Life Cycle Tribology 109

D. Dowson et al. (Editors)

9 2005 Elsevier B.V. All fights reserved

Electrostatic monitoring of the effects of carbon black on lubricated steel/steel sliding

contacts

R J K Wood a*, P Ramkumar a, L Wang a, T J Harveya, K Nelson b, E.S. Yamaguchi b, J.J. Harrison b, H E G
Powrie c and N Otin a

a Surface Engineering and Tribology Group, School of Engineering Sciences, University of Southampton,
Highfield, Southampton. SO17 1BJ, UK.
b Chevron Oronite Company, LLC, Additive Synthesis and Processing Unit, 100 Chevron Way, P.O. Box
1627, Richmond, CA 94802-0627, USA.
c Smiths Aerospace, Electronic Systems-Southampton, School Lane, Chandler's Ford, Hampshire SO53
4YG, UK.

The aim of this work is to understand better the relationship between the wear of sliding tribo-contacts and
soot contamination in diesel lubricants, as modelled by the presence of carbon black. The work examined
sensitivities between charge and wear induced by carbon black-contaminated lubricants. Previous research,
using a pin-on-disc (POD) tribometer [1-3], has shown correlations between wear, friction and temperature with
electrostatic charge detected by sensors mounted a distance from the contact but focused on the disc wear track.
These correlations were found for both steel/steel and steel/Si3N4 contacts lubricated by uncontaminated base
oils and commercial aviation oils. The present test programme has been carried out on a pin-on-disc tribometer
which was instrumented with Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT), temperature and friction
transducers, as well as an electrostatic wear site sensor. The test conditions of 5m/s sliding velocity and a
contact stress of 2.05 GPa were chosen to match test conditions used previously.
Results from a preliminary test programme which varied the detergents, dispersants and carbon black in
lubricants are discussed. Comparisons between the wear rates, friction, disc surface temperature, oil
conductivity, oil chemistry, and electrostatic charge are presented for the various Group 1 oil formulations.
These studies suggest designs for a systematic matrix to understand how charged additive and/or contaminant
species influence wear and performance over time. Analysis using optical spectroscopy and 3-D profilometry of
the worn surfaces of the pin and disc were used to identify the wear mechanisms.

Key words: Soot, additives, lubrication, wear, bearing steel, electrostatic sensing

