Lead-Acid Battery

Manufacturing Process
 Lead–Acid Battery
A lead-acid battery is commonly used in automobile applications and UPS systems. These
batteries provide sufficient energy to start engines, and are maintenance free, and durable.
The 3 essential components of a single lead-acid type cell:
 Negative plate - Known as the 'anode', this plate is made of lead.
 Positive plate - Known as the 'cathode', this plate is also made of lead, but it is coated
with a lead-oxide paste.
 Electrolyte - The solution of Sulphuric acid and water that the plates are completely
submersed in. It enables the flow of ions between the positive and negative plates,
generating electricity.

The electrical energy produced by a discharging lead–acid battery can be attributed to the
energy released when the strong chemical bonds of water (H2O) molecules are formed from
H+ ions of the acid and O2− ions of PbO2. Conversely, during charging the battery acts as a
water-splitting device, and in the charged state the chemical energy of the battery is stored in
the potential difference between the pure lead at the negative side and the PbO2 on the positive
side, plus the Sulphuric Acid in aqueous condition.
Flow Chart
1. Oxide Making:
The incoming material in the inventory is lead alloys, large blocks of lead, known as ingots are
melted down to molten form.

They are then immediately cast as lead pigs. The thick lead blocks are converted to these
smaller pigs because it's easier for these pieces to rub against each other to form the lead powder
(used in paste-making).
The lead pigs are transported via conveyor belts to their storage container.

The lead pigs are taken from storage and dumped into a large rotating cylinder which gives
them the same treatment as your clothes would get in a tumble dryer. The tumbling action
results in heat generation, because of which the lead pigs oxidize on the surface. The tumbling
process also removes the surface layers of oxide when the pigs scrape against each other. This
makes the cleaner lead (below the surface) available for continued oxidation. An air-stream
then carries the lead powder to a chamber where it is collected. The lead powder from here on
is used for several different applications.
2. Paste Mixing
Making the paste is one main procedure. The quantities and ingredients in recipes affect the
battery's performance, and hence the formula is protected. The paste is usually made up of
powdered Pb3O4 (Red Lead) or PbO (Litharge), or a mixture of the two. Diluted sulphuric acid
and other additives are put in to create the paste. This paste is later applied to the grid and
becomes the 'active material' (which actually participates in the electrochemical reactions of
charging and discharging).
This silo holds the powdered ingredients

The powder (funnel on the left) and acid (tank on the right) are combined together in a
motorized mixing tank:
3. Alloy Blending
This process is all about mixing the two or more metals that form the grid. In car terminology,
a grid is like the chassis of a vehicle. Not only does it provide mechanical support for the 'active
material's, but it is also the main route for current flow. Just like a chassis, the grid is one of
the most important components that determines the characteristic of a single cell.
Interestingly, some additives are mixed with the lead, each of which performs a different role.
They are:
 Antimony - provides stiffness to the grid, but increases gassing and water loss
 Arsenic - improves corrosion, but restricts flow in low antimony alloys
 Tin - improves flow during casting, but results in dripping and flash
 Selenium - prevents crack formation by promoting a grain structure in the metal
 Calcium - improves battery cranking performance and shelf life, but alloying cost is
high
 Aluminium - prevents loss of calcium, but affects the corrosion rate
Typically, there are 3 types of automobile batteries (depending on the alloy):
 Normal - Such batteries use Antimony for both, positive and negative plates. These are
used typically where the usage demands a rough and tough battery (e.g. in trucks where
the battery takes a lot of physical stresses like vibration, and is more prone to improper
maintenance too).
 Low-maintenance - These reduce the usage of Antimony, and increase the usage of
Selenium for one plate and use Calcium for the other. A low-maintenance battery
reduces the consumption of Hydrogen which results in a longer battery life.
 Maintenance-free - The usage of Calcium for both the plates makes these the more
expensive batteries around. They not only have a longer shelf life, but also perform
better when it comes to cranking.

