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Solar Energy 107 (2014) 553–575
www.elsevier.com/locate/solener

Thermophysical properties of some organic phase change materials

for latent heat storage. A review
Murat M. Kenisarin
Special Design Bureau at the Institute for Laser and Ion-Plasma Technologies, Uzbekistan Academy of Sciences, 100125 Khodjaev St. 28,
Tashkent, Uzbekistan

Received 20 July 2013; received in revised form 21 April 2014; accepted 4 May 2014

Communicated by: Associate Editor Halime Paksoy

Abstract

Past three decades are characterized by intensive investigations and the development of phase change materials for thermal energy
storage. Latent heat storage is one of the most perspective methods of increasing efficiency in energy conservation and effective using
sources of heat. Among available latent heat storage materials, the organic materials draw the attention of many researchers. It should
be noted that the development of phase change materials advances the investigations of their thermophysical properties sufficiently.
Knowledge of thermophysical properties is necessary condition for practical applications. The data on thermophysical properties of
potential latent heat storage materials is dissipated in many scientific sources that are inaccessible, in many cases, for potential consumers
of phase change thermal energy storage materials. This paper summarizes the results of previous investigations on transitions temper-
atures, heat of fusion, heat capacity, and thermal conductivity, long-term characteristics of many organic substances, their compositions,
and compounds.
Ó 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: n-Alkanes; Paraffins; Fatty acids; Fatty acid esters; High molecular alcohols; Benzene compounds

1. Introduction (Kornevall, 2008). These examples show us how important

Continuous growth of level of greenhouse gases emis-
sions into the atmosphere and a high cost of fossil fuel
are the basic motive forces for more effective utilization
of energy in all spheres of humankind activity. Commercial
buildings and housing apartments are the most energy-
intensive consumers. So, for example, in 2005, 38.9% of
all energy which has been consumed in the USA
(Buildings Energy Datebook, 2006) was used for heating,
air-conditioning and illumination of buildings. The similar
situation is observed in the European Union where build-
ings consume now 40% of all energy used in these countries
E-mail address: kenisarin@mail.ru
it is to use energy effectively in buildings.
Thermal energy storage is one of the most perspective
methods for increasing efficiency in energy conservation
of available sources of heat. Thermal energy can be stored
by using sensible energy of solids or liquids, latent heat of
phase change materials or chemical reaction of some chem-
icals. The main requirements and fields of applications of
thermal energy storage (TES) systems are generalized in
Schaetzle et al. (1980), Schmidt (1981), Beckmann and
Gill (1984), Garg et al. (1985), Hadorn (1990) and Dincßer
and Rosen (2011)). Among TES methods, in many cases,
latent heat storage (LHS) is more preferable (Lane, 1983,
1986; Mehling and Cabeza, 2008). LHS differs in high
density of accumulated energy at constant temperature

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.solener.2014.05.001
0038-092X/Ó 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
554 M.M. Kenisarin / Solar Energy 107 (2014) 553–575
Nomenclature
Tm melting point (°C or K)
Tf freezing temperature (°C or K)
Ttr solid–solid transition temperature (°C or K)
DHm heat of fusion (J/g)
DHf heat of solidification (J/g)
DHtr heat of solid–solid transition (J/g)
Cp specific heat capacity (J/g°C)
q density (g/cm3)
k thermal conductivity (mW/m°C or W/m°C)
a thermal diffusivity (mm2/s)
Nc number of carbon atoms
Abbreviation
AMPL aminoglycol (2-Amino-2-methyl-1,3-propanediol)
CA capric acid
comp. compound
DSC differential scanning calorimetry
DTA differential thermal analysis
and narrow temperature region. At present, a lot of
solid–liquid phase change materials (PCM) have been
studied and they are commercially produced for different
purposes (Kenisarin, 1993; Zalba et al., 2003; Sharma
and Sagara, 2005; Kenisarin and Mahkamov, 2007;
Agyenim et al., 2010; Kuznik et al., 2011; Tatsidjodoung
et al., 2013).
The basic problems connected with the use of salt
hydrates were practically solved in the seventies and eight-
ies of the last century (Lane, 1983, 1986; Abhat, 1980,
1983). In order to use PCMs for thermal energy storage
in wide scale, designers of heat storage systems are needed
aside from stable chemical viability of PCMs, the following
reliable thermophysical properties: melting point, heat of
fusion, heat capacity, density, heat conductivity of latent
heat storage materials in neighborhood of their melting
point (±15 °C) as well as volume change at phase transi-
tion. The known thermophysical properties of salt hydrates
were generalized in (Mozgovoy et al., 1990). It was estab-
lished that the thermophysical properties of salt hydrates
were studied insufficiently. The manufacturers of commer-
cially produced phase change heat storage materials sup-
plied their products only with data on melting point and
heat of fusion. These data are not enough for potential
consumers. Last two decades are characterized with high
intensity studies of potential organic materials that can
be used as LHS materials. A lot of organic materials which
have been investigated have suitable melting point and high
heat of fusion. Recently Sarier and Onder (2012) published
a review on application of PCMs relating to improving
heat storage ability of textile materials.
eut. eutectic
LA lauric acid
LHS latent heat storage
NPG neopentyl glycol (2,2-Dimethyl-1,3-propanediol)
MA myristic acid
MM molar mass (g/mol)
PA palmitic acid
PE pentaerythritol (2-2-Bis(hydroxymethyl)1.3-
propanediol)
PCM phase change material
PG = TME pentaglycerine = Trimethylolethane
(2-hydroximethyl)-2-methylpropane-1,3-diol)
SA stearic acid
TES thermal energy storage
TRIS 2-Amino-2-hydroximethyl-propane-1,3-diol
TMP = TRMP Trimemethylolpropane
((2-hydroxymethyl)-2-ethylpropane-1,3-diol)
Among organic materials perspective for latent heat
storage, the pure n-alkanes and their blends, fatty acids,
their compositions and esters it should be noted. The data
on thermophysical properties of organic PCMs available in
(Lane, 1983, 1986; Mehling and Cabeza, 2008; Kenisarin,
1993; Zalba et al., 2003; Sharma and Sagara, 2005;
Kenisarin and Mahkamov, 2007; Agyenim et al., 2010;
Kuznik et al., 2011; Tatsidjodoung et al., 2013, etc.) are
very limited. The present paper summarizes and analyses
the available data on thermophysical properties of some
perspective organic PCMs.
2. n-Alkanes and their compositions
2.1. Pure alkanes
Thermodynamic properties of pure normal alkanes have
been the subject of many investigations. These properties
are necessary for developing phase diagrams with alkanes
that allow preparing blends and compositions in the
required range of temperatures with high heat of fusion.
The pure alkanes and their compositions are very attractive
for using as phase change thermal energy materials.
Himran et al. (1994) for the first time systematized the data
on some thermophysical properties of pure alkanes and
paraffin waxes for application as latent heat storage mate-
rials. However the generalized data has not been supplied
by the used references. Several years later Dirand with
his colleagues (2002) summarized the temperatures and
enthalpies of (solid + solid) and (solid + liquid) transitions
of more than 60 pure normal alkanes as well as their
 M.M. Kenisarin / Solar Energy 107 (2014) 553–575 555

