Dynamic model for electrode melting rate in
gas metal arc welding process
Z. Bingul, G. E. Cook, and A. M. Strauss
A model has been developed that correlates the anode
temperature pro®le with the dynamic melting rate in
gas metal arc welding. The components of this model
are the electrode melting rate, the temperature
dependent resistivity of the electrode, and the arc
voltage. The differential equations describing the
dynamic behaviour of the electrode extension were
derived from the mass continuity and energy relations.
The temperature of the electrode extension was
determined by analysing conductive heat transfer and
Joule heating effects. One-dimensional solutions for the
temperature and heat content were used to obtain
the dynamic melting rate equation. The purpose of
the present paper is to provide quantitative analyses,
concentrating on the thermal behaviour and the
electrical characteristics of the arc welding system, to
aid in achieving a fundamental understanding of the
process, and to develop a dynamic model that can be
used in adaptive control. The model is tested by
comparison with experimental results.
The authors are in the Welding Automation Labora-
tory, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN 37235,
USA. Manuscript received 23 May 2000; accepted
30 June 2000.
# 2001 IoM Communications Ltd.
LIST OF SYMBOLS
a1,2,b1,2 coef®cients of resistivity
A cross-sectional area of electrode, mm2
c constant, s21
Cp speci®c heat capacity, J g21 K21
Ea length dependency of arc voltage, V mm21
g action integral, J V21 mm24
H heat content, J mm23
Ha anode heating content, J mm23
HC heat content at Curie temperature
(~4 J mm23)
HL Joule heating energy per unit volume of
wire, J mm23
H0 melting heat content, J mm23
I current, A
J current density, A mm22
J0 steady state value of J at tv0, A mm22
k constant
k1,2 coef®cients of Lesnewich equation1
l arc length, mm
L electrode length, mm
r radial direction in electrode
Ra current dependency of arc voltage, V A21
RL resistance, V
t time, s
tT transition time, s
T temperature, K
ISSN 1362 ± 1718
TC Curie temperature, K
Tm melting temperature, K
T0 initial temperature, K
v wire feedrate, mm s21
vm melting rate, mm s21
v0 steady state value of v at tv0, mm s21
Varc arc voltage drop, V
VL voltage drop along electrode extension, V
V0 constant in arc voltage drop equation, V
W action, J V21 mm24
z length direction in electrode
d relative proportion of solid in two phase
zone
l thermal conductivity, W mm21 K21
r density, g mm23
w work function, V
W resistivity of wire, V mm
INTRODUCTION
Determining the process variables in arc welding plays an
important role in modelling, since modelling of the process
is based on these variables and the process models relate
these variables to one another. The gas metal arc welding
(GMAW) process forms a rather complex, non-linear
multivariable system. The variables of the welding process
can be separated into two categories:2 direct weld
parameters (DWPs) and indirect weld parameters (IWPs)
as shown in Fig. 1. The disturbance parameters can be
varied online during welding, causing changes in the DWPs,
so they must be controlled by the other indirect welding
parameters to minimise the effect of such disturbances.
Since a non-linear relationship exists between the highly
coupled direct and indirect weld parameters, the coef®cients
of the differential equations that relate the direct and
indirect weld parameters vary as a function of operating
conditions.
IWP indirect weld parameters; DWP direct weld parameters;
CTWD contact tube ± work distance
1 Input and output variables for welding process
Science and Technology of Welding and Joining 2001 Vol. 6 No. 1 41
42 Bingul et al. Dynamic model for electrode melting in GMAW

