
significantly and differentially impact the level to which any of the three components of
depersonalization) is experienced.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
33
“One o f the tragic paradoxes of burnout is that the people who tend to be the most
enthusiastic, promising, and energetic suffer from burnout” (Minirth et al., 1986, p. 17).
This may be due to the employee holding idealistic and perfectionistic standards for
themselves. According to Stein and Brier (2001), the more competent the hard-working,
Stated another way. there is little that can be done to eliminate most types o f job
stress, because most types of job stress are often beyond the employee's control (Kroeger
& Thuesen, 1992; Lush with Vredevelt 1992; Bushnell. 2001). There are ways the
employer may effectively minimize the effect o f job stressors for workers on an
individual level. This greatly decreases the number of employees “lost" to job burnout
and the associated cost for businesses to hire, replace, and/or train a new employee. Like
taxes, it [stress] comes with the paycheck (Lush with Vredevelt, 1992).
Minirth et al. (1986) believe that those employees working in the human services
fields have a greater susceptibility to stress and burnout. Reviews of Minirth et al.'s
patients' clinical records reveal an inordinate number o f people experiencing job burnout.
In these cases, many o f the patients choose to change jobs for a period of time. In the
majority o f these cases, the employee is moving away from a job or position in the human
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
According to Minirth et al. (1986), another susceptible category comprises
believe a “workaholic” work ethic is the best way to achieve workplace success, this type
o f personality has a greater potential for bumout. This subset o f employees (i.e..
workaholics), usually have four main characteristics in common: (a) a hectic schedule, (b)
an inability to say “no.” (c) a tendency toward frequent cardiac problems, and (d) an
orientation to exceptional (or extraordinary) achievement levels. The major drive of these
workaholic employees is a need to achieve control. This includes control of self, others,
circumstance, and one’s environment. Ninety percent of physicians and 75% of ministers
tested at the Minirth-Meier Clinic manifested these personality traits (Minirth et al..
1986).
Jamal and Baba (2001) further examined the relationship between Type-A
behavior and job stress. Conducting a study o f 420 Canadian teachers, in which they
examined the relationship between Type-A behavior, job performance, and employee
well being, Jamal and Baba found a positive correlation between Type-A behavior and
negatively to both work satisfaction and to a perception of the social support network.
Overwork can also cause work-related stress issues. Ammondson (2001) states
“The U.S. has surpassed Japan as the most overworked country in the industrialized
world” (p. 68). When compared with many other industrialized countries, U.S. workers
earn the least number o f vacation days. As a result of layoffs, the fewer remaining
employees have more work to accomplish in nearly every industry. This is leaving many
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
35
employees feeling stressed to the point of burnout (Ammondson, 2001). Table 2 briefly
states some of the specific reasons why U.S. workers are experiencing increases in level
o f overwork.
Table 2
* The average employed person now works an extra month a year compared with 25 years ago
(Schor, 1991); average yearly vacations and other paid absences decreased by 3 1/2 days over the
last decade.
* Despite teleconferences and e-mails, business travel continues to increase. Business people
spent six more nights away in 1995 than the year before.
* The average worker today produces about 30% more goods or services than he or she did a
generation ago, with less take-home pay, less job security, and dimmer future prospects.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
36
Bushnell (2001 and Moses (1998) argue organizations need to understand that
their long-term survival depends on how they manage their employees. According to
Moses, “The stresses people are experiencing in organizations today are simply
untenable, from the point o f view of the individual well-being and long-term
According to Wojcik (2001), many companies do not take the responsibility for
their part in creating stress and stressors. Instead o f identifying and managing stress as a
issue, and delegates it to the human resource department. Connelly (2001) suggests the
lack o f an effective stress management program can be very costly to any company.
According to the American Institute of Stress, nine out of ten job-stress suits are settled in
favor o f the employee. The average payout in these cases is usually four times that of
regular work-related injury claims. In 1998, it was estimated that stress accounted for
20% o f the direct costs associated with work stoppages and strikes, high job turnover, and
absenteeism in U.S. industries. This equates to a cost to companies o f more than $150
billion annually according to The Medical and Healthcare Marketplace Guide (1999).
Companies that participated in the 2001 Safety Management & Salary Survey
ranked their handling o f workplace stress dead last out of 22 safety and health issues.
Few companies were found to be immune from this “let's not worry about it now"
mentality. Yet surveys o f the health and safety representatives of some o f these same
companies found that occupational stress was a major concern by the employees. More
than 68% of those surveyed identified stress as one o f the top five concerns (Reed, 2001).
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
37
some individuals create their own stressors (Pihulyk, 2001). Reiterating the statement in
Chapter 1 by Kroeger and Thuesen (1992), that a negative stressor to one employee may
management testing and modeling applications. The reviews o f these models were
performed in an attempt to further define and explain the causal relationship between
environmental in nature. Ten of the measurement models found in the literature on stress
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
38
See Table 3 at the end o f this section for a summary o f these stress measurement and
management models.
The Derogatis Stress Profile (DSP) is designed to assess and represent stress at
three distinct but related levels of measurement (Derogatis. 1986). It is based on Lazarus'
(1984) interactional model o f stress, and includes the impact o f environmental events,
aspects of emotional response, and the individual's personality. The results of the
primary domains, and global scores that should define the participant's overall stress
experience. Derogatis recommends that the best usage o f this model lies with health
professionals. The DSP model has been found to be a useful screening tool to determine
PERSONAL YSIS
In 1986, Noland presented his stress management model that measures individual
groups can use this self-report instrument, PERSONALYSIS. Noland based this model
The model examines a wide range of on-the-job behaviors, including stress management.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
39
The reliability and validity of the model in its totality supports its use in many work and
family situations. The model does not have the same levels o f reliability and validity
administered, self-scored tests that assess stress levels and health-related behaviors. It
was developed by Adams (1989) as part o f his book, Understanding and Managing
Stress. A continuum of risk scores is assigned for each o f 22 stress areas. They provide a
personal profile that offers insight into the current stress levels the individual is
experiencing, the job and lifestyle factors contributing to these stress levels, and also
The Stress Indicator and Health Planner (SIHP) was developed by Faulkner and
Anderson (1993). This model identifies present health practices and problem areas, and
offers a plan for improved health, productivity and overall well-being. It is usually
Faulkner and Anderson recommend a trained psychologist interpret the results in order to
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
BarOn Emotional Quotient Inventory (EQ-0
The BarOn EQ-i was developed by Bar-On (1997) to assess an individual's level
of emotional intelligence. The BarOn EQ-i measures 21 content areas, including Stress
impulse control components. Bar-On recommends that the instrument be utilized as part
settings.
Nelson, Schmidt and Nelson (1985) published their SAS model to help identify
possible sources of negative stress in one's life and to help recognize the symptoms o f
stress. The SAS test package includes information and recommendations on stress
techniques for modifying the participant's reactions to negative stressors. The six areas
o f stress measured are Type “A" Controller personality, Anger-In Personality. Corollary
perspective.
The current version of the SMQ was finalized in 1987 by its author Peterson. It is
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
41
a broad-based system of measures aimed at identifying how the subject responds to life
stressors and copes with stress. The current form of the SMQ includes seven stress-
“high” in any o f the seven subscales, the Stress Management Guide provides suggestions
for modifying unhealthy behaviors. Peterson also developed a Companion Form of the
SMQ, which can be given to others to ascertain their perceptions o f the participant's life
The People Performance Profile (PPP), developed in 1985 by Crosby, Scherer and
organization, their work team, and themselves. The PPP requires participants to score
themselves on three major areas consisting o f 20 different dimensions or items that are
presumed to have an impact on productivity and employee satisfaction. The three major
from the responses to the questions in this section. The Work Team section addresses
factors such as supervision, role clarity and group productivity. It is in the section of
Personal Performance that a score for personal stress management is calculated, as well
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
42
as interpersonal support and time management. According to the author, this is the one
section o f the PPP that can be omitted and still be deemed a “good exploratory research"
identify those individuals who would most likely benefit horn participation in stress-
management training. The contents of PSAI items incorporate a number of the concepts
found in stress literature, particularly focusing on Type-A and life change ideas. The
PSAI is useful for alerting working individuals to possible sources of stress on the job. as
well as for use as a teaching tool for stress management program design.
The final model considered was the Constructive Thinking Inventory (CTI).
Epstein developed the current version of this model in 1986. This model of stress
Thinking Theory. It contains 108 questions requiring the individual participant's self-
reported answers based on a five-point Likert scale ranging from “always” to “never.”
The CTI is intended to score the individual on six subscales and an overall Global Scale.
From these scores, the respondent is able to assess his or her experiential system
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
43
Table 3
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
44
DSP: Given that the DSP is not concerned with the application of independent
PERSONAL YSIS: A review o f the reliability and validity of this model indicates
utility in many arenas o f at-work situations, as well as family issues, but may not be
effective in addressing any one area. For this reason, this model will also be discounted as
a possible testing instrument for the causal relationships under investigation in this
research project.
Understanding and Managing Stress: Given that the suggested primary target for
this measurement model is organizational training and staff development, this collection
o f testing instruments will also be deemed not applicable to the current research project.
Stress Indicator and Health Planner (SIHP): The main application of SIHP is as
an aid to individuals trying to gain a better understanding of their health habits and stress
levels. As this is not the potential causal relationship hypothesized in the current research
techniques, this model will also be rejected as a measurement instrument for this current
research project.
sources o f stress, which is a more narrow definition of work-related stress than the current
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
45
research study is undertaking. For this reason, this model will also be deemed
inappropriate.
Stress Management Questionnaire (SMQ): The SMQ does not deal with potential
causal relationships among stressors, demographic attributes and coping strategies. For
these reasons, it will not be considered appropriate for this research study either.
People Performance Profile (PPP): The fact that personal participants' profiles
are not intended to be returned, along with the constraints associated with having no
information on demographic attributes plus a total company versus employee focus, will
remove the PPP from consideration as a test/survey instrument for the current research
project.
potential stress identification and management strategy model for this research project.
are important for solving problems in everyday life at a minimum level of stress. This
models mentioned in various research studies. These models were discarded, after a brief
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
46
review indicated that the intended use o f the models was not applicable to this research
project These models included evaluation-only instruments such as the Jenkins Activity
Survey (JAS). The JAS's current version was developed by Jenkins, Zyzanski and
Rosenmen (1979). As JAS addressed only measurement o f Type-A behavior, only one o f
many potential sources of work-related stressors, the JAS model and others with similar
Strategy
Epstein's (1990) study suggests that there are two dimensions of automatic
personal theory of reality (i.e., people are either generally trustworthy or not). Process
refers to how the system actually operates. Epstein (1991) illustrates these two variables
with the following examples. A statement like "When I fail a test. 1 feel that I'm a total
failure and that I will never amount to anything," is a poor response to both content and
process. The content is overly pessimistic, and the process is one o f gross over-
generalization. When the response is something like, "When I do well on a test, I feel I'm
a success and that I will succeed in any endeavor,” the content is positive but the process
would be "When I fail a test, I realize it's only one test, and I learn from the experience
without getting upset.” This statement demonstrates positive content and positive
process.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
47
“the composition and assembly of possible solutions, including some that need to be
invented” (p. 287). Constructive thinking, then, includes both critical and creative
processes.
with various populations. These multiple studies all show a significant relationship
between constructive thinking ability and physical and mental health (Epstein, 1992;
Epstein & Katz, 1992; Hoyer. Averbeck, Heidenreich, Slangier. Pohlmann, & Rossler.
1998; Katz & Epstein, 1991; Park, Moore, Turner, & Adler, 1997; Scheuer & Epstein,
1997). Additional studies reveal that positive relationships have been exhibited between
relationships (Epstein, 1990, 1991; Epstein & Meier, 1989; Katz& Epstein, 1991).
Epstein (1986) developed what is now called the theory of constructive thinking
(CT). This theory is defined as the ability to solve everyday problems at a minimal cost
in stress, or the degree to which a person's automatic thinking facilitates problem solving
(Epstein, 1993). Epstein's findings support his belief that there are basically two forms of
intelligence, or two minds as Epstein describes it; the intelligence of the rational mind
which is what intelligence tests measure, and the intelligence of the experiential mind,
which accounts for both practical and emotional intelligence. Constructive thinking
assumes that there are individual differences in automatic thinking that exist along a
continuum from very constructive to very destructive. Since the intelligence o f the
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
48
dispositions (Aspinwall & Taylor, 1992; Cohen & Lazarus, 1994; Krohne, 1993; Scheier.
Carver, & Bridges, 1994; Schwartz, Lerman. Miller, & Mansy, 1995). Park, Moore.
Turner, and Adler (1997) believe that increasing the knowledge base o f how personal
dispositions are related to adjustment to stress and coping may have important
implications in both clinical work and current transactional theories o f coping and stress.
Epstein (1998) proffers the personality theory of “two minds." The *1wo minds"
theory is divided into the experiential mind system and the rational mind system. The
immediate action from a holistic view. In contrast, the rational system is analytical,
deliberative, and effortful, operating primarily through language. The theory's relative
1998). For example, interpersonal events, such as leader and/or follower relationships,
would engage the experiential system, whereas solving a mathematical equation would
likely trigger the rational system. Epstein (1998) states further that the emotional
involvement and relevant past experience o f the individual would shift the balance of
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
49
In reality, even very intelligent people often think destructively, even recognize
that they do so, but have great difficulty in changing their thinking patterns. Thus, “it is
clear that intellective intelligence and constructive thinking refer to very different
One of the laboratory studies conducted by Epstein and Katz (1998) evaluated
how “good” constructive thinkers, versus “bad” or “poor” constructive thinkers, reacted
to stress and feelings of anxiety. There was a sizeable difference in the number of self-
reported negative thoughts. Poor or bad constructive thinkers worried more and reported
feeling higher levels o f stress and anxiety during and after the experiment. “It is evident
that good and poor constructive thinkers, even when they share the same objective
Epstein and Katz (1992) performed other tests on college age students that
their own behavior. Two types of stressors were introduced: daily hassles that people
could contribute to or cause (i.e., not getting along with fellow workers), and events over
which the person almost certainly had no control (i.e., death of a pet). The results of this
study by Epstein and Katz (1992) supported their earlier finding that when stressful
events occurred in which the person had no control, good constructive thinkers
According to Epstein (1998), in those stressors where the participant had some
control, the reaction was very different. Most o f the stress the poor constructive thinkers
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
50
experienced was a result of their own actions. They behaved in ways that brought about
the stressor, that is, failing a course because one didn’t put enough effort into preparation.
Poor constructive thinkers also reported feelings o f being “hassled” by their fellow
Scheuer and Epstein (1997) replicated the Katz and Epstein (1991) study of
college students in 1996. The 1997 study results support the earlier findings of good
versus poor constructive thinkers and their reactions to stress and coping in everyday life.
Research by Epstein (1998) et al. concludes there are three main reasons why
good constructive thinkers experience less stress than poor constructive thinkers:
1. They utilize more effective coping mechanisms for dealing with stressful
situations.
2. They interpret potentially stressful events in less stressful ways, that is. think
3. They practice behaving in ways that create fewer distressing events in their
daily lives, and thereby produce a less stressful environment for themselves at
“The overall result is that good constructive thinkers experience less stress in living,
while at the same time working harder and exposing themselves to more challenging
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
51
Epstein (1998) further states that in the workplace, good constructive thinkers will
On both sides o f the line o f authority, good constructive thinkers will take actions to solve
their problems rather than exhibit anger, resentment, disappointment, or despair, thereby
From his numerous studies and research. Epstein (1998) finds that one of the main
advantages of CT, as a coping strategy for stress, is that good constructive thinkers tend
constructive thinkers (Epstein, 1998). Poor constructive thinkers will tend to be absent
from the workplace more frequently due either to being resentful o f the business, their co
workers, bosses, etc., or because they are highly susceptible to stress and stress induced
physical illness. Businesses need to be alert for increased absenteeism and illness, as
these may be signs of stress that are very costly to the company (Atkinson, 2001; Dear,
sources of stress and health-related behaviors that lead to greater emotional stress and
more physical symptoms. This figure helps to illustrate why poor constructive thinkers
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
52
Figure 4
Siebert’s (1999) concept of two types of employees. While Type One seems to thrive on
challenges and be more resilient, Type Two is less resilient and tends to wither in
how they can become more resilient (i.e., become stronger under pressure [stress]
situations), while less resilient employees are not as receptive to additional information
(Siebert, 1999).
Through his findings, Siebert (1999) also mirrors Epstein's theory of constructive
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
thinking, in that differences in individual characteristics, such as coping strategies and
personality, are more important than certain job conditions in predicting stress. Siebert
also concurs with Epstein’s (1998) statements that the distress an employee may feel on
the job is not a result o f what actually exists objectively, but is the result of how the
employee perceives what is happening. Siebert (1999) believes that the best approach to
helping employees deal with job-related stress is to train them to be more resilient to the
Epstein (1990) states that the one thing that most personality psychologists agree
on is the idea that everyone constructs a personal theory of reality. Epstein (1991) defines
this personal theory as one that is developed daily by one's life experiences. People have
This personal theory is developed primarily as a means of coping with life. This
is the point of differentiation for many of the various psychological schools of thought
and theorems. Psychoanalysis suggests (Epstein, 1990; Maddi, 1989) that the primary
motive o f human behavior is seeking pleasure and avoiding pain. Other schools o f
According to Epstein (1990), each individual, within his or her personal theory of
reality, has an intuitive interpretation of the degree to which: (a) the world is benign, that
is, a source of pleasure versus misery; (b) the world is meaningful, predictable,
controllable, and just, versus chaotic and uncontrollable; (c) people are considered to be
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
worth relating to (i.e., a source of support and affection versus threat and hostility); and
(d) the self is perceived as worthy (i.e., competent, moral, and lovable versus
based on his theory o f Constructive Thinking. Hurley (1989) utilized the CTI, and its
related theory o f Constructive Thinking (CT), when investigating the linkage between
constructive thinking and elevated ratings o f Self in interpersonal groups. His findings
concluded that constructive thinking and rating oneself above peers—especially for
the hypothesis that positive links exist between rational beliefs about personal conduct
and practical intelligence indicators. Using the CTI, Hurley found that rational beliefs
In 1996. Hurley once again used CT and CTI to study the relationship between
constructive thinking and firm disagreement, and neuroticism and mild agreement. His
findings supported his hypothesis that individuals who inclined toward more expressive
and firmer responses tend to be more assertive, more extraverted, and more intellectually
open. He further found that increased attention to response styles enhanced the value of
psychological inventories.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
55
(1992) assessed Epstein's CTI and base theory for its ability to improve the prediction of
performance beyond cognitive ability. Her study found that measures o f practical
intelligence from the CTI added significantly to the prediction of academic performance,
beyond measures of cognitive ability. Constructive thinking was also found to account
for the unique variances in predicting training performance and leadership ratings o f her
study's participants.
study among 92 public school administrators on coping with job-related stress. Green's
findings supported Epstein's earlier statements that people who were poor constructive
thinkers were sensitive to many job-related events. In this case, sensitivity is defined as
the degree to which an event is regarded as stressful when it occurs. These administrators
therefore, more likely to experience a great deal o f stress. Green found constructive
thinking to be positively associated with job satisfaction, and negatively associated with
self-reported symptoms o f mental distress and physical illness. Green's summary of his
study indicates that what is experienced as stressful may lie more in the eye o f the
CT theory was also utilized by Giancola, Shoal, and Mezzich (2001) in their study
were related to drug use in 282 teenage females. The female participants with substance
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
56
functioning, and higher antisocial behavior compared with the control scores. They also
found that antisocial behavior partially mediated the relationship between drug use
study of 551 teenagers with and without substance use disorders. The concurrent validity
and clinical correlates o f constructive thinking (defined as experiential coping) was their
area of examination. Constructive thinking was correlated with depression, anxiety, and
conduct problems. Ammerman et al. (2001) state that the Constructive Thinking
Inventory (CTI) measures were able to distinguish adolescents with and without
substance use disorders. This rating was then used as the basis for further patient
explored the extent to which retrospective reports of childhood emotional bonds with
parents and current adult attachment orientations predicted the capacity for CT. This
study involved a sample of 145 college undergraduates. Lopez found that when ethnic
and gender differences in CT were controlled for parent/child, emotional bonds and
He also found that the participants' adult attachment orientations were effective in
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
57
that everyone has a dominant learning style. This learning style is based on the
individual’s strongest perceptual and ordering capabilities. More specifically, the way in
which a person views the world is called his or her perception. The way in which an
individual leams to relate to this research influences the manner in which coping
strategies are presented to and implemented with an employee who is experiencing work-
Tobias (1999) states that an individual can perceive things in one of two ways:
either concrete (“It is what it is"), or random (“It's not always what it seems"). The way
that the individual uses the information he or she perceives is called “ordering." Ordering
occurs in one of two ways: either sequential, that is, follow the steps one after another, or
random, that is, just get it done! From this 2 x 2 matrix, four dominant learning styles
Why are Tobias’s findings relevant to the study of stress and the workplace?
Being able to assess an employee’s dominant learning style, as well as the style of his or
her boss, can greatly enhance the productivity of any team drawn together to accomplish a
common business objective and/or goal. This is not to say that only bosses and
employees with similar learning styles should work together. Tobias (1999) maintains
that by understanding an individual’s style and that of his or her boss, or his or her
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
subordinates, will enable all the employees to contribute more effectively and efficiently
to the common goal. The individual in this situation may not experience less job stress,
but should at least be able to identify the cause o f the stressors and deal with them in a
Sternberg (1997) believes that the people who succeed in reaching important life
goals are those who have managed to acquire, develop, and/or apply a full range of
intellectual skills. Rather than merely depending on inert (I.Q.) intelligence to help them
succeed, these individuals have assessed their strengths and weaknesses. They are able to
enact strategies in their personal and professional lives to capitalize on their strengths and
correct for their weaknesses. Finding ways around the issues they don't excel in. or
striving to make themselves "good enough" in weaker areas, accomplishes this strategy.
This same approach is relevant in the workplace when striving to overcome stressors that
too much information and too many people trying to convince us" (p. 1). Critical
thinking requires individuals to accept and utilize the principles of rational discussion.
through a critical, rational discussion process that the non-rational aspects o f the situation
are reduced. By concentrating on the rational side, it is possible to reach a decision while
reducing the number and/or levels of stressors surrounding the particular thought process
and/or activity.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
59
constructive thinkers, and extending this mindset to teal-world problems, can be very
problem solving become the prominent methods o f inquiry when faced with decision
making in the workplace. Individuals must learn how to relinquish the responsibility for
making choices that determine their future and the collective future of their subordinates,
peers and bosses in the organizational hierarchy. Roberts' theory also states that as the
individual thinker embraces this paradigm shift, he or she will usually become more open
to seeking alternatives in perceptions and behavior in his or her personal and social
The next section o f this literature review will focus on the potential connections
between the diversity issues that arise from a mixture of the demographic attributes of
each employee and workplace stress and stressors. The subject o f workplace diversity
and potential stressors will be further segmented in this literature review by gender, wage
helpful in the workplace. The “inside” employee group needs mentoring to recognize and
appreciate the value the “outsiders” can bring to the group. The employees treated as
“outsiders” (Gersick, Bartunek, & Dutton, 2000), due to diversity differences, need to be
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
60
prepared to deal with the stress these hurtful interrelationships may cause. The
“outsiders” [who are] focused on proving themselves [in the workplace] in a test o f skill
may need concrete encouragement and guidance to expand their repertoires o f career
(Gersick et al., 2000, p. 1042). Ibarra's (1995) studies and conclusions are supported by
in times o f stress, tolerance for cultural differences has been shown to diminish. For
instance, when stressed, Anglos tend to move toward stoical isolation, Jews seek to
analyze their experiences, and Italians seek solace in emotional expression o f their
feelings. When these responses are positioned in a larger ethnic context and not as
personal attacks against others in the workplace, a more constructive work relationship
and contribute their potential (i.e., smashing the glass ceiling) will have a
distinct competitive advantage. Our diversity as a nation can really work for
be seen as a powerful force that harnessed effectively, can enhance productivity and
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
61
“propel a company to success” (Makower, 1995, p. 48). Fernandez (1999) asserts that the
status quo is not acceptable, as mismanaged diversity issues can become a large drain on
organization, especially its perceptions o f its place in the global marketplace” (p. 58).
A study o f top management teams (TMT) by Simons, Pelled and Smith (1999)
examines four kinds of demographic diversity that tended to exist in these TMTs. The
four variables (i.e., functional background, educational level, tenure, and age) are divided
into two categories. Category One includes functional background, educational level, and
tenure diversity traits, identifying these as being more job-related since they capture
Williams & O'Reilly, 1998). Category Two includes only age diversity, which is deemed
to be less job-related than the other three demographics (Simons, Pelled. & Smith, 1999).
Simons, Pelled and Smith (1999) further investigate the types and/or levels of
stress that can occur in the decision-making processes of the TMT. Their research states
that cognitive and educational level diversity is shown to have positive effects in the
Salk and Brannen's (2000) study on international joint venture (IJV) teams finds
that “natural cultural, though not statistically significant, remains important in explaining
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
62
patterns of relationships in teams, but its role is far less direct and deterministic than
suggested by prior research” (p. 191). Multiple studies (Bivens & Lowell, 1966; Killing,
1983, Shenkar & Zeira, 1992) submit that the cultural differences in cross-cultural and
conflict/stress.
In Richard's (2000) field research, racial diversity is studied for its interaction
with business strategy to determine firm performance. The quality of the productivity, the
return on equity, and the market performance are measured. The results of Richard's
report demonstrates "that cultural diversity does in fact add value and, within the proper
Bond and Pyle (1998), in exploring the resources required to support workplace
diversity, perform a collaborative inquiry process study. The four lessons from this study
are:
diversity dynamics;
values; and,
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
63
These are all areas o f potential work-related stressors that should be addressed by
management.
Bond and Pyle (1998) state that support by an organization to achieve effective
workplace diversity processes and procedures can be further divided into three parts or
supporting diverse employees) (Bond & Pyle, 1994; Pyle & Bond. 1997). Section Three
minority students at the “ best" MBA schools in the country. The number of minority
students at the best MBA schools is increasing, but very slowly. For instance, in 1981
82% of the Masters degrees earned were by Whites; 5.8% by Blacks; 2.2% by Hispanics;
numbers grew marginally, with Blacks earning 7% of the Masters degrees; Hispanics
earnings 3.8% of the degrees; and Asian/Pacific Islanders earning only 4.9% o f the
Masters degrees conferred that year. By gender, in 1981, male graduates received
147,000 MBA degrees and female students received 149,000 MBA degrees. By 1998,
these numbers definitely shifted more so in favor o f the female population. Males
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
64
The question arises as to how American businesses will find executives savvy to
the ways o f an increasingly diverse workforce when there are so few minorities working
in the top ranks of the corporate structure (Franklin, 2000; Hon, Weigold, & Chance,
1999). Based on the research conducted for this current study, the need to be able to
identify, understand, and effectively address the impact of diversity on work-related stress
is an issue that can no longer be ignored. Demographic changes in the United States, and
in the student bodies of U.S. colleges and universities, are fueling the urgency of
addressing and solving diversity issues. Universities are struggling with the development
study in the area of diversity influence. According to Sternberg's (1997) results, tested
I.Q. scores indicate that racial and ethnic differences are only a small part of intelligence
Diversity', as it relates to one’s cultural heritage, can be a major factor in how one
approaches his or her work life, depending on at what point the individual immigrates to
another country in his or her “family life cycle.” Adjusting to a new culture is not a
single event but a prolonged developmental process (McGoldrick, Giordano, & Pearce,
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
65
eds., 19%). Immigration occurring during the employee’s young adult phase has the
greatest potential for ease of adaptation to the new culture, in terms o f career and marital
choice. Migration later in the life cycle usually negatively affects the individual's ability
to quickly assimilate into the workplace, as most employees in this age bracket are
leaving behind a great deal o f their socio-cultural resources and life experiences. This
negative effect can be further exacerbated in the workplace, and in other life experiences,
if the individual has not fully mastered the primary language of the new country.
Hartel and Fujimoto (1999) presented the results of their studies as to why
diversity sometimes has positive and negative effects in organizations. They based their
model that they developed. This theoretical model is a moderator of the link between
group process, diversity, and outcomes in organizations. The PDOM model identifies
five types of diversity. They are social category, skills and knowledge, verbal and non
responses are found to influence cognitive group process outcomes, and vice versa. In the
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
66
Hartel and Fujimoto's (1999) study discusses how the positive and negative
effects o f diversity are a major deterrent to the full utilization o f diversity on processes
and outcomes within the organization. On the positive side, the contribution of minority
and higher quality processes. The decisions of these heterogeneous groups were found to
However, heterogeneous groups are found to be associated with negative affective and
behavioral outcomes. The groups tend to be less trusting and cohesive, as well as less
committed to the organization. Individual group members are also less satisfied with
their jobs, more stressed, more prone to turnover, have higher absenteeism rates, and
results, Hartel and Fujimoto ( 1999) conclude that potential positive impacts to
organizational group outcomes are outweighed by the costs associated with the negative
group behaviors.
Hartel and Fujimoto's (1999) studies also find that the level o f individual group
individual perceives higher levels of dissimilarity to other group members, then the
outcome effects are further magnified. If, instead, the individual leans more toward the
perceived openness side o f the model, he or she is able to diminish the negative group
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
67
The PDOM model (Hartel & Fujimoto, 1999) and its outcomes are found to
consistently occur at three levels in the organization. First, or lowest, is at the individual
the group level. Last is the perceived openness, or lack there of, at the organizational
level. The organization's perceived culture is found to have the greatest influence on the
behaviors o f the individual and group levels that, in turn, affect the cognitive
(Black & Mendenhall, 1989; Nicholson, Sepina, & Hochwarter, 1990; Tung, 1987)
variations in cultural value systems can exacerbate stress in the day-to-day working
research on culture and values has grown in both amount and criticality" (Fernandez,
Carlson, Stepina, & Nicholson, 1997, p. 43). Is cultural diversity and its associated
values a cause o f stressors in the workplace, or just an additive to the overall problem of
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
Pate, Ryder, Femadez, Ford, and Mahanyele (1994) in cross-cultural samples focus on the
types o f organizational stress and coping that are inherent in the workplace that has cross-
cultural employees. Bhagat et al. find that organizational stress is significantly correlated
coping with stress is found to be significant in the United States, India, Germany. Spain,
was defined by Lazarus and Folkman (1984) as attempts by the employee to alter or
manage the situation. Emotion-focused coping was defined as attempts by the employee
to reduce or manage the distress associated with the stress experience itself.
a comprehensive manner and using an emic perspective” (Bhagat et al., 1994, p. 104).
cultures, together with the insight that management/leadership models are culture bound,
raises a concern” (Duchatelet, 1998, p. 96). This co-optation of like personality types
from the same culture, to the exclusion of all others, may unwittingly lead to gender and
racial discrimination. For those employees who do not fit the culturally acceptable mode,
this may lead to increases in work-related stress and less-than-maximum benefit for the
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
69
Diversity also raises issues regarding income inequality, which can be a source o f
work-related stress (Williams & O’Reilly, 1998; Allison, 1999). There appear to be
income inequalities related to ethnicity and employment in many sectors. For instance, in
the United States in 1994, the largest population of self-employed men came from a
Korean background (20.3%), followed by Hispanics (18.5%), and then Iranians (12.9%)
(Hacker, 1995). Memberships in the worlds o f medicine and academia have experienced
threefold expansion in the past 30 years. Most of the beneficiaries o f this increase have
been white women, along with a growing influx of Asians, both male and female.