structural behavior. The most part of 61 references used for
transition characteristics was taken from the results of
experimental investigations. Table 1 presents the transition
temperature and enthalpy of pure alkanes obtained by
averaging from literature data. The accuracy is to be esti-
mated ±0.5 °C for phase transition temperature and ±5%
for transition enthalpy. The crystal structure of solid pure
alkanes can be found in Dirand et al. (2002). The transition
temperatures and enthalpies measured last years by Huang
et al. (2005), Ventola et al. (2002a), Mondieig et al. (2004)
and Dotsenko et al. (2004) with using DTA and DSC tech-
nique are in good agreement with the data recommended
by Dirand et al. (2002) within the above mentioned errors.
Thermophysical properties of pure alkanes are poorly
studied. The specific heat capacity for linear alkanes from
pentane to tetradecane was measured by Huang et al.
(2005) with step-scan differential scanning calorimetry. Sec-
ond-order polynomial fits describing specific heat capacity
in liquid state are given in Table 2. Heat capacity measuring
errors are estimated to be ±1.0%. Atkinson et al., 1969 used
the adiabatic calorimeter for determination of heat capacity
of molten n-alkanes with carbon number from 19 to 48. The
measurements were made in the range between Tm + 10 °C
and Tm + 40 °C. The heat capacity of these n-alkanes in
liquid phase is described by linear equation the coefficients
of which are given in Table 2. The coefficients of equation
suggested by Andon and Martin, 1976 are close to that of
Atkinson et al., 1969. The data on heat capacity of n-
alkanes I solid phase were not found.
The data on temperature dependence of density of n-
alkanes are practically absent. There are only the data gener-
alized by Johansen (1960) for liquid phase in our disposal,
which presented in Table 3. There is not information relating
to temperature dependence of n-alkanes density in solid state.
Morikawa and Hashimoto (2000) carried out the precise
measurement of temperature dependence of volume heat
capacity and thermal diffusivity of pentacosane. Measure-
ments were made by using a Fourier Transform Tempera-
ture Wave Analysis technique developed in (Kurihara
et al., 1997; Morikawa and Hashimoto, 2001; Morikawa
et al., 2001). Pentacosane of technical purity was purified
after which its purity was 99.0%. The results of these exper-
iments are showed in Fig. 1. The transition temperatures of
n-C25H52 observed by DSC and optical microscope were 45
and 54 °C, which corresponds to the transition of ortho-
rhombic (or monoclinic) to hexagonal, and hexagonal to
liquid phase, respectively. Thermal diffusivity monoto-
nously decreases with the rising temperature and shows a
steep and complicated change on the phase transitions up
to the completion of melting. Frequency dependence was

Table 1
Recommended melting points and heats of fusion of some pure n-alkanes in accordance with Dirand et al. (2002).
Number of carbon Alkane MM (g/mol) Ttr (°C)* DHtr (J/g)* Tm (°C)* DHm (J/g)*
8 Octane 114.23 56.9 181
9 Nonane 128.26 56.0 49 53.6 121
10 Decane 142.28 29.7 202
11 Undecane 156.31 36.6 44 25.5 142
12 Dodecane 170.34 9.9 216
13 Tridecane 184.37 18.2 42 5.6 155
14 Tetradecane 198.39 5.8 227
15 Pentadecane 212.42 2.3 43 9.9 163
16 Hexadecane 225.45 18.0 236
17 Heptadecane 240.47 10.6 46 21.7 167
18 Octadecane 254.50 28.0 241
19 Nonadecane 268.53 22.3 51 31.7 170
20 Eicosane 282.55 36.3 247
21 Heneicosane 296.58 32.4 55 40.0 161
22 Docosane 310.61 40.0 93 43.6 157
23 Tricosane 324.63 42.2 67 47.2 164
24 Tetracosane 338.66 47.5 94 50.4 161
25 Pentacosane 352.69 47.1 76 53.1 162
26 Hexacosane 366.71 52.8 92 56.0 164
27 Heptacosane 380.74 53.1 70 58.5 161
28 Octacosane 394.77 57.3 89 61.0 165
29 Nonacosane 480.80 57.6 75 63.0 162
30 Triacontane 422.82 59.0 88 65.0 162
32 Dotriacosane 450.88 64.0 91 69.3 168
33 Tritriacontane 464.90 67.8 67 71.1 171
34 Tetratriacosane 478.93 69.0 100 72.4 166
35 Pentatriacontane 492.96 72.0 83 74.6 175
36 Hexatriacosane 506.98 73.8 61 75.8 173
38 Octatriacontane 535.04 77.0 78.5 249
40 Tetracontane 363.09 80.3 25 80.8 241
44 Tetratetracontane 84.5 29 85.6