effects of organic and inorganic acids originating

1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Oil chemistry
Lubrication demands for current sophisticated
diesel engines would not be met without the use of
tailored packages of chemical additives. Harmful
by-products of the combustion process
(incompletely combusted fuel, polynuclear aromatic
hydrocarbons, organic acids, soot, nitrates,
sulphates, and water) contaminate the oil over time.
The incorporation of dispersants, detergents,
inhibitors for wear and oxidation, and other
additives is essential. Dispersants are used to
prevent build up of harmful carbon and sludge
deposits, which can lead to oil thickening thereby
affecting viscosity stability and flow properties.
Detergents are necessary to mediate the corrosive
from combustion gases and oil oxidation. In
extreme cases deposits can clog oil filtration systems
resulting in a lack of oil flow and subsequent engine
failure [4].
Detergents and dispersants are, generally, long
chain hydrocarbons with polar ends. Detergents are
typically alkali or alkaline earth metal salts of oil
soluble organic acids, for example, alkyl benzene
sulphonic acids or alkyl phenols; detergents may be
overbased such that a reserve of basic compounds is
dispersed in the engine oil. Dispersants utilize
oxygen and/or nitrogen for polarity; typical
dispersants are the imides of polyisobutenyl succinic
anhydrides and ethylene polyamines [4]. In engine
oils, additives disperse, neutralize, and generally
protect engine components from harmful
contaminants.
110
Zinc dialkyldithiophosphates (ZDDPs) have been
the additive of choice for the control of wear and
oxidation for over 50 years. They were originally
developed as antioxidants but later were
implemented for their anti-wear properties. The
anti-wear agent interacts with the metallic surface to
form relatively thick boundary lubrication films.
These films are complex multi-layer structures
whose composition is dependent on contact
conditions and oil formulation [5]. It has been
reported that the composition of these films on
ferrous surfaces consists of an iron oxide/sulphide
layer close to the surface with a thick middle layer of
amorphous glass polyphosphate containing digested
iron with a hydrocarbon rich outer layer [6,7].
ZDDP films are susceptible to abrasive wear, as
shown by Ryason et al [8] in a model study
involving carbon black as a surrogate for soot. Soot
is a major contaminant produced by diesel engines;
measures employed in recent years to reduce the
level of nitrous oxide emissions, such as retarded
fuel injection timing and exhaust gas recirculation
(EGR), give rise to high levels of soot. High levels
of soot produce significant challenges to the
dispersants, detergents, and wear inhibitors.
Furthermore, there is a need to reduce the amount of
sulphur and phosphorus in the engine oil, since
catalysts for the reduction of exhaust emissions are
sensitive to these elements [9,10]. Mindful of these
constraints, this paper describes experiments aimed
at understanding the relationship between wear in
sliding contacts, oil chemistry and soot in model
diesel lubricants.
1.2 Carbon black/soot
Although diesel engines have become more and
more popular due to their higher fuel efficiency and
lower maintenance costs, 'soot' particles formed in
diesel engines due to incomplete combustion have
led to increased oil contamination and wear of
engine parts. Soot is primarily made from carbon
which has formed aromatic molecular networks;
soot particles form highly extended networks [11].
Wear of engine components could be due to
chemical reactions taking place on the surface (such
as corrosion) or abrasive action on the material or
anti-wear film by soot particles. Over the last
twenty years, much attention has been given to
modelling soot formation and its evolution
thereai~er. Gautam et al [ 12] examined the effects of
soot-contaminated engine oil on wear of engine
components as well as other oil properties including
phosphorus level, dispersant level and sulphonate
substrate level. The results showed that the oil's
anti-wear performance was reduced due to the
interaction between soot and oil additives. It was
also found that the phosphorus level of the oil plays
a dominant role on wear performance; the effect of
dispersant level was not very significant, though on
average, higher dispersant levels decreased wear.
Carbon black can be manufactured to have
similar characteristics as soot, but the highly
controlled conditions produces carbon black of
greater uniformity and without any impurities [11].
Various types of carbon blacks have been examined
and compared with different forms of engine soot
[ 13], and it was found that most commercial furnace
and channel carbon blacks, e.g. Vulcan XC72R,
appear to resemble soot from diesel engines.
Ryason et al [8] studied the polishing wear of diesel
engines by soot using Raven 1040, which has a
primary particle diameter of about 0.030-0.040 ~tm,
while typical soot particles have diameters ranging
from 0.01 ktm to 0.8 ~tm [12]. Their results showed
that the carbon black behaved like an abrasive which
caused polishing wear on the steel surfaces. Rounds
et al [14,15] explored the effect of lubricant
additives on the pro-wear properties of diesel engine
soot, and synthetic soots formed from carbon black,
and synthetic soot prepared from soot collected from
diesel engine exhaust. They found that carbon black
could be made to behave more like diesel engine
soot when it was treated with the oil at combustion
chamber temperatures followed by a second
treatment at oil sump temperatures; diesel exhaust
soot was made to behave more like diesel engine
soot when treated with the oil at oil sump
temperatures. The pro-wear characteristics of the
carbon black and exhaust soot, used in these
experiments, was increased by the treatment.
1.3 Electrostatic sensing technology
Tribocharging is a well-known phenomenon
relating to charge transfer when two surfaces come
into contact. This phenomenon can be broadly
explained by considering the contact between two
different materials. Charges transfer from one
surface to the other in order to bring the contacting
materials into thermodynamic equilibrium
(coincident Fermi energies). If these surfaces are
quickly separated and the two surfaces remain
isolated from earth, they will retain a net charge.