Recruitment efforts in all professions result in raising the absolute numbers for African-
Americans and other minority groups, but many of the disparities between equal pay and
mixed blessing (Williams & O ’Reilly, 1998). Many organizations, despite their stated
Equal Opportunity policy, have daily practices that run the gamut from inclusion to
struggling with the issues of gender, racial/ethnic diversity, disability, and in some cases,
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
70
by the numerous studies on its relationship to many behaviors. Studies that continue
today prove the existence o f definable stress measurement score variances or application
results attributable strictly to gender (Goleman. 1998; Lim & Teo. 19%; Burke. 19%;
Kirchmeyer, 1998; Gersick, Bartunek, & Dutton, 2000). Anisman and Merali (1999)
believe the physical interaction of the hypothalamus, pituitary gland, and gonadal organs
may contribute to the gender reaction differences often seen in behavioral disorders (e.g.
shown in numerous studies (Flowers, 2001; Moreno & Murphy. 1999; Schwartz &
Zimmerman. 1992), mothers working outside the home invariably bring a set o f potential
work stress conflicts to the job site each morning. According to the study by Schwartz
and Zimmerman (1992), this is evident not only in the way women view work but also
One o f the major social changes over the past generation is employment of
mothers outside the home. This is now the norm rather than the rarity o f previous
generations. Nearly 70% o f women with children under the age of majority are currently
working outside the home. According to Moreno and Murphy (1999), when compared to
a generation ago this represents an approximately 50% increase in the number of working
mothers. Although women play important roles in business, the number of roles was very
limited until 60 years ago, at least in the United States. Flowers' (2001) research reveals
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
71
that two monumental paradigm shifts have occurred. First, when the U.S. entered World
War II, hundreds o f thousands of women joined the workplace as replacement workers
for the working-age males called into military duty. Second, the microchip was invented,
Based on his own studies, Goleman (1998) states that men and women seemed
competencies based on empathy and social skills, while men did better in those
Erickson and Ritter's (2001) review of prior studies and research lead to the
agitated emotions, as forms of the emotional labor process, should be addressed in the
workplace. The management of agitation, the emotion most strongly linked with feelings
o f bumout and inauthenticity, is more common in women. The rationale is that women
in workplace stress situations is continuing. Lim and Teo's study (19%) of information
technology (IT) personnel examined relationships between gender and coping strategies
stress sources emanating from factors intrinsic to their jobs: being in a managerial role,
reviewing the types of coping strategies that each gender may use, female employees tend
to seek social support and talk to others about their experiences. Male employees were
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
72
found to suppress their emotions and deal with work-stress problems in a logical and
unemotional manner.
Wang and Patten (2001) studied a group of 7,344 employees over a period o f five
years to evaluate the associations between work stress and major depression. They
concluded that there were significant associations between job stressors and depression.
The type o f work stress may be altered, however, by the gender o f the employee.
Stressors o f a physical nature caused depression in women more frequently than men.
For men, stressors o f a psychological nature were found to lead to major bouts o f
depression.
Burke's (19%) work focuses on the male gender role conflict (i.e., men do not
seek outside professional help with issues), which, until this time, has not been routinely
studied. She finds this role conflict to be associated with lower self-esteem, higher
anxiety [stress], higher depression, more sexual aggression, lower social intimacy, and
greater somatic complaints/symptoms. Burke also states that this vicious cycle will
continue until it is deemed culturally acceptable for men to seek psychological help.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
report higher levels o f workaholic job behaviors (e.g.. job stress and perfectionism) that
are likely to be associated with lower levels o f satisfaction and general well being.
Gersick, Bartunek, and Dutton (2000) studied gender differences in the lives of
academic professionals. Their findings suggest the world of men is more "inside the
center” of the profession with regard to networking and career development (Ibarra &
Smith-Lovin. 1997). The world of women in academia is found to be more "outside the
center.” This leads Gersick et al. (2000) to further state that many women tend to
approach their careers and network-building efforts through a different type o f logic than
male employees. Women usually begin from a position of insecurity, that is, a defensive
approach, rather than from an assumption o f support from essential career resources.
and the differential effect they have on the progression and perceived success o f women's
human capital, relational demography, family, and career components. The evidence
supports the hypothesis that women's and m en's careers unfold differently, especially
when one considers income and promotion gaps between the two genders that widen over
time.
careers with certain levels of stress, as opposed to the male gender where this added
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
74
stressor is not so prevalent? Most working mothers are constantly weighing their
business commitments against family obligations. Anderson and Leslie (1991), and
Barnett, Brennan, and Marshall (1994), document that this on-going dilemma can lead to
stress and distress in the overall quality o f women’s work and home roles.
more than 1,200 men and women working lull time, found higher levels o f reported work
overload, conflict, and stress for women than men. The levels of stress, etc., were also
shown to increase relationally to the number o f children still in the home (Austin, 2000).
Further study by Frankenhaeuser (as cited by Austin, 2000) as to some o f the physical
side effects of stress (i.e., blood pressure [BP] levels), reveals that for men their BP levels
decreased sharply after 5 p.m. For women, the opposite was true, with BP staying high
and stress-hormones levels increasing after they left the workplace to go home (Austin.
2000). Although a study o f 3,800 men and women concludes that paid employment is
associated with reduced depression among husbands and wives, it is time spent at
housework that reflects increased depression symptoms for both genders (Austin. 2000).
roles, is still prevalent in the workforce today, although a measured decline was recorded
from the 1970s to the 1990s (Cavanaugh, 1999; De Laat, 1999). According to 1990
census data, the majority o f working women are still represented by female careers, such
as secretary, elementary school teacher, cashier, waitress, etc., whereas the majority of
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
men still hold male occupations such as production supervisor, salaried sales
“occupational segregation."
Geetman and Pena (1986) found this phenomenon to be especially true in their
employed in the Border Industry Program (BIPs). BIPs were established as a result of a
bilateral agreement between the United States and Mexico in 1966. The agreement
most o f the hourly work force consisted of women. These women were found to be more
susceptible to stressors stemming from sexual inequalities in the workplace than other
job-related stressors. The sexual inequalities were measured in four areas: (a) division of
labor and power relations, (b) pay disparities, (c) the general overall attitude toward
Hofstede's (1970) and Fernandez, Carlson, Stepina, and Nicholson's (1997) work
Why should employee gender or the education level reached by the employee be
United States work force is female; more than half of all women are working outside the
home full time (Groves, 1998). Currently, each year women earn more than half of the
bachelors and masters degrees conferred in the United States. Specifically, one-third of
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
76
all the masters degrees earned in the business administration area are earned by women,
while women also earn half of the undergraduate degrees in management and business
majors.
the U.S. has increased in recent decades. However, these numbers still mask the reality
that women continue to cluster near the bottom o f professional and org a n izational
hierarchies, with lower earnings, lower authority, and lower advancement potential than
their male counterparts (Davies-Netzley, 1998). Women and men of color are also facing
A study in Britain by Davidson and Cooper (1983) found that managerial women
experience greater strain, and feel more isolated at work, than do their male counterparts.
This extra pressure manifests itself in issues such as lack of self-confidence and subtle
forms of discrimination, causing these women to believe that they occupy minority status
in their organizations and in society as a whole. The so-called “glass ceiling.’' a barrier to
success for women, stems from workplace discrimination. This discrimination can be
presented with only stereotypical challenges. This form of sex stereotype bias is shown
Research by Book (2000) finds few women climbing to the top rungs o f the
corporate ladder, especially in the decade o f the 1980’s. Those who do advance do so at a
heavy price to their perceived femininity. Often, women find that to be successful they
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
77
have to adapt to male-inspired dress codes. Their rank, or position, within the
organization becomes their primary source o f respect Winning at any cost becomes the
mantra of these women trying to fit into the “good old boy” network.
Females who want to get ahead assume male methods to excel because o f the
many negative stereotypes associated with their own gender (Book, 2000). The
conventional wisdom o f the 1980’s states that women are destined to fulfill only
supporting roles because of their inherent female weaknesses—too friendly, too helpful,
that female managers who employ a “feminine style” o f management will have trouble
succeeding in the workplace. Yet, in reality, examples can be found of women who excel
because of the very traits that were once deemed inferior to or weak than the alpha male
"new” model of leadership will be one that is no longer gender stereotyped, but is built on
This is not to infer that the number of women in top management slots will
automatically spike in the next few years (Book, 2000). Professional male leaders,
however, are starting to see that they must adapt to survive. Still, there will need to be a
thread o f “feminism” mixed in with the traditional male orientation of management, when
companies strategize on how they are to operate to excel in these new and fiercely
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
78
Many researchers have studied the differences between male and female managers
and male versus female employees, including some of the ways in which they react to
stress, as well as some of the types o f stress specific to each gender in the workplace
(Book, 2000; Brewer, Socha, & Potter, 19%; Burke, 19%; Comer & Yammarion, 1997;
Cunnison, 1999; Evans, 1999; Jolson, Dubinsky, & Tata. 1998; Kipnis & Herron, 1994;
Kirchemeyer, 1999; Moore, 1999; Orenstein, 2000; Rosener. 1990; Osland, Snyder, &
Hunter, 1998; Schwartz, 1992; Talmud & Izraeli, 1999). Rosener (1990) notes that "men
are more likely to use power that comes from their organizational position and formal
According to Yang's (1998) international study, women still face a glass ceiling in
their climb up the corporate ladder. These women also still bear primary responsibility
for family and home chores. Yang states that these and other factors lead to higher stress
levels among women than men. Female employees can help themselves by "recognizing
and exploiting their superior abilities in interpersonal relationships” (p. 16). Businesses
can help lower the stressors that their female workforce face by providing better
mentoring, training and guidance, and by increasing their sensitivity to the female
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
79
Chiu and Kosinski (1995) conducted research on the influence and potential
damage of work-related stress on employees from different cultures. Chui and Kosinshi
stated, "stress is influenced by cultural and social variables such as values, attitudes, and
employees. The results of this study showed that the impact of work stress on the
situation, as well as his or her assessment of the likelihood o f obtaining the desired
outcome. In other words, the impact of the stressor depends more on the person's
perception o f the stressor than on the actual stressor itself. In turn, the employee's
perceptions and behaviors are greatly influenced by his or her cultural values and
background. This belief, of the country’s cultural value system influencing the individual
employee, is also seen in the studies by Hofstede (1970), Hofstede and Bond (1984 &
country. Fernandez, Carlson, Stepina, and Nicholson (1997) reexamine Hofstede's 1970s
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
80
national culture and work-related values is one of the most frequently cited results and
theory (Bhagat & McQuaid, 1982). Hofstede’s research helped further the understanding
different cultures and societies assume divergent values concerning the nature o f
organizations (such as businesses) and interpersonal relationships within them, that is,
From Hofstede's original 1970’s research of 40 countries, and the more current
feminine are found to be changing only if the country itself has gone, or is going through,
environmental change (Fernandez, Carlson, Stepina, & Nicholson, 1997). For instance,
the U.S. score on Hofstede's study is near the mean masculine classification.
Fernandez's, et al. (1997) study moves the score of the United States to well below the
masculine mean score. This moves the U.S. more toward a feminine orientation, which is
perceived to be the result of more women in the workforce and more women having
increasingly higher positions o f power in both government and the private sector.
Germany is another country that moves from a higher masculine ranking on Hofstede's
scale to a classification o f feminine, based on the more recent data o f Fernandez et al.
China scores the highest in the rankings o f masculine countries. It is stated that
this possibly reflects the more traditional role separation of men and women in the home
and the workplace in that country (Fernandez, Carlson, Stepina, & Nicholson, 1997).
Russia also scores above the mean, maintaining its position as a masculine value-oriented
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
81
country similar to China. The reason put forth for this is that although women may now
be working along side their male counterparts, it is still the men who hold the higher
Mexico, Chile and Japan are also classified as masculine countries (Fernandez.
Carlson, Stepina, & Nicholson, 1997). These countries all share the masculine
more singular than dualistic role for both women and men in their societies. France.
Venezuela, and Yugoslavia all score below the mean, making these countries more
feminine in their values. If one subscribes to the findings presented by Hofstede et al..
which demonstrate that countries may present a masculine or feminine orientation, then
the impact o f this orientation to everyday stressors, and how to cope with them, must also
In 1963 and 1964, the United States Congress passed two landmark laws designed
to remove discrimination from workplace relations in the United States. First was the
Equal Pay Act o f 1963, which prohibited the standard business practice o f paying female
employees less than their male counterparts when performing the same job. In 1964,
Congress passed the Civil Rights Act, which included a comprehensive fair employment
section (Title VII) that was intended to ban discrimination against minorities and women
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
82
Research by Patrick and Ross (2000) shows that in the 35 years since these laws
were ratified, strides have been made by minorities and women into the mainstream o f the
minority women” (p. 522), which continues as a potential source of work-related stress.
The U.S. Census Bureau has formulated a Standard Statistical Establishment List.
The Council o f Economic Advisors (1998) reviewed these studies of statistical data
collected in 1990 and successive years. The Council concludes that a “gender gap” in
wages between men and women stilt exists 33 years after the enactment of the 1963
Equal Pay Act. Although the gender pay gap has narrowed from a ratio of 57% in 1969
to 68% in 19%, it still impacts the day-to-day lives of most American workers. After
allowing for job experience factors, job classification, industry idiosyncrasies and union
status, there still remains 12 percentage points of wage discrimination that are not
measure this discrimination by looking at pay differences by gender in very similar jobs,
or against specific measures of productivity, support the conclusion that women still face
This wage gap is even larger in non-profit organizations. The average male chief
executive officer (CEO) still out-eams his female counterpart by 47% in similar-size
organizations in 1998 and 1999 (Lipman, 2001). This same wage gap study by GuideStar
states that women are not only paid less, but are far less likely to even hold the top job at
the larger non-profit groups. Similar differences in wage scales are found in comparing
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
all the top positions such as chief information officer (CIO) and chief financial officer
A wage gap also appears when measuring median income levels and various job
classification pay scales among ethnic groups in the United States. This is sometimes
referred to as the ‘‘racial income gap" (Hacker. 1995). Although there are many factors
that can skew the amount o f income variance among the races (i.e., whites usually have
more two-income earning families than blacks), the relative inequality trends are still
present. For instance, in 1994 white families had a median income of $38,909, whereas
Interestingly, even when factors are normalized, that is, same education level or
same employment status, black females, while still earning, on average, less than their
white counterparts, are statistically closer to the white income scale than when black men
and white men are studied. For instance, a white female worker with a master's degree
and average annual earnings of $60,000 is only $3,660 higher than her equivalent in the
black community. For males, the annual average income gap is nearly $7,800 lower for
black males with a master's degree than their white counterparts, all other factors being
equal (Hacker, 1995). So, while the income disparity between men and women appears
to continue through most ethnic classifications, in the instance of black versus white,
Do any o f these inequalities add to the distress levels of the work environment? If
one could remedy any o f these inequalities, would it lead to measurable decreases in job-
related stress, or would other stress causing factors just become more prevalent (Hacker,
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
84
1995)?
Earnings ratio, or the inverse o f wage gap, varies by race, ethnicity and gender
(Yoder, 1999). Earnings ratio is the percentage of any ethnic group or gender, other than
white males, to white male earning power. This numeric formula is used as a
comparative baseline. If the income o f white males is the denominator, then white
females have an earnings ratio o f 71.2%, 53.4% for Latinas, and 64.2% for African
American women. African American men earn 75.9% of what their white counterparts
In the United States, the female-to-male earnings ratio hovers around 71.5%. The
highest earnings o f maie-to-female wage ratios (90%) can be found in Tanzania. Iceland.
France and Australia all have narrower gaps than the United States. Only Japan (50%),
Korea, Cyprus, and Egypt had lower earnings ratios than the United States in 1991
Two general explanations are offered by social scientists to explain the causes of
the gap differential (Wittig & Lowe, 1989). The first is referred to as "human capital
and personal investments, that is, women are deficient in some areas relative to men, and.
these outside factors could include hiring biases, sexist discrimination, or differential
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
85
Why are these wage and earning factors important (Hartmann, Allen, & Owens,
1999; Wittig & Lowe, 1989; Yoder, 1999)? Could these be sources of work-related
stress'7 If so, could the levels o f these stressors be reduced by more active involvement of
management?
The United States population is made up of so many diverse ethnic groups that the
relevance to work-related stressors and stress issues can no longer be ignored. The U.S.
is experiencing its highest level o f immigration in more than 100 years (Me Goldrick.
Giordano, & Pearce, (Eds.), 1996). More than one million legal and undocumented
immigrants arrive on United States soil annually, most from Asia or the Hispanic world.
With these new immigrants expressing and enjoying their unique cultures, diversity and
all its implications has had an immense impact on the "character” of American society
and the way that these new employees interact in the workplace.
In 1994, women accounted for 46% o f the workforce in the United States (United
participation rates (more than 70%) of women in the work force between the ages of 20-
52 vary little by race/ethnicity. Sixty percent of Asian and Pacific Islander women are
working outside the home. For white women the rate is 58.9%, African Americans have
58.7% o f their women in the workforce, and 55% of Native American women and 52.9%
of the Latinas are also working outside the home. This equates to 57 million employed
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
86
women in the United States alone. Relevant percentages of gender and ethnic groups in
Table 4
1994 versus 1999: 46% of the workforce was female, versus 69% of all
single and 49% of all married females now work outside
the home
Caucasians: 58.9% work outside the home
Asian/Pacific Islanders: 60.0% work outside the home
African Americans: 58.7% work outside the home
Native American: 55.0% work outside the home
Latinas: 52.9% work outside the home
cultural evolution. We are all always in the process of changing ethnic identity, from
incorporating ancestral influences to forging new and emerging group identities” (p. xi).
Families or individuals who live in a heterogeneous setting will probably move closer to
the dominant value system in the United States than those individuals who live and work
within neighborhoods o f the same ethnicity, or who are strongly reliant on religious
affiliations, which reinforce certain ethnic values. Ethnic differences in mental health
practices will have a strong impact on how the individual worker performs under various
job-related stresses.
Occupational choice reflects both personal necessity and known group values.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
87
For instance, the Irish are currently over represented in politics and police work;
Germans, in engineering; Koreans, in food stores; Greeks and Chinese, in the restaurant
business, and Jews, in small business, medicine, and above all, the mental health fields
Ethnic distinctions generally play a less powerful role among the most educated
and upwardly mobile segments o f a given group (Me Goldrick et al., 19%). This is
because the individuals in these class segments tend to disassociate themselves from their
ethnic roots.
structural and social contextual factors in the workplace may adversely affect the health
outcomes o f ethnic minority employees” (p. 108). Examples of these factors are
proportional representation of one's ethnic group in the workplace that might influence
the degree to which the employee finds and feels acceptance. On-the-job levels o f
perceived discrimination of the ethnic group are also found to increase levels of stress.
Most of the studies conducted on stress and minorities in the workplace have been
very limited—limited in the number of empirical studies performed and limited in which
minority groups were studied, i.e., most studies deal with African Americans and try to
make comparisons to White employees. Clearly, further research is needed in this area
Stress
There are few studies on the relationship between education level and job-related
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
88
stress. It has been shown, however, that stressful interactions in the workplace require
Mirowsky and Ross (1998) is that education is an investment in human capital. This
position is supported by the assertion that education's personal and social (i.e.,
conduct further research on the potential causal links between educational levels and
work-related stressors.
The realization o f human capital (Gardner, 1993) to its lull potential, and the
specific role education has in this growth process, is a topic of much discussion in many
countries. Institutions such as banks and national governments are convinced that “the
ingredients for human progress, success, and happiness are closely linked to better
significant role in why the wage gap between men and women increases as the employee
ages (Yoder, 1999). This field of study reveled that in the older generations in the United
States, more men than women are recipients o f higher education, whereas, in contrast
younger male/female workers have a similar education level as they enter the workforce.
“In 1993-94, women earned 59% of all associate degrees, 54% of all bachelors degrees,
55% o f all masters degrees, 39% of all Ph. D's, and 41% of all professional degrees”
(United States Department of Education, 19%, p. 253), providing evidence that the
educational gap is beginning to close. The overall educational level of citizens in the
U.S. is on the rise. More than 80% of college students are working outside the home, so it
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
89
is assumed that one or both o f these dual-career spouses attended college (Sherman,
taking place in the U.S workforce. One of these demographic variables is education
level. Workforce 2000 reports that college graduates will fill nearly one-third o f the jobs
created in the year 2000, because more than half of the jobs created will require education
beyond a high school diploma level. Deshpande (1997) suggests that in the U.S.
workforce the employers, as well as employees, need to prepare for these demographic
composition changes.
According to Hacker (1995). "Exacerbating the situation today is the fact that
millions of jobs are being filled by legal and illegal aliens, largely from Latin America
and Asia" (p. 109-10). Few o f the positions that these individuals undertake require
special skills. In most cases, these workers are acquiescing to working conditions and
wages that most African American or White Americans are unwilling to accept. What
advantage (H. G. Heneman & R. L. Heneman. 1994). Many organizations will reward an
The inability to control can bring about emotions of depression and anxiety in the worker.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
90
causing higher levels of work-related stress (Ross & Mirowsky, 1989; Ross & Van
Willigen, 1997; Turner & Noh, 1983). When difficulties do arise in the workplace, the
sense o f control can foster flexibility in coping and effective problem solving
management (Ross & Huber 1985; Ross & Mirowsky, 1989; Turner & Roszell, 1994).
Therefore, the association between education level and anger/stress reveals that as the
moderating variable. His studies indicated that a number of different personal variables
could act as moderators o f the individual’s responses to role stressors. He focused his
research on the length of service in an organization and the level of education as the best
moderating variables, as their affect in moderating job satisfaction and role stress has
previously been demonstrated (Beehr & Newman, 1978; van Bergeijik, 1997;
Parasuraman, 1989; Schuler, 1984; Snell, 1980). Igbaria (1993) concluded that the level
o f education and organizational tenure moderated the relationship of role stressors and
job satisfaction. This moderation was due to the significant interaction effects of
education and role ambiguity on satisfaction with promotion, supervision, and overall job
satisfaction. His study also established that gender did not moderate any o f the
Sternberg (1997) states that formal education, which emphasizes and expands the
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
91
thinking), will positively impact intelligence scores. More and more businesses in
today’s competitive environment are encouraging continuing education. They realize that
the employee's value to the firm is enhanced as the employee continues to develop skills
and abilities that are useful to the business beyond those acquired through formal
The occupation of physician is one that most people will agree requires a high
level of formal education. Revicki and Whitey (1997) performed a study o f 484
emergency medicine residents and the effect o f stress on psychological distress and work
satisfaction. They found that participants experiencing role and task ambiguity, along
with an absence of perceived support in the work setting, were more likely to report
occupational stress. Work-related stress was also associated with increases in symptoms
of depression. Strong and cohesive support peer and work groups were found to decrease
experiencing more symptoms of depression. Once again role ambiguity, and its effect of
Although not specifically tied to the education level of the employee, researchers
research indicates that people higher in the organizational hierarchy do not experience the
same degree o f loss of control over their workplace assignments, or the same increase in
predictability in their work schedules. Many people occupying the higher ranks of larger
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
92
companies tend to be managers, professionals and technical workers, where some level of
higher formal education is usually required for entry. A stance might be taken about the
positive impact that higher education level has on lowering some types of job>related
stress (Christopherson, 1991; Mone, 2000). Mone (2000) suggested that formal
education provided the worker or employee with the necessary tools that enabled him or
her to work more competently on the job, as well as providing a personal level of
(Heneman & Heneman, 1994). At these firms, obtaining a higher level of formal
coupled with personal satisfaction, are two of the major reasons cited for a portion of the
qualified workforce that is well educated as one of the key resources impacting a
socialized to develop different (lower) job-related expectations than his or her more-
educated counterpart. The more formal education a person obtains, the more likely he or
she may expect much higher levels of success (recognition) in a specific occupation,
particularly in the form o f promotions. Higher levels of ambiguity in job tasks and
levels. Thus, the less educated employee requires more supervisor interaction. These
unmet expectations can lead to higher levels of job stress for both the employee and the
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
93
Results of studies by Park, Moore, Turner, and Adler (1997) on the association of
educational level to CT abilities indicate that a “which came first, the chicken or the egg"
relationship exists. One assessment is that good CT abilities, which lead to better coping,
may result in greater perseverance on the pan of the individual, leading them to seek
higher education accomplishments. The other stream of thought on this issue is that
achievements (Scwartz & Zimmerman, 1992). Organizations are being, and will continue
to be, faced with the need to fully utilize female talent to ensure the firm's competitive
edge (Nelson & Burke, 2000). According to Flowers (2000), participation in the labor
force by more educated and more career-oriented women will continue to rise as Baby
Boomers continue to advance in the workplace. A study by Nelson and Burke (2000)
indicates that the percentage of older males participating in the workforce will continue to
many cases, education level has been one o f these variables. It may be one of the primary
independent variables (as is the case in this research project), or it may be a variable
ancillary to the primary theory building (King & Miles, 1994). Education literature
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
studies o f the relationships between education level and various work outcomes have
reported a very diversified set of positive and negative results (Glenn & Weaver. 1982;
Gruenberg, 1980; Jackson & Griggs, 1988; Jurik, Halemba, Musheno, & Boyle, 1987;
Related Stress
In all facets o f life, chronological, intellectual, and emotional age can be viewed
as a plus or minus, dependent on the situation at hand. Nowhere is this more evident than
in the workplace. Age diversity has its own set o f issues (Kennedy. 1998). Many age
groups now in the workplace share only a few workplace values. The employees in the
various age groups differ on major values such as the role that managers should play,
the productivity o f the workforce. Kennedy (1998) states that “Communicating cross-
generational ly means packaging the message in several ways so that every listener
[employee] understands it” (p. 9). This is a skill that managers must acquire to deal
effectively with age diversity and the work-related stress issues it may generate.
When reviewing age and ethnic background, a new term has been coined: the
“Sandwich Generation” (SG) (Remez, 2001). This age segment is a group o f Americans
between the ages o f 45 and 55 with both young children and living parents. Seven percent
o f these Sandwich Generation members have three or more generations living under the
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
95
same roof. Asian Americans make up the largest percentage o f this group (52%). African
Americans, who make up 11% of the SG, are faced with more potentially stressful
situations due to the make up o f their “family” (i.e., fewer married heads o f households,
who include siblings in their definition of family members). Job or career concerns
accounted for 18% o f this group's key day-to-day concerns as possible sources of stress
and conflict
Park, Moore, Turner, and Adler (1997) believe that age may be related to higher
levels o f constructive thinking. This relationship may be due to the average life
expectancy o f people increasing from previous generations. This gives the individual
additional time to learn from his or her experiences and acquire more successful ways o f
Epstein's (1998) studies confirm that constructive thinking improves with age.
This improvement is directly related to the maturing process that people experience as.
over time, they accumulate wisdom and knowledge. One should be aware that this is not
statement that all the factors that would allow one to improve with age are present. Only
the individual can consciously and deliberately take advantage of this opportunity.
constructive thinking ability. If one were to plot the comparison of constructive thinking
abilities to intellectual intelligence over one’s life span, the curved lines would be nearly
opposite. The intersection o f the two measures occurs around age 35, with constructive
thinking abilities improving until age 50 and slightly declining around age 60.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
%
Intellectual intelligence usually reaches its peak in an individual's early twenties. See
Figure 5
130
123
120
c
J IIS
110
10) 9
© e m s s
Epstein (1998) documents that young people can withstand considerable stress,
but that the accumulated effects of stress will begin to show when he or she reaches the
ignore the issue o f health and the benefits o f constructive thinking as a stress reducer” (p.
112).
Siebert (1999) also studies the relationship between the reaction to stressors and
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
97
age. His studies concluded that the type of stress would have a direct relation to whether
younger or older workers are better prepared to deal successfully with the stress. For
example, the change to a new computer system may cause stress in the older employees
and excitement in the younger ones. But put these same two age groups of employees
together and introduce a major crisis, and the older workers will take control and the
According to Anisman and Merali (1999), there are differing opinions on what
impact age has on the ability o f a person to handle or deal with stress. Some o f their
research would support the idea that as a person ages that person loses his or her ability to
quickly assess the source of the stress and deal with it appropriately. The other school of
thought suggests that as a person ages that person acquires more life experiences that
better enable him or her to identify and deal with various stressors.
Why does age matter? In 1988,39% of the nation's workforce was 40 years old
or older (United States Department of Labor, 1990). In 1999, 77% of women between the
ages o f 25-44 worked outside the home, along with 67% between the ages o f 45-64.
These participation levels by women in the workforce have followed an increasing trend
since the 1970's. For men in 1998, the participation percentages in those age brackets are
higher as well; 88% o f all men aged 35-44 and 76% of men aged 45-61 work outside the
homes, according to the United States Census Bureau Statistical Abstract o f the U.S.:
2001. It is predicted that by 2008,52 % of the U.S. workforce will be over 40 (Brandon,
2000). In other words (Keita & Hurrell, Jr., 1996), in the U.S. at least, there is an overall
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
98
stressors.
Kogan (2001) reports that the term generation gap is also applicable in workplace
others are finding it very difficult to meet the needs and mind-sets o f each separate
employees who may range in age from 18 to 80. and motivating such a diverse workforce,
The younger generation is less willing to let their identity be defined by their job.
and is more casual about their work than are their seniors (Aeppel. 2001). "Managers say
it's partly a confidence issue, with many older workers fearful o f struggling to learn
something alongside newer hires," (Aeppel, 2001, p. 1). According to Aeppel (2001).
The findings o f Wooten, Sulzer, and Cornwell (1995) show that age is predictive
of a variety o f career and employment expectations and related stressors. This extends
the work o f Kanfer and Hulin (1985), which theorizes that there is a direct correlation
between depression and losing a job late in adult life. These adults exhibit less
studies together reinforce the hypothesis that "older employees whose jobs have been
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
99
Siu, Spector, Cooper, and Donald (2001) concluded, from their study o f 634 Hong
Kong managers, that age was positively related to well being. In their study, well-being
was defined as job satisfaction and mental well-being. They found that older managers
Burke's (19%) findings support the hypothesis that women who subscribe to the
traditional feminine role stereotype are particularly susceptible to stress and depression in
middle age. This type o f stress or depression is linked to those women who believe that
they lack control over their environment. This results in facing life issues with what is
known as "learned helplessness.” In such cases, the woman believes she is incapable of
doing the things she needs to do to appropriately and successfully deal with life's
stressors.
The United States Bureau of the Census (1992) states that "Of the 13.7 million
widowed workers in the U.S., 11.3 million are women.” Studies by Staats. Partlo.
Armstrong-Stassen, and Plimton (1994) on the stress experiences and quality o f work life
o f the older, working widow reveal that generally the older workers present a positive
image by stating that they experience more daily "uplifts” than daily work hassles (stress
producers). "Uplifts” are defined as events that make the employee feel good, joyful,
glad or satisfied. Staats et al. also state that uplifts are found to be good stress-coping
buffers. "Increasing daily work uplifts is a promising route to the improvement o f job
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
too
A classic view o f age and work can be found in the age-stage career theory
(Lawson, 2000). This relates to an individual's age, or stage of adult development, versus
his or her place on the career/employment continuum. Per this theory, everyone moves
along the time spectrum from “early career” to “mid career” to “early late career” and
finally to “late career” stages, with a “peak career” reached some time just before or after
“mid career.” The flaw of this theory is that it is based on the assumption that all adults
and their respective career phase could be identified based solely on age, and that these
phases must occur for everyone in neat, orderly chunks. As lifestyles (i.e., longevity,
quality o f life, etc.) have evolved, so must this theory if it is to remain relevant.