Here and hereinafter melting temperatures are rounded to 1/10 and heats of fusion to 1.
556 M.M. Kenisarin / Solar Energy 107 (2014) 553–575

Table 2
Coefficients of equations describing heat capacities of some pure alkanes in liquid state.
n-Alkane a 103b 105c Temperature range (°C) Reference
Pentane 2.263 4.49 0.61 60 to 25 Huang et al. (2005)
Hexane 2.208 4.07 0.35 60 to 31 Huang et al. (2005)
Heptane 2.169 3.36 0.67 65 to 31 Huang et al. (2005)
Octane 2.141 3.13 1.13 56 to 35 Huang et al. (2005)
Nonane 2.126 2.92 1.37 53 to 40 Huang et al. (2005)
Decane 2.130 2.79 0.70 26 to 37 Huang et al. (2005)
Undecane 2.127 2.77 1.16 25 to 40 Huang et al. (2005)
Dodecane 2.130 2.65 0.95 6 to 56 Huang et al. (2005)
Tridecane 2.129 2.66 0.80 4 to 46 Huang et al. (2005)
Tetradecane 2.133 2.59 0.57 13–45 Huang et al. (2005)
Pentadecane 2.128 3.09 0.23 11–46 Huang et al. (2005)
Hexadecane 2.151 1.94 1.55 22–55 Huang et al. (2005)
Heptadecane 2.149 1.84 1.61 28–55 Huang et al. (2005)
Octadecane 2.165 0.94 2.83 32–56 Huang et al. (2005)
Nonadecane 2.106 3.78 0.47 33–56 Huang et al. (2005)
2.112 3.38 30–80 Atkinson et al. (1969)
Docosane 2.106 3.41 50–80 Atkinson et al. (1969)
Tricosane 2.096 3.51 50–80 Atkinson et al. (1969)
Tetracosane 2.120 3.27 55–90 Atkinson et al. (1969)
Hexacosane 2.085 3.59 60–90 Atkinson et al. (1969)
2.126 3.19 60–90 Andon and Martin (1976)
Octacosane 2.102 3.41 65–90 Atkinson et al. (1969)
Tetratriacosane 2.124 3.45 75–100 Atkinson et al. (1969)
Hexatriacosane 2.096 3.54 80–100 Atkinson et al. (1969)
Dotetracontane 2.101 3.86 90–120 Atkinson et al. (1969)
Octatetracontane 2.096 3.33 100–130 Atkinson et al. (1969)

Table 3
Densities of some liquid pure n-alkanes recommended by Johansen (1960) (g/l).
T (°C) 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Octane 718 710 702 694 686 678 669 661 652 646 635
Nonane 733 725 718 710 702 694 685 677 669 661 652
Decane 745 737 730 722 714 707 699 691 683 675 667
Dodecane 763 756 749 742 735 727 720 712 704 697 689
Tridecane 770 763 756 749 742 735 727 720 713 705 689
Tetradecane 770 763 756 749 741 734 727 720 713 705
Pentadecane 775 768 761 754 747 740 733 726 719 712
Hexadecane 773 766 760 753 746 739 732 725 718
Heptadecane 771 764 757 751 744 737 730 723
Octadecane 775 769 762 755 748 741 735 728
Nonadecane 772 766 759 752 746 739 732
Eicosane 776 769 762 756 749 742 736
Heneicosane 779 772 765 759 752 746 739
Docosane 775 768 762 755 749 742
Tricosane 777 771 764 758 751 745
Pentacosane 776 769 763 756 750
Hexacosane 778 771 765 759 752
Heptacosane 779 773 767 761 754
Octacosane 781 775 769 762 756
Nonacosane 777 770 764 758
Triacontane 778 772 766 760
Hentriacontane 780 773 767 761
Dotriacontane 781 775 769
Tritriacontane 782 776 764
Tetratriacontane 777 771
Pentatriacontane 778 772
Hexatriacontane 780 773
Heptatriacontane 781 774 762
Octatriacontane 782 776 769
 M.M. Kenisarin / Solar Energy 107 (2014) 553–575 557

Fig. 1. Heat capacity per volume unit (a), thermal conductivity (b), and thermal diffusivity of pentacosane: heating rate 0.2 K/min; fundamental frequency
15 Hz (1), 30 Hz (2), 45 Hz (3), 60 Hz (4). Adapted from Morikawa and Hashimoto (2000).

clearly observed on the phase transitions, in contrast to no by using high-precision equipment and the data have very
frequency dependence in the solid (in the lower tempera- good agreement in the range of ±1–3%. The recommended
ture) and the liquid phases. Heat capacity also shows a values of thermal conductivity for some n-alkanes in liquid
complicated change in the same temperature range and fre-
quency dependence was observed as well. It was interesting
to find out that the frequency dependence of a was in an Table 5
inverse relationship with that observed for c. That is, c Thermal diffusivity of some n-alkanes a
108 (m2/s). Adapted from
Mustafaev (1991).
becomes a smaller but a shows a higher value in the higher
frequency. Thermal conductivity k was determined by a Alkane 50 °C 60 °C 70 °C 80 °C 90 °C 100 °C
product of c and a. Nonane 7.39 7.23 7.06 6.89 6.73 6.62
The thermal conductivity of liquid n-alkanes was mea- Undecane 8.00 7.87 7.79 7.53 7.39 7.25
Tridecane 8.31 8.14 8.00 7.84 7.70 7.50
sured by various researchers. Measurements were made