4. Grid Creation
A typical grid must have the following:
 Good mechanical strength
 High corrosion resistance
 Good adhesion with active materials
 Manufacturing-friendly design

Grids are formed by 2 methods:-

Method 1. Gravity Casting
Molten lead + additives are poured into an empty cavity (mold) that is shaped like the grid. The
lead cools down and solidifies to form the grid. Why this method is called 'gravity'? Simply
because there is no external force pushing the molten lead into the mold, besides gravity.
A long row of gravity casting machines for the grid/plate creation:

At 327.5 degrees centigrade, the melting point of lead is relatively low for a metal. For alloys
(i.e. mixtures of other materials in the lead), it's a little higher. The molten lead is kept at 450-
500 degrees (100+ degrees above the melting point) so that it doesn't solidify when it is being
transported or while it is being poured into the mold.
That is molten metal being poured out! A 'reducing flame' on top burns off the oxygen, so that
the lead doesn't oxidize:
Once the lead has cooled down, the two halves of the mold split open, and the formed plate
slides down:

The sliding plate goes through this facing machine (at the right) to shave off rough edges or
excess material. The plates are then stacked:
This is what the end result of the gravity cast plates looks like. Note that they are manufactured
as pairs of connected plates, just for convenience sake. They are split into two individual plates
later on:

Grids then enter the pasting machine where the active material is pressed onto them. Thin sheets
of paper are folded around each grid to prevent any loss of adhesion & bind together the active
material, especially in the anode. Paper doesn't hamper the charge from passing through.
A sample of a well-formed plate pair and a pasted plate pair:
Method 2. Expander Machine
The newer expander technology is a superior method to gravity-casting when it comes to speed,
cleanliness and even cost-effectiveness! The downside is this machine can only manufacture
the negative plates, as there is a difference in alloy and thickness requirements for the negative
and positive plates. The negative plates are thinner; this allows the expander machine to stamp
and stretch narrow strips of metal to form the grids, instead of casting.
Long rolled strips of lead are fed into the machine:

Lead is passed through rollers as the flattening and expanding process begins:
Here is where patterns are stamped (cut) out of the lead sheet to form a net-like pattern on the
plate. The 'expander' name comes from the fact that it stretches (expands) a narrow punched
strip to form a wider grid!

The original thin strip of lead has been stretched to something much wider, and then stamped
out design has appeared:
This strip is going to be cut into individual plates later on. As shown below.

The entire expanded strip is fed in here for pasting. The rolls of paper being used for pasting.
The pasted strip is then cut to form individual pasted plates. The roller (in white) ensures they
are flattened out completely

A very cool robotic arm stacks these plates up neatly

This is the final pasted plates that come out of the expander process look like:

5. Curing
Next, the plates are transported to flash-drying ovens where moisture is removed from them:
For added strength and rigidity, the plates are then heated and undergo a chemical reaction in
the curing chambers:

Before entering the process, the plates have over 11% moisture in them and they leave with
only 0.5% when done. The curing process takes anywhere between a few hours to a couple of
days, depending on the type of plate.
6. Enveloping & Group Assembly

The pasted plates are now ready to be stacked in an alternating manner (positive, negative,
positive, negative) to start to form the structure of the cell. However, each plate is covered with
an envelope or separator, rather than being left bare.

Envelopes
These separators/envelopes are made up of glass mat or polyvinyl chloride (PVC). Their role
is as follows:
 Prevent short-circuits due to any physical contact between the positive & negative
plates.
 Ensure rapid diffusion of electrolyte from one side of the separator to another by
capillary action.
 Restrict the flow of ions between the plates and increase the internal resistance of each
cell.

Glass mat ready to be placed between the plates and separators:

PVC separators are like envelopes sealed at the sides and bottom. They can have different
designs that affect their properties:

This machine stacks the plates after they've been enveloped and have glass mat separators
between them:
The positive and negative plates are positioned as shown below. The enveloped positive plates
have their terminals on the left, while the negative terminals are on the right:

Each cell can comprise of 'x' number of positive plates alternating with negative plates between
them, all placed in a parallel layout, to produce 2V of power supply.