Chapter Summary
In this literature review, we have seen that various studies have been performed,
and research results described, for each of the independent demographic variables. Some
of these studies have also addressed the link between specific types of gender/age/other
mechanism. For instance, a study conducted in 1999 by Landa (2001), found that the
major contributing factors to CEO stress and declining success levels in Canada are
issues such as lower levels of trust in employers (only 30% had high levels) and lower job
satisfaction (only 40% stated satisfaction). These findings are confirmed in the 2002
Global Employee Relationship Report Bench Mark Study. This study suggests that
employers in North America are not keeping their employees satisfied, in either the
workplace employing them or in their job position in the business. This lack (Landa,
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
101
2001) leads to a higher instance of stress, resulting in job dissatisfaction and finally to
employee underperfonnance.
Epstein (1998) advances the theory that constructive thinking (CT) displays a
pattern relative to age. According to Epstein, the more chronologically mature the
individual is, the more improvement will be seen in his or her coping abilities. This is
directly related to the fact that accumulated wisdom and experience levels usually
improve with age, as does an individual's social, practical, and emotional intelligence.
People over 40 have been found to be slightly better constructive thinkers than younger
adults. This is not always true, however, as the individual may choose to become a
In another study, Tobias (1999) states that one should find nondiscriminatory
methods for determining the best fit for an individual employee within a specific
organization. The end result would be an employee who is consistently working at his or
her best. This should be evident by experiencing either lower levels of negative stressors,
overlooked. While many of the researchers and theorists agree that an argument can be
made for a causal relationship, which factor is the "cause" and which variable is the
"effect" could not be determined without some degree of uncertainty. Since this is an
consistency factor was the "human element.” All o f the literature and studies strove to
explain "how” or "why” humans react the way they do. As this is not a stagnant variable.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
102
it is understandable that the results were mixed for or against a particular position or
statement.
Chapter 3 presents the design and statistical analysis methodology for the current
study, along with a brief history o f the development of the major survey instrument—
Constructive Thinking Inventory. The validity and reliability of the instrument, and some
of its previous applications for testing o f other hypotheses, will be reported. The one-
page demography collection sheet is also discussed. The alternative four hypotheses to be
tested are detailed in Chapter 3, along with their associated null hypotheses. The
numerical equivalents assigned to the demographic variables for scoring and analyzing
This analysis will be performed to accept or reject the null hypotheses resulting
determining which type o f coping strategy employees could use for dealing
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
CHAPTER 3
This chapter examines the methodology and design o f the study. It includes a
description of the design of the study, the research question and associated hypotheses,
the population to be surveyed, and the survey instruments used to gather the data. It also
describes the procedures used for the participant selection and education, survey and
Population
The survey population for this study, drawn from light commercial/industrial
in the United States or Canada. The current study will include only employees who work
full time and are not frontline or indirect support production workers. The sample will
include individuals ranging in age from 18 to 65+ from different genders and different
103
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
104
Sample
employees. In order to determine the appropriate sample size, the suggested formula and
Table for Determining Sample Size from a Given Population, developed by Krejcie and
8 = X2 NP (1 - P) /d 2 (N -1 ) + X 2 P (1 - P)
Where 8 = the required sample size, X 2= the table value for chi-squared for 1 degree of
freedom at the desired confidence level (3.841), N = the population size. P = the
population proportion (assumed to be .50, as this provides the maximum sample size),
and d = the degree o f accuracy expressed as a proportion (.05). Based on the Krejcie and
Morgan's chart, this researcher expects to generate complete and valid data sets from a
minimum o f 196 of the employees. The sample (s = 1%) will represent a population that
includes voluntary participants. Relevant demographic data will be exhibited once the
Two instruments will be used for this study. The Constructive Thinking Inventory
Survey will be used to determine the participant's rating as it relates to his or her
and ways o f coping with stress in the work world. (See Appendix D for survey sample.)
ethnicity, and age. Demographic information will be gathered from the respondents'
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
105
Appendix C for demographic form sample.) The package presented to the participant for
completion will also include a cover letter explaining the time commitment involved, the
mechanics o f completing the survey, and how and where to return the survey (Appendix
B). The survey author. Dr. Seymour Epstein, graciously gave permission for the use of
Measures
The demographic data will be assigned numerical equivalents to ease the input of
Gender
Ethnicity
entry. This involves Question 4 with choices of: Caucasian, Asian Indian, Asian, Native
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
106
Cross-Cultural Impacts
whether or not the country in which the participant was bom is the country in which he or
she now works. A “0” will be assigned if the countries are the same, and a “ F will be
Age Segmentation
youngest to oldest, respectively. The segment choices are: under 21,21 to 32 years old.
Education
The highest educational level achieved by the respondent at the time that the
survey was answered, (Question 5). will each be assigned equivalent, consistent
numerical values o f 1 to 6. One is assigned to some high school grades completed, and
“2” is assigned to high school diploma earned. Three is the numerical equivalent
assigned to some college/technical school courses taken, and **4" correlates to 2-or 4-year
college degree obtained. The number **5” is associated with some post-graduate courses
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
107
stress and workplace diversity in the areas of gender, ethnicity, age. and educational
levels, as measured on the Constructive Thinking Inventory (CTI). The CTI is a measure
mechanism or strategy for helping employees and employers deal effectively with work-
related stressors. These results will be analyzed to shed light on previous findings that
state that the most desired outcome is to identify a good constructive thinker (i.e.. higher
ratings on global constructive thinking, emotional coping, and behavioral coping, and
The Constructive Thinking Inventory Scale consists of 108 questions. This list of
questions can be further divided, or identified, by which o f the six sub-categories it falls
into. Responses on the instrument are indicated via a Liker format that rates the
respondent's perceptions about feelings, beliefs, and behaviors. The participants will be
told before beginning the questionnaire that it contains some "silly” items for the purpose
of verifying where people may have been careless or lost their place. Items are also
Respondents rate the items in the instrument on a five-point scale to indicate the
degree to which they feel about the particular question, with a "1” indicating the item is
definitely false, a "2” indicating if the item is mostly false, a "4” if it is mostly true to a
"5” that indicates the item is definitely true. An answer of "3” is to be used only when
the respondent cannot decide if the item is mainly true or false, i.e., undecided or if the
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
108
statement is equally false and true in the respondent's opinion. The respondents in this
study will also be asked to indicate with an T the appropriate response to a variety of
The current version of the CTI has presented impressive internal consistency
reliability. The Global scale, along with all six o f the subscales, has exhibited internal
reliabilities that exceed the suggested statistical cut-off of 0.70. The Global Constructive
scale has demonstrated internal consistency reliability of 0.89 in adults. Using a large
population of college students, the Global scale exhibited internal consistency reliability
The construct validity of the Constructive Thinking Inventory (CTI) is based upon
several studies, many of which assessed the relation of the CTI scales to other self-report
instruments (Epstein & Meier, 1989). The CTI has been investigated in relation to many
personality scales and other measures of coping ability, such as the Primary Emotions and
Traits (PETS) scale, the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI), the NEO Five Factor
Control scale, the Hardiness scales, and the Life Orientation test (LOT). The pattern of
correlations provided support for the discriminant and convergent validity o f the CTI
scales, particularly the Global Constructive Thinking scale (Epstein, 1993). Epstein and
Meier (1989) assert, “the specific scales o f the CTI produced differential and coherent
relationships that attested to their discriminant and construct validity." Some of these
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
109
comparative studies are outlined in greater depth, with specific analysis data below.
Spirrison and Gordy (1993) have presented findings that support the validity of
the CTI validity scale. Hurley (1989) utilized the CTI when investigating the link
between constructive thinking and elevated rating of self in interpersonal groups. His
findings concluded that constructive thinking and rating one's self above peers—
Hurley (1991) conducted another test on 137 American undergraduates to test the
hypothesis that positive links exist between rational beliefs about personal conduct and
practical intelligence indicators. Using the CTI. Hurley found that rational beliefs were
Hurley (19%) once again used the CTI in conjunction with his study on
constructive thinking and firm disagreement versus neuroticism and mild agreement.
With the statistical results of his study. Hurley supported his hypothesis that individuals
who inclined toward more expressive and firmer responses would tend to be more
assertive, more extraverted, and more intellectually open. He further stated increased
attention to response styles might enhance the value of psychological inventories. Hurley
Atwater (1992) assessed Epstein's CTI and base theory for its ability to improve
the prediction o f performance beyond cognitive ability. Her study found that measures of
practical intelligence from the CTI added significantly to the prediction of academic
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
performance, beyond measures of cognitive ability. Constructive thinking was also found
to correctly account for the unique variances in predicting training performance and
leadership ratings o f her study's participants. The participants in this study, in addition to
completing a shorter version o f the CTI, also completed a 16 Personality Factors Test,
provided current GPA and SAT admission scores, as well as information provided by
According to the analysis performed by Atwater (1992) for her study, the two
is comparable to the Epstein and Meier study (1989) which found r = .45. The
personality traits measured were found to be significantly correlated. They had an r = . 19.
supported Epstein's earlier statements that people who were poor constructive thinkers
were sensitive to many job-related events. In this case, sensitivity is defined as the degree
to which an event is regarded as stressful when it occurs. These administrators were also
positively associated with job satisfaction, and negatively associated with self-reported
symptoms of mental distress and physical illness. Green's summary of his study indicates
that what is experienced as stressful may lie more in the eye of the beholder than in the
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
Ill
CTI was also utilized by Giancola, Shoal, and Mezzich (2001) in their study to
determine how executive functioning, constructive thinking, and antisocial behavior were
related to drug use in 282 teenage females. The female participants with substance use
functioning, and higher antisocial behavior compared with the control scores. It was
further found that antisocial behavior partially mediated the relationship between drug use
study of 551 teenagers with and without substance use disorders. The concurrent validity
and clinical correlates of constructive thinking, defined as experiential coping, was their
area o f examination. Constructive thinking was correlated with depression, anxiety, and
conduct problems. Ammerman et al. states that the CTI measures were able to
distinguish adolescents with and without substance use disorders. This rating was then
explored the extent to which retrospective reports of childhood emotional bonds with
parents, and current adult attachment orientations, predicted the capacity for CT. This
Constructive Thinking (GCT) scale, the Parental Bonding Instruments (PBI) which
contained 50-items, and the Adult Attachment Inventory (AAI). This 13-item survey
Lopez found that when ethnic and gender differences in CT were controlled for.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
112
both parent/child emotional bonds and current adult attachment orientations significantly
predicted constructive thinking scores. He also found that the participants’ adult
attachment orientations were effective in mediating the potential influences o f the early
The analyses to support these findings are Chronbach alpha o f .91 on the GCT.
Care and Protection scales from the PBI reaching Chronbach alphas o f .94 and .87. while
the AAI had Chronbach alphas of .77 and .74. In the Epstein and Meier study (1989), a
Cronbach alpha o f .90 for the GCT scale was reached (Lopez, 19%).
Research Questions
1. Can individual employee demographic variables become the basis for relating
for determining which type of coping strategy employees could use for dealing
with work-induced stress? That is to say, will the results o f the participant's
score(s) on the Global scale, or one o f its six subscales, indicate which coping
approach will be most helpful to the employee when dealing with work-related
stressors?
Working Hypotheses
The following hypotheses, in both the null and alternative form, will be examined.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
113
Hypothesis 1
the results on the six sub-categories or Global scales of the CTI (dependent variables).
the results on the six sub-categories or Global scales of the CTI (dependent variable).
Hypothesis 2
results on the six sub-categories or Global scales of the CTI (dependent variables).
results on the six sub-categories or Global scales of the CTI (dependent variable).
Hypothesis 3
the results on the six sub-categories or Global scales of the CTI (dependent variables).
HA3: The participant's age group (independent variable) has a correlation to the
results on the six sub-categories or Global scales of the CTI (dependent variable).
Hypothesis 4
to the results on the six sub-categories or Global scales o f the CTI (dependent variables).
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
114
to the results on the six sub-categories or Global scales o f the CTI (dependent variable).
Hypothesis 5
HOS: The participant's country of birth and current country of work being the
same (independent variable) has no correlation to the results on the six sub-categories or
being the same (independent variable) has a correlation to the results on the six sub-
Procedure
Data Collection
The data collection phase of this investigation will be conducted in the Winter of
2002/2003. The Constructive Thinking Inventory, along with a cover letter (see Appendix
B), will be delivered to all office locations via mail to the human resource manager of
each division, who will then distribute the instruments according to the parameters set as
The cover letter will give a brief description of the study and clarify to the participant that
all answers given are confidential and that under no circumstance would their identity be
revealed (see Appendix G). The human resource managers will be instructed by the
researcher to present their non-frontline, full-time employees with the survey, and ask
each employee to complete the survey, individually and anonymously. Under no situation
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
115
will the participant be asked to identify him or herself, nor should they indicate their
identity by any means on the survey. The participant should not, under any circumstance,
discuss their responses with their co-workers, in order to avoid potential answer biases.
survey answer selections to score the Constructive Thinking Inventory (CTI) scales. Each
participant will answer 108 questions with a 1 to 5 Likert rating scale. A score of “1"
indicating strongly disagree to a scoring of “5” indicating the participant strongly agrees
with the statement for each o f the questions that will be presented. Additionally, each
respondent will have provided necessary demographic data on their personal demographic
data sheet. The grading guide provided by Dr. Epstein will be referenced to determine
each of the six subscales as well as an overall Constructive Thinking, or Global scale,
score. The main scale, the six subscales, and the associated test questions for each scale
1. The Global scale is a broad bipolar scale that includes items from all of the six
subscales, except the scale for Naive Optimism. By being a bipolar scale, the
Global Constructive Thinking (GCT) scale includes items whose answers are
Reproduced with permission o f the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
116
coping strategies.
Respondents with high GCT scores are, above all else, flexible thinkers.
They are optimistic, able to adjust their thinking to appropriately meet the
situation, good GCT respondents attempt to control, but are also willing to
accept those things that they cannot control. They usually give others the
items from the other scales, it can be defined in terms of those scales. For
thinkers were also found to have low scores on the subscales of categorical,
quick to act after taking the time to plan an appropriate response to the
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
3. The Emotional Coping (EC) subscale contains 25 items that can be further
divided into four subsections. Those subsections are: self acceptance, absence
too is a bipolar scale, but is the one more strongly associated with the Global
scale than any o f the other subscales. Respondents who rate high in emotional
coping abilities are self accepting, able to deal with distressing situations
personally. Documentation from the CTI manual and Epstein's (1989, 1991.
4. The Personal Superstitious Thinking (PST) subscale contains seven items with
high on this subscale tend to view the world in terms of black and white only
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
118
6. The Esoteric Thinking (ET) subscale contains 13 o f the 108 questions. It too
can be further subdivided into two subsections. They are: belief in the unusual
and formal superstitious thinking. This subscale reveals the degree to which
such as ghosts, good and bad omens, etc. While very high scores on this
phenomena is revealed.
7. The Naive Optimism (NaO) subscale contains 15 items, and can be further
scale o f mixed signals. On a positive note, persons who rated high on Naive
Optimism have high spirits and are usually well liked by others. On the
and an unwillingness or failure to face the unpleasant realities o f life and take
appropriate actions.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
119
subscales, along with the questions that are positively or negatively associated with that
scale (subscale), and a scoring for mean, standard deviation and alpha, is included in
Appendix A. Examples o f positively and negatively scored items are also included in the
In addition to the main Global scale and the six subscales defined previously, the
CTI also has three validity scales. The scores from these scales add no substantive
information about the respondents; they are simply included in the CTI as validity checks.
These three scales are: the validity scale, the defensiveness scales, and the lie-free scale.
indicates that the respondent understood the items/questions on the CTI as presented, and
that he or she was not careless in taking the survey. The defensiveness scale, which
final validity check comes from the lie-free scale. This scale is evaluated in conjunction
with the respondent's score on the Global scale. If the T score for the lie-free scale is ten
points below the Global scale, then there is reason to suspect that the participant has tried
to present an excessively favorable picture o f him or herself. On the other side o f the
coin, if the T score for the lie-free scale is ten points or more above the Global scale, most
likely the participant has tried to present an excessively unfavorable view o f him or
herself.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
120
Table 5
Validity Scales
Name o f scale Examples o f positive (P) scored Item Items Mean (M).
and a brief items and negative (N) scored items numbers that numbers that standard
description o f within the scale are scored are scored deviation (SD)
the scale’s positive negative and Alpha (A)
focus within the within the o f the scale
scale scale
Lie-free scale (P) Most people regard me as a 62, 105 24. 34.46. M = 33.27
tolerant and forgiving person. 48,71.77, SD = 4.43
(N) The only person 1 completely 107 A = 0.56
trust is myself.
(T tests) to compare the scores of all respondents on the six subscales of constructive
Based on the suggested methods (Babbie, 1995) o f data analysis that are cognizant
o f the types o f data to be analyzed, the following analysis plan has been tentatively
formulated. A multivariate analysis will be used to take into account the possible
influence o f other factors on the resultant information. The main advantages of this
method are that it can be used when independent variables have not been experimentally
manipulated, and it can process categorical independent variables. It also allows for an
easy understanding of how means change when the controls are introduced. From this
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
121
analysis, this researcher will be able to determine significant relationships, plus factor out
those variables that account for the least amount o f variance in the relationships under
Hypotheses will be tested at the one-tailed 0.05 significance level. The focus of
this study is to empirically test for correlations between levels o f constructive thinking
and its various subcomponents, which have been validated as a predictor of stress-coping
abilities with gender and other demographic workplace diversity issues. Research
questions such as ’‘Does one gender rate statistically higher than the other in terms of
personal superstitious thinking, naive optimism, and/or behavioral coping?" have been
developed into a formal hypothesis format with the related null hypotheses stated. The
instrument results will also be analyzed for possible correlations between education
The analytical portion of the research will involve the scoring o f the participants'
variables such as gender and other non-metric diversity attributes. At this time, variable
and other factor analysis techniques were utilized in the analytical models. Data analysis
and testing will be completed within the parameters of analysis o f variance (ANOVA) or
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
122
made as to whether the research alternative hypothesis or the null hypothesis is supported.
The results from tests, such as Type I error and Type II error, will also be considered
(Brightman & Schneider, 1994). These findings will be further reviewed for T test levels
and other appropriate statistical analysis, with all hypotheses tested at the .05 significance
level.
Epstein and Meier (1989), Spirrison and Gordy (1993), Hurley (1991, 1996),
Atwater (1992), Green (1988), Gioncolaet al. (2001), and Ammerman et al. (2001) have
all used combinations o f the statistical methods outlined above. Each researcher or
research team chose whichever analysis method or combination of methods was most
appropriate for use with the sample data (i.e., all metric variables, what p [significance]
level was desired, etc.) to properly support or disprove his or her of their hypothesis(es).
Limitations
The limitations o f the study can be separated into three parts. Those limitations
are linked to the type o f data collection instrument, in this case two surveys: the
First to be examined are the issues inherent in the use of surveys. According to
Babbie (1995), “like other methods of observation in social scientific research, surveys
have unique strengths and weaknesses” (p. 273). The strengths of the instrument lie in
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
123
administered surveys make large samples feasible. In this study, 400-600 surveys will be
distributed. Standardized questionnaires, such as the CTI, have the added strength of
measurement generality.
questionnaire is that the instrument may result in “fitting of a round peg into a square
hole” (p. 273). This can occur because questions often represent that the least common
Bias can exist if the sample selected from the possible population is not random
(i.e., a convenience sample). This is the case of this researcher’s sample selection. The
potential bias or skewing o f data, as a result o f the convenience sample selection or the
sample size itself in relation to the population size, must be accounted for in the selected
analysis methodologies.
participants, in relation to the company that employs them, may also create some
unintended biases. For instance, are the target companies experiencing major lay-offs or
adding employees? This will have an effect on the overall state-of-mind that the
respondent (employee) will have when assimilating the questions and deciding on a
Once the data analysis has been performed on the respondents' surveys selections,
the actual impact of the various types of potential study limitations will be statistically
Chapter 4, with regard to their relationship to the accept/reject decision o f the various
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
124
hypotheses.
In Chapter 3, a research model and its related five hypotheses were developed.
These research hypotheses were derived from the in-depth literature reviewed in
A research design and methodology were also presented to examine the working
hypotheses. Additionally, the data collection procedures, data analysis strategy, and
Chapter 4 will present the results o f the empirical analysis performed in this
research study. A presentation of the descriptive statistics gathered from the demographic
Secondly, the results o f the empirical statistical analysis of the data collected from the
two survey instruments will be discussed, along with the findings that support or dismiss
the working null hypotheses. Further discussion on the type of data analysis used on the
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
CHAPTER 4
In Chapter 1 the reasons for further testing of the causes, costs and consequences
associated with workplace stress were presented. Research questions were developed to
focus this mammoth issue to the current study to be undertaken. In Chapter 2 an in-depth
literature review of salient researchers on job stress, constructive thinking theory and
coping strategies was presented, along with these researcher’s findings that were relevant
to workplace stress and stressors. Chapter 3 involved the transformation of these research
questions into five testable hypotheses. The testing methodologies were also presented.
This chapter examines the results of the analysis methodologies used to answer
for determining which coping strategy employees could use for dealing
The statistical findings o f the study, which used demographic variables and the
125
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
126
Constructive Thinking Inventory (CTI) results that were relevant to each o f the tested
hypotheses sets, are also presented. The contents of this chapter also include a
description o f the population/sample utilized, the demographic data collected from the
job stress and workplace diversity issues such as gender, ethnicity, age, and educational
level, as measured on the Constructive Thinking Inventory (CTI). The CTI is a measure
coping mechanism or strategy to help employees and employers deal effectively with
work-related stressors.
The Constructive Thinking Inventory (CTI) Scale consists of 108 questions. This
list o f questions can be further divided or identified into six subcategories. Responses
on the CTI instrument were indicated via a Likert-like format that rates the respondent's
Respondents rated the items in the CTI instrument on a five-point scale that
indicated the degree o f feeling they had about the particular question. An answer o f one
(1) indicated that the item was definitely false, a two (2) indicated that the item was
mostly false, a four (4) that it was mostly true, and a five (S) indicated that the item was
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
127
definitely true. An answer o f three (3) was used only when the respondent could not
decide if the item was mainly true or false (i.e.. undecided), or if the statement was
Sample
initially presented with surveys and completion instructions. This study required that
enough surveys be returned to generate 196 (40%) complete and valid data sets from the
from the Table for Determining Sample Size from a Given Population, developed by
Krejcie and Morgan (1970). (See Chapter 3 — Sample section for more detail on sample
size selection.) Eleven o f the returned surveys were not fully completed, so they were
discarded from the analysis database. Two o f the surveys failed the Validity Scale of the
CTI, so their responses were not included in the final database. Relevant demographic
data are exhibited in a summary table format at the end o f the next section.
Return rates o f other studies utilizing the CTI were not available, as all survey
Sample sizes in the studies however ranged from 92 public school administrators (Green,
1988) to Hurley’s 1991 study o f 137 American undergraduates, to Lopez's (1996) 145
college undergraduates. Giancola, Shoal and Mezzich (2001) had a group o f 282 female
teenagers for their sample group while Ammerman, et al. (2001) had 551 teenagers in
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
128
their study. Epstein stated in 1989 that the CTI survey had multiple testing samples
during its development and application. Epstein (1983) analyzed the result of the CTI for
124 college students during his development phase. Epstein's (1989) final version of the
CTI, upon which the standardized scale scores, validity, reliability and factor analysis
results were derived, was based on the results of 1,500 college students and 158 adult
survey participants.
Demographic Measures
variables for this study. Literature and research reviewed showed that these particular
variables were those that could be found in any sample group of employees. Individually,
the previous research had already indicated a potential link between some of the
demographic items and the type or severity o f work-related stress that a participant might
experience. The demographic data was assigned numerical equivalents when the survey
instruments results were inserted into a consistent data record structure within Statistical
Gender
and a “2” for female. The useable responses came from 132 males and 76 females.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
Ethnicity
For the returned surveys, different ethnicities were each assigned numerical
American,” “Pacific Islander,” and “Hispanic,” respectively. The response results were
American, 1 Pacific Islander, and 7 Hispanic. Due to the low frequencies o f some o f the
the main category o f Caucasian, which was selected by 182 o f the respondents (87.5%).
the statistical analysis performed on this demographic attribute was restated as only two
Cross-cultural Impacts
For Question 3, a zero (0) was assigned if the countries of work and birth were the
same. A one (1) was inputted if the countries o f birth and work were different, which
could then account for potential cross-cultural stressors. The response tabulations
illustrated 186 responses with the same country o f birth and work, and 22 responses
where the country of birth and work were not the same.
Age Segmentation
youngest to oldest, respectively. The segment choices were “under 21,” “21 to 32” years
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
(30
old, “33 to 44” years old, “45 to 55” years old, and the final segment of “over 55” years
old. The results from the useable respondent surveys were 3 responses under 21 years of
age, 23 responses in the 21 to 32 year age segment, 77 responses in the 33 to 44 year age
segment, 72 responses in the 45 to 55 age segment, and 33 responses in the over 55 age
segment.
Education
The highest level of education reached by the respondent, Question S, at the time
that the survey was answered, was assigned equivalent, consistent numerical factors of 1
to 6. “Some high school grades completed” was true for 6 o f the respondents, “High
School diploma earned” was true for 24 of the respondents, “Some college/technical
school courses taken” was true for 50 o f the respondents, “2 or 4 year college degree
obtained” was correct for 86 o f the respondents, “Some post graduate courses taken” was
the choice o f 24 of the respondents, and “Post graduate degree completed” was true for 18
o f the respondents.
results are included in Appendix F. Mean, mode, median, and standard deviation are also
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
131
score the Constructive Thinking Inventory (CTI) Scales. Each participant answered 108
questions with a 1 to 5 Likert-like rating scale. The grading guide provided by Dr. Epstein
participant was assigned a rating on each of the six subscales, as well as an overall
Constructive Thinking, or Global Scale, score. The main scale and the six subscales are
briefly defined.
1. The Global Scale is a broad bipolar scale that includes items from all of
the six subscales, except the scale for Naive Optimism. By being a bipolar
scale, the Global Scale includes items whose answers are indicative of both
bipolar scale. The 14 questions can be further divided into three subsections.
They are: (a) positive thinking, (b) action orientation, and (c)
divided into four subsections. Those subsections are: (a) self acceptance, (b)
emotional dwelling. This too is a bipolar scale, and is the one more strongly
associated with the Global Scale than any o f the other subscales.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
respondents endorse private superstitions.
who score high on this subscale tend to view the world in terms of black and
further subdivided into two subsections. They are: (a) belief in the unusual,
and (b) formal superstitious thinking. This subscale reveals the degree to
divided into three subsections. The subsections are: (a) positive over
optimistic.
Initial scoring o f the responses revealed variances between the scales' means and
standard deviations from the descriptive statistics in the Scoring Guide for the CTI
(Epstein, 1993) populations, versus the collected research overall sample data descriptive
statistics. Summaries o f these scores and variances are presented in the following table to
provide the reader with an understanding of how varied or closely approximated the scale
scores were between the standardized scores and the current research sample scores.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
133
Table 6
Descriptive Statistics — Variance o f Means and Standard D eviations between the CTI
Scoring Guide (N = 158 Adults) and the Current Study Sample (s = 208 A dults>
Global
Behavioral
Emotional
Personal
supersti
tious
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
134
Table 6
Categorical
Esoteric
Naive
optimism
Defensive
Lie-free
Based on the suggested methods (Babbie, 1995) o f data analysis, this study used
one-way ANOVA and t-tests on the various independent and dependent variables of the
hypotheses. From this analysis, this data was used to determine significant relationships,
as well as to factor out those variables that accounted for the least amount o f variance in
the relationships under investigation. Hypotheses were tested at the .05% (one-tailed)
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
135
significance level. The possibility of a Type I or Type II error occurring, as a result of the
interpretation o f the data, was also considered when analyzing the statistical results of
each hypothesis se t
results of the analysis would attempt to identify those factors (i.e., underlying variables)
that explain the pattern o f correlations within the set o f observed variables. This analysis
was not performed on the current 108-item responses, as Epstein (1989) had already
performed a factor analysis with varimax rotation of the items comprising 18 a priori
oblique factor analysis was also performed by Epstein (1989) that mirrored the results of
his orthogonal factor analysis. Six interpretable factors emerged with loadings of greater
than .30. Additional factor analysis was performed on the data sets from the 1.500
college students and 158 adult participants. The results from this factor analysis are the
basis o f the current CTI 108-item composition and standardized scoring results. The
item-stmcture o f the Global CTI scale, and all but the Naive Optimism subscale, were
reproduced in this factor analysis. The table below presents the results o f Epstein's 1989
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
136
Table 7
Emotional coping
Self acceptance 85
Absence o f negative
80
overgeneralization
Non-sensitivity 79
Absence o f dwelling 77
Behavioral coping
Positive thinking 67
Action orientation 41 81
Conscientiousness 87
Categorical thinking
Polarized thinking 80
Distrust 71
Intolerance 59
Esoteric thinking
Formal superstitious 89
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
137
Table 7
Thinking
Naive Optimism
Over-optimism 85
Stereotypical thinking 66
Pollyanna-ish thinking 65
From: Manual for the Constructive Thinking Inventory by Epstein, 1993. Copyrighted
by: University of Massachusetts Press; Amherst, Massachusetts.
Tests o f the reliability o f the current research sample scale's results were also
performed. Reliability analysis defines the relationship between the measurement scales
and the items that they are comprised of. By testing the Alpha (Cronbach) model of
reliability statistics, internal consistency based on the average inter-item correlation can
be calculated. The standardized results of the reliability scores o f each of the scales (N =
158) is compared with the reliability statistics o f the current research study (s = 208) in
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
138
Table 8
Reliabilities o f the Standardized Internal Consistencies o f the CT1 Scales Versus Internal
(alpha) reliability (E - C = V)
Personal superstitious
0.73 -0.34 1.07
thinking scale
* “Because increasing the number o f items, even with the same degree o f intercorrelation,
will increase the reliability values, researchers must place more stringent requirements for
scales with large number of items” (Hair, Anderson, Tatham & Black, 1998). In this
instance, measurement of the reliability o f the personal superstitious thinking scale, the
opposite is true. It is the smallest of the six subscales, with no further subdivision, which
measures the respondents' belief in superstitions and/or the supernatural. While this is a
recoded subscale of the Global Thinking scale, it is more a point of interest about the
subjects than a suggestive outcome o f a coping strategy, as was the intent o f this study.
To answer the research questions, the following hypotheses, in both null and
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
139
Hypothesis 1
the results on the six subcategories or Global scales o f the CTI (dependent variables).
the results on the six subcategories or Global scales of the CTI (dependent variables).
Asian 5 2.4%
Hispanic 7 3.3%
After an adjustment of the data from seven different response possibilities to two
(i.e., White or Other), an Independent Samples Test (including mean, standard deviation,
standard error mean, and Levene's Test for Equality of Variances) was performed, as well
as a t-test which gave t values, degrees o f freedom (df), significance (two-tailed = < . 1),
mean difference, and standard error (SE). The review of Levene’s Test for this
hypothesis stated that equal variances were assumed, except for the Categorical Subscale
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
140
that had a significance o f .001. The two-tailed t-test for equality o f means, with a
significance level o f p > .OS, found that the null hypothesis (i.e., there is a significant
relationship between ethnicity and the Global CTI scale or any o f its six subscales) would
be accepted for the Global scale (t = -1.89 and p = .06), the Emotional Coping subscale (t
= -1.312 and p = .191), the Personal Superstition subscale (t = 0.18 and p = .857),
Catergorial subscale (t = -0.926 and p=.362), the Esoteric subscale (t = -1.936 and p =
.054) and the Naive optimism subscale (t = 0.706 and p=.481). The t-test levels and
respective p scores would cause one to reject the null hypothesis on the Behavioral
Coping subscale.