Table 4
Recommended thermal conductivity of some liquid pure n-alkanes (mW/m°C).
T (°C) 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 References
Pentane 117 113 110 106 102 98 95 91 87 Watanabe and Seong (2002) and Vargaftik (1994)
Hexane 125 122 118 115 111 108 105 101 98 Watanabe and Seong (2002), Kashiwagi et al. (1982),
Assael et al. (1987) and Vargaftik (1994)
Heptane 128 125 122 119 116 113 110 107 104 Watanabe and Seong (2002), Kashiwagi et al. (1982),
Assael et al. (1987) and Vargaftik (1994)
Octane 131 128 125 123 120 117 114 111 109 Watanabe and Seong (2002), Kashiwagi et al. (1982),
Calado et al. (1983) and Vargaftik (1994)
Nonane 132 129 126 123 120 116 113 110 107 Watanabe and Seong (2002), Calado et al. (1983) and
Vargaftik (1994)
Decane 135 133 130 128 125 122 120 117 115 Watanabe and Seong (2002), Wada et al. (1985),
Kashiwagi et al. (1982), Assael et al. (1987) and
Vargaftik (1994)
Undecane 137 135 133 130 128 126 124 121 119 Wada et al. (1985) and Vargaftik (1994)
Dodecane 137 134 132 130 128 125 123 121 119 Kashiwagi et al. (1982), Calado et al. (1983) and
Vargaftik (1994)
Tridecane 138 136 133 131 129 127 125 123 Mustafaev (1991) and Vargaftik (1994)
Tetradecane 140 138 136 134 132 130 128 126 Wada et al. (1985) and Calado et al. (1983) and
Vargaftik (1994)
Pentadecane 144 141 139 137 135 133 130 128 Wada et al. (1985) and Vargaftik (1994)
Hexadecane 143 140 138 136 133 131 129 Wada et al. (1985) and Vargaftik (1994)
Heptadecane 145 144 142 140 138 136 134 Mustafaev (1991) and Vargaftik (1994)
Octadecane 145 144 142 141 139 138 Mustafaev (1991) and Vargaftik (1994)
Nonadecane 148 147 145 143 141 140 Mustafaev (1991) and Vargaftik (1994)
Eicosane 147 144 142 140 Vargaftik (1994)
Heneicosane 149 147 145 142 Vargaftik (1994)
Docosane 151 149 147 145 Vargaftik (1994)
Tricosane 148 146 Vargaftik (1994)
Tetracosane 150 148 Vargaftik (1994)
558 M.M. Kenisarin / Solar Energy 107 (2014) 553–575

phase are given in Table 4. These data can be used as ref-
erence. Table 5 presents thermal diffusivity of some pure n-
alkanes.
In addition to the pure alkanes, their blends are of great
interest. The temperature range of organic PCM can be
substantially enlarged due to application of compositions
of pure substances. Some thermal energy storage character-
istics of n-alkanes blends are presented in Table 6. Large
quantity of individual hydrocarbons in sufficiently narrow
temperature range open the large-scale opportunity for
developing latent heat storage compositions on the basis
of binary and ternary blends of alkanes. Very detailed

Table 6
Melting points and heats of fusion of some compositions with n-alkanes.
Main n-alkane Blend type Additives (wt.%) Tm (°C) DHm (J/g) References
Undecane Pentadecane (8.3–9.7) 29.5 to 28.5 120–124 Garkushin et al. (2009)
Hexadecane (7.02) 27.5 134 Garkushin et al. (2006a,b)
eut Eicosane (1.89) 26.9 139 Lyustritskaya and Garkushin (2007)
eut Docosane (1.4) 26.7 130 Lyustritskaya and Garkushin (2007)
Dodecane Tridecane (21) + Undecane (7) 18.8 to 17.9 137 Ventola et al. (2002a)
Tridecane (12) + Undecane (3) 16.9 to 16.1 141 Ventola et al. (2002a)
Tridecane (32) + Undecane (5) 16.2 to 15.5 138 Ventola et al. (2002a)
Tridecane (42) + Undecane (3) 15.1 to 14.4 139 Ventola et al. (2002a)
Decane (3.0) 16.6 to 10.8 190 Ventola et al. (2002a)
Decane (5.0) 14.4 to 11.9 173 Ventola et al. (2002a)
Tetradecane (2.0) 15.5 to 11.2 186 Ventola et al. (2002a)
Tetradecane (4.0) 14.4 to 11.2 184 Ventola et al. (2002a)
Tridecane (40) + Tetradecane (9) 12.3 to 11.8 144 Ventola et al. (2002a)
Tridecane (41) + Tetradecane (16) 12.0 to 11.4 146 Ventola et al. (2002a)
Tricosane Tridecane 11.8 50 Kalinina et al., 2004
Dodecane (0.3) 11.5 61 Kalinina et al., 2004
Tetradecane Geneicosane (1.5–7.5) + PA (1.0–7.5) 3.8 ± 0.2 218 Danilin et al. (1997b)
Dodecanol (5 mol.%) 4.1 204 Espeau et al. (1996)
Pentadecane Heptadecan 14.7 150 Espeau et al. (1996)
Hexadecane eut 1-Decanol 17.0 228 Métivaud et al. (2005)
Heptadecane Tricosane (12.0–9.5) 17–18.5 130–131 Garkushin et al. (2006a,b)
Octadecane Heneicosane (3–4) 23.5 ± 0.5 205 Danilin et al. (1997a)
Eicosane Tridecane acid (50.0) 30.5 180 Shabalina and Dotsenko (2009)
Pentadecane acide (5.0) 35.4 230 Shabalina and Dotsenko (2009)
Stearic acid (5.0) 36.5 212 Shabalina and Dotsenko (2009)
Palmitic acid (5.0) 36.6 250 Shabalina and Dotsenko (2009)
Heneicosane eut Pentadecane acid (4.8 mol.%) 8.3 163 Espeau et al. (1996)
Docosane Eicosane (20 mol.%) 42.0 144 Espeau et al. (1996)