Assembly - Group Building

The group for the battery currently being made has 7 positive plates interleaved with 6 negative
plates:

In industrial or inverter batteries, a long life is more important than the raw current output,
whereas in the auto industry, high current output is a requirement for cranking. This leads to
differences in the number of plates as well as chemical make-up of these batteries.
7. Cast on Strap
This is the process that actually connects all the positive terminals in a cell together and same
with the negative ones. They are arranged in parallel.
Here, the plate groups are held upside down, into a mold. Molten lead is then cast in a channel
connecting all the like terminals (same polarity) together:

When the machine flips the plates back around, the new straps (shiny bits at the top) that have
been cast on the terminals:
The cell groups are now well connected. The ones at the ends have long terminals which is
what sticks out at the top of your battery:

8. Boxing
The tubs which hold the cells are made out of a tough plastic compound. Each tub has 6
individual compartments for each 2V cell group. The cells are placed in these tubs manually:
9. Short Circuit Testing
Once all the cells are in, and before the groups are permanently connected to their neighbours,
a short-circuit test is conducted to ensure no positive plate is in direct contact with a negative
one.

10. Pinch Welding

There's a small hole in the plastic tub through which neighbouring tabs make contact
11. Lid Sealing
The plastic lid is manually placed on top of the tub, before a machine automatically heat-seals
the whole shell together:

12. Terminal Building

The terminals can be welded by a computer-controlled machine or be done manually. That's a
rod of lead in the welder's left hand. He fills any gaps between the plastic shell and terminal
with lead. The lead melts fast when it comes into contact with the welding torch.
That's the end of the long terminal poking out, sealed well to the plastic shell:

A serial number and bar code are added to the batteries at this stage. The filling-holes on top
are temporarily covered with regular cello tape (so no dust goes in):
13. Filling
The batteries are then transported to another section of the factory where they are filled with
Sulphuric acid electrolyte for formation (first fill).

14. Charging and Discharging

The batteries are charged from 14-40 hours in charging tanks. To keep temperatures in check,
the machines are filled with water, and the sensors ensure that power is cut off when the units
become too hot. 99% of the gas produced at the time of charging recombines under normal
conditions. The fume arresters (tubes with baffles in them) temporarily added to the top of the
batteries keep the hydrogen gas from escaping; otherwise, it can cause explosions in the
enclosed charging tanks:
After having been charged, the acid levels in the batteries have dropped a bit. Notice the
unevenly filled cells:

The batteries are then topped up with acid. The acid used has a high specific gravity (~1.260),
so that there is no drop in the cell's charge when this new acid is added:
15. Product Finishing and Inspection
A final check for leaks, irregularities and short circuits is conducted. Those red LEDs on the
six pipes are about to be inserted into the battery. Those are refractory optical sensors. They
can accurately control the fill-level of each cell as it is being topped up:

A pressurized air hose is sprayed in tiny holes on the side to clear out any spilled acid / fumes:
Next, the batteries enter a unique battery wash. It's similar to an automatic car wash:

This cleans them of any spilled acid.

Can the finished battery take the stress of high discharge? This machine draws an extremely
high 300-400 amps from the battery for a full 4 seconds. The voltage drop during this time is
checked in order to see if the battery passes muster. Inverter batteries are tested at an even
higher 700 amps:

16. Packing & Dispatch

A final check for leaks, irregularities and short circuits is conducted, after which the batteries
are stacked in the warehouse:
All batteries are stored in batches and dispatched using the First-In-First-Out (FIFO) method,
to ensure the stock is always fresh:

Lead is known to be one of the heaviest metals. Acid is pretty dense too. Combine them both
in a large plastic container, and you'll find lead-acid batteries are extremely heavy. Battery
weights for a small car start at 10 kgs, tractors at 25 kgs, and truck/inverter batteries are 40 kgs
a piece.