Behavioral
Emotional
Personal supersti
subscale
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
141
Naive optimism
Hypothesis 2
results on the six subcategories or Global scales o f the CTI (dependent variables).
results on the six subcategories or Global scales o f the CTI (dependent variables).
mean, and Levene's Test for Equality o f Variances) was performed, as well as a t-test
which gave t values, degrees o f freedom (df), significance (two-tailed), mean difference,
standard error (SE) difference, and upper and lower level for 95% confidence interval of
the SE difference. The review of Levene's Test for this hypothesis stated that equal
variances were assumed, except for the Esoteric Subscale (sig. = .081) and the Naive
Optimism Subscale, which had a significance o f .098. The one-tailed t-test for equality of
means (with a significance level of p > .05) found that the null hypothesis (i.e., there is a
significant relationship between a participant's gender and the Global CTI Scale or any of
its six subscales) would be accepted for the Behavioral Coping subscale (t = -2.42 and p
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
142
= .016), the Personal Superstition subscale (t = -0.866 and p=.388) subscale (t = -4.156
and p = .000), the Categorical subscale (t = -0.239 and p=.811) and the Naive optimism
subscale (t - -1.184 and p = .238). The t-test levels and respective p scores would cause
one to reject the null hypothesis for the Global Scale and the Emotional Coping and
Esoteric subscales.
Behavioral
Emotional
Personal
superstition
Categorical
Naive optimism
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
143
Hypothesis 3
the results on the six subcategories or Global scales of the CTI (dependent variables).
HA3: The participant's age group (independent variable) has a correlation to the
results on the six subcategories or Global scales o f the CTI (dependent variables).
208 3 23 75 74 33
One-way ANOVA testing, which produces a Sum of Squares, df. Mean Square. F.
and Significance levels, was used to test for accept/reject of null hypothesis 3.
(two-tailed) results, were also analyzed. The F scores and significance levels o f p >.05
for the two-tailed test of the null hypothesis, (i.e., there is a significant relationship
between the respondent’s age and the Global CTI Scale or any o f the six subscales) would
cause this researcher to accept the null for the Behavioral Coping Subscale (F = 1.649 and
p = .163), the Emotional Coping Subscale (F = 1.256 and p = .289), the Personal
superstition scale (F = 1.039 and p=.388), the Esoteric Subscale (F = 2.364 and p = .054)
and the Naive optimism subscale (F-1.966 and p=.101). The other relationships between
age and the Global Scale and Categorical subscale did not have a p > .05. Therefore, the
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
144
Behavioral
Emotional
Personal Supersti
Categorical
Naive optimism
Hypothesis 4
to the results on the six subcategories or Global scales o f the CTI (dependent variables).
to the results on the six subcategories or Global scales o f the CTI (dependent variables).
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
145
One-way ANOVA testing, which produces a Sum of Squares, df, Mean Square, F,
and Significance levels, was used to test for accept/reject o f null hypothesis 4.
(two-tailed) results, were also analyzed. The F scores and significance levels of p >.05
for the one-tailed test o f the null hypothesis (i.e., there is a significant relationship
between the respondent's educational level and the Global CTI Scale or any of the six
subscales) would cause this researcher to accept the null for the Global Scale (F= 1.616
and p=.157), Behavioral Coping subscale (F= 1.23 and p=.297), Emotional Coping
subscale (F= 1.096 and p = .364), Categorical subscale (F = 1.642 and p = .. 155) and the
Naive Optimism subscale (F = 0.465 and p = .805). Other relationship between age and
the subscales o f personal superstition and esoteric did not have significant two-tailed
values o f p > .10. Therefore, the null hypothesis would be rejected for theses subscales.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
146
Behavioral
Emotional
Personal supersti
Categorical
Naive optimism
Hypothesis 5
H05: The participant's country of birth and current country of work being the
same (independent variable) has no correlation to the results on the six subcategories or
being the same (independent variable) has a correlation to the results on the six
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
147
No equality 22 10.6
mean, and Levene's Test for Equality of Variances) was performed, as well as a t-test that
standard error (SE) difference and upper and lower level for 95% confidence interval of
the SE difference. The review o f Levene's Test for this hypothesis stated that equal
variances were assumed for the Global Scaie and all subscales. The two-tailed t-test for
equality of means (with a significance level of p > . 1) found that the null hypothesis (i.e.,
there is a significant relationship when the participant's country of birth and work are the
same and the Global CTI Scale or any of its six subscales) would fail to be rejected for
the Global Scale (t = -.2432 and p = .808) and all the subscales, as p levels were greater
impact
work country) Coping subscale t = -0.646 p = .519 df= 206 Fail to Reject
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
148
Emotional
Personal supersti
Categorical
Naive optimism
significant correlations between the independent variables of age and education and the
dependent variables o f the Global CTI Scale and its six subscales. Correlations were
found to be significant between the independent variable of age and the dependent
variables of Global CTI Scale (p = .004), the emotional subscale (p = .034), the
categorical subscale (p = .002), and the esoteric subscale (p = .021). All other age-to-
variable o f educational level and the dependent variables of Global CTI Scale (p = .032),
the personal superstitions subscale (p = .004), and the esoteric subscale (p = .018). All
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
Table 9
Behavioral
Emotional
Personal supersti
Categorical
Naive optimism
Behavioral
Emotional
Personal supersti
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
ISO
Table 9
Categorical
Naive optimism
Behavioral
Emotional
Personal supersti
Categorical
Naive optimism
Behavioral
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
ISI
Tabic 9
Emotional
Personal supersti
Categorical
Naive optimism
5-Cross-culturaI
Emotional
Personal supersti
Categorical
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
152
Table 9
Naive optimism
C h a p te r Sum m ary
and correlations) were used to analysis the applicable hypotheses. The research
questions’ answers were also discussed in light of the findings of the hypotheses sets that
responses (i.e., the breakdown of demographic attributes) was shown at a summary level.
Additionally, the results o f the empirical statistical analysis o f the data collected from the
two survey instruments were discussed, along with the findings that supported or
dismissed the null hypotheses. See Table 9 above for a summary of the accept/reject
hypotheses results.
Chapter 5 will present a summary of the study, along with various conclusions
drawn from the literature review and hypothesis data analysis results. Recommendations,
including suggestions for future study and/or possible expansions to the current research
management or others in the work place) from the conclusions drawn from the accepted
hypothesis will also be detailed. The chapter will end with a summary of the value o f this
research to the current body o f knowledge on job stress and its implications for further.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
153
future use.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
CHAPTER 5
This chapter examines the implications for academia as well as the management
practitioner o f the analytical findings o f the study. Each hypothesis's results will be
needed for employees dealing with job stress. The contents o f the chapter include a
Overview
constructive thinking coping strategies to minimize stress in the workplace. The study's
4% questionnaires dispersed across three countries and six firms. The survey
gender, ethnicity, level o f education and whether the respondent was dealing with cross-
cultural issues from working in a country different from the land o f their birth.
154
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
155
items on the Constructive Thinking Inventory (CTI) survey. The demographic factors
were ethnicity, gender, age, educational level, and cross-cultural impact The main scale
and the six subscales o f Constructive Thinking (CT), a coping strategy, as measured by
1. The Global Scale is a broad bipolar scale that included items from all o f the six
subscales except the scale for Naive Optimism. The Global Constructive
2. The 14 question Behavioral Coping Subscale is also a bipolar scale. The items
are further divided into three subsections: (a) positive thinking, (b) action
orientation and (c) conscientiousness. Respondents with high scores on this scale
3. The 25-item Emotional Coping Subscale is further divided into four subsections:
and (d) absence of emotional dwelling. This scale is the one more strongly
associated with the Global Scale then any of the other subscales.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
5. The 16 item Categorical T h in k in g Subscale is further subdivided intn three
subsections: (a) polarized thinking, (b) distrust of others, and (c) intolerance.
Respondents who score high on this subscale tend to view the world in terms o f
subsections: (a) belief in the unusual and (b) formal superstitious thinking. This
subscale reveals the degree to which the respondent believes in the unusual and
7 The 15 item Naive Optimism Subscale is further divided into three subsections:
(a) positive over optimism, (b) stereotypical thinking, and (c) Pollyanna-ish
thinking. This subscale indicates the degree to which the respondents may be
unrealistically optimistic.
1. Can individual employee demographic variables become the basis for relating
determining which type o f coping strategy employees could use for dealing
The analysis o f the five pertinent hypotheses resulted in the following conclusions that
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
157
Hypothesis One
The participant’s ethnic group has a correlation to the rating on the six
subcategories or Global scales of the CTI. The analysis proved that this null hypothesis
would be accepted for the Emotional Coping (EC) subscale, Personal superstition
thinking (PST) subscale. Categorical (CaT) subscale and the Naive Optimism (NO)
subscale.
For management, these findings would indicate that issues of ethnicity would
need to be dealt with in the everyday workplace in order to minimize work-related stress.
The individual's ethnic group membership will have an impact on the employee's ability
to embrace an overall coping strategy o f constructive thinking style. Ethnicity will also
play a role in the ability of the employee to meet his/her duties with self-acceptance, an
mixture of ethnic backgrounds will also lead to a high level of endorsement o f private
superstitions and a tendency to view problems in terms of black and white only.
Employers need to be cognizant that the employees' personal belief systems may cause
the employees to deal with potential job stressors in an unrealistically optimistic manner.
thinking had been that the varied cultural acceptance or expectations of behavior in the
workplace would be unequal. This would cause the employing firm to make some
This was based on the portion of the literature review from studies of ethnic differences
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
158
and how ethnicity impacted a person's personal frame o f reference in working and coping
The lack o f relationship between ethnicity and the other CTI subscales (i.e..
Global scale, behavioral coping, and esoteric subscales) may be caused by many
circumstances. Most o f the restatement o f data that would be required to deny or confirm
outlined in the limitations and further/future research section of this chapter. These
would include substitutions such as a larger sample/ higher response rate, a sample from a
set o f participants. Although this would normally be seen as creating a bias in the study,
since the ethnic diversity is the issue under scrutiny, then this type o f diversity must exist
Hypothesis Two
The participant's gender has a correlation to the results on the six subcategories or
Global scales o f the CTI. The statistical analysis confirmed that the null hypothesis
would be accepted for the Behavioral coping (BC), Personal Superstitious thinking
For management this would indicate that an employee's gender does have an
effect on how well he/she proactively, conscientiously and with a positive mindset copes
with job stressors. This positive attitude may even reach unrealistic optimistic levels.
Once again, the gender groups will hold different levels o f private endorsement of
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
159
superstitions as well as a tendency to see stressors and stress in terms o f black and white.
Based on the literature review, the original expectation of the relationship between
gender and CT, was that there would exist a difference in the ratings o f male versus
female on the scales. A plethora of literature exists on studies that outline major
differences in how men versus women approach everything from parenting skills, to job
role expectations, to time management and managerial styles. Epstein's studies did not
note any such relationships or differences due to the sex of the respondent ( 1983; 1986;
1993).
The lack of relationship between gender and the other CTI subscales (i.e.. Global
Scale, Emotional Coping (EC) and Esoteric subscales) may be caused by many reasons.
Most o f the alterations that would be necessary to compute these statistically dependent
the limitations and further/future research section o f this chapter. These revisions to the
database might include a larger sample size or securing a higher response rate than the
current study (40%). Obtaining a sample from a different population (i.e., retail
merchandisers) might also alter the outcomes. Although a bias would occur in any study
if the participants' answers were screened to guarantee a 50%male versus 50% female
sample database, different results (more relationships between gender and subscales)
might be achieved.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
160
Hypothesis Three
The participant's age group has a correlation to the results on the six subcategories
and/or the Global scale of the CTI. The analysis of the null hypothesis caused this
researcher to accept a relationship between age and the BC (i.e., positive thinking, action
The original expectation o f the relationship between age and CT had been that as
the respondent moved into the “older” age segments that he/she would score higher on
the Global Scale. This would be due to the increased range of emotions, experiences, and
personal triumphs and failures the respondent had incurred indicatory of having lived
longer and matured. Both the literature review on age and Epstein's CTI studies noted
What does this mean for management? As a worker progresses through the
various stages (age segments) o f life, the manner in which job created stress and stressors
will impact his/her performance with a minimum of stress will change. Management
must, therefore, be aware o f the effect o f an “aging” workforce and adjust its coping
strategies accordingly. If the industry under consideration is one with high employee
turnover (i.e., a cadre of fresh-faced college graduates who stay for only short periods o f
time) management in this case will also have to align its stress management techniques to
the appropriate age bracket. This may mean more hands-on supervision or additional
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
161
The lack o f relationship between age and the other CTI subscales (i.e.. Global
Scale (i.e., constructive thinking abilities), Categorical subscale (i.e. viewing everything
in terms o f black and white - no shades of grey permitted), and Esoteric subscale (i.e.,
high level o f belief in the unusual and scientifically questionable) can have many causes.
Most o f the changes that would be required in the current study to recalculate other
age are outlined in the limitations and further/future research section of this chapter.
These adjustments to the study might include changes such as a larger sample size or
population. A statistically favorable bias might occur, but the study database could be
manipulated if the responses were screened to ensure an even grouping between the
Hypothesis Four
The participant’s education level has a correlation to the results on the six
subcategories or Global scales o f the CTI. The statistical analysis performed on the null
hypothesis caused this researcher to accept the null for the global scale, behavioral
From the literature review it was expected that the higher the education level of
the employee, the higher would be the ratings on the Global scale and supporting
subscales. It was implicitly anticipated the highly educated employee would more likely
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
162
For management, this significant relationship with the Global scale tends to
indicate that stress coping strategies need to be amended for educational level
revised when new job-related stress or stressors are experienced by employees with
higher levels of education that have resulted in promotion to higher positions in the
organization.
The lack of relationship between the independent variable o f educational level and
the other CTI subscales (i.e.. Personal Superstitious Thinking and Esoteric subscale. In
other words, the higher the level of education of the respondent, the less likely he/she is
Most o f the changes that would be required to the current study to search for other
statistically significant relationships between the CTI subscales and the independent
variable of educational level are outlined in the limitations and further/future research
section o f this chapter. These changes might include a larger sample size, or a sample
from a different population, or perhaps securing a higher response rate. Although bias
would occur in the data set, the study database could be manipulated, if the responses
were screened, to secure an even distribution between the various educational levels.
Hypothesis Five
The participant’s country of birth and current country of employment being the
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
163
same has a correlation to the results on the six subcategories or Global scales o f the CTI.
The statistical analysis supported the null hypothesis. It was therefore accepted for the
Global Scale and all the subscales, as significance levels were met in analysis o f the
scales.
For management application this would indicate that cross-cultural issues will
have a significant impact on how an employee deals with job-related stress or what types
o f cultural oriented work stressors will cause the employee to feel stressed.
The original expectation o f the relationship had been exactly that which was
analytically confirmed by the literature review. In many of the studies on cross- cultural
issues (e.g., being bom in one country and working in another) situational stress was
found to be the norm. Not understanding all the nuances o f the language o f the country of
work, not having the same cultural memories that come from being steeped in that
country’s traditions and expectations since birth were all potential job-related stressors.
Additional untested facets may have caused the relationship between the cross-
cultural impact and the CTI subscales to test to such a strong significance level. Some of
the changes that would be required to retest this database to reconfirm the links between
the Global Scale and/or six subscales and the cross-cultural impact variable are outlined
correlations between the independent variables o f age and education and the dependent
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
164
variables o f the Global CTI Scale and its six subscales. Correlations were found to be
significant between the variable o f age and four of the scales. They are the Global CTI
This correlation replicates the finding of Hypothesis Three with the addition o f the
relationship o f the Emotional subscale. The Emotional subscale most closely resembles
Correlations were found to be significant between the variable o f educational level and
the Global CTI Scale, Personal Superstitions subscale, and Esoteric subscale. These
findings imitate Hypothesis Four along with the addition of the correlation of education to
For management, this test result would tend to support the proposition that
educational level will have an impact on how well the employee is able to proactively
deal with work-related stress. The higher the educational experience the more quickly an
this is proactive from the employee, employers will not need to expend as much effort on
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
165
Current Study
alluded to for each of the hypothesis, explorations possible from this current research
study might also include surveying a more ethnically diverse sample. The overwhelming
number o f “Caucasian” respondents, against the reclassified category of “Other” (i.e., 182
versus 26 respondents with different ethnic classifications) may have biased the results
with regard to how various ethnic groups respond to job-related stress and stress
management techniques. Taking the sample from a different population (i.e., service
industry workers, etc.) might results in differing conclusions. A higher response rate than
the 40% achieved in this study could potentially result in different statistically significant
relationships. Revising the study to look at the relationship between each independent
demographic variable and specific CT subscales might further focus the use of
Due to multiple social and economic reasons previously presented further research
on job stress is needed. Future studies should include the manifestation of the physical
effects o f stress and stressors as well as the emotional or psychology impact o f work-
related or job-created stress on employees. This research could follow two different
streams o f emphasis (i.e., the physical implications of stress versus the psychological
issues). The inference being that potential stress reduction solutions would differ if the
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
166
Psychological and/or emotional impacts o f job related stress require further study
in many areas. Developing behavioral coping strategies that can be incorporated into
managements’ culture would be one relevant area. This assumes a level o f priority as
The study and development of proactive stress coping strategies for various
industries and varied populations could do much to lessen the financial burden that the
Further study specifically aimed at the female worker and the family/job stressors
she must constantly juggle is also needed. This could prove to be very helpful as more of
the work force in academia as well as industry is coming from the female sector.
the workplace. The conclusions reached supported the research questions to some degree
(i.e., some relationships between the demographic variable and the global scale or
subscale were found). The individual employee demographic variables were found to be
the hypothesized relationships. The only demographic found to have a total (i.e.,
hypothesis was the cross-cultural impact (i.e., being bom in a country different than the
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
167
one currently working in). It was also shown that Constructive Thinking (CT) theory can
employ once the relationship between the demographic variable and the specific CTI
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
168
APPENDIX A
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
169
Name o f Scale and a Examples o f Positive (P) Item numbers Items Mean (M),
brief description o f die scored items and Negative that are scored numbers that Standard
Scale’s focus (N) scored hems with in positive within are scored Deviation
the scale the Scale. negative (S.D.) and
within the Alpha (A) o f
Scale the Scale
GLOBAL SCALE - (p) 1don’t let little things 9, 14, 16,29, 3.8. 18.21. M = 98.51
Overall measure o f bother me. 4 1,45,47,51, 26, 30,32, S.D. = 15.84
Constructive Thinking. (n) 1 take failure very 60,79,85.91. 36. 54,70. A = .90
Problem-oriented rather hard. 92,98 78,81,89.
than judgmental. 103. 104
Flexible thinkers. Self-
confident Handle
negatives with minimum
of stress. (Epstein, 1998,
.E J 5 ) . _ _
BEHAVIORAL (p) 1 try to make and all- 9, 16,37,41. 3, 30,34, 70 M = 52.29
COPING out effort in most things 1 45,47,51,82, S.D. = 7.31
Thinking in ways to do. (n) 1 avoid challenges 102, 105 A = 0.82
promote effective because it hurts too much
positive action (Epstein, when 1 fail.
1998, p. 43)
BC - Positive Thinking (p) 1 believe it is best, in 9,41.47,51 N/A M = 15.23
most situations, to S.D. = 2.74
emphasize the positive A = 0.76
side o f things.
BC - Action Orientation (p) 1 look at challenges 16,45. 102 3, 30, 34, 70 M = 25.74
not as something to fear, S.D. =4.47
but as an opportunity to A = 0.75
test myself and lcam.(n) It
is so distressing for me to
try hard and fail, that 1
rarely make an all-out
effort to do my best
BC - Conscientiousness (p) When 1 realize 1 have 37, 82, 102, N/A M = 15.25
made a mistake. 1 usually 105 S.D. =2.28
take immediate action to A = 0.57
correct it
EMOTIONAL COPING (p) 1 like to succeed, but 14, 29, 49,60, 18,21,25, M = 78.34
Ability to deal don’t take failure as a 68,79, 85,91, 31,32.36, S.D. = 16.47
effectively with the inner tragedy, (n) 1 am very 92 38,44, 54, A =92
world o f feeling and the sensitive to being made 57,63,65,
outer world o f event fun of. 73, 78, 83,
(Epstein, 1998, p. 42) 108
EC - Self Acceptance (p) 1 am tolerant o f 60,68, 79,92 18,54,57 M= 23.8
mistakes as 1 feel they ate S.D.=5.09
a necessary part o f A =80
learning, (n) 1take failure
very hard.
EC - Absence o f (n) When something bad 31,38,68, M= 14.13
negative happens to me, 1 feel like 83 S.D.= 3.17
Overgeneralization a total failure and that 1 A= .74
won’t go far in life.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
170
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
APPENDIX B
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
172
Winter 2002/2003
Dear Participant,
factors and the various ratings on the Constructive Thinking Inventory scale. It will be
used to evaluate the impact of gender, country of birth and work, age and education level
twenty to thirty minutes of your time to complete. This survey was written and designed
by Dr. Seymour Epstein, who has graciously given permission to me to use this in
The information you provide will be kept completely confidential and will never
be associated with your name. To ensure confidentiality o f your answers, please do not
write your name on the questionnaire. You may decline to answer questions that do not
seem reasonable to you, but the validity o f the findings will be greatly enhanced if all the
Thank you very much for your interest and time in helping make this study
possible.
Respectfully,
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
APPENDIX C
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
174
Please complete the attached survey and return in the self-addressed stamped
envelope at your earliest convenience. Please do not write your name or any extra
Please check the appropriate boxes in each section with information accurate as of
(5) Highest EDUCATION LEVEL obtained to date:_____ Some high school grades
school courses taken o r _______ 2- or 4-year college degree obtained or________ Some
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
APPENDIX D
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
t*A~C+ «
CTI
Haaae write your — l directly on the qursrioaaairi Record afl n ^pam ia
the space provided to the left of the concapoadmgquestioa.
Use the scale below to rme the Endowing aatmwnti ^ o ut fadings. britoft. mi
behaviors Scon ~riflhe«alam eal is definitely false. "7* ifil is omady false, V if it is
mostly true, sad “5" if it is definitely true Use '*3“ only if you cannot decade if tin m u is
■Italy n w or Mm.
Tna
This qucsrionwaire contains some “silly" item, such as “I never «iw anyone with
Mue eyes." The purpose ofthese item it to check whether people have been cardess or
Ion their p fitt FIm m m w v th n t fetus comedy. TV ywtw fw iiiff fito
itetns to check whether people hive made themselves look too good (or bad) If you
idoct the beat (or worse) men u , instead of answering honestly. your ta t will be found
invalid. Do aot hiss o«er aay one item, u no single ictm is veiy important Pteise simply
respond honestly and rapidly
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
177
* > a 4 S
a rM td f aw *i K a i ir ta tly MMWIl
N la Wa fataa mm Tna
a . I bo H a v a s c a t p ao p la hava th a a b i l i t y t o ra a d o th a r p a o p la 's th o u g h ts .
6. I f I do v a ry w a ll on a t a s t , I r a a l l z e 1 t i s o n ly a s ln g la t a s t , an d I t doosn’t
aa k a a a f a a l g a n a r a lly c o a p a ta n t.
8 . I ta n d t o c l a s s i f y paopla a s a l t h a r f o r a a o r a g a in s t aa .
g. wnan d o in g u n p la a s a n t c h o ra s, 1 aak a t h a b a s t o f i t by th in k in g p la a s a n t o r
I n t a r a s t l n g th o u g h ts .
14. I don’t l a t H t t l a th in g s b o th a r a a .
IS. A stro lo g y w i l l n av a r a x p la ln a n y th in g .
17. 1 th in k a v a ry o n a sh o u ld lo v a t h a l r p a r o n ts .
19. What o th e r s t h in k o f a a b o th e rs a a n o t t h a l e a s t .
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
178
• s a 4 S
m a n a i ar
( • a lly Oertanalr
raise <m m r a M mm
Tna
•w Trwa
25. I a a very s e n s i t i v e t o r e j e c t i o n .
33. 1 n e v e r le a rn e d t o r e a d .
35. 1 b e lie v e t h a t a o s t p e o p le a r e o n ly I n te r e s te d In th e a s e lv e s .
40. I b e lie v e in t r u s t i n g my f i r s t ia p r e s s io n s .
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
179
1 Z s 4 s
MMSCtesW ar
OaflMMIy lam lly WHSly m n M ttii
Falsa "Talas Falas ana Trwa
True
— 44. Ny a in d o f te n d r i f t s t o u n p le a s a n t e v e n ts f r o a th e p a s t.
46. T here a r e two p o s s i b le answ ers t o e v e ry q u e s tio n , a r i g h t one and a wrong one.
47. I b e l ie v e i t i s b e s t , in a o s t s i t u a t i o n s , t o ea p h as lze th e p o s i t i v e s id e o f
t h in g s .
53. I b e l ie v e 1n g h o s ts .
54. I f e e l l i k e a t o t a l f a i l u r e i f I d o n 't ac h ie v e th a g o a ls X s e t f o r a y s e l f .
57. u n le s s I do a p e r f a c t jo b , I f e e l l i k e e f a i l u r e .
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
180
1 a a « s
e s . 1 ta n d t o ta k a th in g s p a r s o n a lly .
_ _ 6 6 . I hava a t la a s t ona 900 a - lu c k charm.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
181
I < a 4 s
■ M l a a ar
a fM ttli la m iir S aflnttely
raia a 'ra ia a raia a awe ^frwB,r Trua
Trwa
85. I ta n d t o d w e ll a o r a on p le a s a n t th a n u n p le a s a n t i n c i d e n t s f r o a th e p a s t.
8 9 . I g a t s o d i s t r e s s e d when I n o tic e t h a t 1 a a d o in g p o o r ly 1n s o a a th in g t h a t I t
m akes a e do w o rse.
90. I t r y t o a c c e p t p eo p le a s th a y a r a w ith o u t ju d g in g th em .
92. I f 1 do v a ry p o o r ly on a t a s t , I r e a l i z e i t i s o n ly a s i n g l e t e s t , and i t
d o e s n 't make a a f e e l g e n e r a lly in c o a p e ta n t .
9 4 . I b e l i e v e t h e r e a r a p eo p le who can s e e I n t o th e f u t u r e .
96. I f i n d 1 t h a r d t o changa ay a in d o n ce X h av a a a d a a d e c i s i o n .
9 7 . 1 d o n o t b e l i e v e in any s u p e r s t i t i o n s .
98. I d o n ’t g a t v a r y d i s t r e s s e d o v e r t h a a l s t a k e s o f o t h e r s , b u t t r y t o d ea l w ith
them 1n a c o n s t r u c t i v e way.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
182
1 s a « S
■WWIWlT ■ s e lb HraVfW lf
h ie 'm e fmtmm w e T ha
1M
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
183
APPENDIX E
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
184
Dear Pamela,
I am delighted to hear about the research you are planning. You appear to have an
If appropriate for your sample, use answer sheets that can be machine scored, as
this will save you much time and will be less error-prone than hand scoring. On the other
hand, if the participants are not used to answer sheets, they may find them distracting and,
if so, it would be better to have them make their responses directly on the questionnaires.
It might be a good idea to try out the answer sheets with a few o f them and get their
about their frequency o f illness missed work days, job satisfaction, etc., obtain whatever
objective information is available or that you can make available, such as recorded
of fetlow-workers.
If saving time or reducing the length of the CTI for other reasons is important,
retaining only the emotional coping, behavioral coping, and categorical thinking scales
and their subscales can make a very useful abbreviated version. When analyzing the data,
Do you have a copy o f the CTI, scoring key, and manual? If not, let me know, and
I will send them to you. Also let me know if you would like reprints of any o f the studies
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
185
I will look into my files to see if I can find other materials that might be helpful to
you. Several years ago, an undergraduate student did an honors thesis under my direction
in which she related the work performance o f nonfaculty staff at the University o f
Massachusetts to CTI scores. If I am able to locate her material, I will send you whatever
In answer to your question, I don't know o f any authority that has done similar
If you have any other questions, please don't hesitate to ask them.
Best wishes,
Sy Epstein
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
186
APPENDIX F
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
N n a . DHMtai VMM
KUUP » sc n sr1 is im a im
QU3ML 20i m ans ia .o n n 14ASH
EMOT 207 nnao i a .n m m m
PEMUP an w ow 2.27M S.1S7
CATNMK an 47.4HM 4M B 210S7
EBOTHMK an a im s s.4ans 41.344
uabC
fWTK an «2W A sm s 47.333
V H H N (M rin) ao7
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
188
R E L X A B X L I T Y A N A L Y S I S - S C A L E (ALPHA)
M of
S ta tis tic * fo r H ean V a ria n c e S t d D ev V a ria b le s
SCALE 1 0 9 .3 8 4 6 1 4 5 .6 5 8 1 1 2 .0 6 8 9 29
N o f C ases - 2 0 8 .0 n o f I te a s - 29
A lp h a - .8 5 6 0
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
189
R E L I A B I L I T Y A N A L Y S I S - S C A L E (ALPHA)
N of
S ta tis tic s fo r N aan V a ria n c e S t d Do t V a ria b le s
SCALE 8 9 .3 2 3 7 1 7 3 .9 2 8 7 1 3 .1 8 8 2 25
N o f C ases - 2 0 7 .0 N o f Ite s u - 25
A lp h a - .8 9 1 0
Reliability
* * * * * * M e th o d 1 ( s p a c e s a v e r ) w ill b e u sed fo r t h i s a n a ly s is
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
190
R E L I A B I L I T Y A N A L Y S I S - S C AL E (ALPHA)
N of
S ta tis tic * fo r M a in V a ria n c e S t d D av V a ria b le s
SCALE 5 4 .4 5 6 7 2 4 .1 2 3 7 4 .9 1 1 6 14
N o f C ases “ 2 0 8 .0 N of Ite a s - 14
A lp h a - .6 8 8 3
M e th o d 1 (sp a c e sa v e r) M ill b e u s e d fo r th is a n a ly s is
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
191
R E L I A B I L I T Y A N A L Y S I S - S C A L E (ALPHA)
N of
S ta tis tic * fo r M an V a ria n c e S t d D ev V a ria b le *
SCALE 1 9 .8 2 6 9 5 .1 9 7 0 2 .2 7 9 7 7
N o f C ases - 2 0 8 .0 n o f I te a s • 7
A lp h a - - .3 4 1 9
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
192
R E L I A B I L I T Y A N A L Y S I S - S C A L E (ALPHA)
N Of
S ta tis tic s fo r Ms a n V a ria n c e std D ev V a ria b le s
SCALE 4 7 .4 9 0 4 2 4 .0 9 C S 4 .9 0 8 8 16
N o f C ases - 2 0 8 .0 N of Ite a s - 16
A lp h a ” .2 5 7 6
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
193
R E L I A B I L I T Y A N A L Y S I S - S C A L E (ALPHA)
N of
S ta tis tic s fo r M san V a ria n c e S t d D ev V a ria b le s
SCALE 2 8 .S 9 1 3 4 1 .3 4 4 3 6 .4 3 0 0 13
N o f C ases - 2 0 8 .0 n o f Ite m s - 13
A lp h a - .6 3 4 0
M e th o d 1 (sp a c e sa v e r) M ill b e u s e d fo r th is a n a ly s is
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
194
R E L I A B I L I T Y A N A L Y S I S - S C AL E (ALPHA)
N of
S ta tis tic * fo r N aan V a ria n c a S t d D ev V a ria b le s
SCALE 4 9 .2 3 5 6 4 7 .8 3 3 1 6 .9 1 6 1 15
N o f C ase* - 2 0 8 .0 n of Ita a s - 15
A lp h a - .7 4 4 9
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
S taE fiar
O il M iili N M an SM-OMteten Maw
O M SC A N O T w w IB ■ t j h h t 1*1*4
OM l as 108.0306 11.Q2S3S 213223
B ih m M C flp in g M i WMl m 972253 5.1S37S 23425
OM l M S0.S3SS 56730 1.14204
Emadenal CaHm% S a te WMl ib ss.7 sar 1233804 .38362
O hara as 323046 1224443 240133
P iio H i StqaraBan wmb IB 14600 3.53073 •63806
S a te om n 23 14.3077 533*37 1.14323
C ite o te i ^ G ii m m IB 37J374 3.04310 .5386
O tte n as 3S.S81S 1243373 243040
EaotaricScala VMM* 16 as.S7*i 3.52534 63104
OHam as 20.3346 3.33388 1.04147
n pv upvm n x v t m m 1B 512747 30.38401 223770 I
O hm as 4S.SS15 8.33740 1.84104 1
Twl
Lauana'aTaatter
Equate of Vtataneoa
P Ota-
om m i scaia ocom
.813 .340
Equal uartantaa
nalaaaumad
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
H talterE i auaafrcTMaana
Maan
t dr Sta. Q 4 M OOkiaiHja
J lb U f a f td c o m e g d t iM i -tan 206 on -4.ion
SSS23** -1.783 31.626 083 -non
BafMwtanf Coping S o li Equal uariancaa
MUMd -2 .54a 206 .012 -2.8132
Equal uariancaa
•2.399 90.017 028 -28132
EmoMoflri CopfciQ S a lt
•Minri -1.312 200 iai •3.6918
Equal varianoaa
-1.3n 34.066 .171 •9.6318
Panonal S is a M o n Equal ariancaa 208
S c* aaaumad in .887 .3132
Equal uariancaa 236 42.312 .612 .3132
C afegarialSala E p ria to M 20*
a m d -1278 206 •23242
Equal w rtan aa
notaaaunad -.820 28.067 .982 •23242
E ao M cS ala Equal uariancaa
aaaumad -1.838 206 .084 -38066
Equal uariancaa
•taoi 31.178 m •3.8066
Naha OpOittim S a l t Equal uariancaa
708 206 .481 4.3132
■ tiw d
Equal uariancaa
nalaaaumad 1.491 112.679 .183 4!3132
R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
MamairEmmfcflfldaana
00% Coaidanea Maamal
SM.Enar afOwNtoanca
Loaar uaaar
1
I
S
!il!