Fig. 2. Phase diagram of binary system C19H40–C21H44 Mondieig et al., 2004 (a) and C23H48–C25H52 Mondieig et al., 1997 (b).
 M.M. Kenisarin / Solar Energy 107 (2014) 553–575 559

Table 7
Melting points and heats of fusion of some paraffin.
Paraffin grade Ttr (°C) DHtr (J/g) Tm (°C) DHm (J/g) References
a
Shell 53/54 52–54 243–264 Marshall and Dietsche (1982)
Suntech P116 43–56 266 Haji-Sheikh et al. (1983)
Paraffin T3 (Russia) 35 53.0 130 Aleksandrov et al. (2012)
Paraffine 44 (Japan) 17.0 42 44.0 126 Farid et al. (1990)
Paraffine 53 (Japan) 30 35 53.0 165 Farid et al. (1990)
35.4 53.0 164 Inaba and Tu (1997)
Paraffine 64 (Japan) 46.0 43 64.0 166 Farid et al. (1990)
Paraffin 46-50 (Croatia) 20–28 41–43 228a Ukrainczyk et al. (2010)
Paraffin 52-54 (Croatia) 20–32 49–53 220a Ukrainczyk et al. (2010)
Paraffin 58-62 (Croatia) 27 46–60 206a Ukrainczyk et al. (2010)
Paraffin 62-70 (Croatia) 25 37–62 201a Ukrainczyk et al. (2010)
Paraffin 70-75 (Croatia) 30–75 169 Ukrainczyk et al. (2010)
Paraffin 6106 (Germany) 19–40.7 49 40.7–44 130 Abhat et al. (1981) and Abhat (1983)
Paraffin 5838 (Germany) 12.7–46.2 63 46–48.3 134 Abhat et al. (1981) and Abhat (1983)
Paraffin 6035 (Germany) 8–39 83 39–64.5 86 Abhat et al. (1981) and Abhat (1983)
Paraffin 6403 (Germany) 23–51.7 59 51.7–65.6 130 Abhat et al. (1981) and Abhat (1983)
a
Heat transition is included.

Fig. 3. Specific heat capacity (a), thermal conductivity (b), density of paraffin and polyethylene + paraffin composition. Adapted from Inaba and Tu
(1997).

Fig. 4. Specific heat capacities (a) and densities (b) of some paraffins. Adapted from Ukrainczyk et al. (2010).
560 M.M. Kenisarin / Solar Energy 107 (2014) 553–575

investigations of organic blends that are called molecular

alloys have been made by the group of scientists from
Spain, France and The Netherlands (Cuevas-Diarte et al.,
1987, 2001; Espeau et al., 1996; Labrador et al., 1991a,b;
Mondieig et al., 1997, 2004; Ventolà et al., 2005 etc.). A
lot of binary blends of alkanes make solid solutions with
very narrow temperature window (2–5°C) between solidus
and liquidus lines (see Fig. 2).

2.2. Paraffins

The natural paraffins and paraffin waxes that are pro-

duced as by-product in crude oil refining correspond to
the valuable product in comparison with pure alkanes for
practical application. The paraffins are produced in
Fig. 5. Variation of thermal conductivity Suntech P116 paraffin with
large scale, they are relatively cheap and they have high
temperature (Haji-Sheikh et al., 1983).
heat of fusion. These characteristics of paraffins meet the

Table 8
Recommended melting points and heats of fusion of some fatty acids.
Fatty acid Chemical formula MM (g/mol) Ttr (°C) DHtr (J/g) Tm (°C) DHm (J/g) References
Enanthic C7H14O2 130.18 48.4 16 7.4 107 Schaake et al. (1982a)
Caprilic C8H16O2 144.21 16.5 148 Schaake et al. (1982b)
Pelargonic C9H18O2 156.24 10.2 34 12.3 127 Schaake et al. (1982a)
Capric C10H20O2 172.26 30.8 (31.4)a 159 (162)a Adriaanse et al. (1964), Dimaano and
Watanabe (2002), Kauranen et al. (1991),
Moreno et al. (2007), Peippo et al. (1991),
Schaake et al. (1982b), Yan (2011) and Zhang
et al. (1999)
Undecylic C11H22O2 186.29 17.1 47 28.4 139 Schaake et al. (1982a)
Lauric C12H24O2 200.32 42.8 (43.8) 191 (181) Adriaanse et al. (1964), Dimaano and
Watanabe (2002), Kauranen et al. (1991),
Moreno et al. (2007), Peippo et al. (1991), Sarı
and Kaygusuz (2001), Sarı and Kaygusuz
(2002b), Sarı (2003a), Schaake et al. (1982b),
Yan (2011) and Zhang et al. (2001)
Tridecylic C13H26O2 214.34 33.9 41 41.8 157 Schaake et al. (1982a)
Myristic C14H28O2 228.37 52.8 (54.1) 194 (197) Adriaanse et al. (1964), Dotsenko et al.
(2004), Hasan and Sayigh (1994), Kauranen
et al. (1991), Moreno et al. (2007), Peippo
et al. (1991), Sarı and Kaygusuz (2001), Sarı
and Kaygusuz (2003), Sarı et al. (2003a),
Schaake et al. (1982b), Yan (2011) and Zhang
et al. (1999)
Pentadecylic C15H30O2 242.40 52.5 (52.5) 165 (171) Dotsenko et al. (2004) and Schaake et al.
(1982a)
Palmitic C16H32O2 256.43 62.4 (62.4) 204 (210) Adriaanse et al. (1964), Hasan and Sayigh
(1994), Moreno et al. (2007), Postnikov et al.
(2012), Sarı and Kaygusuz (2001), Sarı and
Kaygusuz (2002a), Sarı (2003a), Schaake et al.
(1982b), Yan (2011) and Zhang et al. (1999)
Heptadecylic C17H34O2 270.45 56.0 27 62.8 (61.1) 193 (190) Kauranen et al. (1991), Peippo et al. (1991),
Schaake et al. (1982a)
Stearic C18H36O2 284.48 69.0 214 Adriaanse et al. (1964), Cedeno et al. (2001),
Dotsenko et al. (2004), Hasan and Sayigh
(1994), Moreno et al. (2007), Schaake et al.
(1982b) and Yan (2011)
Nonadecylic C19H38O2 298.50 64.8 31 68.0 193 Schaake et al. (1982a)
Arachic C20H40O2 312.53 75.0 (75.0) 227 (221) Adriaanse et al. (1964), Moreno et al. (2007)
and Schaake et al. (1982b)
a
The bold figures in brackets were measured by Schaake et al. (1982a,b).
 M.M. Kenisarin / Solar Energy 107 (2014) 553–575 561