Thus, by making and breaking contacts between
different materials, net charging occurs.
The electrostatic sensor is sensitive to charge
which has originated from tribological action, as
well as being sensitive to charge generated by other
mechanisms [16-22]. The technology is based on
the premise that a change in the charge levels is a
result of changes in the condition of the dynamic
system. This technology was originally developed
for detection of debris in the gas path of jet engines
and gas turbines by monitoring the electrostatic
charge associated with the debris present in the gas
path. Changes in the charge level are related to the
presence of increased amounts of debris and hence
the onset of gas path component deterioration
[23,24].
Figure 1 Schematic of the electrostatic charge
sensing system
Electrostatic monitoring has also been applied to
oil lubricated contacts. The primary advantage of
using the electrostatic sensing technique compared
with conventional debris monitoring technologies is
that it is sensitive to most material types including
ferrous, metallic, and non-metallic such as ceramics.
Importantly it is a non-contact method. Figure 1 is a
schematic of the electrostatic charge sensing system,
demonstrating the principle of its operation.
111
The basic difference between monitoring debris
in the jet engine gas path and in oil is that the overall
charge levels in an oil lubricated contact are also
influenced by the chemistry, impurity concentration,
conductivity and temperature of the oil as well as
surface charging due to wear induced phase
transformation, additive film and oxide film
formation and removal, cracking etc. For charged
debris in oil and for the surface charge on worn
surfaces, it has been found that an increase in the oil
conductivity will cause a decrease in the magnitude
of the charge detected [25]. This is explained by
charge leakage from the debris to the oil which,
amongst other factors, will be a time-dependent
function. This will act in opposition to any charging
as a result of tribological action. Also, conductivity
is directly influenced by impurity levels within the
oil. The presence of additives and other chemicals
in the oil also affects the surface charging due to
their reaction with active wear surfaces. Thus, the
charge detected by the electrostatic sensing system
will be affected by the following parameters/factors:
9 Contact and debris materials
(conductive/non-conductive);
9 Oil properties (base oil group, additive
chemistry etc), quality and temperature;
9 Earth plane/sensor proximities.
Electrostatic charge monitoring has been shown
to monitor wear generated by:
9 Gears
9 TE/77 reciprocating wear rig
9 Conventional bearings
9 Hybrid bearings
9 Dry and lubricated sliding contacts
2. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
2.1 Pin-on-disc tribometer (POD) and on-line
condition monitoring system
Figure 2 shows a schematic of the pin-on-disc
wear test rig with the associated instrumentation. As
well as the electrostatic probe, which was located 90
degrees away from the pin/disc contact and 0.5 mm
above the wear track, a strain gauge was installed to
monitor the friction force, an LVDT to monitor the
total vertical linear wear, an infrared thermometer to
monitor the surface temperature on the disc (about
10 mm away from the contact point), and a
tachometer to monitor the rotating speed.
112

Figure 2 (a) Schematic diagram of the POD test set-up (b) Position of electrostatic sensor
An on-line data acquisition system was used to additional running-in at the new load. After the
collect the charge, friction, linear wear, and surface maximum load of 30 N was applied, tests were run
temperature signals in real-time. Suitable signal for one hour. The initial ~. (the ratio of minimum oil
conditioning was applied to the sensors. A DAT film thickness to the roughness of the surfaces) was
recorder was also used to store the raw data as a 0.3, which means that all tests were initially in the
back up. boundary lubrication regime according to the
Stribeck curve. The test pins were ultrasonically
2.2 Test conditions and procedure cleaned in a mixture of acetone and ethyl acetate for
All tests were carried out under ambient 15 minutes before and after testing. The disc
conditions (temperature = 18-28~ relative surfaces were also cleaned with the same solvent
humidity = 40-70%) at a sliding speed of 5 m/s and using cotton wool pins before and alter tests.
load of 30 N (2.05 GPa initial contact pressure).
These are mildly accelerated conditions compared Pin Disc
with typical valve-train entrainment velocities and
Material Steel En31
contact pressure. Hertzian contact stress in the range
0.95-1.1% C, 0.1-0.35%
of 1.7-2.07 GPa has been reported for low emission
Composition Si, 0.4-0.7% Mn, 1.2-1.6
diesel engines [26]. Tests were carried out on the
fully instrumented pin-on-disc tribometer with an Cr, Remainder Fe
En31 steel ball loaded against an En31 steel disc, Hardness (Hv3o) 640 220
lubricated by various model automotive diesel oils. Elastic Modulus, E [GPa] 210 210
The amount of wear and the wear mechanisms were Poisson's ratio, n 0.3
quantified and determined retrospectively.
The tests started with the disc rotating but with Density, p [kg/m3] 7.80x 103
no load or contact for 2 minutes in order to record O60mm x
Dimensions O6mm
background signals before the oil was sprayed onto 10mm
the disc (about 20 ml/hour). After the disc surface Roughness, Rq [~tm] 0.09 1.14
was fully lubricated (another 5 minutes), an initial
running-in load of 10 N was applied for 5 minutes. Table 1 Pin and Disc Material Properties
The load was then increased in regular increments, The properties of the pin/disc materials and the
with 5 minutes between each increase to allow
oils are listed in Table 1 and Table 2 respectively.
 113

Oils 8 9
API Group 1
Viscosity Index r r r r r
Improver
r r r r
Detergent
Dispersant 1 r r

Dispersant 2 r

Carbon Black r r

Density [kg/m 3] 965 8571856 856 857 [ 842 854

Conductivity
1210 I 8320 I 24000 I 7~ 14070 I 7."
[pS/m]
.