Baftariom Coping Sctfa Equaluartancaa
217440
121884
1.10407
120671
-0.31004
-0.70240
•4.10002
-5272S2
.17716
90282
-.03040
-.38308
Emodontf Coping iem E fi« im 102772
2.70010 •0.00140
2.80004 •0.00000 1.64622
rw w v^vvm i m oH 1.73084 3.74217
-3.11900
Equal wannt—
notaaaunad 1.30020 •2.32041 206270
C g^odnlSM li Equal wrianoaa 1.02340 -8.01030 127001
aaaumad
EqudvrtncM
not aaaumad 2.81034 •7.40803 201747
EaaM eSato Equal wortoneaa 1.01030 -7.07470 .00371
aaaumad
Equal uariancaa 1.04000 .46430
nalaaaumad -7.47920
iw v upsM m o m ebhb w w
0.10043 10.30028
-7.72000
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
SM-Enor
Gandor N Mm SUOoMOon Mn
MM J titt
FM k 7» 103.1878 10.44887 1.18084
W M onlCc|h|SQ rii MM 132 87.4887 8.38006 .48674
M l 76 87.7832 8.33083 21241
EmoaanMCoping SeM MM 132 81-8804 11.08281 1.04033
FMM 76 84.3884 14.00837 120088
Fononal SippPMon MM 132 14.2048 808380 .84372
Solo FMM 7g 182386 4.82308 .08471
CatagoricatScM MM 132 37.8182 • 08084 .78212
FMM m 38.1184 020084 .04812
EaoloricScM MM 132 04.7727 0.14243 .70871
FMM 78 28.0000 0.01288 1.03381
fpfm opdndMi ScPi MM 132 48.8242 7.33038 83803
FMM 78 83.8818 47.10088 8.41308
T«t
levene'aTMfar
riaiaMiiofVdrianeaa
F Sin.
GMPSMSOM EgMMMnCM
M IW l) 012 211
Equal aariancao
notaaaunad
Bofuworal Coping SeM Equilvariancae .670
aaaunad .183
Equal wariancaa
Emotional Coping ScoM Equal voriancoa 292
aaaunad 1.116
Equal uariancM
notaaaunad
Poroonol SuponOOon Equal Mancaa
ScM aaaunad .170 .680
Equal Mioncoo
notooounod
CMporiMScM Equal wrtoncoo .074
aoaunod .001
Equal Mrtancaa
notaaounad
EM M SeM Equ* uariancaa .001
aaaunad 3.078
Equal vorianoao
notaaaunad
NW V^PmTmBmRSKBS E ajdM M H 2.764 .088
Equal uariancaa
notaaaunad
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
M autarEuuahrofM aana
Maui
t dr S n -P U im Manama
q h m 9e m scorn
1 1434 MS .010 3.0007
EquaiwrianeM 2.410 183.808 .017 3.0M7
M w io ral Coping Scrii
-M 1 200 .703 ■2330
i
Equal uariancaa
■244 107.417 .007
ft
E M M c ta k Equal uariancaa
aaaunad -3.408 208 .001 •41273
Equal uariancaa
-3373 143.000 .001 -41273
iw v voonm * IqoP M rtn p n
WMnod -1.104 200 M0 •4.0073
EpOi MhOMM
notonumod -.000 77.0M .388 •4.0073
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
200
SaaptnTnt
____ b t t *
66%CanManea Monal
SH-Enw
OOtaanea Lmar Uaaar
orouMhranea
i
1
S
ill!
1.48620 87134 6.92788
1.44360 saass 856000
Bahavioial Cepftig Scala EqutfMrtancaa Tgqqq -1.81127 1J 2436
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
201
Oneway
UW M
SWWfc dfl dB So.
G to M S cd iS can " ■ m r 4 203 .*21
BewMawiCBWn5oe> .132 4 203 •70
r a n n i u p n |X H 1.003 4 203 378
R m m lS w a w e a n .730 4
s a le 203 .53*
C l g n r tc H H •32 4 203 .447
EaoM ricSctfi .471 4 203 757
N M Q p a n w n iS a ti 3.1*1 4 203 .014
ANOVA
Sun*
T aarae « MoonSauom F Si*.
O to M M o so o n ■ M o o io m p i 1 1#.l*6 4 J* i.* i* 2072 .033
WWdn Group* 21415.713 203 105.4*8
Tow 22543300 207
B d iid n lC o |in |ic d i ■ aW w nG m oa 1*5.473 4 40.35* 1.049 103
M N nO m oi S707.2** 203 2*115
TcW 5*02.7** 207
EmoOona Copk* Soolo M aadnO raupo •75.043 4 210701 1450 490
WMNnQraupo 363*3.0*7 203 174202
ToM 30230111 207
P v io n d StaoWMen BWMonGraupd 2*4.47* 4 71.120 1.03* 3**
Son VMMnOraup* 13*04.132 203 00.444
ToM 14170*11 207
C oagortcaS ald •O M in O m o i •32403 4 233.173 3404 .014
V N N nO m pi 14773425 203 72.775
TcW 1570641* 207
E coW fcicae B a ta a n G ratae *•015* 4 174.040 2.304 .054
VMNn Group* 14042.M* 203 73010
TaW 15*3*.06* 207
iw v am M M w O nw •637.527 4 1034.302 1.900 .101
VMMnGraw* 16*752.*3 203 431.296
TaW 1752*04* 207
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
M—n
OM.nd.rtVy*. my tOAg. <K0 8U.Enw
GMMWrtseoM <21 yn oh 21 -syn au lsH6 Us
33-44yn.au 22465 604966 .000
4S-9Syn.aU -2535 606232 1.000
>56mart -1.8192 6.10372 1.000
21-32yn art <2lynaU -6.3790 626076 .006
33-44yn.aU -4.1204 240466 .900
4S-96yn.aU -6.6300 2.42003 .119
>56yn.au •7.6002 2.78646 .000
33-44yn.aU <21yn aU -2.2466 604906 .000
21-32fi.au 4.1204 2.40406 .900
48-56ynau •2.9006 1.60016 000
>96ynaU •3.7606 2.14129 .546
4S-S6ynaU <21yn aU 2636 6.06232 1.000
21-32ynaU 6.6360 2.42003 .119
33-44ynaU 2.9066 1.60010 .000
>S6ynaU -12913 2.19010 .007
>S6ynaU <21yn aU 1.8192 610372 1.000
21-32ynaU 7.6002 2.79646 .000
33-44ynaU 37608 2.14129 .549
46-86ynaU 12813 2.19010 .007
■drtort CopingSort. <21yn aU 21-32yn aU 4.7617 324700 .703
33-44ynau 3.6630 3.12114 .044
49-96ynaU 2.4863 3.12443 .161
»86ynaU 2.1212 610743 .070
21 -32yn oU <21ynaU ■4.7617 324700 .703
33-44ynau •1.0667 124192 .040
48-96ynaU •2.3333 124077 .402
»86ynaU •2.6708 1.42247 .476
33-44ynau <21yn aU -3.6630 3.12114 .044
21-32ynau 1.0067 124192 .040
46-96ynau -12346 .07202 736
>96yn aU •1.8718 1.10630 .732
46-96ynaU <21ynaU •2.4803 612443 .061
21-32ynaU 2.3333 124077 .402
33-44ynaU 12346 .07202 .736
>96ynaU -.3371 1.11466 .000
>96ynaU <21yn aU -2.1212 3.10743 .070
21-32ynau 26706 1.42247 .476
33-44ynau 1.8710 1.10630 .732
49-66ynoU .3371 1.11466 .900
EmaOonrtCopingScrt> <21yn aU 21-32ynaU .8417 9.08244 1.000
33-44ynoU -1.0076 7.76014 1.000
49-96ynau -4.0683 7.77733 .002
>96ynoU •9.3030 7.09004 .977
21-32yn aU <21ynoU -.5417 600244 1.000
33-44ynoU -2.4496 600040 .900
46-86ynoU -9.9000 3.11003 .930
>S6ynaU -6.0386 I 654000 .901
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
X nPn
Mmh
ONmnca
O M M V k ta M i (JIAm SU-Enar . So.
EmdoMl GG0M0 U l l <21 y n au 1.1076 770014 1.000
2 1 -32 y n a t e 2.4466 3.00040 .960
4 5 -5 6 y n a t e -3.0604 2.17062 .740
» 56 m ate -3.4660 2.75154 .900
45 - 56 yn. ate <21 y n a te 4.6603 7.77733 .062
2 1 -3 2 y n a te 5.5000 3.11003 .636
33-44 y n a t e 3.0004 2.17082 .740
> 55 i n ate .4360 277466 1.000
>56 y n a te <21 y n a te 5.3030 7.06004 .977
2 1 -3 2 y n a te 5.0366 3.54000 .561
3 3 -44 y n a te 3.4660 2.75164 608
4 5 -5 6 y n a te .4306 2.77480 1.000
Pm m J <21 y n a te 2 1 -3 2 y n a t e 4.3750 5.06621 .945
S cat 33-44 y n a t e 6.1536 4.06003 .009
4 6 -5 5 y n a te 60276 4.07406 .621
>56 y n a te 7.0406 4.60606 .660
21 • 32 yn. old <21 y n a te •4.3750 5.00621 .946
33-44 y n a te 17766 1.03711 .932
48 - 56 y n a te 1.6526 1.04000 .940
>56 y n a te 3.4736 2.21644 .664
33-44 yn.aU <21 y n a te •6.1536 4.66003 .609
21 -3 2 y n a t e •1.7706 1.03711 .932
46 - 56 y n a te -.1257 1.36066 1.000
>66 y n a te 1.6060 1.72471 .915
4 5-56 y n a te <21 y n a te •6.0276 4 67406 .621
2 1 -3 2 y n a t e •1.6620 1.04060 .040
33 - 44 y n a te .1257 1.30060 1.000
>56 m a t e 1.0207 1.73616 .006
>56 y n a te <21 y n a te •7.0406 4.66006 .660
21 - 32 y n ate •3.4736 2-21844 .664
33 -44 y n a te •1.6650 1.72471 .915
45 -5 6 y n a te •1.6207 1.73616 .696
Categoric* in to <21 yro.aU 21 -32 y n a te 1.7063 5.22403 .099
3 3 -44 y n a te .6026 5.02153 1.000
46 - 56 y n a te 4.7500 5.02602 .026
>66 y n a te 5.6061 5.14428 .066
2 1 -3 2 yn. ate <21 y n a te -1.7003 522403 .600
33-44 y n a te -.6057 1.00746 .966
46 - 56 y n a te 3.0417 2.01073 .663
>56 y n a te 47006 2.26667 .500
33-44 y n a te <21 y n a te -.6026 5.02153 1.000
21 -32 y n a te .0057 1.60746 .966
46 - 56 y n a te 3.0474 140297 .069
> 8 6 y n a te 5.1066 1.77944 .067
4 5 - 5 6 y n ate <21 y n a te •4.7500 5.02662 .925
21 -3 2 y n a te •3.0417 2.01073 .663
33 - 44 y n a te •3.0474 1.40297 .000
> 66 y n a te 1.1561 1.79333 .901
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
Moan
DUUmmm
SU -E m r _ su .
c A g f lf a n >Wytm.oU < 2 ly n .a U M i.
-6.9061 ' i u O X r*W
2 1 -3 2 yrm.aU -42006 226667 .900
3 3 -4 4 yrm.aU •6.1066 1.77644 .007
46-96yrm .au •1.1961 179333 461
EmaUricSatm <21 yrm. aU 21 - 32 yrm. aU -02917 529364 .047
33-44yrm.aU -44009 5.09026 430
46 - 96yrm.aU •3.0136 5.09961 .900
>96 ytm.aU -2.1212 9.17372 467
2l-32yrm .aU <2lyrm .aU 92917 529364 .947
33-44yrm.aU 3.7626 200666 .473
46 - 96ytm.aU 92776 202224 .151
>66ytm.aU 6.1706 230166 .131
33-44yrm.aU <2lyrm .aU 49066 5.00026 .939
2 1 -3 2 yrm. aU -3.7626 200669 .473
49 - 96yrm.aU 1.4646 1.41100 .960
> 56 yrm. aU 2.3676 1.79002 .770
49-96yrm.aU <21 yrm. aU 3.0136 5.09961 .906
21 - 32 yrm. aU •62776 202224 .191
33-44ytm .aU •1.4646 1.41100 .960
> 96 yrm. aU .9027 1.00360 .963
>96yrmaU <2lyrm .aU 21212 6.17372 .967
21 - 32 yrm. aU •6.1706 230160 .131
33-44yrm.aU -23676 1.70962 .776
46 - 96 ytm.aU -.0927 1.00360 .963
Now* O yU M n ScUm <21 yrm. aU 21 -3 2 yrm. aU -.4963 1749604 1.000
33-44yrm.aU 1.4474 16.97164 1.000
49 - 96 ytm.aU 26067 16.90663 1.000
>96 yrm.aU •13.4946 17.36047 .903
21 - 32 yrm. aU <21 yrm.aU .4963 17.60604 1.000
33-44ytm .aU 1.3067 6.79066 .996
49 - 96yrm.au 21290 6.79001 .906
>99 ytm.aU -129662 7.73406 .506
33-44 yrm. aU < 21 yrm. aU •1.4474 10.67164 1000
21 - 32 yrm. aU •1.9057 6.79060 990
4 9 -9 6 yrm.aU 12163 4.74172 .996
>96 yrm.aU -14.9016 6.01073 .193
49-96 yrm.aU <21 yrm.aU -26667 16.90963 1.000
21 - 32 yrm. aU -3.1290 6.79901 .996
33-44yrm .aU -12193 4.74172 .969
>99 yrm.aU •16.1212 6.06107 .137
> 59 yrm. aU < 21 yrm. aU 13.4948 17.36647 .963
21 -32yrm.aU 129062 7.73406 .509
3 3-44 ytm.aU 14.9019 6.01073 .193
4 9 -9 9 yrm.aU 16.1212 6.06107 .137
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
98% Canidfw H m d
Loaur Bound I te a r Bound
QMMMIKM < 21y n OH 21- JZy n OH " -lilH4 aiS is
3 3 -4 4 y n oU •16.8488 21.0411
4 8 -S 8 y n .aU •18.0782 16.8816
>98m . oM -20.7701 17.7306
21 - 32 y n aid <21 y n aU •28.8286 13.1706
33-44 y n .aU •116068 3.3471
4 S -S S yn.aU •14.1860 .8872
> 9S m aU •16.4883 6760
3 3-44 yn. aU <21 yn. aid -21.0411 16.5488
21-32 y n.aU -3.3471 11.8088
4 S -S 8y n .aU -7.7606 2.7418
>S S m aU •10.4174 2.8886
4 S -5S y n.aU <21 yn. aU •18.8618 18.0782
21-32 yn.aU -.8672 14.1880
3 3 -4 4 y n .aU -2.7416 7.7800
> S 8m aU •7.0837 5.4812
> 9S yn.aU <21 y n aU •17.7388 20.7701
21-32 y n a u -.6760 16.4663
33-44 y n o U -2.8066 10.4174
4 6 -9 6 y n o U -6.4612 7.8637
Bafcawarai CaUng ScUa <21 y n aU 21 - 32 y n aU ■ta -t. i A. 14.8886
H is
33-44 y n a U 13.3866
46 - 88 y n a u 12.1718
> S S m aU 12.0613
21 - 32 yn. aU <21 y n o U •14.8666 8.3026
33 - 44 y n o U -4.8663 2.7606
49-56 y n o U •66186 1.8819
> S 6m aU •7.0028 1.7517
3 3-44 y n o U <21 y n o U -13.3888 6.0100
21-32 y n a U -2.7600 4.9683
48 - 56 y n o U -3.0486 1.4763
> S 6ynaU -6.0062 1.8647
48 - 58 yn. aU <21 y n oU •12.1718 76846
21-32 y n a u •1.5618 66186
33 - 44 y n o U -1.4783 3.9496
> 56 y n oU -3.8023 3.1281
> 56 y n aU < 21 y n oU -12.0813 7.8189
21 -32 y n a U -1.7517 7.0026
33 - 44 y n o U -1.8847 5.0082
4 8 -5 8 y n a U -3.1261 3.8023
EmaMonal Coping ScUd <21 y n aU 21 - 3 2 y n aU -24.5848 29.8862
33-44 y n a u •26.0606 226447
48 - 86 y n a U -28.1384 196197
> 56 y n aU -30.1386 19.3480
21 • 32 yn. aU <21 y n o U -28.6682 24.5849
33 - 44 y n o U -12.0668 7.1878
48 - 56 y n o U -15.1712 4.1712
> 56ynaU •16.9432 5.0720
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
66%Canfld
OaMnMVWMto
EffloWnMCapMgaeMa fl-U y re o id
. .
<51y n a ld
LaNarBauU (Uaar Bound
•422447
21 -3 2 y n .a u -7.1676 120666
4 6 -8 6 yreoU •67164 3.6876
>56 vra aU -12.0400 5.0679
4 6 -5 6 yn .aH <21 yreoU •162167 26.1364
2 1 -3 2 y ra .a u -41712 16.1712
3 3 -4 4 yra.aU -3.6676 6.7664
>66 v n . aU -6.0612 6.1600
>66 yra.U6 < 2 ly n .a U •163460 30.1366
21 -3 2 yra.aU -60720 16.6432
3 3 -4 4 yra.aU •6.0676 120400
4 6 -5 6 y ra.aU -61600 6.0612
PtnanU StuanW an < 2 ly reaU 2 l-3 2 y ra .a U -11.3747 20.1247
ScoU 3 3 -4 4 y re .a u •66667 212627
4 6 -6 6 y n .a u -61274 21.1630
>66 y n .a u -7.6606 23.3670
2 i-3 2 y re aU <21 yra aU •20.1247 11.3747
3 3 -4 4 y reaU •42436 7.0006
4 6 -6 6 yra aU •4.4003 7.7140
> 6 6 vra aU •3.4263 10.3732
3 3-44yreaU <21 yra aU -212627 0.0087
21 -3 2 yra aU •7.6006 42436
4 6 -6 6 y ra.aU -4.3666 4.1040
>86 vra aU •36666 7.0667
4 6-U y ra.aU <21 yra aU •21.1030 8.1274
2 l-3 2 y ra .a U -7.7146 4.4063
33 -4 4 y ra.aU •4.1040 4.3666
>56 y n .aU •3.9600 72274
> 86 y n aU < 21 yra aU •23.3676 7.6606
2 1 -3 2 yra. aU -10.3732 3.4263
3 3 -44yra.aU •7.0667 3.6668
4 6 -8 6 vra aU •72274 3.3600
CaugarteUScaU < 21 y n oU 21 - 32 yra aU •14.8320 17.6467
3 3 -4 4 yra aU •14.0062 16.4138
46 -5 6 y re.aU •10.6773 20.3773
>56 v n .aU •10.0633 21.8015
21 -3 2 y red u < 21 yra aU -17.9487 14.5320
3 3 -4 4 yra aU -7.1154 5.3040
4 5 -6 6 yra. aU *32092 62626
>96 y n .aU •29136 11.3154
33-44yra.aU < 21 yra. aU -16.4135 14.8062
21 -3 2 yra aU -6.3040 7.1154
4 6 -8 6 y ra .a u -.4141 6.3068
>56 v n .aU -.4223 10.6362
46-96yra.aU < 21 yra aU -20.3773 10.8773
2 1 -3 2 yra. aU •02626 32062
3 3 -4 4 yra.aU •6.3066 .4141
> 66 yra aU •4.4160 6.7342
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
WKCaUU MM
L o an Bound U tav Bound
cm gortem aeo n > W in . old <51 yrm. d f ~ -21.9019 i6.fi4i3
21 - 32 y n oU •114164 2.9139
33-44 y n a U •10.6362 .4223
4 6-56 v n o U -6.7342 4.4160
E souricS oU «21ynoU 21 -32 yra oU •244290 9.0417
33-44 y n o U -204060 11.1914
49-96yra.aH -16.7307 12.7029
>96 yra.aU -162062 13.9628
21 -3 2 y ra.au <21 yra. aU •6.0417 24.6290
33 - 44 yra. aU -24623 10.0291
46-96yra.aU -1.0069 11.9646
> 56ynaU -.9990 13.3296
33 - 44yn.aU < 2 ly ra a U -11.1914 204060
21 - 32 yra. aU •10.0261 2.4623
46 - 96 y n .a u -2.6016 9.9614
> 5 6 y n aU -3.1729 7.9460
46 - 96 yn. aU <21 yn.aU -12.7029 16.7307
21 -3 2 y n .a u -11.9648 1.0009
33 - 44 yn. aU -6.6914 2.9916
>96 y n o U •4.7143 6.4967
> 96ynaU <21 yra. aU -13.9629 164062
2 l-3 2 y ra.aU -13.3296 .9990
33-44 y n o U •7.9460 3.1729
48-86 v n a U •6.4667 4.7143
Nowa OpUnMm ScoU <21 yra. aU 2 1 -3 2 y n .aU •96.3471 54.4304
33 - 44 y n o U •61.3137 944068
48-96 y n a u •90.1901 56.4634
> 66ynaU •67.9063 40.5662
21 - 32 pm. ok) <21 y n oU •64.4304 56.3471
33-44 y n o U •19.0619 22.9029
46-66 y n o U -16.0017 244917
> 56 y n aU •37.0422 11.0496
33-44 y n aU <21 y n o U •644066 51.3137
21-32 y n a u -22.9629 19.0615
46-96 y n o U -13.5217 15.9603
>96 y n o U •33.9660 3.7941
45 - 96 yra. att < 21 y n aU -66.4634 50.1901
21-32 y n o U -244917 16.0017
33-44 y n o U -19.9603 13.5217
> 9 9ynaU -34.9637 2.7213
>66 y n o U < 21ynaU •40.9362 67.5063
21-32 y n o U •11.0466 37.0422
33 - 44 y n o U -3.7941 33.5990
46 - 96 y n o U -17213 34.9937
HomogwMOtis Subsets
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
208
acnw
Tubed tor
a p t* -
.06
N 1
2 i-3 Z y iaa H *4 100.2617
33-44ym .dd 75 104.4211
< 21 yra aU 3 106.6667
45-96ym .aU 72 106.6306
> 55ym. oU 33 106.1616
SU .463
TiliaOb**
SubMt fbr
ato h e-
.06
*fb N 1
21 -32ym .au 24 95.0750
33-44 yra.aU 70 96.0737
49 - 95 yra. aid 72 sqbQfT
>96yra.dd 33 96.5455
<21 yra. oU 3 60.6567
• I _________ .320
Maanatargraupo in
a Mean Sample S to e-11.506.
b. The g ra n d m unequal Tha hannonic maan d toe group aim is uaad. Type I error lavaia are nd guaranteed.
ScnaO**"
Subodtar
•* •» «
OS
An N 1
2T - 3 2 ym.au 24
<21 yraaU 3 60.0000
33 - 44 ym.aU 70 07.6076
45 - 55 yn.aU 72 00.0503
> 55 yra. old 33 61.3630
A t _________ .063
Means tor grouped
a Uan Hannodc Sample a n - 11.569.
b. Tha group imequal Tha harmonic moon d 6m group aim ■ uaad. Type l error loaolam nd guaranteed.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
209
'jlImO**
Suboatfcr
«*■ «
06
N 1
*1* J1
> H in .a b 33 120102
33-44 yra. aU 76 14.5132
4 5-55 yra aU 72 14.0300
2 1-32 yra aU 24 102917
<21 yraaU 3 20.0007
J i __________ 271
wB PBB^B^BBOBfl^PB
Cu*§mk* Scsto
•ffiii . ^ * fc
9QW
Subaattor
aypta*
.06
*•» N 1
>59 yra. oh 33 36.d009
46 - 56 yn-oM 72 302900
2 1-32 yra. oU 24 302017
33-44 yn.aU 70 40.1974
<21 yraaU 3 41.0000
M __________ .907
Mtans for groift in honogvwoui tutoMti m dtaplnynd-
a Uaaa Harmonic Maan Samp* Staa - 11506
b. Tha grai^ a i w m unaquaL Tha h a n m ic maan of »m greup a n a ia uaad. Typa l aoor iMah m im( gummaad.
E io M e M i
Ca4^lkl
9QWW
Suboatfcr
alpha*
06
N 1
<21 yra a d 3 22& 3
>55 yra.aU 33 24.4945
45-95yra.aU 72 29.3472
33-44yra.aU 70 26.0421
2 1-32 yra.aU 24 302290
s* 293
Mm w for poupi in honoEM M MbMtoMdhEi^fid.
a Um Hvnonic M m Snmpte S in ■ 11.966.
fc Tfc“ir-r*i------- —t-i r _— ■
— rt •^TT-T- T- r i flifinnt[)|,fWI)„ |1
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
210
M w O pM iiiM i
aow
Subaattor
afcha-
06
N 1
49 - 96yn. OH H 4 ? i& 3
3 3 -4 4 y n OH 79 493628
<21 y n o U 3 80.0000
21 - 32 y n aid 24 80.4903
> 8 9 y n a ld 33 034846
SiO. .771
MaanatorgraupainhamaganaouaauOaatoandtoplByod.
a Uaaa8anHonfcMaan3anpto3toB> 11.886.
b Tha group aim a n imgual.'lfcaliamianieiiiaanaroia group aim iauaad.TypalanwlawatoanmguarMaa&
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
211
Oneway
w w VM wl
U m ne
dtl dB SB.
QtaMScdiSCOT 'I S 5 m sii
M w M C o f in |8 a li 1.134 S 208 .344
cm ora Mpnp eOR .753 S 208 .556
Pmmm I StpanBPm 2.745
Soto 5 202 .080
CalagoricP Serii .536 5 202 .625
Eaclarie Scale 1.756 S 202 .117
Nan* OpMmUm Scale 1.356 S 202 .231
ANOVA
Sum of
•w * ataan S M re F s*.
Global Scala S een S ii2 mM 1.616 .157
WANn G rape 21575.355 208 107.305
TcW 22843.305 207
I
I
R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
212
su. Sig.
*3* T iB O
2.1250 ooo
•1.7236 1.000
- 2.1000
-6.1111 .064
460170 1.000
2.52247 .670
•1.4643 2.32166
2.60166
3.17630 ■602
S5Si^h5R 5r*" .000
School G r a ta * .670
2 o r 4 yra. C ta g a
.510
1.000
Wo*Grata* D on .002
a O n VUkA
T ^ itrli
SKnQ ■O
nli 2.1000
M tfi School G r a ta * 1.0306
42250 741
.3766 1.000
-3.0111 .071
5.1111 .064
H g h School G r a ta * 4.0410 002
7.2381 275
2.68776
3.0111
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
213
HMHIptoGoRpstaiM
Sdwflb
9M. So.
«T
an
.an
an
2.7121 .131
an
1.18946 ion
1.63146 von
.8167 an
an
.927
1.31233 987
1-47066 an
an
ion
i.ma .927
ion
1.9467 on
•8364 .907
i.osn 1.31233 987
an
1.64476 an
m
ion
an
1.36063 von
12200 1.64476 on
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
214
Moan
O t—onoo
O M n d M tV rtM i fflE P jca-n (JtE ta O o n M S— Errar Sta.