Table 9
Heat capacity of some fatty acids in solid and liquid state (J/gK). Adapted from (Schaake et al. (1982a,b)).
T (K) C7 C8 C9 C10 C11 C12 C13 C14 C15 C16 C17 C18 C19 C20
200 1.26 1.14 1.21 1.10 1.16 1.08 1.15 1.07 1.16 1.07 1.15 1.06 1.15 1.06
210 1.34 1.20 1.27 1.14 1.21 1.13 1.19 1.11 1.20 1.11 1.20 1.11 1.19 1.10
220 1.45 1.26 1.36 1.20 1.26 1.18 1.24 1.16 1.25 1.15 1.25 1.15 1.24 1.14
230 1.33 1.41 1.25 1.31 1.23 1.25 1.21 1.31 1.20 1.30 1.20 1.29 1.19
240 1.71 1.40 1.51 1.31 1.39 1.28 1.34 1.26 1.36 1.25 1.35 1.25 1.39 1.24
250 1.96 1.47 1.67 1.37 1.43 1.34 1.40 1.32 1.42 1.30 1.41 1.30 1.40 1.29
260 1.56 1.46 1.50 1.40 1.46 1.38 1.49 1.36 1.47 1.36 1.46 1.32
270 1.95 1.63 1.56 1.62 1.47 1.52 1.44 1.58 1.42 1.54 1.43 1.53 1.40
280 1.98 1.73 1.66 1.58 1.62 1.53 1.66 1.49 1.61 1.48 1.60 1.46
290 2.01 1.87 2.06 1.81 1.66 1.59 1.76 1.55 1.69 1.54 1.68 1.52
300 2.05 2.17 2.10 1.96 1.77 1.88 1.68 1.86 1.63 1.78 1.61 1.79 1.61
310 2.05 2.19 2.12 1.92 1.78 2.06 1.72 1.90 1.69 1.88 1.69
320 2.08 3.15 2.16 2.15 2.18 1.93 1.83 2.04 1.79 2.05 1.78
330 2.20 2.65 2.21 2.13 2.23 1.97 1.91
340 2.16 2.24 2.55 2.26 2.18 2.27 2.08 2.01
350 2.18 2.21 2.78 2.31 2.43 2.32 2.23

requirements of phase change thermal energy storage mate- The thermophysical properties of paraffins have been
rials. The paraffins produced in many countries are charac- also investigated by Ukrainczyk et al. (2010). Five samples
terized as a rule by melting range and heat fusion whale of paraffin produced by INA (Rieka, Croathia) under trade
other thermophysical properties required for practical mark 48–50, 52–54, 58–62, 62–70, 70–75 were studied.
application of paraffins as latent heat storage materials Arhimed’s method was used to determine density, unsteady
are not known. The literature data on melting points and regular process – for thermal diffusivity, and differential
heat of fusion of some commercial paraffins are given in scanning calorimeter – for heat capacity. The main results
Table 7.
Developing a form-stable composition on the basis of
paraffin and polyethylene, Inaba and Tu (1997) measured
some thermophysical properties of paraffin. The paraffin
studied in the work consisted mainly of pentacosane with
transition temperature 47 °C and melting point 54 °C.
The heat of fusion was found to be 164 J/g. Specific heat
capacity, thermal conductivity, and density of the paraffin
studied have been accurately determined by using classical
methods. Variations of noted thermophysical properties
with temperature are pictured in Fig. 3. From Figs. 2a
and 3a, it is seen that the heat capacity curve of paraffin
between transition and melting temperatures has the
smoothed character in comparison with the curve for heat
capacity of pentacosane. The classical mixing calorimeter
used by Inaba and Tu (1997) cannot naturally determine
the complicated behavior of heat capacity in contrast to
Fig. 6. Temperature dependent thermal conductivity of pure palmitic
the method of Morikawa and Hashimoto (2000). acid. Adapted from Wang et al. (2008).