Arc stability is essential for good quality welds. Ensuring

maximum arc stability is a function of many factors:
selection of satisfactory welding parameters, maintenance
of the same parameters in production, monitoring of
internal and external changes in the process, correction of
such changes, maintenance of uniform metal transfer, the
chemical composition of the material being melted, and the
dynamic characteristics of the power source and process
variables. Abnormal changes in the process variables can
result in an unstable arc (spatter and fume). To reduce the
spatter and fume, feedback control systems with the added
capability of self-adjustment are necessary to maintain a
stable arc over the operating range of the process.
The electrode melting rate is one of the most important
parameters in the GMAW process, because arc stability
depends on how closely the electrode feedrate and the
electrode melting rate are balanced to maintain a constant
arc length. For constant potential GMAW, arc length
regulation is an inherent part of the `self-regulation'
characteristic3 inherent in this mode of operation. Although
instabilities may occur in this mode,4 ± 6 it is a straightfor-
ward matter to select stable zones of operation. For
constant current and pulsed current GMAW, however,
arc length regulation must be provided by sensing and
controlling the voltage.7 Design and testing of the arc length
regulation system requires an accurate dynamic melting rate
model.
A thorough understanding of arc physics is the most
important basis for developing such a dynamic melting rate
model based on relationships between the energy, mass
transfer, and heat transfer. The electrical power supplies the
arc energy, which generates the heat at the anode and 2 Heat transfer con®gurations with boundary conditions
cathode regions and within the plasma column. Mathema- along electrode extension
tical modelling of the welding system is complicated because
of the complex distribution of temperature throughout the
system. A distributed parameter model governed by partial predicting wire heating and melting, because this equation
differential equations or non-linear ordinary differential uses only the current values to calculate the temperature
equations with appropriate boundary conditions is required dependence of the Joule heating energy.
for a precise analysis of the system. A weakness of most of the resistivity models in the
literature is the simpli®ed treatment of the transition
behaviour of the resistivity. This weakness results in a
lack of explanation for the dynamic characteristics of the
BACKGROUND electrical parameters. When the electrical energy or thermal
During the welding process, important physical phenomena energy changes, the resistivity and corresponding Joule
occur in an interrelated manner: conductive heat transfer in heating energy along the electrode extension also change
the contact tip and Joule heating along the electrode, based on these input energy variations. The relationship
melting in the electrode tip, interaction between the plasma between energy and resistivity was investigated by
and melting at the electrode tip, radiation and vaporisation Waszink9,10 and van den Heuvel,10 and Halmoy.11 This
losses, and Thomson, convective, and conductive heat relationship was found to be very useful in obtaining a
transfer at the interface between the shielding gas and the dynamic resistivity model.3,5,12
droplet (Fig. 2). Among these heat transfers, Joule heating The substantial non-linearities occurring in the modelling
accounts for a substantial part of the heat required to melt of GMAW are mainly due to the complex nature of the
the electrode. To quantify the Joule heating energy, it is melting process and the degree of coupling between the
necessary to know the relationship between the electrode system variables in this melting region. Frequently these
resistivity and the temperature, but the temperature variables, such as the electrode length, arc resistance, and
dependence of the electrode resistivity in the current electrode voltage drop, cannot be readily quanti®ed and
carrying moving wire cannot readily be quanti®ed. There- measured. This results in a lack of information about the
fore, a quantity that is a function of both the resistivity and dynamic behaviour of these parameters. Furthermore, Joule
the temperature is required to serve as a link between them heating in the electrode extension preheats the electrode
and to simplify the complex temperature dependence in the materials and this creates a memory, or a time delay
moving wire. This term is known as the action integral,8 in element, for the travel of the electrode extension. An
which the effects of the temperature dependent resistivity of important aspect of the modelling is that it is essential to
the moving electrode are directly combined. It is de®ned as know the transient or dynamic nature of the melting rate. If
…t information about the dynamic behaviour of the process is
g(t)~ I 2 (t) dt : : : : : : : : : : : : (1) available, it is possible to explain the dynamic relationships
between current, electrode extension, electrode voltage
0 drop, and contact tube ± work distance (CTWD). These
In the study by Anderson and Neilson,8 an experimentally relationships can be veri®ed using accurate melting rate
exploding wire was ®rst correlated with the Joule heating data. Thus, an analytical model for the melting rate is
generation. The above equation was found to be a more required to give an adequate explanation of these relation-
useful relation than the energy integral equation for ships.