EffiOtiMi COpftlQ SGM «nnv n ^ i j u im - 0 1 S d - t G ra ta— 2.0120 690662 1.000
Sarno C t—g-Todt
8 d —tC o w o o i 3.0033 5.72266 .000
2 a r4 y ri. Cd—g i
G r a ta - •1.9030 5.90294 1.000
Sow P ot P i t a -
Cm — -.9633 6.00003 1.000
P o t G ra ta —O otoo 31007 0.23003 .090
H|pi School G ra ta — to n s n p i w w -2.0120 5.90602 1.000
SomoCaOogtTodt
S tra tC o —wo 1.0706 321014 1.000
2 o r4 y n .C t-g o
-3.5107 206104 .023
Soma P o t-G ra ta —
Cm — -2J002 3.70100 .006
P o t G r a ta - Oograo -6.1706 4.06220 .006
SomoCoO^oA'och — no H p id w l -3.0033 5.72206 .906
S d n tC o - i— High 8 d —- G r a ta — •10706 321014 1.000
2or4yra.C oM go
G ra ta — -4.9073 230612 .906
S o m o P ot-G raP a-
Co—m o •4.0367 329662 .000
P o t G ra ta —Oooroo •0.2900 3.69260 .711
2 or 4 y n Co—g i SOOMH ip i p — 1.9030 5.90294 1.000
G r a ta - H«h School G r a ta - 3.5167 206104 .023
So—o Co—goSTacfi
School Co— • 4.9673 230612 .906
Son—P o t O ra P a -
Co—loo .9600 3.00606 1.000
P o t G ra ta —Ooaoo -1.6627 3.42902 .900
S am P a—G n ta — ooffli n p n w iim .9633 6.00003 1.000
Cotwoo Hp t School G ra ta— 2.9862 270100 .906
SanoC o—gtTocti
School Co— i 4.0367 329062 900
2or4yra.C o—go
G ra ta — -.9906 3.00606 1.000
P o t G r a ta - Dograo
-22133 4.00931 .909
P o -d ro P a - nogr— 9BR—n4, p i OUIM
t^ B A t^^Bl
31667 623003 .909
Hgh School G ra ta — 51706 4.06229 .696
SonaCoO ogtrach
Softool C0— 0 62800 3.66260 .711
2 or 4 yro. Co—go
G r a ta - 1.6627 242902 .900
Sow—P o t G ra ta—
Co——a 22133 4.00631 .909
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
215
Scho*
Moon
OMwdico
Sid. Error ---- s * ----
rim o ifw in s o n np< w n Hgh School n ro ra io •4 .0 %
Scad SomaCcgagaffiadi -6875 3.52062
School Cotfooo 1.000
2or4yra.C o6aga 3.43463 999
Graduate 1.6118
SonwPooMSraduad 20000
C oaaoa 366640 .966
Pool Qioduora Oograo 2.1667 3.63269 997
Hgh Schod Graduate M m n p i acnooi 4.0766 3.66262 .942
SomoCoaogolToch 3.3664 1.97964 711
School C om m
2 or 4 yr* CoOogo
5.6667 182225 .099
Oraouora
Somo Poot-Graduale 6.0766 227757 217
Couraoo
P od Gradual* Oograo 62436 2.49314 295
SamoCaOogdToch 8QM9 * ilW .6879 3.52062 1.000
School Com o* H0« S d to d Graduate -3 3864 197964 711
2 o r4 y ra Codage 2.2963 1.46605 763
Graduate
Same Poot-Graduale 2.00546 876
C om m 2.6875
P od Oradurao Oograo 2.6642 224729 899
2 ar4 y ra. Ca6ago Some H 0 i Schod -1.6116 3 43463 999
Gradual* Hgh Schod Oradurao -56667 1.62225 .066
Somo CoOogofToch
-22993 1.46605 .763
School Couraoo
SomoPod-Qradueio 1.64966 1000
Couraoo .3662
P od Gradumo Oograo .5649 2.10966 1.000
Soma Pod Graduate Same Hgh Sdtod •2.0000 3.66640 996
COMT— Hgh School Gadualo •6.0769 227757 217
SamoCodogon’och 200546 .876
School Couraoo •2.6675
2 or 4 yra. CoOogo
-3682 1.64965 1.000
Oradurao
P od Gradumo Oograo 1667 251346 1.000
P ad GraduaM Dograa h„1
w r a« rvpi
US|di ocnm -2.1687 3.83299 997
Hgh Schod Gradumo •6.2436 249314 285
Somo Cdtogo/Toch -2.8542 224729 699
School C o m m
2 ar4 y ra. Cadogo -.5549 2.10968 1.000
Graduoio
Somo P od Graduate -.1667 2.51346 1.000
Com o*
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
216
Moon
D U oino
O y r n m fV m m * mEducudon ( J tE U o n (MJ 3M. Error SM
9CM H g h W w erarad u n 3.81888 1.000
S o m C n g ^ T o ch
School Couraoo -4.3881 3.7438* .828
2ar4yn.C o8M 8 -1.117*
Q radun 3.86200 1.000
S o n Pool Ora* 1 o
Cauooo -3.7200 3.83038 .070
Poor O r a m Oooroo -.1887 4.07988 1000
Hgh School G rad u n Somo School -.0388 3.81988 1.000
Sam C alogoffoch
School Couraoo -4.4343 2.10929 .401
2ar4yra. CoOogo
G radun -1.1881 1.8379* .988
S o n Pool Q radun
C om -37886 2.42172 .780
Pool G n d u n Oograo -2081 2.08083 1.000
S o n Caaogaffdcfi A nal
w n v n p i acnooi 4 3888 .828
3.7438*
School CouraM Hgh School O w n 4.4343 210828 .491
2 or 4 yra. CoOogo
Q radun 32782 1.8*088 .484
S o n Pool Q radilo
Comoo .8788 2.13238 1.000
Pool Q radun D o n o 42282 2.38892 .800
2 dr4 yra. Coitoga W nf OUmH 1.117* 2*8200 1.000
G ro a n School G rad u n 1.18*1 1.8379* .8*8
S o n CoOogo/Toch
School C o m -32782 12808* .484
S o n Pool Q radun -2.8024
Couraoo 1.98704 .8*2
Pool G rad u n Oograo .8810 224320 .88*
Som PoM -G radun fiiuM
m v nM^n ft n ■11
p i auum 3.7200 383035 .970
Couraoo Hgh School G rad u n 3.7888 242172 .700
S onC aaogan’och
School Couraoo -.8788 2.13239 1.000
2or4yn.C oaogt 2.8024 1.98704
G radun .882
Pool G rad u n O o g n 2.87294 .880
3.8533
Po« Q ra d u n Pop** S o n Hgh School 1887 4.07968 1.000
School G rad u n 2061 2*6083 1.000
SonCodogolToch
School Couraoo -42282 238882 .6*0
2 or 4 yra. Cologo
G radun -.8510 224320 .880
Som PoM -G radun 2*7294
Comoo •3.8633 .800
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
217
S dalle
Moan
Oddiaiua
O M ndM lV M N i fl) EAoMon fJIEducoSen SH. Error Sta.
Eaolartc scale W V^pi 9BM I k (p scnooi graduate T W F 3.07810 1.000
Soma CoOagaSTetfi
School C om aa -21875 3.70778 .087
2 o r4 y n . CoOage
Graduate -12000 3.81702 1.000
Sama Peat-Graduala 308280
C om aa 20133 .800
Peat Graduate Decree 3.0333 4.03854 .070
Hgh 4d«ool G radual O TB n p i MMn I 1.1087 3.87810 1.000
SomoCeOagafl’ech
School C em aa -1.0200 2.00808 .000
2 or 4 yra. Colaga -0041 1.81002 1.000
Graduate
S om aPoaM indudi
C om aa 4.0000 230062 .716
Pool Graduate Oograo 5.0000 262564 .605
SomeCoOagafrech Some Mgh School 21075 3.70770 .907
School Com ae Hgh School Qraduala 1.0200 208800 .900
2 o r4 y ra. Coflago
Oroduaaa .0287 1.54600 .906
Sama Poet Graduate
C em aa 5.1008 211108 .327
Poet Graduate Oearao 60200 238083 200
2or4yra.C a0age ^ ----
w n it^ M l9u i m 12000 3.61702 1.000
Graduate Hgh School Graduate .0041 1.01802 1.000
Some CaOagaflOch
School C em aa -.0287 1.54600 .900
Some Foat-Gmdueta
C om as 4.1741 1.84810 .470
Peat Qraduala Oograo 5.0041 222171 .300
Somo Pnel O rU ate 9onw nUbHlp i ta lm l
9uVw -2.8133 3.00280 .980
C om as H fr School Graduate -4.0000 230052 716
SomoCoaagafTach
School C om aa •5.1000 2.11188 .327
2 or 4 yro Codoga
Graduota -4.1741 1.84810 470
Poal Graduola Oagraa
.8200 264883 1.000
Poet Graduate Degree w n nUpUii QUwU
Crduud -3.0333 4.03854 .970
Hgh Stfwol Graduate -5.0000 2.82554 605
SomaCaOagaffech
School Counoa •6.0200 236083 268
2or4yra.C a0age
Graduola •5.0841 222171 .389
Somo Poat-Graduata
Couraaa -.8200 264893 1.000
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
218
Moon
OdMorau
m r n r tf a n (AEducratan 0-J) SU. Error Sfc.
N lW O p M M fft S C S I 9 w W r ^ l Q G nB P M p School SraduoM -1 .4 3tt 13-26681 1 .0 0 0
Somo CoaogoTToch
School Counoo -•3333 12.88290 .984
2or4yra.CadM o
Gradualo -•729 12.37248 1 .0 0 0
SamePoM-GraduaM -3.4087
Coraooo 13.31946 1 .0 0 0
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
219
•m ConO d
D M nM V M M i (!) Education <J) Education Louar Sound UBoar Bound
o m a i scaio ooora som a odgh School H fiK W ia M u M i -44.6^4 15.4070
SamaCaOagaffioch
S d m i C om aa -120404 17.1004
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
98%Conddi nco Moraol
O m ndM tV M rtli m rftin jin n UlEducodon L om rSoind Udoor Sound
W m o t J C opnf S ctft •M i n ^i Hgh school Graduate -10.9408 9.3149
Somo CadogmToch -46604
School Comoo 4.4281
2 or 4 yra. Cadogo
Oraduora -10.4314 4.4744
SamoPaafrGraduate
Couraoo -10.0794 4.1922
Pool Oraduora Oograo •11.9064 91428
H * t School Graduate M ffli MMBI •9.3144 10.9900
SamoCaOogaffach ■24944
School Couraoo 91199
2 or 4 yra. Cadogo
Oraduora •4.1034 3.9110
Somo Pool Oraduora
Com oo -4.1733 9.9441
Pool Graduate O om o •9.9474 9.0991
Somo CaOogteTach MRW n^1 MnMI •4.4241 8.4894
S d e d Coioiee Hgp School Graduote •41199 24999
2 or 4 yra. Cadogo •9.1902 11887
Graduote
Somo Pool Oraduolo -9.4403 3.3903
Couraoo
Pool Graduate Ooarao -7.1921 2.4921
2 or 4 yra Codogo MW n^l M W •4.4749 10.4310
Graduate Mgh School Graduate •3.9110 4.1038
Somo Codogoffoch -1.2087
School Couraoo 8.1902
Somo Pool Graduate •3.1389
Couraoo 9.0001
Pool Graduote Ooarao ■4.9277 4.3912
Somo Pool Graduate M m npi w P p •4.1922 10.0798
Com oo Hgh School Graduote •9.4441 4.1733
Somo Codoguffoch
School Counoo -3.3903 9.4403
2 or 4 yra. CoOogo
Graduote -9.0001 3.1389
Pool Oraduora Oograo •4.7474 4.3074
Pool Gradumo Oograo 9onw n ^ i u u u u •91026 11.9489
Hgh School Graduote -9.0991 8.9974
Somo CodogorToch
School Couraoo -2.4821 7.1921
2 or 4 yra. Cadogo
-4.3912 4.8277
Graduate
Somo Pool Graduate -4.3074 4.7474
Couraoo
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
221
SS»Condd
jp B A e fe i (JIGduraOon Lourar Sound UOoorBaum
dm aintm c o p tif s c m som i scvm i Ugh soram oraduora -10.1027 H .H /U
SooraCaOogon'oeh -16.1405
School Coraooo 22.3191
2 or 4 yra. CoOogo -202649
Oraduolo 172570
SomoPooKVraOrara •21.1442
Couraoo 192375
Pool Oraduora Oograo -241036 17.7703
Hgh School Gradual* 9onw n^n o u v u -22-1264 19.1027
SamoCaOogofToch
School Couraoo •0.7446 11.9965
2 or 4 yra. CoOogo -13.4704
Oraduolo 6.4370
Somo Pool Oraduolo -154069
Coraooo 9.4746
Pool Oraduora Ooarao •10.7978 9.4399
Som*C&ragmr*tfi oom n p i s o w -22.3151 16.1496
School C ounw Hgh School Gradumo -11.9869 9.7446
2 or 4 yra. CoOogo -12.6062
Oraduora 3.4316
Somo Pool Oraduolo
Couraoo -14.0911 69178
Pom Oraduolo Ooarao •18.S2S4 60254
2 or 4 yra. CoOogo w n i n ^ i 9UIM -17.2570 202949
OraduoM Hgh School Oraduolo -64370 13.4704
SomoCalogon’och
-3.4316 12.9092
School Couraoo
Sam* Pom-Gradual* •9.3644
Couraoo 10.6566
Pom Oraduora Ooarao -13.1864 9.9610
Som* PoatGraduora 9oni so n •19.2375 21.1442
Counoo H 0 i School Oraduolo •9.4746 15.4009
SamaCaOogaffOch
School Cainoo •6.9178 14.9911
2 or 4 yra. Cadogo
Oraduora -10.6696 9.9644
Pom Oraduora Oograo
•19.9426 11.9199
I
1
f
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
222
SM h
90% C anfldm a m m h
n iM n H M H tetli m E to g o n M )E * aao n lourarBouid 1 Uooar Bound
rpm vpw p sMi^iMnooi n piw w w W H -164629 *4*60
S c* s o m Coaageffioch
School C om ae -12.5197 11.1447
2 or 4 y n . Codoge
Graduate •9.9306 13.1543
S o m ta K M o h
C um •10.4223 14.4223
Pool feo d u m Doom •10.7140 16.0460
H * School Q radum S a m H g i School •s^tso 16.4628
S a m Caaogofl’och
School Courooa -32646 10.0433
2 or 4 yra. CaBogo
feo d u m -.4353 11.8128
S a m Pool Graduate
C em aa -1.5772 13.7310
Pool Q radum Doom •2.1360 14.6222
SamCaaogorTotfi Some Mgh School -11.1447 12.6187
Sdm lCM OO t ^ iS d io e l Qraduala -10.0433 32646
2 or 4 yra. Cadaga
Graduate •2.6343 72326
S a m Pool-Gradualo
C om aa •4.0621 0.4271
Pool Graduola Oaaraa •4.6662 10.4065
2ar4yra.Ceaogo S am H g h S d m l -13.1643 9.9306
G rafem School feodum -11.6128 .4353
SamCaaogoffiach
School C om aa -72326 2.6343
S a m Pool-Gradualo
C em aa •6.6266 6.6063
Pool G radum Ooarao -6.5360 7.6446
WnVnwvwUBI gontn^iQon •14.4223 10.4223
C aw m Hfch School Graduola -13.7310 1.5772
S a m Cadagafrach
School C om aa •6.4271 4.0621
2 or 4 yra. Coaoga
G radum •6.6053 5.8286
Pool Graduola Dogma
•6.2802 8.6135
Pci* feodum D agm S a m *6gh School -15.0460 10.7146
H * i School G radum •14.6222 2.1350
S a m CalagarTach
School C em aa •10.4065 46862
2 a r4 yra. Cadogo
Q radum -7.6448 6.5350
S a m Pool Qraduala
C om aa -6.6136 6.2802
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
223
S9% CooddmcoMMraol
LaumrBouid UOoorOowtd
bHIBnBMPf flVMirapi 9BVOI rapi OIIINi WHP>
ScmoCcOagoffioch
Sdiool C m n m -16.9789 0.1083
2 or 4 y*t. Cadogo
Gradumo -13 3807 11.1884
S tM ta M n d u k
C o rn u •16.9206 04005
Pw Q M h m Ov m -13.M32 13.8208
n^ivnoQiQVHUM i a o m n ^ iw i -13.1977 13.1200
SomoCBMgirToch
School Co m m -115003 2.6407
2 o rd y n . Cadogo
GraduoM -7.0878 8.3884
Somo Pom OraduoM
Couraoo -11.0870 4.3001
Pool Graduolo Ooarao -0.1140 0.7037
SamoCadogofTach Somo high School -0.1883 16.0780
School Couraoo high School Oraduolo •2.8407 11.8003
2 or 4 yra. Cadogo
OraduoM •1.1878 8.8240
Somo Pool QradimM
Couraoo •8.4904 7.0420
Pool OraduoM Ooarao -3.8012 12.2886
2 ar4 y riC aio g o Somo Mgh School -11.1884 13.3007
OraAioM Mtfi School GraduoM -5.3854 7.6676
SamoCadogafl’ach
School Couraoo -0.8240 1.0676
Somo P en OraduoM
CouraM -82129 4.0082
Pool OraduoM Ooarao -8.8878 0.4006
SamoPoMGnduoM Somo Mgh School -0.4088 16.0288
C om o Mgh School GraduoM -4.3001 11.0070
Somo CodogofTach
School CouraM •7.0420 64004
2 or 4 yra. Codogo
OraduoM •4.0082 92120
Pool OraduoM Oograo
-8.4281 12.5340
Pod OraduoM Oograo SomoMghSchool •13.8298 13.0632
Mg> School OraduoM -0.7037 8.1140
Somo CodogofToch
School CouraM •12.2805 3.0012
2 or 4 yra. Codogo
GraduoM •0.4096 6.5878
Somo Pool OraduoM
CaiaMo -12.5348 9.4281
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
224
Schafb
95%Condd m M v m I
O m n d M V aM h (DEduodon (J) Edurcdnn Lower S o u * Udbst Bound
sn v K am M n tn p iac n o B i -14.1*6 11.6865
S o m C c h g itric ti
School Courara •14.6481 10.2731
2 or 4 yra. Cologo
Graduolo •13.4163 10.0047
Somo Pool Oraduolo
Couraoo -101686 15.9063
Pool Graduolo Oograo •0.7320 17.3067
Hgh School Graduolo Somo Hgh School -11.6065 14.1906
Sooio CoOogo/Toch
School Couraoo -6.0281 5.9664
2 o r4 y n .C o lo g o
Graduolo -6.5433 6.3550
Sonra Pod-G radualt
Couraoo •3.9606 12.1406
Pool Graduolo Dogno •3.6235 13.6235
Somo CedagaSrcch Somo Hgh School -10.2731 14.6481
School C o tn o t Hgh School Graduolo -5.9664 8.0281
2 or 4 yra. CaOogo
Graduolo -42689 61223
Somo Pool-Graduolo
Couraoo -1.9967 12.1964
P od Graduolo Oograo -1.9326 13.9742
2 ordyra. CoOogo Somo H 0 i School -10.6607 13.4163
Grararam Hgh School Graduolo •6.3560 6.5433
Somo CoOogoTToch
School Coraooo -6.1223 4.2689
Somo PooMSraduoio
Couraoo -2.3731 10.7213
Pool Graduolo Oograo •2.3723 125605
Somo Pool-Graduolo Somo H gh School -15.9663 10.1686
Couraoo H tft School Graduolo •12.1406 3.9606
Somo CoOogoH'cch
School Couraoo -12.1964 1.9967
2 or 4 yra. Codogo
Graduolo -107213 2.3731
Pool Graduolo Oograo
-7.9754 9.6154
Pool Graduolo Oograo Sam* H tfi School -17.3967 9.7320
Hgh School Graduolo -13.8235 3.6235
Somo CodogofToch
School Couraoo -13.9742 1.0326
2 or 4 yra Codogo
Graduodo •12.5605 2.3723
Somo Pool Graduolo
Couraoo -9.8154 7.9754
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
1 08% ConSdonco Udorad 1
OooondodVlraMhra (OEducdfcn (JtE dcdton
H Jm ^flnim
^^UP^aUVra^iim
OdOVWB a li Sams
O^raOOOU^UHbli School
O^raOOOO^U^U H
V o t school ^S^W m dOU
^OOB U
^UUs^P -rtd iW 43.1458
Sam* CaOogoffioch
School Coraooo -00.0063 342087
2 o r« in .C o fe (i
Gradudo -42.4020 40.7000
Somo Pod OroduoOo
Couraoo -40.1002 41.3419
P ad Graduate Ooarao -46.7008 46.0132
UMt
n p i sC^uurf
qob w w um Cmvmo nUkA
so ^ ix Sn oi ^BJi •43.1406 46.0175
S am C al^o ffach
Schod Coraooo •30.6666 17.0717
2 or 4 yra. CaOooo
Oraduora -21.4866 226235
Somo Pool-Graduale
Couraoo -28.0430 20.6010
Pod Gradudo P orno -29.1348 312260
PaiAM/fMra
SQffli W B |raiC sn S i^ m H y sU
JWIS s^ ^W ra -342987 009063
Schod Coraooo Mgh School Graduate -17.0717 30.0666
2 or 4 yra. CoOoao
Oraduolo •10.3113 202329
Somo Pod Graduolo •18.3614
Coraioo 292047
Pod Oraduolo Ooarao •10.2612 36.1301
2 oir4 yra. Cadogo Somo Mgh Schod •40.7060 42.4320
Oradudo Mgh Schod Graduate -22.6235 21.4866
Somo CdtegoSTech -252329
School Couraoo 10.3113
SomoPad-Qraduolo
Couraoo •24.0296 19.0614
Pod Oraduora Ooarao -250061 26.0234
S a m PoatG nduato S a m H 0i Schod -41.3419 46.1002
Coraooo Mgh School Graduolo •20.6010 29.3430
SamCa6ogo7Tach -29.2047
School Coraooo 19.3014
2 a r4 y ra Cadogo -19.0614 24.9296
Graduate
P od Oraduora Oograo -27.4101 33.4436
Pod Oraduora D ogm S a m Mgh Schod •46.0132 46.7909
ULd| Trtinnl VHHUMI
n ^ l OUUI -312299 29.1349
SomoCadogofl’och
School Couraoo -30.1001 19.2612
2 or 4 yra. CoOogo -26.0234
Oraduora 20.0061
S a m Pod-Gradudo -334456
Couraoo 27.4101
Homogeneous Subsets
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
226
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
227
Schefc**
Sitoeattor
ague*
.06
Edueabon N 1
som ecobagarreon
Scnooi Camaaa 4b •6.0033
Hgh School Gmduato as •7.183b
Mnm^^1 9BOT • •0.1667
Some Poot-Gmduato
Ceumaa 25 •0.1200
2 o r4 y n . Cobage
Gmduato b» •0.6706
Poet Gmduato D egee it •2.3333
Sto .$47
htaana tor arauae In hemeaanaom a^aato am mmtoaad.
a Uaaa Harmonic Mean Sample Sim ■ 1S.003.
b. The grtopatoee am unequal The harmonic mean ottae group atom la ueed. Type I amor lavale am not guamtaed.
to m n lM a ia M a a f c ila
acnpw^
Subaattor
agna-
.06
Education N 1
Peat amduato P ap aa ia 12.6333
Sama Peat Qraduala
Ceumaa 28 13.0000
2or4ym . Codage
Gmduato •8 13.3662
Soma H pi Schoal • 18.0000
Some CodagafTedi
School C ornea 48 18.6678
Hgh School Gmduato 28 10.0766
s* .3*3
Maana tar grM«a In homoganaoua aubaato am dhptoyad.
a Uaaa Hannanie Maan Sampla Stoa «11.003.
b. The group ataeo am unoquaL The harmonic maan of bio group atoaa ia uaad. Type I amor tomfa am net guanntaad.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
228
Caiagaaicai Scaia
Schoflb**
Subaattor
atoha-
06
N 1
H tfr school flmduala 28 s iiiii
Soma Mgr Schoal • 31.0000
Pool Graduate Dagma IS 3S.16S7
2or4yta.Cola0O
Graduola IS 37.1171
Sowa Poal Q ra h U
Couiao 25 307200
Some CoOagafTach
School Couraaa 41 40.3061
S is TOO
M aanatoryoupatohamBianBouaaubaato amdtoola»ad.
a. Um Harmonic Maan Sam p* S in * 11003.
b.T hagm upala»am w n l Tha harmonic moan oTtoa group aiaaa la uaad-TnpoianariauH am not guaraniaad.
CaolMfctcate
XnPIV
Subaattor
atoha-
.06
EducaOon N 1
Poa^ gradumo oagaaa 10 £2.0000
Soma Pool Qraduala
Couraaa 26 22.0200
Soma H |h School 6 26.0333
Hgh School Qraduala 26 27.0000
2or4yra.C o6aga
Qraduala 66 27.0041
Soma CBtegaffach
Sdtooi Couraaa 40 20.0200
■.2^ * _____________
- i .400 ■
IlN n ife fiu fiin h O fflO fM Q U K iu M iflV d h M id .
a Uaaa Harmonic Maan Sam p* Stoa -11.003.
b. The group atoaa am xmgual. The harmonic maan ol too group ateaaiauaad-Tifpa I atror lam ia am not guormaaad
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
229
IMv*opMrin
Oubaalfcr
06
EduaMon N 1
sowrapiscnooi 6 47M
PM Graduolo Oograo 15 46 222?
2 ar4 y n .C o 6 o |o 46.7066
Graduate 16
n ^ i j u im inB H W 26 40.2602
Sow P M Q ro tfte 29 51.2400
CouraM
Sow Caaogofloch
School CouraM 46 96.1667
S* .661
H i m for g ra in s in h o m o g m o u s cUbMH • •
a Uaaa Hamiartc M nn S o ts * Stoo * 11.003.
b. " ~ t (i—t ------------ T~r* b t t t i r n ‘i im if-* Y tt-' --------‘T~r‘T n ~m pim i M il
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
County of 0 H i> SM. Enor
CouftvortM oik N Maan SM. Davteton Maan
s o M S c u i scorn County or
tM raCowteyortetafc IBS 10S.3P17 10.30138 .79120
No 22 106.9546 11 12474 2.37190
Behavioral Coping S a lt County of S7.4P4P
bMh-CouteyofWorii 1S8 529694 .39931
No 22 592727 5.74192 122419
C m O W 999 County of 982798
btte-CouteyofW orii 1S8 1329906 .97220
No 22 8P.6P0P 1329321 2.93199
Pononol Suporatton CowteyoT
Scalt tttm C ounty of Worti 1 « 14.6900 156299 .92799
No 22 14 4846 5.40492 1.19231
Categorical S o lo County of 376659
tttraC o u n ty of W te 1S6 9.73906 .64079
No 22 402273 1.30337 1.77029
Esoteric S a te County of 26.3925
B r a ^ v Q U n v j CJ< W Q m
IPS 9.90012 .94870
NO 22 290919 7.91996 1.99930
Nateo OpSntetei S ate County of
n r a ^ o n y or n o n 1SS 90.0999 30.71906 229243
No _22 61.0466 5.91960 124091
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
Lawenafla Teal lor
rmmrntrafVUUnc**
F So
giom s o ft scon
!ii!
.621 .471
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
M H tto re ■ totrofltoana
M an
t m ®0. (2-W M OM mnca
G taM s e M Soon 200 .900 -.9729
S t * -" " " -143
M mmotI Coping S a lt
S fiS S T
C to lw to n —
•130
M
29.910
200
•20
.910
-.9720
-.7701
E q u to w rira o -ooo 29.400 .990 -.7701
IM lM M M d
EmeOonto Coping S ato B q u to w h eew
200 .910 .0007
OMumod 130
EqutoM rtm w 20.200 .920 .0007
n al« M M d 130
m io n B aupvM B n E g to h a to n c a
.070 200 .930 .1422
S a to
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
M ^torE— frrotMwm
SM. Erar
-3.42000 1.M47S
1.07043 -3.54541
Equol' 1.31220 -2.52100
-0.43040 120370
•0.43057 1.
•3.10107 420230
70703 •200100 4.37200
NeweOplmMm Scale Equol 0.57000 -13.31275 1201000
Equal 257144 •5.42106 4.72070
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
Nafco
Canpartral EaoMc OpOnnan
Seala Seala Seala
agM S O H H M Paaraen ConaMan -444" -.300- .644
S*(MaOad> .000 .000 030
N 200 200 200
SahOMonl Coping Scab Paanen CoMMan •224* -.000 -.006
9g.(2-M M) .001 .012 036
N 200 200 200
Enadanal Caolns Scrii Paanen ConoMen • 404" 210“ -.030
* 0 -(2-Mad) .000 .003 .671
N 200 200 206
Pm onri SupH iM n Paanon cenaMan .301- T u -.036
Seal* S |( 2 d M | .000 rn .707
N 200 200 200
CaMgortcd Seala Paanon ConaMan 1 .104- -.030
»0.(2M ad) .006 407
N 200 200 200
Eaoiartc Seala Paanon ConaMan .104- 1 -.036
» » (M M ) .006 612
N 200 200 200
Nate* OpanMn S o la Paanon CenaMan -.030 -.036 1
8fe(2M ad) .007 .612
N 200 200 200
Aflt Paanon CanaMan -.211- -.161* .107
Sig. (2-Mad) .003 .021 125
N 200 200 200
Education Paanan ConaMan .000 -.166* -.030
So. (2-Mad) .000 .016 .671
N 200 200 206
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
.. _
as*
O oM S cM S oot Romon com m on 1*F mF
Sis 0-Mod) .00* .032
N 200 208
BohMoM Casing S a b Romon ComMon .128 .078
8*(2-Mod» .080 481
N 208 200
EflMonb doping S a b R om a ComMon .147* .122
*0- (2-Mod) .034 .000
N 208 208
Pononb SamOOon Roaraon ConabOon -.118 -187“
S ab SSO SM .081 .004
N 208 208
CabgortcbScm RoooonConoMon -411“ .000
Sfg-ObM ) .002 808
N 200 208
EaobrtcSab Rooraon ComMon -.W -.188*
S b O-Mod) .021 .018
N 208 208
Noia OpOrnMn S a b Rooraon ComMon .107 -.020
Sis (MoOad) .128 .871
N 208 208
AS* Rooraon ComMon 1 .148*
Sis (2-Mod) .038
N 208 208
Education Rooraon ConabBon .146* 1
#S (2-Mod) .028
N 200 208
ComMon b tf g n ta t * ft* 0.01 M b (M M ).
*. CairiM anlooisnWcOTH ioO .O Sm bg m H).
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
236
REFERENCES CITED
Adams, J. (1989). Understanding and Managing Stress. San Diego, CA: Pfeiffer and Co
International Publishers
Aeppei, T. (2000). Young and old see technology sparking friction on shop floor. Wall
Street Journal, April 7, A l.
Amaro, H., Russo, N. & Johnson, J. (1987). Family and work predictors o f psychological
well-being among Hispanic women professional. Psychology o f Women
Quarterly, 11, 505-521
Ammerman, R., Lynch, K., Dovan, J., Martin, C& Maiste, S. (2001). Constructive
Thinking in Adolescents with Substance Use Disorder. Psychology o f Addictive
Behaviors, 15,2, 89-96
Ammondson, P. (2001). How to refocus and revitalize without quitting your job.
American Society fo r Training and Development, 55, 9,68-70
Anderson, E. & Leslie, L. (1991). Coping with employment and family stress:
Employment arrangements and gender differences. Sex Roles. 2 4 .223-237
Austin, C. (2000). What s Holding You Back? New York: Basic Books
R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
237
Babbie, E. (1995). The practice o f social research (7® ed). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth
Publishing Company.
Barnett, R., Brennan, R. & Marshall, N. (1994). Gender and the relationships between
parent role quality and psychological distress: A study of men and women in
dual-earner couples. Journal o f Family Issues, 15,229-252
Beehr, T. & Newman, J. (1978). Job stress, employee health, and organizational
effectiveness: A facet analysis, model and literature review. Personnel
Psychology, 3 1 ,665-669.
Bhagat, R., O'Driscoll. M.. Babakus, E., Frey, L., Chokkar, J., Ninokumar, B.. Pate, L..
Ryder.P., Fernandez, M.. Ford, D. & Mahanyele, M. (1994). Organizational Stress
and Coping in Seven National Contexts: A Cross-Cultural Investigation.
In G. Keita & J. Hurrell (eds.), Job Stress in a Changing Worlrforce. Washington.
DC: American Psychological Associations.
Bond, M. and Pyle, J. (1998). The ecology of diversity in organizational settings: Lessons
from a case study. Human Relations, 51, 5, 589-614.
Book, E. (2000). Why the best man fo r the jo b is a woman: The unique fem ale qualities
o f leadership. New York: HarperBusiness.
Brewer, N., Socha, L. & Potter, r. (1996). Gender Differences in Supervisors' Use of
Performance Feedback. Journal o f Applied Social Psychology, 2 6 ,9, 786-803
Bruno, F. (1991). The Family Mental Health Encyclopedia. New York: John Wiley &
Sons, Inc.
Burke, P. (1996). Gender shock: Exploding the myths o f male andfemale. New York:
Anchor Book.
Burke, R. (1999). Workaholism in Organizations: Gender Differences. Sex Roles 41, 5/6,
333-345
R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
238
Carter, L. & Underwood, J. (1998). The Significance Principle. Nashville, TN: Holman
Publishers
Cavanaugh, B. (1999). Diversity at work: Women. Nation s Restaurant News, 33, 21,
240-241.
Chiu, R. & Kosinski, F. (199S). Chinese cultural collectivism and work-related stress:
Implications for employment counselors. Journal o f Employment Counseling, 32,
3,98-111
Cohen, F. & Lazarus, R. (1994). Active coping processes, coping dispositions, and
recovery from surgery. In Steptoe & Wardle (eds.). Psychosocial processes and
health: A reader.Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Cooper, C. (2001) I can't cope any more. The Guardian, November 5,2
Council o f Economic Advisers, (1998). Explaining trends in the gender wage gap.
Explaining Trends in the Gender Wage Gap, 1-8.