Table 10
Recommended thermal conductivity of some liquid fatty acids. Adapted from Vargaftik (1994).
T (°C) 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110
Caprilic acid 147 146 144 143 141 139 138 136 135 133
Pelargonic acid 150 149 147 146 144 142 141 139 137 136
Capric acid 150 148 147 145 143 142 140 138
Undecilic acid 155 153 152 150 148 146 145 143
Lauric acid 147 145 144 142 140 138 136
Myristic acid 159 157 155 153 150 148
Palmytic acid 165 163 161 159 157
Heptadecylic acid 162 160 159 157 155
Stearic acid 170 168 166 164
562 M.M. Kenisarin / Solar Energy 107 (2014) 553–575

Table 11
Melting points and heats of fusion of some compositions with fatty acids.
Heat storage blends and compounds Blend type Tm (°C) DHm (J/g) References
CA (65 mol.%) + LA (35 mol.%) eut. 18.0–19.5 141 Zhang et al. (1999)
CA (61.5 wt.% + LA (38.5 wt.%) eut. 19.1 132 Kauranen et al. (1991) and Peippo et al. (1991)
CA + LA eut. 18 120 Feldman et al. (1989)
CA (73.5 wt.% + MA (26.5 wt.%) eut. 21.4 152 Kauranen et al. (1991) and Peippo et al. (1991)
CA (75.2 wt.% + PA (24.8 wt.%) eut. 22.1 153 Kauranen et al. (1991) and Peippo et al. (1991)
CA (86.6 wt.% + SA (24.8 wt.%) eut. 26.8 160 Kauranen et al. (1991) and Peippo et al. (1991)
LA (80 wt.%) + CA (20 wt.%) 21.4 177 Yan (2011)
LA (62.6 wt.%) + MA (37.4 wt.%) eut. 32.6 156 Kauranen et al. (1991) and Peippo et al. (1991)
LA (66.0 wt.%) + MA (34.0 wt.%) eut. 34.0 167 Sarı (2005)
LA (64.0 wt.%) + PA (36.0 wt.%) eut. 32.8 165 Kauranen et al. (1991) and Peippo et al. (1991)
LA (69.0 wt.%) + PA (31.0 wt.%) eut. 35.2 166 Tuncßbilek et al. (2005)
LA (77.0 wt.%) + PA (23.0 wt.%) eut. 33.0 151 Dimaano and Watanabe (2000)
LA (80.0 wt.%) + PA (20.0 wt.%) eut. 32.7 145 Feldman et al. (1989)
LA (75.5 wt.%) + SA (24.5 wt.%) eut. 37.3 171 Kauranen et al. (1991) and Peippo et al. (1991)
LA + SA eut. 34.0 150 Feldman et al. (1989)
MA (80 wt.%) + CA (20 wt.%) 24.7 197 Yan (2011)
LA (75.5 wt.%) + SA (24.5 wt.%) eut. 37.0 183 Hasan and Sayigh (1994)
MA (51.0 wt.%)+PA (49.0 wt.%) eut. 39.8 174 Kauranen et al. (1991) and Peippo et al. (1991)
MA (58.0 wt.%) + PA (42.0 wt.%) eut. 42.6 170 Sarı (2003a)
MA (65.7 wt.%) + SA (34.7 wt.%) eut. 44.0 181 Kauranen et al. (1991) and Peippo et al. (1991)
MA (64.0 wt.%) + SA (36.0 wt.%) eut. 44.0 182 Sarı (2003a)
MA (60.0 mol.%) + PA (40.0 mol.%) comp. 47.3 180 Dotsenko et al. (2004)
MA (66.67 mol.%) + SA (33.33 mol.%) comp. 48.6 180 Dotsenko et al. (2004)
PA (70 wt.%) + CA (30 wt.%) 21.6 202 Yan (2011)
PA (64.9 wt.%) + SA (35.1 wt.%) eut. 50.4 181 Kauranen et al., 1991 and Peippo et al. (1991
PA (64.2 wt.%) + SA (35.8 wt.%) eut. 52.0 182 Baran and Sarı (2003)
PA + SA eut. 51.0 160 Feldman et al. (1989)
PA (50.0 wt.%) + SA (45.5 wt.%) + other acids 54.0–57.0 180 Feldman et al. (1989)
(4.5 wt.%) Emersol 132
Pentadecylic acid (50.0 mol.%) + SA (50.0 mol.%) comp. 50.6 173 Dotsenko et al. (2004)
SA (70 wt.%) + CA (30 wt.%) 23.8 213 Yan (2011)
SA (65.0 wt.%) + PA (27.5 wt.%) + other acids 51.0–56.0 180 Feldman et al. (1989)
(5.5 wt.%) Emery 420
SA (50 mol.%) + PA (50 mol.%) comp. 57.2 180 Dotsenko et al. (2004)
SA (83.0 wt.%) + PA (11.0 wt.%) + other acids 60.0–66.0 206 Feldman et al. (1989)
(6.0 wt.%) Emersol 150
SA (95.0 wt.%) + PA (5.0 wt.%) Emersol 153 65.0–68.0 209 Feldman et al. (1989)

Table 12
Long-term thermal energy storage properties of some fatty acids (Sarı, 2003b).
Thermal cycles number Stearic acid Palmitic acid Miristic acid Lauric acid
Tm (°C) DHm (J/g) Tm (°C) DHm (J/g) Tm (°C) DHm (J/g) Tm (°C) DHm (J/g)
0 54.7 159 61.3 198 53.0 181 42.6 177
120 54.6 165 61.2 188 52.6 179 42.6 167
560 49.7 132 58.8 175 50.8 178 42.6 128
850 48.0 163 56.6 169 46.9 144 41.9 153
1200 46.8 158 55.5 172 46.2 159 41.26 157

Table 13
Long-term thermal energy storage properties of palmitic and stearic acids (Postnikov et al., 2012).
Acid Chemical formula MM (g/mol) Number of cyclesthermal cycles Tm (°C) DHm (J/g) Supercooling (°C)
Palmitic (Merck, Germany) C16H32O2 256.43 2–3 62.5 208 2.9
606 63.0 188 3.0
1023–1024 62.9 228 1.0
Stearic (Australia) C18H36O2 284.48 2–4 54.5 136 2.1
562–563 56.0 140 3.0
971–973 54.4 182 1.4
 M.M. Kenisarin / Solar Energy 107 (2014) 553–575 563