Science and Technology of Welding and Joining 2001 Vol. 6 No. 1

 Bingul et al. Dynamic model for electrode melting in GMAW 43

3 Schematic diagram of gas metal arc welding (GMAW)

model

Lesnewich1 conducted extensive experimentation on

GMAW of mild steel and empirically derived his well
known equation expressing the steady state relationship
between current, electrode diameter, and melting rate.
Halmoy11 used an energy balance to derive a result of the
same form as that of Lesnewich, and also calculated the
`effective anode heating voltage' and the temperature of 4 Temperature and energy distribution along electrode
the discharged droplets. Richardson et al.13 showed that extension
the response rate of the power source affects the melting rate,
and the response rate of the power supply has a notable
in¯uence on the melting rate when the Joule heating in the current constitutes the majority of the energy transferred to
wire increases. Quinn et al.14 developed a simpli®ed dynamic the anode from the welding arc. Based on the above
model for electrode extension and found the dimensionless assumptions, the conservation equations are expressed as
parameters that represent the dynamic behaviour of follows for the z axis.
the system around the steady state solutions. Various Mass continuity can be expressed in the form
authors1,13 ± 24 have contributed to the general knowledge Lr Lr
and use of the melting rate relationships for both constant zv ~0 : : : : : : : : : : : : (2)
Lt Lz
potential and pulsed current GMAW. Whereas there has
been limited work describing dynamic melting rate relation- and conservation of energy in the form
   
ships,14,23 most of the efforts have been based, at least in L LT 2 LT LT
part, on steady state conditions. Unfortunately, in most l(T) zJ (T)~Cp (T)r(T) zv (3)
Lz Lz Lt Lz
instances these conditions become unacceptable for practical
control purposes. Also, a fully coupled non-linear model of The energy equation contains a Joule heating term. The
electrode extension has not been developed. Thus, a fully boundary conditions are
dynamic model for electrode extension is necessary to predict T~T0 , z~L
the amount of the electrode that extends beyond the contact
tube before it melts. T~Tm , z~0
LT
~0 : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : (4)
Lr
MATHEMATICAL MODEL
The mathematical model of the GMAW process developed Precise modelling of mass changes at the electrode tip is
in the present work consists of three components, namely, rather problematic because the density of the material is a
the melting rate model, the electrode resistivity model, and non-linear function of temperature. However, a simple
the arc voltage model. A schematic diagram of the model is model that expresses the relationship between mass and
shown in Fig. 3. electrode extension may be adequate to represent the rate of
change of the electrode extension with time. The model can
be derived from the mass conservation law as follows. As
Melting rate model can be seen from Fig. 5, the ¯owrate in and the ¯owrate out
Developing an explicit melting rate model that predicts the are the wire feedrate (v) and the melting rate (vm),
relationship between arc current and electrode extension for respectively. The system has one input v and one output
a given wire size and wire composition is important for the L. Thus, the system is governed by a single differential
global control of the process variables. The melting rate is equation in L. The principle of conservation of mass can be
determined by the balance between energy and mass given in mathematical form as
entering and leaving the electrode. The arc can be
d
considered to be a moving energy (heat) source in the z (ArL)~Arv{Arvm : : : : : : : : : (5)
direction.25,26 Therefore, energy conservation and mass dt
conservation laws can be applied by specifying the Assuming Ar is constant, the equation becomes
boundary conditions and initial conditions. The problems dL
arising in the modelling of the electrode are mainly due to ~v{vm : : : : : : : : : : : : : (6)
the complex nature of the boundary conditions. However, dt
treating the electrode and the arc column as separate blocks Combining the above mass continuity equation and the
aids in eliminating these boundary conditions.27 This is energy equation, the damped non-linear heat equation can
shown in Fig. 4. The assumptions made are that the heat be obtained as follows
dissipation losses, due to convection, vaporisation, and  
L LT
radiation, are negligible. These assumptions do not affect l(T) zJ 2 (T)~0 : : : : : : : : (7)
Lz Lz
the accuracy of the model because many authors9,11,14 have
shown that the conductive heat produced by the electric The heat transfer and temperature distributions during

Science and Technology of Welding and Joining 2001 Vol. 6 No. 1

44 Bingul et al. Dynamic model for electrode melting in GMAW

Resistivity (V m m )
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
0 2 4 6 8
Heat Content (J mm_3)
Si–Mn stainless mild

6 Variation of resistivity with heat content for typical

wires

process. Equation (12) shows that the heat content based on

temperature and temperature history is related to the
current density and current density history. Substitution of
equation (10) into equation (12) gives
…L
H
LH
~W H > HC : : : : : : : (13)
a2 Hzb2
0