Crosby, B., Scherer, J. & Crosby, G. (1985). People Performance Profile. 10 Mental
Measurements Yearbook, San Diego, CA: University Associates
Cunnison, S. (1999). Managing like a man: Women and men in corporate management.
Journal o f Gender Studies, 8,2,245+.
Davidson, M. & Cooper, C. (1983). Stress and the Women Manager. New York:
St. Martin’s Press.
Davies-Netzley, S. (1998). Women above the glass ceiling. Gender & Society, 12,
3, 339-355
Davison, G. & Neale, J. (2001). Abnormal Psychology (8*. Ed.) New York: John Wiley
& Sons, Inc.
Dear, J. (1995). Work Stress and Health. Vital Speeches o f the Day, 62, 1,39-42
De Laat, J. (1999). Gender in the Workplace. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
239
Deshpande, S. (1997). Managers’ perception of proper ethical conduct: The effect of sex.
age, and level o f education. Journal o f Business Ethics, 1 6 ,1,79-85
Epstein, S. (1979). The stability of behavior I. On predicting most o f the people much
o f the time. Journal o f Personality and Social Psychology, 3 7 ,1 ,1097—1126
Epstein, S. (1991). Constructive thinking and mental and physical well-being. Anxiety.
Stress & Coping: An International Journal, 10, 3, 385-409.
Epstein, S. (1993). You 're smarter than you think: How to develop your practical
intelligence fo r success in living. New York: Cahners Publishing Co.
Epstein, S. (1997). This I have learned from over 40 years of personality research.
Journal o f Personality, 6 5 ,1,3—32.
R eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
240
Epstein, S. & Katz, L. (1992). Coping ability, stress, productive load, and symptoms.
Journal o f Personality and Social Psychology, 6 2 ,5 ,813-825.
Epstein, S. & Meier, P. (1989). Constructive thinking: A broad coping variable with
specific components. Journal o f Personality and Social Psychology, 5 2 ,2,
332-350.
Epstein, S. & Pacini, R.; Denes-Raj, V., & Heier, H. (19%). Individual differences in
intuitive-experiential and analytical-rational thinking styles. Journal o f
Personality and Social Psychology. 71, 2, 390-405.
Erickson, R. & Ritter, C. (2001). Emotional labor, burnout, and inauthenticiy: does
gender matter? Social Psychology Quarterly, 64. 2 ,146-163
Evans, G. (1999). Play like a man, win like a woman. New York: Broadway Books.
Faulkner, G. & Anderson, T. (1993). Stress Indicator and Health Planner. 13 Mental
Measurements Yearbook. Sumas, WA: Consulting Resource Group Inter
national Inc.
Fernandez, D., Carlson, D., Stepina, L. & Nicholson, J. (1997). Hofstede's country
classification 25 years later. The Journal o f Social Psychology. 137, 1.43-54
Fernandez, J. (1999). Race, gender, and rhetoric: The true state o f race and gender
relations in corporate America. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Flowers, L. (2001). Women, Faith and Work: How ten successful professional blend
beliefand business. Nashville, TN: World Publishers
Gersick, C., Bartunek, J., & Dutton, J. (2000). Learning from academia: The importance
of relationships in professional life. The Academy o f Management Journal, 43,6,
1026-1044.
Gettman, D. & Pena, D. (1986). Women, Mental Health, and the Workplace in a
Transnational Setting. Social Work, January-February 5-10
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
241
Gianakos, I. (2000). Gender roles and coping with work stress. Sex Roles, 42, 11/12,
1059-79
Girion, L. (2000). Office pressure cookers stewing up ‘desk rage”. The Los Angles Times,
December 10, W1
Glenn, N. & Weaver, C. (1982). Further evidence o f education and job satisfaction.
Social Forces, 61, 1.46-55
Gold, J. & Thorton, L. (2001). Simple strategies for managing stress. RN, 64, 12,65-68
Groves, M. (1998). Work & Careers: Corporate Currents. The Los Angles Times.
July 12,5
Gutierres, S., Saenz, D. & Given, B. (1994). Job Stress and Health Outcomes Among
White and Hispanic Employees: A test of the Person-environment Fit Model. In
G. Keita & J. Hunell (eds.), Job Stress in a Changing Workforce. Washington,
DC: American Psychological Associations
Hair, J., Anderson, R., Tatham, R., & Black, W. (1998). Multivariate data analysis
(5th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
242
Hartel, C. & Fujimoto, Y. (1999). Explaining why diversity sometimes has positive
effects in organizations and sometimes has negative effects in organizations: the
perceived dissimilarity openness moderator model. Academy o f Management
Proceedings '99, C1-C6.
Herbert, J. (1997). Stress, the brain, and mental illness. BMJ, 5 ,369-377
Higginbottom, S., Barling, J. & Kelloway. E. (1993). Linking retirement experiences and
marital satisfaction: A mediatorial model. Psychology and Aging, 8. S08-S16
Hofstede, G. (1970). In Fernandez, D., Carlson, D., Stepina, L. & Nicholson, J. (1997).
Hofstede's country classification 25 years later. The Journal o f Social Psychology,
137, 1,43-54
Hon, L., Weigold, M., & Chance, S. (1999). The meaning o f diversity among the
professoriate. Journalism & Mass Communication Educator, 5 4 ,1, 51-68.
Hoyer, J., Averback, M., Heidenreich, T., Stangier. U., Pohlmann, K., & Rossler, G.
(1998). The constructive thinking inventory: factorial structure in healthy
individuals and patients with chronic skin diseases. European Journal o f
Psychological Assessment, 1 4 ,3 ,226-233.
Hurley, J. (1991). Related Measures o f Constructive and Rational Thinking. The Journal
o f Psychology, 125, 2 ,229-235.
Hurley, J. (19%). Constructive thinking and firm disagreement versus neuroticism and
mild agreement: Asymmetric correlations of content and response measures. The
Journal o f Psychology, 130,4,461-475.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
243
Jackson, S. & Griggs, R. (1988). Education and the selection task. Bulletin o f the
Psychonomic Society, 26, 4,327-330
Jamal, M. & Baba, V. (2001). Type-A behavior, job performance, and well-being in
College Teachers. International Journal o f Stress Management, 8, 8, 231-240
James, K. (19%). Social Identity, Work Stress, and Minority Workers’ Health.
In G. Keita & J. Hunell (eds.), Job Stress in a Changing Workforce. Washington,
DC: American Psychological Associations.
Jenkins, C., Zyzanski, S. & Rosenmen. R. (1979). Jenkins Activity Survey. 09 Mental
Measurements Yearbook. San Antonio, TX: The Psychological Corp.
Jick, T. & Mitz, L. (1985). Sex differences in work stress. Academy o f Management
Review, 10 408-420
Jolson, M., Dubinsky, A., Comer, L. & Yammarino. (1997). Following the Leader.
Marketing Management, 5, 4,38-50
Jurik, N., Halemba, G., Musheno, M. & Boyle, B. (1987). Educational attainment, job
satisfaction, and professionalization o f correctional officers. Work and
Occupations, 14, i, 106-125
Katz, L. & Epstein, S. (1991). Constructive thinking and coping with laboratory-
induced stress. Journal o f Personality ami Social Psychology, 6 1 ,5, 789-800.
Keita, G. & Hurrell, J. (Eds.) (19%). Job stress in a changing workforce: Investigating
gender, diversity, and fam ily issues. Washington, DC: American Psychological
Association.
Kipnis, A. & Herron, E. (1994). Gender War, Gender Peace. New York: William
Morrow and Co., Inc.
Kirchmeyer, C. (1999). Women vs. men’s managerial career: Is this a case of comparing
apples and oranges? Academy o f Management Proceedings 99, Bl-6.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
244
Knight Kiplinger (eds). (2001). Empowerment o f women. The Kiplinger Letter, 78, 52,
December 28.3
Knight Kiplinger (eds). (2001). Rising Diversity. The Kiplinger Letter, 78, 52, December
28,3
Knight Kiplinger (eds). (2001). How happy are your employees? The Kiplinger Letter,
78, 36, September 7,4
Knight Kiplinger (eds). (2002). The IRS wants to make it easier for firms to keep older
workers. The Kiplinger Letter, 79, 29, July 19,2
Kogan, M. (2001). Bridging the gap across the generation divide in the federal workplace.
Government Executive, 3 3 ,12,16-21
Krejcie, R. & Morgan. D. (1970). Determining sample size for research activities.
Educational and Psychological Measurement, 30,607-610.
Kroeger, O. w/ Thuesen, J. (1992). Type talk at work. New York: Dell Books.
Krohne, J. (1993). Workplace stress: How do you handle it—when neither fight nor flight
are options? Across the Board 3 6 ,2,36-42.
Landy, F. (1992). Work design and stress. In G. Keita & S. Sauter (eds.) Work and Well-
Being: An agenda fo r the 1990s. Washington, DC: American Psychological
Association
Lawson, K. (2000). KISS to managing your career. New York: Dorling Kindersiey
Pub. Inc.
Lazarus, R. & Folkman, S. (1984). Stress, coping, and appraisal. New York: Springer
Publishing
Lee, D. (1997). Having it all/having enough: How to create a career/family balance that
works fo r you. New York: AMACOM.
Lim, V. & Teo, T. (1996). Gender differences in occupational stress and coping strategies
among IT personnel. Women in Management Review, 11, 1,20
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
245
Makower, J. (1995). Managing diversity in the workplace. Business and Society Review.
92 ,48-54.
Manz, C. (1999). The leadership wisdom ofJesus: Practical lesson o f today. San
Francisco, CA: Berrett-Koehler Publishers.
Manzo, A. (1998). Teaching for creative outcomes, why we don't, how we all can. The
Clearing House, 71, 5,287-290.
Me Goldrick, M., Giordano, J. & Pearce, J. (eds.) (19%). Ethnicity and Family Therapy.
New York: Gilford Press
Milliken, F. & Martins, L. (19%). Searching for common threads: Understanding the
Multiple effects o f diversity in organizational groups. Academy o f Management
Review, 2 1 ,402-433.
Miller, N. Smerglia, V. et al (1998). Stressful life events, social support, and the distress
of widowed and divorced women. Journal o f Family Issues, 19, 2, 181 -204
Minirth, F., Meier, P., Hawkins, D., Thurman, C. & Flournoy, R. (1997). Beating
Burnout. New York: Inspirational Press
Mirowsky, J. & Ross, C. (1989). Social Causes o f Psychological Distress. New York:
Aldine de Gruyter.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
246
Mone, M. (2000). An empirical look at social comparisons and education levels: Do they
influence how hand we work? Western Academy of Management 2000.
Kona, Hawaii.
Moreno, L. & Murphy, M. (1999). Generational Warfare. Forbes, March 22, 62-66.
Moses, B. (1998). Career Intelligence: The 12 new ndes fo r work and success.
San Francisco, CA: Berrett-Koehler Books.
Nelson, D. & Burke, R. (2000). Women executives: Health, stress, and success.
The Academy o f Management Executive, 14, 107-121.
Nelson, D. & Hitt, M. (1992). Employed women and stress: Implications for enhancing
women’s mental health in the work place. In Quick, Murphy & Hurrell, (eds.).
Stress and well-being at work: Assessments and interventions fo r occupational
mental health. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association, 164-177
Nelson, P., Schmidt, K. & Nelson, N. (1985) Stress Analysis System. 10 M—*taI
Measurements Yearbook San Francisco, CA: Interdatum Inc.
Northwestern National Life Insurance Company Report. (1991) In Dear, J. (1995). Vital
Speeches o f the Day, 6 2 ,39-42
Norusis, M. (1998). SPSS 8.0 Guide to Data Analysis Upper Saddle River, NJ:
Prentice-Hall Inc
Orenstein, P. (2000). Flux: Women on sex, work, kids, love, and life in a half-changed
world. New York: Doubleday.
Osborn, A. (2000). Workplace blues leave employers in the red The Guardian,
October 12,1.15
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
247
Osland, J., Snyder, M. & Hunter, L. (1998). A comparative study of managerial styles
among female executives in Nicaragua and Costa Rica. International Studies o f
Management & Organization, 2 8 ,2,54-73
Park, C., Moore, P., Turner, R., & Adler, N. (1997). The roles of constructive thinking
and optimism in psychological and behavioral adjustment during pregnancy.
Journal o f Personality & Social Psychology, 73, 3,584-592.
Patrick, C. & Ross, B. (2001) The Impact of Gender and Race on Wages and
Management Opportunities within U.S. Organizations. The Institute o f Behavioral
and Applied Management, IBAM 8,519-529
Phillips, B. (1995). Controlling your emotions before they control you. Eugene, OR:
Harvest House Publishers
Remez, L. (2001). Ethnic Sandwich Generation Faces More Stress than Its General
Market Peers. Marketing to the Emerging Majorities. 1 3 .1, 1-4
Richard, O. (2000). Racial diversity, business strategy, and firm performance: A resource-
based view. Academy o f Management Journal, 4 3 ,2, 164—177.
Roberts, D. (1998). What constitutes effective teaching with adults? Encounter. 5 9 ,1-2,
209-223.
Ross, C. & Huber, J. (1985). Hardship and depression. Journal o f Health and Social
Behavior, 2 6 ,312-327.
Ross, C. & Van Willigin, M. (19%). Gender, parenthood, and anger. Journal o f Marriage
and the Family, 58, 572-584.
Salk, J. & Brannen, M. (2000). National culture, networks, and individual influence in a
multinational management team. Academy o f Management Journal, 43,2,
191-202.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
248
Schieman, S. (2000). Education and the activation, course, and management of anger.
Journal o f Health and Social Behavior, 41,20*39.
Schwartz, F. (1992). Breaking with tradition: Women and work, the new facts o f life.
New York: Warner Books.
Schwartz, M., Lerman, C. Miller, S., Daly, M. & Masny, A. (1995). Coping disposition,
perceived risk, and psychological distress among women at increased risk for
ovarian cancer. Health Psychology, 14,232-235.
Selye, H. (1956). The Stress o f Life. New York: McGraw Hill Book Co.
Sherman, A., Bohlander, G., & Snell, S. (1998). Managing Human Resources. Cincinnati,
OH: South-Western College Publishing.
Simons, A., Angell, K., Monroe, S. & Thase, M. (1993). Cognition and Life Stress in
Depression. Journal o f Abnormal Psychology, 102,4, 584-591
Simons, T., Pelled, L. & Smith, K. (1999). Making use o f difference: Diversity, debate,
and decision comprehensiveness in top management teams. Academy o f
Management Journal, 4 2 ,6,662-673
Siu, O., Spector, P. Cooper, C. & Donald, I. (2001). Age Differences in Coping and
Locus o f Control. Psychology and Aging, 16,4, 707-710
Spirrison, C. & Gordy, C. (1993). The constructive thinking inventory and detecting
errors in proofreading. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 76, 2 ,631-634.
Staats, S., Partlo, C., Armstrong Stassen, M. & Plimpton, L. (1993). Older Working
Widows: Present and Expected Experiences of Stress and Quality of Life in
Comparison with Married Workers. In G. Keita & J. Hurrell (eds.), Job Stress
in a Changing Workforce. Washington, DC: American Psychological
Associations.
Stem, H. & Brier, M. (2001). De-Stress for Success. Financial Planning, December 1,
1-3
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
249
Talmud, I. & Izraeli, D. (1999). The relationship between gender and performance
issues o f concern to directors: Correlates or institution? Journal o f Organizational
Behavior, 2 0 ,459-474.
Tata, J. (1998). The influence of gender on the use and effectiveness o f managerial
accounts. Group & Organization Management, 23, 3,267-288
Tobias, C. (1999) The Way We Work. Nashville. TN: Broadman & Holman Publishers
Turner, R. & Noh, S. (1983). Class and psychology vulnerability: The significance of
social support and personal control. Journal o f Health and Social Behavior, 24.
2-15.
Turner, R. & Roszell, P. (1994). Personal Resources ami the Stress Process. New York:
Plenum Press.
U.S. Census Bureau. (2001). Statistical Abstract o f the United States. 121st edition.
U.S. Department o f Labor. (1992). Job projections 1990 to 2005. Statistical Abstract o f
the United States. 112th edition.
Wong, J & Patten, S. (2001). Perceived work stress and major depression in the Canadian
employed population, 20-49 years old. Journal o f Occupational Health
Psychology, 6, 4,283-289
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
250
Wooten, K., Sulzer, J. & Cornwell, J. (199S). The Effects o f Age. Financial Strain, and
Vocational Expectancies on the Stress-Related Affect o f Adult Job Losers.
In G. Keita & J. Hurrell (eds.). Job Stress in a Changing Workforce. Washington.
DC: American Psychological Associations.
Wright, J. & Hamilton, R. (1979). Education and job attitudes among blue-collar
workers. Sociology o f Work and Occupations. 6, 1, 59-83.
Yoder, J. (1999) Women and Gender: Transforming Psychology. Upper Saddle River,
NJ: Prentice-Hall. Inc.
Zellars, K., Perrewe, P. & Hochwarter, W. (2000). Burnout in health care: the role o f the
five factors o f personality. Journal o f Applied Social Psychology, 30, 8,
1570-1598
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
251
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Abrams, S. (2000). The new success rules fo r women: 10 surefire strategies fo r reaching
your career goals. California: Prima Publishing.
Adams, J. (1989). Understanding and Managing Stress. San Diego, CA: Pfeiffer and Co
International Publishers
Adeyemi, A. (1999). A study o f the relationship between influence tactics, gender, and
leadership style in manager-subordinate dyads. Nova Southeastern University
dissertation.
Aeppel, T. (2000). Young and old see technology sparking friction on shop floor. Wall
Street Journal. April 7, Al.
Aguinis, H. & Adams. S. (1998). Social-role versus structural models o f gender and
influence use in organizations. Group & Organization Managements, 2 3,4.
414-446
Allen, D. & Griffeth, R. (1997). Vertical and lateral information processing: The effects
of gender, employee classification level, and media richness on communication
and work outcomes. Human Relations. 50, 10,1239-1260.
Allison, M. (2000). Slow climb to the top. Chicago Tribune, August 6, Sec. 6 , 1+.
Allport, G. (1965). Letters from Jenny. New York: Harcourt, Brace, and World.
American Psychological Association. (1995). Publication manual o f the American
Psychological Association (4th ed.). Washington, DC: APA Publishing.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
252
Amaro, H., Russo, N. & Johnson, J. (1987). Family and work predictors o f psychological
well-being among Hispanic women professional. Psychology o f Women
Quarterly, I I , 505-521
Ammondson, P. (2001). How to refocus and revitalize without quitting your job.
American Society fo r Training and Development, 55, 9,68-70
Amsler, G., Findley, H. & Ingram, E. (2001) Performance monitoring: Guidance for the
modem workplace. Supervision, October
Anderson, E. & Leslie, L. (1991). Coping with employment and family stress:
Employment arrangements and gender differences. Sex Roles, 24, 223-237
Antonio, M., Lehman, J., Kilboum, K., Boyers, A., Culver, J., Alferi. S.. Yount, S.,
McGregor, B., Arena, P., Harris, S., Price, A. & Carver, C. (2002). Cognitive-
Behavioral Stress Management Intervention. Health Psychology, 20, 1,20-32.
Aquino, K., Griver, S., Bradfield, M., & Allen, D. (1999). The effects of negative
affectivity, hierarchical status, and self-determination on workplace victimization.
Academy o f Management Journal, 42, 3,260-272.
Armour, S. (2000). Test? Forget the test—you’re hired. USA Today, August 8, B1.
Armour, S. (2001). Layoffs fail to push workers' panic buttons. USA Today, February 15,
Bl.
Armour, S. (2001). Slowing economy sends workers back to school. USA Today,
February 27, B l.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
253
Austin, C. (2000). What s Holding You Back? New York: Basic Books
Babbie, E. (1995). The practice o f social research (7* ed). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth
Publishing Company.
Bames, L., Agago, M., & Coombs, W. (1998). Effects o f Job-Related Stress on Faculty
Intention to Leave. Research in Higher Education 39, 4 ,457-469
Barnett, R., Brennan, R. & Marshall, N. (1994). Gender and the relationships between
parent role quality and psychological distress: A study o f men and women in
dual-earner couples. Journal o f Family Issues, 15, 229-252
Bass, A. (1999). Working Less With All The Stress. Boston Globe, June 24, El
Baugh, G. & Graen, G. (1997). Effects o f team gender and racial composition on
perceptions of team performance in cross-functional teams. Group <£
Organization Management, 22, 3,366-384.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
254
Behrman, J. (1999). Why and how managers must develop greater cross-cultural
sensitivity. Global Outlook, 11, 1,9-18.
Bhagat, R., O'Driscoll, M., Babakus, E., Frey, L., Chokkar, J., Ninokumar, B., Pate, L.,
Ryder,P., Fernandez, M., Ford, D. A Mahanyele, M. (1994). Organizational Stress
and Coping in Seven National Contexts: A Cross-Cultural Investigation. In G.
Keita A J. Hurrell (eds.), Job Stress in a Changing Workforce. Washington, DC:
American Psychological Associations.
Bodger, C. (1999). Smart Guide to Relieving Stress. New York: Cader Company, Inc.
Bond, M. and Pyle, J. (1998). The ecology o f diversity in organizational settings: Lessons
from a case study. Human Relations, 51, 5, 589-614.
Bonsignore, F. (1997). Constructive thinking in CEO evaluation. Directors & Boards. 21.
4,35-40.
Book, E. (2000). Why the best man fo r the jo b is a woman: The unique fem ale qualities
o f leadership. New York: HarperBusiness.
Bounds, W. (2000). Give me a break! Wall Street Journal. 70, May 5, W1.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
255
Boxall, P. (19%). The strategic HRM debate and the resource-based view of the firm.
Human Resource Management Journal, 6, 3, 59-75.
Boyle, M. (2001). How the workplace was won. Fortune, 143, 1,139-147.
Brady, K., Trafimow, D., Eisler, R., & Southard, D. (19%). The role o f causal
attributions in competitive situations. Sex roles: A journal o f research, 35, 9-10,
639-643.
Brewer, N., Socha, L. & Potter. (19%). Gender Differences in Supervisors' Use of
Performance Feedback. Journal o f Applied Social Psychology, 26,9, 786-803
Brown, K. (2000). What have you done for me lately? Wall Street Journal, 70, April 10.
Rl.
Bruno, F. (1991). The Family Mental Health Encyclopedia. New York: John Wiley &
Sons, Inc.
Burke, P. (19%). Gender shock: Exploding the myths o f male andfemale. New York:
Anchor Book.
Burke, R. (1999). Workaholism in Organizations: Gender Differences. Sex Roles 41, 5/6,
333-345
Butler, K. (1993). Toward a bias-free workplace. Training & Development, 47, 11,47-50
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
256
Caplan, R. & Capian, J. (1994). Thinking critically about research on sex and gender.
New York: Hapercollins College Publishers
Carter, L. & Underwood, J. (1998). The Significance Principle. Nashville, TN: Holman
Publishers
Carter-Scott, C. (2000). I f success is a game, these are the rules. New York: Broadway
Books.
Carvel, J. (1998). Jobs elude women graduate. The Guardian, November 18,6-7
Chanen, J. (2001). The breaking point. American Bar Association Journal, 87, 83-83
Chavez, L. (1990). The real aim of the promoters o f cultural diversity is to exclude
certain people and to foreclose debate. The Chronicle o f Higher Education,
July 18.
Chiu, R. & Kosinski, F. (1995). Chinese cultural collectivism and work-related stress:
Implications for employment counselors. Journal o f Employment Counseling, 32,
3,98-111
Cohen, F. & Lazarus, R. (1994). Active coping processes, coping dispositions, and
recovery from surgery. In Steploe & Wardle (eds.), Psychosocial processes and
health: A reader. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Cook, J. (2000). Girls turn off computer career paths. USA Today, July 18,8D
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
257
Council of Economic Advisers, (1998). Explaining trends in the gender wage gap.
Explaining Trends in the Gender Wage Gap, 1-8.
Cox, D. (1995). The impact o f stress, coping, constructive thinking and hardiness on
health and academic performance o f female registered nurse students pursuing a
baccalaureate degree in nursing. University of Pittsburgh dissertation, # AAT
9614153.
Cunnison, S. (1999). Managing like a man: Women and men in corporate management.
Journal o f Gender Studies, 8,2,245+.
Daniel, M. (2000). Self-scoring emotional intelligence test. New York: Bames A Noble.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
25*
Dass, P. & Parker, B. (1999). Strategies for managing human resource diversity: From
resistance to learning. Academy o f Management Executive, 13,2 68-80.
Daley, D. & Naff, K. (1998). Gender differences and managerial competencies. Review o f
Public Personal Administration, 1 8 ,2 ,41-56
Dauten, D. (2000). Controlled anger can help you control career. Chicago Tribune,
September 10, Sec. 5, 8.
Dauten, D. (2000). Here's how some great bosses find some great employees. Chicago
Tribune, August 6, Sec. 5,8.
Davidson, M. & Cooper, C. (1983). Stress and the Women Manager. New York:
St. Martin's Press.
Davidson, J. & Smith, M. (1999). Wittgenstein and Irigaray: Gender and philosophy in a
language (game) of difference. Hypatia-Journal o f Feminist Philosophy, 14, 2.
91+.
Davies-Netzley. S. (1998). Women above the glass ceiling. Gender & Society. 12,
3, 339-355
Davison, G. & Neale, J. (2001). Abnormal Psychology (8th. Ed.) New York: John Wiley
& Sons, Inc.
Day, A. & Jreige, S. (2002). Examining Type A Behavior Patters to Explain the
Relationship between Job Stressor and Psychosocial Outcomes. Journal o f
Occupational Health Psychology, 7 ,2 ,109-120
Dear, J. (1995). Work Stress and Health. Vital Speeches o f the Day, 62, 1, 39-42
de Bono, E. (19%). Critical thinking is totally inadequate. Across the Board, 33, 25.
de Bono, E. (1970). Lateral thinking: Creativity step by step. New York: Harper & Row.
de Bono, E. (1985). Six Thinking Hats. New York: Little, Brown and Co.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
259
De Laat, J. (1999). Gender in the Workplace. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Deshpande, S. (1997). Managers' perception of proper ethical conduct: The effect of sex.
age, and level of education. Journal o f Business Ethics, 16, 1, 79-85
Detert, J. & Schroeder, R., Mauriel, J. (2000). A framework for linking culture and
improvement initiatives in organizations. The Academy o f Management Review,
2 5 ,4, 850-863.
D'Nan Bas, C. (2000). On climb up ladder, career can get stuck. Chicago Tribune. July
2 3 ,6 -7 .
Dowd, M. (2000). Nothing sporting about this. Denver Post, June 5, B-08.
Doyle, C. & Hind, P. (1998). Occupational Stress, Burnout and Job Status in Female
Academics. Gender, Work and Organization, 5 ,2 ,67-85
Dreher, G. & Cox, Jr., T. (2000). Labor market mobility and cash compensation: the
moderating effect of race and gender. The Academy o f Management Journal, 43,
5,890-901.
Dunham, K. J. (2001). The jungle. Wall Street Journal, March 20, B14.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
260
Elias, M. (2000). Mom's IQ not family size, key to kids' smarts. USA Today, June 12.
ID.
Elias, M. (2001). Baby boomers: A generation rewrites the rules. USA Today, February
28, ID.
Elias, M. (2001). Boomers generate new business. USA Today, February 2 8 .6D.
Epstein, C. (1988). Deceptive distinctions: Sex. gender, and the social order. New York:
Vail-Ballou Press.
Epstein, S. (1979). The stability of behavior: I. On predicting most of the people much
of the time. Journal o f Personality and Social Psychology. 37, 7, 1097-1126
Epstein, S. (1991). Constructive thinking and mental and physical well-being. Anxiety,
Stress & Coping: An International Journal, 10,3,385-409.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
261
Epstein, S. (1993). You re smarter than you think: How to develop your practical
intelligence fo r success in living. New York: Cahners Publishing Co.
Epstein, S. (19%). Recommendations for the future development of personality
psychology. Journal o f Research in Personality, 3 0 ,435-446.
Epstein, S. (1997). This I have learned from over 40 years o f personality research.
Journal o f Personality, 65, 1,3-32.
Epstein, S. A Katz, L. (1992). Coping ability, stress, productive load, and symptoms.
Journal o f Personality and Social Psychology, 62, 5, 813-825.
Erickson, R. & Ritter. C. (2001). Emotional labor, burnout, and inauthenticiy: does
gender matter? Social Psychology Quarterly, 64,2, 146-163
Estes, C. (1995). Women who run with the wolves: Myths and stories o f the w ild women
archetype. New York: Ballantine Books.
Ettema, J. (1995). Constructive thinking and reactions to a difficult task. Michigan State
University dissertation, AAT 1374958.
Evans, G. (1999). Play like a man, win like a woman. New York: Broadway Books.
Fagot, B., Leinbach, M., Hort, B. A Strayer, J. (1997). Qualities underlying the
definitions of gender. Sex Roles: A Journal o f Research, 37, n l - 2 , 1-18.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
262
Faulkner, G. & Anderson, T. (1993). Stress Indicator and Health Planner. 13 Mental
Measurements Yearbook. Sumas, WA: Consulting Resource Group Inter
national Inc.
Fernandez, D., Carlson, D., Stepina. L. & Nicholson, J. (1997). Hofstede’ country
classification 25 years later. The Journal o f Social Psychology, 137, 1. 43-54
Fernandez, J. (1999). Race, gender, and rhetoric: The true state o f race and gender
relations in corporate America. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Fialka, J. (2000). Los Alamos lab tries to stem the decline of bomb know-how. Wall
Street Journal, August 2, A1+.
Fishbum, P. & Lavalle, I. (1999). MCDA: Theory, practice and the future.
Journal o f Multi-Criteria Decision Analysis, 8 , 1,1-2.
Fisher. A. (2000). Readers weigh in on managing oldies and getting an online MBA.
Fortune, 142,3,382.
Flett, G., Russo, F., & Hewitt, P. (1994). Dimensions of perfectionism and constructive
thinking as a coping response. Journal o f Rational-Emotive & Cognitive-
Behavior Therapy, 12,3, 163-179.
Fletcher, J. & Olwyler, K. (1997). Paradoxical thinking: How to profit from your
contradictions. San Francisco, CA: Berrett-Koehler Publishers.
Flowers, L. (2001). Women, Faith and Work: How ten successful professional blend
beliefand business. Nashville, TN: World Publishers
Foss, N. (1997). Ethics, discover, and strategy. Journal o f Business Ethics, 1 6 .11,
1131-1142.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
263
Foss, S., Griffin, C., & Foss, K. (1997). Transforming rhetoric through feminist
reconstruction: A response to the gender diversity perspective. Women s Studies
in Communication, 2 0 ,2, 117-135.
Gardner, H. (1999) Intelligence reframed: Multiple intelligences for the 21st century.
New York: Basic Books.
Garland, D. (19%). Practical thinking, academic average, and the relationship to the
constructive thinking inventory. Mount Saint Vincent University dissertation,
AAT MQ37811.
Gersick, C., Bartunek, J., & Dutton, J. (2000). Learning from academia: The importance
o f relationships in professional life. The Academy o f Management Journal, 4 3 ,6,
1026-1044.
Gettman, D. & Pena, D. (1986). Women, Mental Health, and the Workplace in a
Transnational Setting. Social Work, January-February 5-10
Gianakos, I. (2000). Gender roles and coping with work stress. Sex Roles, 42, 11/12,
1059-79
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
264
Gibson, S. (1997). Listen to - and leam from- the other half PC Week, 1 4 ,23,144
Girion, L. (2000). Offcie pressure cookers stewing up ‘desk rage". The Los Angles Times,
December 10, W1
Giscombe, K. & Sims, A. (1998). Breaking the color barrier. HR Focus, 75,1, S9-S10
Glass, L. (1992). He says, she says: Closing the communication gap between the sexes.