Table 2 Summary o f Oils tested (* - denotes Z D D P present).

2.2.1 Oil chemistry
Oil blends were prepared from baseline
formulations that contained 7.3 percent VII
(Viscosity Index Improver) concentrate, and 50 mM
Ca (from detergent). Dispersants were treated on an
equal weight basis, 8.0 percent. Oils with ZDDP
were blended to 0.1% phosphorus.
9 Description of compounds in oil blends:
- Detergent: An overbased sulphurized calcium
phenate detergent. The detergent is
characterized by a total base number of 250
mgKOH/g, and 9.25% Calcium.
- Dispersant 1: A commercially available post-
treated conventional bis-succinimide made
from polyisobutene having a number average
molecular weight of 2300 Daltons. It is
characterized by 1.0% nitrogen. The
theoretical molar mass is about 5600 Daltons
with one polar head per molecule [27,28].
- Dispersant 2: A polymeric succinimide
dispersant. It is characterized by 1.2%
nitrogen. It is made from an alpha
olefin/maleic anhydride copolymer having a
degree of oligomerization of about 10, a
polyisobutenyl succinic anhydride having a
number average molecular weight of about
2300, and an ethylene polyamine. It is a
mixture, theoretically of one mole of
polymeric succinimide, Mn~35000, and four
moles of bis-succinimide, Mn=5600. The
polymeric succinimide has about 10 polar
heads per molecule, and the bis-succinimide
has one polar head per molecule [28-30].
- VII: An ethylene/propylene copolymer.
- ZDDP: A primary Zinc dithiophosphate.
- Carbon Black: The carbon black used as
a surrogate for diesel engine soot was Raven
1040 supplied by Columbian Chemicals
Company, Marietta, GA, USA. Raven 1040
has the following properties [31 ]:
9 Particle Size" 28nm
9 Nitrogen Surface Area: 95m2/g
9 Cetyltrimethylammonium Bromide
Surface Area: 100m2/g
9 Dibutylphthalate Oil Absorption:
100cc/100g
9 Density: 192 kg/m 3
9 p H : 2.8
9 Percent Volatile: 3.0
2.2.2 Oil sample Preparation
Oil samples 8, 9, 10, and 11, and carbon black
were mixed using a rotor stator type high shear
mixer model T25 Basic Dispenser w/S25N-18G
manufactured by IKA Laboratory Analytical and
Processing Equipment. Oil and carbon black were
mixed for one minute, and then the oil was degassed
in a vacuum oven for 15 minutes at about 55~ Oil
samples 3 & 11 were prepared by mixing 2% Raven
powder with Oil 2 & 7 respectively. The mixtures
114

were stirred for 10 minutes followed by 60 minutes
in an ultrasonic bath at 30~ Just prior to testing on
the POD tribometer, all samples were ultrasonically
shaken for 20 minutes.
2.2.3 Oil conductivity measurement
The conductivity measurements were performed
prior to wear testing with a Wolfson Electrostatic
liquid conductivity meter, made at the University of
Southampton. Details of this equipment are shown
in [32,33].
2.3 Post-test analysis and on-line signal
processing
The pin and disc volume losses were obtained by
post-test analysis of the pin wear scars and disc wear
tracks measured using 3-D laser profilometry.
Average specific wear rates (SWR) were then
calculated using equation (1):
VL (mm 3)
SWR =
F (N) x SD (m)
Where VL is the volume loss of the disc or pin, F
is the load and SD is the sliding distance.
On-line signals from the sensors were processed
to give real-time results, including both rms and
standard deviation (stdev) charge levels (Q~ms& Qsd,
pC), the slope of LVDT signal which give the linear
wear rate of pin & disc (mm/min) and the mean
coefficient of friction (COF) under steady state
conditions, i.e. when temperature and friction levels
are relatively stable. The temperature rise (~ over
the test duration was also calculated (AT) as well as
the mean temperature under steady state conditions
(Tss).
3. R E S U L T S AND D I S C U S S I O N
The data gathered with the on-line
instrumentation including, surface charge level,
coefficient of friction, steady state temperature and
temperature change (AT), and the wear measurement
by LVDT, are shown in Table 3. The specific wear
rate on the pin and disc, calculated from post-test
(1)
analysis and the conductivity of the oil, taken prior
to testing on the POD tribometer, are also given.