This equation can be solved for the Joule heating energy

8 9
> b1 a1 W
>
< (e {1) H¦HC > >
=
5 Con®guration of electrode mass model a1
HL ~ : : : : : (14)
>
> b >
: 2 (kea2 W {1) H > HC > ;
welding are complex and a solution to the equations is a2
dependent on the thermal conductivity, speci®c heat, and
The total heat content along the electrode extension is
density as functions of temperature. To ®nd analytical
composed of the following elements
solutions to the equations, it is therefore helpful to eliminate
the relationship between temperature and the above H(z,t)~Ha (0,t)zHL (z,t) : : : : : : : : (15)
variables by de®ning a new variable, which serves as a
where Ha is derived using equation (8). This equation is still
link between them. The heating effect, termed the heat
valid at the electrode tip, but the melting rate instead of wire
content, is de®ned as
feedrate must be used in the equation. Therefore, equa-
l(T) LT tion (8) can be written as
H~ : : : : : : : : : : : : : (8)
v Lz LT vm H
Replacing the bracketed expression with Hv in equation ~ : : : : : : : : : : : : : (16)
Lz l(T)
(7) yields the following equivalent ®rst order non-linear
differential equation Using the chain rule, the temperature as a function of time
and z can be expressed in the following form
LH J 2 (T)
~{ : : : : : : : : : : : : (9) LT(z,t) LT LH LT Lt
Lz v ~ z : : : : : : : (17)
Lz LH Lz Lt Lz
The plot of resistivity versus heat content is shown for three
The melting wire is assumed to have constant melting
representative electrode wire materials in Fig. 6. The curves
temperature at the anode tip, so that hT/ht is considered to
may be approximated with two straight lines about the knee
be zero. After substituting equations (9) and (16) into
of the curve. The resistivity can be expressed in terms of heat
equation (17), the heat content at the anode tip becomes
content as
  (T)l(T)J 2 LT
a1 Hzb1 H¦HC H~{ : : : : : : : : : (18)
(H)~ : : : : : : (10) v2m LH
a2 Hzb2 H > HC
To formulate the anode heat content in terms of current
From equation (9), the heat content as a function of time density and melting rate, the above equation associated with
can be written as the boundary conditions is rearranged and integrated over
LH H and T
~{J 2 (T) : : : : : : : : : : : (11)
Lt …H T…m
The desired relationship between heat content, time, and J2
{ HLH~ l(T)(T)LT : : : : : : (19)
current density can be obtained by rearranging and v2m
HL TC
integrating equation (11) over time as follows
The solution to equation (19) under these conditions is
…L
H …t
LH 2
given by
~ J Lt : : : : : : : : : : (12) 2 31=2
(H) T…m
0 t{vz
J 6 l(T)(T) 7 Jw(T)
Ha ~ 4 LT 5 ~ : : : (20)
The left hand side of equation (12) is termed the action vm 0:5zd(T) vm
integral.3 It is dominant in the dynamic behaviour of the TC