New York: Preigee Books.
Glass, W. (1998). Choice theory: A new psychology ofpersonal freedom. New York:
Harper Collins Publishers.
Glenn, N. & Weaver, C. (1982). Further evidence of education and job satisfaction.
Social Forces, 6 1 ,1,46-55
Gold, J. & Thorton, L. (2001). Simple strategies for managing stress. RN, 6 4 ,12,65-68
Goleman, D. (1988). Beyond IQ: New tests measure more o f the mind. St. Petersburg
Times, April 13, ID.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
265
Grayson, C. (2000). What are the Negative Effects of Stress? Well-Connected Report:
Stress, 2-6
Groves, M. (1998). Work & Careers: Corporate Currents. The Los Angles Times.
July 12,5
Gschwandtner, G. (1995). How super achievers win. Personal Selling Power, 15th
Anniversary Issue, 27-32.
Gutierres, S., Saenz, D. & Given, B. (1994). Job Stress and Health Outcomes Among
White and Hispanic Employees: A test of the Person-environment Fit Model. In
G. Keita & J. Hurrell (eds.), Job Stress in a Changing Workforce. Washington,
DC: American Psychological Associations
Gutner, T. (2000). Women's investing: Vive la difference. Business Week, January 31,
126.
Hair, J., Anderson, R., Tatham, R., & Black, W. (1998). Multivariate data analysis
(5th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
266
Hamilton, R. & Barrett, M. (Eds.) (1987). The politics o f diversity: Feminism, Marxism
and Nationalism. Canada: Verso Book Center Inc.
Hartel, C. & Fujimoto, Y. (1999). Explaining why diversity sometimes has positive
effects in organizations and sometimes has negative effects in organizations: the
perceived dissimilarity openness moderator model. Academy o f Management
Proceedings '99, CI-C6.
Hayes, A. (1999). The new presence of women leaders. The Journal o f Leadership
Studies, 6, Z3, 112-121.
Herbert, J. (1997). Stress, the brain, and mental illness. BMJ, 5 ,369-377
Herrenstein, R. & Murray C. (1994). The bell curve: Intelligence and class structure in
American life. New York: Free Press.
Higginbottom, S., Barling, J. & Kelloway, E. (1993). Linking retirement experiences and
Marital satisfaction: A mediational model. Psychology and Aging, 8 ,508-516
Hofstede, G. (1970). In Fernandez, D., Carlson, D., Stepina, L. & Nicholson, J. (1997).
Hofstede's country classification 25 years later. The Journal o f Social Psychology,
137, 1,43-54
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
267
Hofstede, G. (1999). Problems remain but theories will change: The universal and the
specific in 21st century global management Organizational Dynamics, 2 8 ,1,
34-44.
Hon, L., Weigold, M., & Chance, S. (1999). The meaning of diversity among the
professoriate. Journalism & Mass Communication Educator, 5 4 ,1,51-68.
Hoyer, J., Averback, M., Heidenreich, T., Stangier, U., Pohlmann, K., & Rossler, G.
(1998). The constructive thinking inventory: factorial structure in healthy
individuals and patients with chronic skin diseases. European Journal o f
Psychological Assessment, 1 4,3, 226-233.
Hurley, J. (1991). Related Measures of Constructive and Rational Thinking. The Journal
o f Psychology, 125, 2, 229-235.
Hurley, J. (19%). Constructive thinking and firm disagreement versus neuroticism and
mild agreement: Asymmetric correlations of content and response measures. The
Journal o f Psychology, 130,4,461-475.
Hymowitz, C. (2000). Managers often miss the promising talent on their own staffs. Wall
Street Journal, May 9, B l.
Hymowitz, C. (2000). New economy chiefs, seeking stress at play, find golf too stodgy.
Wall Street Journal, June, 27, B1.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
268
Hymowitz, C. (2000). Today, more managers are just employees with added duties. Wall
Street Journal, August 8, B l.
Hymowitz, C. (2000). What to do when your favorite workers don't make the grade. Wall
Street Journal, April 11, Bl.
Hymowitz, C. (2001). Being an effective boss means knowing how to 'manage up,' too.
Wall Street Journal, February 20, B l.
Hymowitz, C. (2001). How some CEOs get the energy to work those endless days. Wall
Street Journal, March 20, B l.
Hymowitz, C. (2001). Impossible expectations and un fill filling work stress managers, too.
Wall Street Journal, January 16, B l.
Hymowitz, C. & Silverman, R. (2001). Can workplace stress get worse? Wall Street
Journal, January 16, B1+.
Jackson, S. & Griggs, R. (1988). Education and the selection task. Bulletin o f the
Psychonomic Society, 26, 4,327-330
Jamal, M. & Baba, V. (2001). Type-A behavior, job performance, and well-being in
College Teachers. International Journal o f Stress Management, 8 ,8,231-240
James, K. (19%). Social Identity, Work Stress, and Minority Workers' Health.
In G. Keita & J. Hurrell (eds.), Job Stress in a Changing Workforce. Washington,
DC: American Psychological Associations.
Jameson, S. (1998). Japan's glass ceiling. Denver Post, May 24, G-02.
Jenkins, C., Zyzanski, S. & Rosenmen. R. (1979). Jenkins Activity Survey. 09 Mental
Measurements Yearbook. San Antonio, TX: The Psychological Corp.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
269
Jensen, A. (1980). Bias in mental testing. New York: The Free Press.
Jick, T. & Mitz, L. (198S). Sex differences in work stress. Academy o f Management
Review, 70 408-420
Johnson, C. (2001). In time of Anxiety, Flexibility Works B est The Washington Post,
November 18, L.l
Johnson, S. (1998). Who moved my cheese?: An a-mazing way to deal with change in
your work and in your life. New York: Putnam's Sons.
Jolson, M., Dubinsky, A., Comer, L. & Yammarino. (1997). Following the Leader.
M arketing Management, 5, 4,38-50
Jones, J. (1997). A study i f selfefficacy and the mediating effects ofperceived control in
the workplace. Nova Southeastern University dissertation, AAT 9735926.
Jones, S. (2001). On-the-Job Stress Newly Defined. The Washington Post, December 17,
E01
Jurik, N., Halemba, G., Musheno, M. & Boyle, B. (1987). Educational attainment job
satisfaction, and professionalization of correctional officers. Work and
Occupations, 14A , 106-125
Karkabi, B. (2001). Tips to lesson tension, increase calm. Houston Chronicle, December
17,1
Katz, L. & Epstein, S. (1991). Constructive thinking and coping with laboratory-
induced stress. Journal o f Personality and Social Psychology, 6 1 ,5, 789-800.
Katzer, J., Cook, K., & Crouch, W. (1991). Evaluating information: A guide fo r users o f
social science research. New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc.
Keita, G. & Humell, J. (Eds.) (1996). Job stress in a changing workforce: Investigating
gender, diversity, andfam ily issues. Washington, DC: American Psychological
Association.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
270
Kipnis, A. & Herron, E. (1994). Gender War, Gender Peace. New York: William
Morrow and Co., Inc.
Kirchmeyer, C. (1999). Women vs. men's managerial career Is this a case of comparing
apples and oranges? Academy o f Management Proceedings 99. B l-6.
Kirkcaldy. B., Brown. J. & Cooper., c. (1998). The demographics of occupational stress
among police superintendents. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 13. 1-2,90-92
Kleinman, C. (1997). Female leadership traits succeed - to just short of CFO level. Sun
Sentinel, March 31.11
Kleiman, C. (2000). A matter of survival. Chicago Tribune. December 31, Sec. 17, 3-4.
Kleiman, C. (2000). Career ruts could use creative spark. Chicago Tribune. September
10, Sec. 6,1.
Kleiman, C. (2000). Company knows best? Not always. Chicago Tribune, July 23.6-1.
Kleiman, C. (2000). Wanna keep 'em? Keep ’em happy. Chicago Tribune. August 13,
Sec. 6,1.
Knight Kiplinger (eds). (2001). Empowerment of women. The Kiplinger Letter, 78, 52,
December 28,3
Knight Kiplinger (eds). (2001). Rising Diversity. The Kiplinger Letter, 78, 52, December
28,3
with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
271
Knight Kiplinger (eds). (2001). How happy are your employees? The Kiplinger Letter,
78, 36, September 7,4
Knight Kiplinger (eds). (2002). The IRS wants to make it easier for firms to keep older
workers. The Kiplinger Letter, 79, 29, July 19,2
Kogan, M. (2001). Bridging the gap across the generation divide in the federal workplace.
Government Executive, 33, 12,16-21
Korabik, K., Baril, G., & Watson, C. (1993). Manager’s conflict management style and
leadership effectiveness: The moderating effects of gender. Sex Roles. 29, 5-6,
405.
Krejcie, R. & Morgan, D. (1970). Determining sample size for research activities.
EducationaJ and Psychological Measurement, 3 0,607-610.
Kroeger, O. w/ Thuesen, J. (1992). Type talk at work. New York: Dell Books.
Krohne, J. (1993). Workplace stress: How do you handle it—when neither fight nor flight
are options? Across the Board, 36, 2 ,36-42.
Landy, F. (1992). Work design and stress. In G. Keita & S. Sauter (eds.) Work and Well-
Being: An agendafo r the 1990s. Washington, DC: American Psychological
Association
Lawson, K. (2000). KISS to managing your career. New York: Doriing Kindersley
Pub. Inc.
Lazarus, R. & Folkman, S. (1984). Stress, coping, and appraisal. New York: Springer
Publishing
Lazarus, R., De Longis, A., Folkman, S. & Gruen, R. (1985). Stress and adaptational
outcomes. American Psychologist, 40, 770-779
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
272
Leana, C. & Van Buren III, H. (1999). Organizational social capital and employment
practices. Academy o f Management Review, (24), 3,538-555.
Leaper, C. (199S). The use of masculine and feminine to describe women's and men's
behavior. The Journal o f Social Psychology, 135,3.359-369.
Le Blanc, E., Vanderkam, L., & Vella-Zarb, K. (2000). America's 50 best companies for
minorities. Fortune, 1 4 2 ,2 ,190-200.
Ledeen, M. (1999). Machiavelli on modem leadership: Why Machiavelli s iron rules are
as timely and important today as fiv e centuries ago. New York: St. Martin's
Press.
Lee, D. (1997). Having it all/having enough: How to create a career/family balance that
works fo r you. New York: AMACOM.
Lensky, H. (1991). Gender differences in the perceived thinking styles o f college students
and their parents. Michigan State University dissertation, AAT 1346286.
Leonard, K. (2000). Hiring for Rapid Growth: Know the New Battlefield. Rural
Telecommunications, 19,5,37-42
Levering, R. & Moskowitz, M. (2001). The 100 best companies to work for. Fortune.
143,1,148-168.
Lewis, D. (1998). Women business owners seen less Bureaucratic. Boston Globe,
April 18, F2
Lewis, D. (2000). The disabled: Diversity's “new kids on the block." Chicago Tribune,
May 14,6-7.
Lim, V. & Teo, T. (19%). Gender differences in occupational stress and coping strategies
among IT personnel. Women in Management Review, 11, 1,20
Long, B., Kahn, S. & Schutz, R. (1992). Causal Model of Stress and Coping: Women in
Management. Journal o f Counseling Psychology, 39, 2 ,227-239
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
273
Lublin, J. You're a Good #2, but are you ready to take the Top Spot? The Wall Street
Journal, February 6, Bl
Lynagh. P., Murphy, P., & Poist, R. (1996). Career-related perspective regarding women
in logistics: A comparative analysis. Transportation Journal, (36), 1,35-43.
Lynem, J. (2201). Lowering heat on corporate pressure cooker. San Francisco Chronicle,
July 1, W.3
Macan, T., Shahani, C., Dipboye. R. & Phillips, A. (1990). College Students' Time
Management. Journal o f Educational Psychology, 82, 4, 760-768
Makower, J. (1995). Managing diversity in the workplace. Business and Society Review,
9 2 ,48-54.
Mani, B. (1997). Gender and the federal Senior Executive Service: Where is the glass
ceiling? Public Personnel Management, 26, 4,545-558
Manz, C. (1999). The leadership wisdom o f Jesus: Practical lesson o f today. San
Francisco, CA: Berrett-Koehler Publishers.
Manzo, A. (1998). Teaching for creative outcomes, why we don't, how we all can. The
Clearing House, 71,5,287-290.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
274
Martin, M. (2001). Depressed employees take twice as many sick days. Occupational
Hazards, 63, 7,16
Martinez, A. (2001). Job, Money Stress Can Depress Workers. Palm Beach Post,
June24, IF
Me Dowell, J. (2000). If I knew then what I know now. Working Woman, July/August,
48-52.
Me Goldrick, M., Giordano, J. & Pearce, J. (eds.) (19%). Ethnicity and Family Therapy.
New York: Gilford Press
Me Grew, K., Bruininks, R.. & Johnson, D. (1996). Confirmatory factor analytic
investigation o f Greenspan's model of personal competence. American Journal o f
Mental Retardation, 100, March, 533-545.
Me Kay, B. (2000). Coke CEO to tie pay to diversity goals, create post on promotion of
minorities. Wall Street Journal, March 10. B7.
Mehta, S. (2000). What minority employees really want. Fortune, 142,2, 181-186.
Meisler, J. (1999). Toward Optimal Health: The Experts Respond to Stress. Journal o f
Women s Health & Gender-Based Medicine, 8, 10,1233-1237
Memmott, M. (2001). Reich knows high cost of'success'. USA Today, January 8, A.l
Mesler, R. (2001). Job stress and High Blood Pressure, http://www. iobstresshelp.com
/HiehBP.hun
Meyer, D. (1989). Sex and power. Middletown, CT: Wesleyan University Press.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
275
Michalisin, M., Smith, R., & Kline, D. (1997). In search of strategic assets. International
Journal o f Organizational Analysis, 5,4,360-387.
Milliken, F. & Martins, L. (1996). Searching for common threads: Understanding the
multiple effects o f diversity in organizational groups. Academy o f Management
Review, 21,402-433.
Miller, N. Smerglia, V. et al (1998). Stressful life events, social support, and the distress
o f widowed and divorced women. Journal o f Family Issues, 19, 2, 181-204
Millman, J. (2000). Mexico is perk paradise for U.S. middle managers. Wall Street
Journal, May 23, B l.
Minirth, F., Meier, P., Hawkins, D., Thurman, C. & Flournoy, R. (1997). Beating
Burnout. New York: Inspirational Press
Miree, C. & Friese, I. (1998). Women entrepreneurs: Moving beyond the glass ceiling/
women, ethnicity, and the workplace. Sex Roles, 39, %, 327-330.
Mirowsky, J. & Ross, C. (1989). Social Causes o f Psychological Distress. New York:
Aldine de Gruyter.
Mitchell, E. (19%). Knowledge and attitudes o f public sector water and wastewater
utility employees about workplace diversity in the commonwealth o f Kentucky.
Spalding University dissertation, AAT %3987S.
Mone, M. (2000). An empirical look at social comparisons and education levels: Do they
influence how hard we work? Western Academy of Management 2000.
Kona, Hawaii.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
276
Moses, B. (1998). Career Intelligence: The 12 new rules fo r work and success.
San Francisco, CA: Benett-Koehler Books.
Mosbacher, G. (1993). Feminine force: Release the power within to create the life you
deserve. New York: Fireside.
Muir, C. (2000). Can we all get along? The interpersonal challenge at work. The
Academy o f Management Executive, 1 4 ,4, 143-4.
Murphy, C. (2000). Are the Rich Cleaning Up? Fortune, 142, 5,252-264
Murray, M. (2001). Waiting for the Ax to Fall. The Wall Street Journal, March 13, B. 1
Myers, I. B., (1995). Gifts differing: Understanding personality type. Palo Alto. CA:
Davies-Black Publishing.
Neck, C. & Cooper, K. (2000). The fit executive: Exercise and diet guidelines for
enhancing performance. Academy o f Management Executive (14) 2, 72 -83.
Neck, C. & Manz, C. (1994). From groupthink to teamthink: Toward the creation of
constructive thoughts patterns in self-managing work teams. Human Relations,
47,8,929-952
Nelson, A. (1990). Supervisors unwittingly cause work place stress. Supervision, 5 1 ,5-7
Nelson, B. (1994). 1001 ways to reward employees. New York: Workman Publishing
Company.
Nelson, D. & Burke, R. (2000). Women executives: Health, stress, and success.
The Academy o f Management Executive, 14, 107-121.
Nelson, D. & Hitt, M. (1992). Employed women and stress: Implications for enhancing
women's mental health in the work place. In Quick, Murphy & Hurrell, (eds.),
Stress and well-being at work: Assessments and interventions fo r occupational
mental health. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. 164-177
Nelson, P., Schmidt, K. & Nelson, N. (1985) Stress Analysis System. 10 Mental
Measurements Yearbook. San Francisco, CA: Interdatum Inc.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
277
Northwestern National Life Insurance Company Report (1991) In Dear. J. (199S). Vital
Speeches o f the Day, 6 2 ,39-42
Norusis, M. (1998). SPSS 8.0 Guide to Data Analysis Upper Saddle River, NJ:
Prentice-Hall Inc
Olsen, L & Bamrick, C. (1997). Powerful leadership skills for women. Women in
Business, 49, 6,36-38
Orenstein, P. (2000). Flux: Women on sex, work, kids, love, and life in a half-changed
world. New York: Doubleday.
Orey, M. (2000). Law firms ponder major changes to fund leap in starting salaries. Wall
Street Journal, May 12, B l.
Osborn, A. (2000). Workplace blues leave employers in the red The Guardian,
October 12,1.15
Osland, J., Snyder, M. & Hunter, L. (1998). A comparative study o f managerial styles
among female executives in Nicaragua and Costa Rica. International Studies o f
Management & Organization. 2 8 ,2 ,54-73
Park,C. & Folkman S. (1997). Meaning in the Context o f Stress and Coping. Review o f
General Psychology, I, 2, 115-144
Park, C., Moore, P., Turner, R., & Adler, N. (1997). The roles o f constructive thinking
and optimism in psychological and behavioral adjustment during pregnancy.
Journal o f Personality & Social Psychology, 73, 3,584-592.
Patrick, C. & Ross, B. (2001) The Impact of Gender and Race on Wages and
Management Opportunities within U.S. Organizations. The Institute o f Behavioral
and Applied Management, IBAM8,519-529
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
278
Peterson, K. (2000). To fight stress, women talk, men walk. USA Today, August 7.
Sec.D, 1.
Phillips, B. (1995). Controlling your emotions before they control you. Eugene, OR:
Harvest House Publishers
Piaget, J. (1954). The construction o f reality in the child. New York: Basic Books.
Pisnar-Sweeney, M., Kuznik, S., & Raxi, K. (1999). Through the looking glass: The
effects of gender role on the perception o f women as leaders. Institute o f
Behavioral and Applied Management Conference 7 ,428-433.
Podzius-Cook, J. (2000). Girls turn off computer career paths. USA Today, July 18, 8D.
Reardon, K., (1995). They don t get it, do they?: Communication in the w orkplace-
closing the gap between women and men. New York: Little, Brown & Co.
Reid, C. & Romanoff, B. (1997). Using multiple intelligence theoty to identify gifted
children. Educational Leadership, 55, Sept., 71-74.
Richard, O. (2000). Racial diversity, business strategy, and firm performance: A resource-
based view. Academy o f Management Journal, 43,2, 164—177.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
279
Rimm, S., w/ Rimm-Kaufman, S., & Rimm, I. (1999). See Jane win: The Rimm report on
how 1,000 girls became successful women. New York: Three Rivers Press.
Rimm, S. w/ Rimm-Kaufman, S. (2001). Haw Jane Won. New York: Crown Publishers
Roberts, D. (1998). What constitutes effective teaching with adults? Encounter, 5 9 .1-2.
209-223.
Rogelberg, S. (19%). Gender diversity, team decision quality, time on task, and
interpersonal cohesion. Small Group Research, 2 7 ,1,79-85.
Rose, J. (2002). The New Risk Takers. Fortune Small Business, 28-35
Ross, C. & Huber, J. (1985). Hardship and depression. Journal o f Health and Social
Behavior, 2 6 ,312-327.
Ross, C. & Van Willigin, M. (19%). Gender, parenthood, and anger. Journal o f Marriage
and the Family, 58, 572-584.
Ross, S. (2000). Too many bosses: What companies need are people who lead, experts
say. Chicago Tribune, July 23,6-3.
Rubery, J. (1995). Performance-related pay and the prospects for gender pay equity.
Journal o f Management Studies, 3 2 ,5,637-653.
Rubin, H. (1997). The princessa: Machiavelli for women. New York: Dell Trade
Paperback.
Russell, B. (2000). Local insight. Chicago Tribune, December 31, Sec. 27, 3+.
Salk, J. & Brannen, M. (2000). National culture, networks, and individual influence in a
multinational management team. Academy o f Management Journal, 43.2,
191-202.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
280
Sappal, P. (2000). Battle of broad-based talent on top of boardroom agendas. Wall Street
Journal, October 17, B21.
Sappal, P. (2000). Women and minorities continue to take a backseat in business. Wall
Street Journal, October 17, B22.
Schafer, S. (2001). Easing Up on Overtime. The Washington Post, August 19, H.l
Scheibe, S., Bagby, R., Miller, L. & Dorian, B. ((2001). Assessing Posttraumatic Stress
Disorder. Psychological Assessment. 1 3 ,3,369-374
Schieman, S. (2000). Education and the activation, course, and management of anger.
Journal o f Health and Social Behavior, 4 1 ,20-39.
Schwartz, F. (1992). Breaking with tradition: Women and work the new facts o f life.
New York: Warner Books.
Schwartz, M., Lerman, C. Miller, S., Daly, M. & Masny, A. (1995). Coping disposition,
perceived risk, and psychological distress among women at increased risk for
ovarian cancer. Health Psychology, 1 4 ,232-235.
Segal, J. (1997). Raising your emotional intelligence: A practiced guide. New York:
Henry Holt & Co.
Segal, J. (1998). Sexual harassment prevention: Cement for the glass ceiling?
HRMagazine, 4 3 ,12,129 -134
Selye, H. (1956). The Stress o f Life. New York: McGraw Hill Book Co.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
281
Senge, P. M. (1990). The Fifth Discipline: The Art and Practice o f the Learning
Organization. New York: Currency Doubleday.
SerebriakofF, V. (19%). Self-scoring IQ tests. New York: Bames & Noble Books.
Serkov, I. (1991). USSR: Learning to think constructively. World Health, Nov., 29.
Shellenbarge, S. (2000). More relaxed boomers, fewer workplace frills and other job
trends. Wall Street Journal, December 27, B 1.
Shellenbarge, S. (2000). Workers, emboldened by tight job market, take on their bosses.
Wall Street Journal, May 17, B 1.
Sherman, A., Bohlander, G., & Snell, S. (1998). Managing Human Resources. Cincinnati.
OH: South-Western College Publishing.
Shinew, K. & Arnold, M. (1998). Gender equity in the leisure services Held. Journal o f
Leisure Research, 3 0 ,2, 177-194.
Shriver, M. (2000). Ten things I wish I'd known—before I went out into the real world.
New York: Warner Books.
Silverman, R. (2000). One banker's remedy for the daily grind: Go get a second job! Wall
Street Journal, April 4, Bl.
Silverman, R. (2001). As the economy slows, job offers get rescinded. Wall Street
Journal, February 27, B l.
Silverman, R. (2001). Laid-off workers find job search no longer a cinch. The Wall Street
Journal, February 6, Bl
Silverman, R. (2001) M.B.A.S revamp career strategies amid slowdown. The Wall Street
Journal, March 20, B1+.
Simons, A., Angell, K.., Monroe, S. & Thase, M. (1993). Cognition and Life Stress in
Depression. Journal o f Abnormal Psychology, 102,4, 584-591
Simons, T & Pelled, L. (1999). Understanding executive diversity: more than meets the
eye. Human Resource Planning, 2 2 ,2 ,49-52
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
282
Simons, T., Pelled, L. & Smith, K. (1999). Making use of difference: Diversity, debate,
and decision comprehensiveness in top management teams. Academy o f
Management Journal, 42,6,662-673
Sims, R. (2000). Bivariale Data Analysis: a practical guide. Huntington, NY: Nova
Science Publishers
Siu, O., Spector, P. Cooper, C. & Donald, I. (2001). Age Differences in Coping and
Locus o f Control. Psychology and Aging, 1 6 ,4 ,707-710
Spirrison, C. & Gordy, C. (1993). The constructive thinking inventory and detecting
errors in proofreading. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 7 6 ,2 ,631-634.
Squedo, A.M. (2000). Defense companies mobilize to win the hearts o f young engineers.
Wall Street Journal, April 18, Bl.
Staats, S., Partlo, C., ArmstrongStassen, M. & Plimpton, L. (1993). Older Working
Widows: Present and Expected Experiences of Stress and Quality o f Life in
Comparison with Married Workers. In G. Keita & J. Hurrell (eds.), Job Stress
in a Changing Workforce. Washington, DC: American Psychological
Associations.
Staff Reporter. (1999) How Pay for Men and Women Differs in Senior Charity Jobs. The
Chronicle o f Philcmthropy, May 31,16-21
Staff Reporter. (1999). Stressed out Worries at work are taking too big a toll. The
Guardian, August 23,25
Staff Reporter. (2000). Coca-Cola announces plan to put $1 billion in diversity programs.
Wall Street Journal, May 17, B2.
Staff reporter. (1998). Explaining Trends in the Gender Wage Gap. The Council of
Economic Advisers, Washington, DC: US Government Publications, 1-13
Staff Reporter. (2000). Trying to overcome a weakness? This man says, “please, stop.”
Fortune, 142, 14,328-330.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
283
Staff Reporter. (2000). Can't We All Just Get Along? Business Week, October 9. F18
Staff Reporter. (2002). How Teaching Employees to Reduce Risks can Cut Your Health
Care Costs. Managing Benefits Plan, 1, 10- 11
Staff Reporter. (2002). Workplace Stress: Defining the Causes & Managing Responses.
Safety Director 's Report, 5, March, 1-4
Stanley, T. (2000). The millionaire mind. Kansas City, MO: Andrews McMeel
Publishing.
Stein, H. (2001). Psychology a true mix of art. Science. Boston Globe. November 1. H.8
Stein, H. & Brier, M. (2001). De-Stress for Success. Financial Planning, December I.
1-3
Strass, G. & Jones, D. (2000). Too-bright spotlight bums female CEOs. USA Today,
December 18,3B.
Stroup, K.. (1998). Racial/Ethnic Data Collection. Summary Proceedings fo r the Policy
Panel on Racial/Ethnic Data Collection, March 17-18
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
284
Steart, L. Jobs: Must women act like men to be promoted to the board? The Guardian,
January 30, 26-27
Talmud, I. & Izraeli, D. (1999). The relationship between gender and performance
issues o f concern to directors: Correlates or institution? Journal o f Organizational
Behavior, 2 0 ,459-474.
Tan, V. (1994). Constructive thinking, life events, daily hassles and nightmares among
university women. San Jose State University dissertation, AAT 1359058.
Taris, T, Peeters, M; Le Blanc, P., Scahfeli, W., & Schreurs, P. (2001). From Inequity to
Bumout: The Role of Job Stress. Journal o f Occupational Health Psychology,
6, 4,303-323
Tarkan, L. (1991). Stress relief: the 90’s perk. Working Woman. 16, 76-77
Tata, J. (1998). The influence o f gender on the use and effectiveness of managerial
accounts. Group & Organization Management, 23. 3,267-288
Teglasi, H. & Epstein, S. (1998). Temperament and personality theory: The perspective
o f cognitive-experiential self-theory. The School Psychology Review, 2 7 ,4,
534-550.
Tesone, D. (2000). Leadership and motivating missions: A model for organizations from
science literature. Journal o f Leadership Studies, 7, 1,60-69.
Thomas, P. (2000). At this 'camp'’ women learn how to pitch to investors. The Wall
Street Journal, July 18, C 1.
Tieger, P. & Banon-Tieger, B. (1995). Do what you are. New York: Little, Brown
and Co.
Tobias, C. (1999) The Way We Work. Nashville, TN: Broadman & Holman Publishers
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
283
Trudeau, L., Russell, D., de la Mora, A., & Schmitz, M. (2001). Comparisons o f marriage
and family therapists, psychologists, psychiatrists, and social workers on
job-related measures and reaction to managed care in Iowa. Journal o f Marital
and Family Therapy, 2 7 ,4, 501-507
Turner, R. & Noh, S. (1983). Class and psychology vulnerability: The significance of
social support and personal control. Journal o f Health and Social Behavior, 24,
2-15.
Turner, R. & Roszeli, P. (1994). Personal Resources and the Stress Process. New York:
Plenum Press.
Tyson, A. (1998). Out from under the glass ceiling series: Where women stand— 150
years after the women’s rights movement began. Christian Science Monitor. July
17, 10-11.
U.S. Census Bureau. (2001). Statistical Abstract o f the United States. 121s*edition.
U.S. Department of Labor. (1992). Job projections 1990 to 2005. Statistical Abstract o f
the United States. 112lh edition.
Unknown. (2001). Ethnic Sandwich Generation Faces More Stress than Its General
Market Peers. Marketing to the Emerging Majorities, 1 3 ,1, 1-4
Valbrun, M. (2000). Immigrants find economic boom brings more than higher Pay.
The Wall Street Journal, August 16, B1-B4
Veningas, R. (1998). Stress in the work place. Vital Speeches o f the Day, 64, 217-19
Veysey, S. (2001). Risk Managers urged to face Stress. Business Insurance, 3 5 ,13.21-25
Waldroop, J. & Butler, T. (2000). Guess what? You’re not perfect. Fortune, 142, 19,
415-420.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
286
Walker, B. & Mehr, M. (1992). The courage to achieve: Why America’s brightest
women struggle to fulfill their promise. New York: Simon & Schuster.
Walsh, D. (2001). Tech workers' new mantra: get a life! San Francisco Chronicle,
September 2, A.1
Wang, J & Patten, S. (2001). Perceived work stress and major depression in the Canadian
employed population, 20-49 years old. Journal o f Occupational Health
Psychology, 6, 4,283-289
Webber, A. (2000). Will companies ever leam? Fast Company. October, 275-282.
Wells, C. (1998). Trust in the context o f social influence, monitoring, and diversity in the
contemporary organization. Temple University dissertation, AAT 9826209.
Williams, J. (2000). Unbending Gender: Whyfamily and work conflict and what to do
about it. New York: Oxford University Press.
Williams, J. (2000). Getting together Minority employment networks ease the way for
many. Chicago Tribune, May 14,6-6.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
287
Wooten, K.., Sulzer, J. & Cornwell. J. (1995). The Effects of Age, Financial Strain, and
Vocational Expectancies on the Stress-Related Affect of Adult Job Losers.
In G. Keita & J. Hurrell (eds.), Job Stress in a Changing Workforce. Washington.
DC: American Psychological Associations.
Wright, G & Goodwin, P. (1999). Rethinking value elicitation for personal consequential
decisions. Journal o f Multi-Criteria Decision Analysis, 8. 1,3-10
Wright, J. & Hamilton, R. (1979). Education and job attitudes among blue-collar
workers. Sociology o f Work and (Occupations. 6, 1,59-83.
Xie, J. & Whyte, G. (1997). Gender differences among managers and nonmanagers: An
analysis of assessment data. Canadian Journal o f Administrative Sciences 14, 3.
340-353
Yoder, J. (1999) Women and Gender: Transforming Psychology. Upper Saddle River,
NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Zellars, K.., Perrewe, P. & Hochwarter, W. (2000). Bumout in health care: the role of the
five factors of personality. Journal o f Applied Social Psychology, 3 0 ,8,
1570-1598
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.