Charge / pC i Coefficient Temperature / ~ SWR / mm3/Nm

Oil LVDT / mm/min Conductivity
No. rms stdev of Friction Steady AT Pin Disc / pS m ~
i
State
2.78x 10 -Is 4 . 1 2 x 10 "i8 1.26 x 10 .4 1.2
1 10.016 0.009 i
0.063 37.3 13
2 0.015 0.006 0.068 29.7 7 5 . 9 5 x 1 0 "i9 4 . 8 0 x 10 "18 1.14 x 10 .5 6590
u i

3 0.031 0.015 0.068 45.7 20 4.53 x 10 "19 3.78 x 10 "18 2.14 x 10 -5 1210
I! I i i

4 0.023 0.010 ! 0.088 43.4 21 7 . 6 3 x 1 0 "i9 7 . 2 3 x 1 0 "!8 3.62 x 10 .6 8320

|l

5 I0.017 0.007 0.070 29.9 11 6 . 0 3 x 1 0 "i9 5.29x 10 "18 1.22 x 10 .4 15840

|| |

6 0.016 0.007 0.068 29.5 13.5 1.03 x 10 "18 8.95x 10 "18 9.42 x 10 "s 24000
|, |

7* 0.016 0 . 0 0 7 i 0.120 47.0 21.5 2.38x 10 "18 1.97x 10 "i8 4.23 x 10 "6 6990
i i

8 0.017 0.007! 0.071 37.8 15 5.16x 10 "19 2 . 6 7 x 10 "18 3.05 x 10 .5 1170

i| J

9 0.020 0.009 0.067 46.2 20 9.29x 10 "19 8.51 x 10 "18 1.56 x 10 "4 7780
||

10 0.026 0.008 0.067 40.8 21 5 . 9 4 x 1 0 "j9 8 . 0 0 x 1 0 "!8 1.53 x 10 .4 14070

11' 0.016 0.006 0.083 39.8 18 2.53 x 10 "17 n/a 1.66 • 10 -4 7380

Table 3 Results (*- denotes ZDDP present).


3.1 Effect of Oil Chemistry and Carbon Black
Contamination on Conductivity
The preliminary results of the effect that oil
chemistry and carbon black contamination have on
conductivity are summarized in Figure 3.
Conductivity clearly varies with oil chemistry and at
this point several generalizations can be made. First,
the conductivity in the presence of 2% carbon black
appears to be lower in most cases than the
conductivity in the absence of 2% carbon black.
This may be due to the well-known ability of carbon
black to adsorb polar compounds that may be
present as contaminants in either VII, detergents, or
dispersants. This effect needs to be explored in
more detail. Second, it appears that the highest
conductivity arises when VII, detergent, and
dispersant are all combined together in the base oil.
The conductivities for oils 5 and 6, which contain
VII, detergent, and dispersant 1 and dispersant 2
respectively, are considerably greater than the
Figure 3 Effect of oil chemistry and carbon black contamination on conductivity
115
conductivity for oil 4, which contains only VII and
detergent. The reasons for this are not well
understood at this time, but the well-known
detergent/dispersant interaction [34] may play a role.
Third, addition of ZDDP to both oils 6 and 10,
appears to lower the conductivity by a considerable
amount. The well-known dispersant/ZDDP
interaction [34] may be playing an important role
here.
3.2 Effect of Oil Chemistry and Carbon Black
Contamination on Surface Charge
The effect of oil chemistry and carbon black
contamination on surface charge, Qrms, is
summarized in Figure 4. At this point there are only
slight differences in the surface charge as the oil
additive chemistry changes. These subtle changes
are not well understood and are being investigated
further.
116

Figure 4 Effect of oil chemistry and carbon black contamination on surface charge