Science and Technology of Welding and Joining 2001 Vol. 6 No. 1

 Bingul et al. Dynamic model for electrode melting in GMAW 45

where 0fd(T)f1. The physical meaning of the negative state at J~J0 and v~v0 (tv0)
sign in equation (19) is that the droplet must supply thermal dH
energy to decrease the temperature difference. After ~{(J 2 {J02 ) : : : : : : : : : : (29)
substituting for HL and Ha from equations (14) and (20), dt
the ®nal form of the heat content is The conditions in this case assume that the heat content
8 9 at the electrode tip is greater than 4 J mm23, but using
> Jw(T) b1 a1 W > the reverse condition also produces the same results.
>
< z (e {1) H¦H C >
=
vm a1 Combining the above equation and equation (43) below
H~ (21)
>
> Jw(T) b2 > yields
: z (kea2 W {1) H > HC > ;
vm a2 dH
~{kb2 ea2 W (J 2 {J02 ) : : : : : : : : (30)
The results of wire melting experiments show that the heat dt
content can be described by the exponential relationship Inserting equation (21) into the above equation gives
H~H0 (1{e{ct ) : : : : : : : : : : : (22)   
dvm vm dJ v2m J 1 dW J02
~ z kb2 ea2 W z1{ (31)
Differentiating this equation gives the dynamic nature of dt J dt w J 2 dt J2
the heat content as represented in the following equation
To differentiate the action with respect to time, it is
dH necessary to use the de®nition of the transition time tT, the
~c(H0 {H) : : : : : : : : : : : (23)
dt time required for the electrode element which is at the
The dynamic melting rate for the condition in which the contact tube at t~0 to reach the electrode tip. For twtT,
heat content is above 4 J mm23 can then be derived. the action can be expressed as
Differentiating equation (21) and substituting this into the J02
above equation yields W~ L : : : : : : : : : : : : : (32)
  v0
1 dJ dw(T) Jw(T) dvm Taking the differential of the action gives
w(T) zJ zcJw(T){
vm dt dt vm dt
    dW J02 dL
b2 c dW ~ : : : : : : : : : : : : (33)
~c H0 z {b2 kea2 W z : : : (24) dt v0 dt
a2 a2 dt
Equation (6) is substituted into the above equation to
It is evident that give
dJ dw(T) Jw(T) dvm dW J02
cJw(T)zw(T) zJ { ~ (v0 {vm ) : : : : : : : : : : (34)
 dt dt  vm  dt dt v0
vm ~ (25)
b2 a2 W c dW
c H0 z {b2 ke z With this substitution, the dynamic melting rate equation is
a2 a2 dt
expressed as
The above equation includes highly complex and coupled
dvm vm dJ
non-linear terms. To reduce the complexity of the melting ~ z
rate, it is therefore necessary to make simplifying assump- dt J dt
tions which do not limit the practical utility of the equation.   
v2m J 1 J2 J2
The term (dvm/dt)/vm is assumed to be zero since it is very kb2 ea2 W 2 0 (v0 {vm )z1{ 02 (35)
small. Hence, the following equation is obtained, describing w J v0 J
a simpli®ed model of the dynamic melting rate Simplifying the above equation yields
8 9  2 
>
> LJ Lw(T) >
> dvm vm dJ v2m J J v0 {J02 vm
>
> cw(T)Jzw(T) zJ >
> ~ z kb2 ea2 W (36)
>
>  Lt
  Lt  H¦H >
> dt J dt w J 2 v0
>
> C >
>
>
> c LW b1 >
>
>
< {b1 e
a1 W z zc zH0 >
= Solving equation (36) for vm gives
a1 Lt a1
vm ~ dvm vm dJ v2m J v3 J 2
>
> LJ Lw(T) >
> ~ z kb2 ea2 W { m 0 kb2 ea2 W (37)
>
> cw(T)Jzw(T) zJ >
>
>
> Lt Lt >
> dt J dt w Jv0 w
>
>     H > H C>
>
>
> c LW b2 >
> To derive a direct relation between current density and
>
: {b2 ea2 W z zc zH0 >
;
a2 Lt a2 electrode extension, equation (6) is rewritten as
: : : : : : : : : …26† dL
vm ~v0 { : : : : : : : : : : : : : (38)
3
The Shepard burnoff rate model can be derived from this dt
equation under appropriate simplifying assumptions. She- This equation can be differentiated with respect to time,
pard assumed that the work function is constant and the giving
heat content for the wire is above HC (4 J mm23). It is
dvm d2 L
concluded from these assumptions that the power is ~{ 2 : : : : : : : : : : : : (39)
dissipated in a constant potential drop in the arc. Using dt dt
these assumptions, the equation reduces to Combining equations (37) ± (39) gives the following dif-
ferential equation relating electrode extension and the
k1 J
vm ~ H > HC : : : : : : : : (27) other variables, namely, action, current density, and wire
1{k2 W feedrate
Under steady state conditions, this equation reduces to the    
Lesnewich1 equation dL dL 2
2 v0 { v0 { J
d L dt dJ dt
vm ~k1 Jzk2 LJ 2 : : : : : : : : : : : (28) { 2~ z kb2 ea2 W
dt J dt w
As a consequence of changing the partial derivatives to  
dL 3 2
ordinary derivatives in equation (11), the rate of change of v0 { J0
the heat content with time can be obtained for the case of dt
{ kb2 ea2 W : : : : : : : : (40)
step changes in current density and the existence of a steady Jv0 w

Science and Technology of Welding and Joining 2001 Vol. 6 No. 1

46 Bingul et al. Dynamic model for electrode melting in GMAW

7 Overview of equipment con®guration

Resistivity model
To derive the relationship between the action and resistivity,
an empirical resistivity model is used in the present work.
Considering the heat content expression, the total heat
content along the electrode extension (not at the end of the
electrode) should be equal to the Joule heating (HL). This
leads to the following expression, which is obtained by
substituting equation (10) into equation (11)
dH
~{J 2 (a2 HL zb2 ) H > 4 J mm{1 : : : (41)
dt
Equation (14) is substituted into this equation and the total
expression is simpli®ed to give
dH
~{J 2 b2 kea2 W : : : : : : : : : : : (42)
dt
It is observed from this expression and equation (11) that
( )
b1 ea1 W H¦HC
(W )~ : : : : : : (43)
b2 kea2 W H > HC
which accurately describes the relationship between the
resistivity and action.
Electrode voltage model
The current changes in the GMAW process cause
signi®cant temperature changes along the electrode exten-
sion. These changes lead to a temperature dependent
resistance which produces the electrode voltage drop. The
basic equation for the resistance is given by
(T)
RL ~ L : : : : : : : : : : : : (44)
A peak to peak), were superimposed on the current to allow
The voltage drop is the product of the welding current and
resistance of the electrode extension
VL ~IRL : : : : : : : : : :
Arc voltage model
There have been a number of models for the arc voltage in
the gas tungsten arc welding and GMAW processes. These
models show that potential across the arc can be divided
into three voltage drops for three regions of the arc: anode
voltage, cathode voltage, and plasma voltage. For a given
wire size, shielding gas, and welding process, the anode
voltage and cathode voltage characteristics remain steady
and plasma voltage is a function of the actual arc length and
arc resistance. For the high current region (spray transfer
mode), the relationship between the voltage and current is
approximately linear. The arc voltage drop can be modelled
according to the following relationship
Varc ~V0 zRa IzEa l : : : : : : : : : : (46)
For a 1.2 mm diameter wire and Arz5%CO2 shielding gas,
these constants were determined as follows: V0~15.1 V;
Ra~0.025 V A21; Ea~1 V mm21.
The total voltage can be obtained by adding the electrode
and arc voltage drops. It should be noted that at suf®ciently
low currents a negative resistance term must be added to
equation (46) to model the low current region accu-
rately.6,28 This term is neglected in the present development.
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES
Welding experiments were structured to examine the
dynamic nature of the electrode extension and arc length
from both electrical signal measurements and a high speed
video system. A 1.2 mm (0.045in) diameter ER705 ± 2 steel
wire and Ar ± 5%CO2 shielding gas were used. The CTWD
was 20 mm (0.8 in) and the travel speed was set at
6 mm s21. The current and voltage signals were collected
at 5000 Hz. Using a constant current power source with the
electrode positive, both square wave and sinusoidal
perturbations of variable amplitude (20, 30, and 40 A
measurement of changes in the electrode extension, arc
length, and total voltage. The square wave perturbations
provided a direct measure of the time response of the
: : : : (45) electrode melting.
A macrocamera imaging system (Fig. 7) was developed as
a real time monitoring technique. To record the video
images of the electrode extension and droplets, a high speed
digital frame grabber and camera were combined in a
computer environment. The digitised image is displayed in
real time on a computer monitor and can be recorded to a

Science and Technology of Welding and Joining 2001 Vol. 6 No. 1

 Bingul et al. Dynamic model for electrode melting in GMAW 47

8 Arc current and comparison between simulation and

experimental results for electrode extension, as func-
tions of time, for 30 A increase in arc current