Figure 5 Effect of oil chemistry and carbon black contamination on temperature


Figure 6 Effect o f oil chemistry and carbon black contamination on wear
3.3 Effect of Oil Chemistry and Carbon Black
Contamination on Friction and
Temperature Increase
Figure 5 shows the change in temperature
observed during these experiments. Detergent and
ZDDP form rough boundary films [35,36] and, in
the absence of carbon black, higher friction and a
greater increase in temperature was observed when
these films were likely to form (Oils 4 and 7).
Succinimide dispersants are known to interfere with
the formation of boundary films [34&37]. Neither
an increase in the coefficient of friction nor an
increase in temperature was observed when either
dispersant was added to Oil 4 (relative to Oil 2) as
shown in Figure 5, and Table 3.
Generally, oils contaminated with carbon black
exhibited a large temperature increase; however, the
coefficient of friction was not changed.
117
Conceivably, this temperature increase was due
to an increase in abrasive wear (mechanical action)
or viscous heating (due to agglomeration of carbon
black). Again this requires further investigation.
3.4 Effect of Oil Chemistry and Carbon Black
Contamination on Wear
In Figure 6, the addition of carbon black resulted
in minor to major increases in wear rate (see Oils 2
vs. 3; 5 vs. 9; 6 vs. 10; and 7 vs. ll). This is
consistent with the known abrasive nature of carbon
black [8]. For Oil 7, the wear rate was very low due
to the addition of ZDDP, a known wear inhibitor.
Comparison of the wear rates of Oil 4 to Oils 5 and
6 show that the addition of dispersant 1 or 2 to Oil 4
gave higher wear rates. This is in agreement with the
observation in electrical contact resistance (ECR)
experiments that dispersants can slow down the rate
of anti-wear film formation [37].
118

Figure 7 3D wear track images for oils:(a) Oil 1, (b) Oil 2, (c) Oil 5, (d) Oil 9, (e) Oil 10, and 09 Oil 7

3.5 Post-test disc surface profilometry analysis
Figure 7 shows the 3-D images of the wear
tracks on the disc after testing with oils 1,2,5,9,10 &
7. Table 4 gives more details about the wear track
width and depth.
Oil Wear track Wear track
Types depth (~m)
width (~tm)
260 7.6
2 340 6.0
5 310 5.6
9 250 4.0
10 220 5.6
7 190 3.6
Table 4 Disc wear track widths and depths on
tests with selected oils.
Profilometric studies showed that Oil 7 not only
gave the lowest wear, but the surfaces appeared
appreciably smoother than the others. This effect is
reminiscent of the study by Snidle et al [38], who
used ZDDP in base oil and observed a marked
improvement of the surface topography in a steel-
on-steel tribocouple just prior to scuffing.
Oil 1 has a unique wear scar geometry being 'v'
shaped while others are 'u' shaped with
polished/light-abraded tracks evidenced by
grooving. The wear scar from all of the oils appears
to be dominated by abrasion, perhaps because of the
initial roughness of the pin and disc surfaces. For
the evaluation of additive effects, conditions that
include abrasive wear only when carbon black or
soot is present, are preferred. A study of individual
additives, particularly additives that do not provide
protection against abrasive wear, may require new
test conditions.
3.6 Conclusions
Although the work is still on going and more
conclusive statements will be made in due course, at
this stage, the following preliminary conclusions are
drawn.
Surface charge level varies with addition
of detergent and carbon black to the
mineral base oil plus VI improver (oil
No.2), which infers a change in the
nature of the tribochemical surface film.
Contamination with 2% carbon black
results in higher steady state temperature
and larger temperature rise for all oils
119
except those contain ZDDP. This
suggests an increase in abrasive wear
(mechanical action) or viscous heating
due to agglomeration of carbon black.
Carbon black contamination results in
higher wear rate for all oil formulations
including those that contain ZDDP. This
infers that the primary ZDDP does not
control wear in the presence of 2%
carbon black contamination.
Addition of carbon black did not appear
to significantly influence the wear
mechanism with only slight signs of
increased abrasion or polishing.
3.7 Future Work
The experiments described in this paper
comprise the preliminary evaluation of test
conditions for a more thorough study of the
sensitivities between charge and wear, and the
effects of additive chemistry and contamination. The
results described in this paper will be used to design
a matrix using factorial techniques. Factors under
consideration are tribo-couple type, oil aging by
contamination or oxidation, and variation of additive
type.
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