®le for subsequent viewing and analysis. This equipment

can record a sequence of images at 2000 frames s21. The
GMAW torch is stationary so that magni®ed images of the
electrode tip and droplet are more readily obtained without
any rearrangement of camera focus and disturbance from
the travel dynamics of the carriage drive motor.
During data collection, the video system and data for arc
current and voltage were synchronised using a stroboscopic
¯ash. When the arc current input to the power supply
changes, the same input triggers the stroboscopic ¯ash,
which provides an intense light to the arc area. Hence, this
intense light is correlated with the change in arc current and
this correlation can be readily determined by image analysis
in the viewer program. The image analysis provides a
method of detecting the intense light when the change
occurs, by association with the image frame number. The
frame number can then be correlated with time. A distinct
advantage of this technique is that time domain information
such as time delay between the arc current and electrode
extension can be directly obtained when the current change
occurs.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The model was tested by introducing 30 A step changes to
the arc current, when the wire feedrate was constant at
140 mm s21. A comparison between the experimental and
simulation results is shown in Fig. 8. The electrode
extension settles from an initial value of 13.5 mm to
9.5 mm in 0.4 s. Similarly, the arc voltage changes from
33.5 to 36.5 V. The effect of the electrode voltage drop
changes on the dynamic behaviour of the process can be
seen in Fig. 9. As shown, the voltage suddenly decreases to
about 2.3 V and then increases to about 4.1 V during the
current transition. This shows that the electrode voltage
drop is a signi®cant factor in the dynamic response of the
process. Figure 10 shows the dynamic behaviour of the
action and resistivity. From this ®gure, it can be seen that
the resistivity of the wire cannot be assumed to be constant
during the current transition, in which the temperature
distribution of the electrode changes based on the energy
input changes resulting from the stepped current.
To determine the effect of the current frequency on the
process dynamics, a 20 A square wave having a frequency
of 2 Hz was superimposed on the current. Figure 11 shows
simulation and experimental results for the response of
electrode extension to a step increase in current. As
expected, the electrode extension changes in response to
9 Electrode voltage drop and comparison between simula-
tion and experimental results for total voltage, as func-
tions of time
the step change in the current, from 11 to 13.5 mm. The
electrode extension exhibits a continuously changing
dynamic response to a stepped current with a frequency
of 2 Hz, such that steady state conditions for the electrode
extension are not reached before the next half cycle occurs.
From this, it was concluded that the electrode extension is
dynamic with increasing current frequency (above 2 Hz)
and hence never reaches the equilibrium points correspond-
ing to its minimum and maximum values. Similarly, this
dynamic behaviour can also be seen in the electrode voltage
drop and voltage (Fig. 12). The electrode voltage drop and
the voltage increase to 4.7 and 35.5 V from 3 and 33.2 V,

Science and Technology of Welding and Joining 2001 Vol. 6 No. 1

 48 Bingul et al. Dynamic model for electrode melting in GMAW

Action (J V_1 m m_4)

Resistivity (10_3 V m m )

10 Variation of dynamic action and resistivity with time

respectively. Figure 13 shows the dynamic action and

resistivity for the above case. The trends observed in
the ®gure are that a step increase in current occurs
with increasing action (8000 J V21 mm24) and resistivity
(1.22 V mm).
To examine the motion trajectories corresponding to
various initial conditions and information concerning the
system stability, a phase plane analysis was carried out. As
can be seen in Fig. 14, the initial point for the electrode
extension (13.5 mm) is moved to another point in the phase
plane (9.5 mm). Oscillatory behaviour of the curve results
from the dynamic resistance changes in the electrode
extension. Arc stability increases with a reduction of the
area of the ®eld in the phase plane plot. A 30 A step change
in the current produces approximately ¡20 mm s21 varia-
tions in the melting rate.
The droplet transfer frequency (Fig. 15) was obtained
from power spectral density analysis of pixels in the area
corresponding to droplets transferred to the workpiece.
Based on this analysis, Fig. 16 illustrates the relationship
between droplet frequency and arc current. As can be seen
from this ®gure, the droplet frequency increases markedly at
the transition from globular to drop spray transfer, and at

12 Variation of electrode voltage drop and comparison of

simulation and experimental results for total voltage,
as functions of time, for 20 A increase in arc current

the transition from drop spray transfer to streaming spray

11 Variation of arc current and comparison between
simulation and experimental results for electrode
extension, as functions of time, for 20 A increase in
arc current
transfer.
An interesting aspect of the high speed video system used
to observe the experimental electrode extension dynamics is
its ability to capture the power source and droplet dynamics
as well. A power spectrum analysis of a single pixel
corresponding to the high speed video is presented in
Fig. 17. As can be seen, the frequency components are at
120, 240, and 320 Hz. These results agree with the results of

Science and Technology of Welding and Joining 2001 Vol. 6 No. 1

 Bingul et al. Dynamic model for electrode melting in GMAW 49
Action (J V_1 m m_4)
Resistivity (10_3 V m m )

13 Variation of dynamic action and resistivity as func-

tions of time for 20 A increase in arc current

the same analysis for the arc current. The high speed video
system has been shown to be capable of capturing the
dynamics of the power supply and the process itself, and it
can also be used to detect the droplet transfer frequency.

CONCLUSIONS
1. A dynamic model of the GMAW process has been
developed and several aspects of the dynamic relations in
the process investigated using this model. Furthermore, the
complex interrelation among welding parameters has been
quanti®ed. This research provides a fundamental under-
standing of the coupling between mass ¯ow and heat
transfer (energy), and the melting process in the electrode
extension.
2. Quantitative analyses concentrating on the thermal
behaviour and the electrical characteristics of the arc
welding system were performed, and experiments providing
information related to direct measurement of electrode
extension and its dynamic variations were conducted to
validate the dynamic model. Comparing simulations with
experimental results exhibited very good agreement between
the model and the experiments. The model is applicable to
both constant potential and constant current (including
pulsed current) modes of the GMAW process.
3. The droplet volume and transfer rate are directly
related to a balance between energy and mass entering into
the electrode. Any change to the energy or the mass entering
into the electrode must be accompanied by a corresponding
change in the electrode temperature gradient, temperature
dependent parameters of the wire, and droplet volume and
transfer rate. Ignoring these changes in process control
causes the droplet transfer to become chaotic and the
droplet volume to become unpredictable. The energy per
unit volume of the electrode was found to be proportional
to droplet transfer frequency and diameter for each
different transfer mode. These results indicate that it is
possible to predict droplet transfer frequency and diameter 14 Phase plane analysis and variation of dynamic melting
from the electrical parameters and the wire feedrate for a rate as function of time for 30 A increase in arc cur-
speci®c electrode diameter and shielding gas composition in rent
all the transfer modes.
4. During drop spray transfer, the droplet size and temperature leading to uniform droplet formation and
frequency remain fairly constant. The reason for this is that detachment.
the temperature at the electrode tip is constant for a limited 5. The experimental results on the droplet detachment
range of energy input to the electrode and hence it does not mechanism support the conclusion that the droplet transfer
affect the temperature dependent variables, namely, droplet rate during the transition between spray and globular
formation and melting time. It is believed that the combined transfer modes changes abruptly. These results are in
effects of the energy and mass balance, thermal properties agreement with one of the early studies by Lesnewich,1 but
of the wire, and the shielding gas determine the constant they differ from subsequent results obtained by Eager29 and

Science and Technology of Welding and Joining 2001 Vol. 6 No. 1

50 Bingul et al. Dynamic model for electrode melting in GMAW
a inputs, respectively. It was found that the dominant time
b TN, 1991.
15 Droplet transfer frequencies at a 310 and b 300 A
16 Relationship between droplet frequency and arc cur-
rent
17 Power spectral density of single pixel of high speed
video ®lms (horizontal scale is Hz)
Ludwig.30 It is thought that the differences between these
studies originate from the experimental methodologies. For
instance, smooth changes in the droplet transfer rate can
Science and Technology of Welding and Joining 2001 Vol. 6 No. 1
occur during the transition if both arc current and wire
feedrate are changed for each weld experiment.
6. It was determined that the resistivity cannot be
assumed to be constant during changes in energy input.
New results were presented showing that the resistivity at
the electrode tip varies in the range 0.8 ± 1.461023 V mm.
This invalidates the assumption of a constant resistivity
made in most previous studies.
7. The GMAW process is moderately stiff and its
dynamics can be divided into slow and fast dynamics,
which correspond to mechanical inputs and electrical
constant of the process is approximately 0.2 s for a wire
diameter of 1.2 mm.
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