Table 14
Long-term thermal energy storage properties of some eutectic blends of fatty acids. Adapted from Sarı (2005), Sarı and Karaipekli (2008), Karaipekli et al.
(2008) and Karapekli et al. (2009).
Eutectic blends of fatty acids Number of thermal cycles Tm (°C) Tf (°C) (Tm Tf) (°C) DHm (J/g) DHf (J/g)
CA–LA 0 18.5 19.5 1.0 163 162
1000 17.9 18.7 0.8 152 149
5000 17.0 18.4 1.4 132 129
CA–MA 0 21.7 21.4 +0.3 168 165
1000 21.0 19.8 +1.2 150 149
5000 20.5 20.2 +0.3 160 159
CA–PA 0 21.8 22.1 0.3 171 173
1000 21.7 21.8 0.1 166 168
5000 22.3 22.1 +0.2 175 175
CA–SA 0 24.7 24.7 0 179 179
1000 24.4 24.9 0.5 166 167
5000 25.4 24.1 +1.3 162 166
LA–MA 0 34.2 166
360 33.3 165
1460 33.9 162
LA–PA 0 35.2 166
360 35.4 162
1460 34.8 162
MA–SA 0 44.1 182
360 43.9 180
1460 43.0 184

Table 15
Melting points and heats of fusion of some fatty acid esters.
Fatty acid ester Chemical formula MM (g/mol) Tm (°C) DHm (J/g) References
Allyl palmitate C9H36O2 296.49 22.6 173 Babich et al. (1992a)
Butyl stearate C22H44O2 340.58 23.7 121 Sarı and Karaipekli (2009)
21.9 150 Salyer et al. (1988)
19.0 200 Feldman et al. (1986)
Erythritol tetrapalmitate C64H130O2 963.75. 21.9 201 Sarı et al. (2011b)
Erythritol tetrastearate C72H146O4 1075.95 33.3 209 Sarı et al. (2011b)
Ethylene glycole distearate C38H74O4 594.99 64.5 213 Alkan et al. (2008)
Ethyl linoleate C20H36O2 308.50 55.3 79 Costa et al. (2012)
Ethyl caprilate C10H20O2 172.27 42.8 130 Costa et al. (2012)
Ethyl caprate C12H24O2 200.32 18.7 151 Costa et al. (2012)
Ethyl undecanoate C13H26O2 214.34 21.9 168 van Miltenburg and Oonk (2005)
Ethyl laurate C14H28O2 228.27 18.1 82 Costa et al. (2012)
Ethyl tridecanoate C15H30O2 242.40 0.8 168 van Miltenburg and Oonk (2005)
Ethyl myristate C16H32O2 256.42 0.6 167 Costa et al. (2012)
Ethyl palmitate C18H36O2 284.48 14.2 179 Costa et al. (2012)
23.0 182 Suppes et al. (2003)
24.5 189 Costa et al. (2012)
Ethyl stearate C20H40O2 312.53 33.7 202 Agafonova et al. (2011)
33.0 188 Suppes et al. (2003)
Galactitol hexapalmitate 31.8 202 Sarı et al. (2011a)
Galactitol hexalaurate 38.3 155 Sarı and Bicßer (2012)
Galactitol hexamyristate 45.1 171 Sarı and Bicßer (2012)
Galactitol hexastearate 47.8 202 Sarı et al. (2011a)
Glycerol trimyristate 31.1 153 Sarı et al. (2010)
Glycerol tripalmitate 56.0 184 Sarı et al. (2010)
Glycerol tristearate 64.0 156 Sarı et al. (2010)
Hexadecyl decanoate 29.4 186 Aydın and Aydın (2012)
Hexadecyl dodecanoate 38.2 195 Aydın and Aydın (2012)
Hexadecyl tetradecanoate 49.4 225 Aydın and Aydın (2012)
Hexadecyl hexadecanoate 51.2 217 Aydın and Aydın (2012)
Hexadecyl octadecanoate 54.6 214 Aydın and Aydın (2012)
Hexadecyl eicosanoate 59.3 226 Aydın and Aydın (2012)
Line missing
564 M.M. Kenisarin / Solar Energy 107 (2014) 553–575

Glycerol tristearate C57H110O6 891.48 63.4 149 Sarı and Karaipekli (2009)
Ditetradecyl-1.10-decanedioate 50.8 202 Aydın (2012)
Ditetradecyl-1.12-dodecanedioate 54.9 205 Aydın (2012)
Ditetradecyl-1.14-tetradecanedioate 57.4 207 Aydın (2012)
Isopropyl palmitate C19H38O2 298.50 11.0 100 Feldman et al. (1986)
Isopropyl stearate C21H42O2 326.56 22.1 113 Sarı and Karaipekli (2009)
Isopropyl stearate 14.0 140 Feldman et al. (1986)
Mannitol stearate 63.8 200 Sarı (2012)
Mannitol palmitate 59.4 193 Sarı (2012)
Mannitol myristate 45.0 184 Sarı (2012)
Mannitol laurate 41.5 151 Sarı (2012)
Methyl undecanoate C12H2402 200.32 11.4 181 van Bommel et al. (2004)
Methyl decanoate C11H2202 186.29 12.9 193 van Bommel et al. (2004)
Methyl nonanoate C10H20O2 172.26 34.5 159 van Bommel et al. (2004)
Methyl oleate C19H36O2 296.49 36.0 144 Suppes et al. (2003)
Methyl octanoate C9H18O2 158.24 37.0 162 van Bommel et al. (2004)
Methyl laureate C13H26O2 214.34 5.0 201 van Bommel et al. (2004)
Methyl tridecanoate C14H28O2 228.37 5.9 213 van Bommel et al. (2004)
Methyl myristate C15H30O2 242.40 19.0 214 van Bommel et al. (2004)
Methyl pentadecanoate C16H32O2 256.42 19.2 212 van Bommel et al. (2004)
Methyl palmitate C17H34|O2 270.45 29.0 199 Suppes et al. (2003)
29.0 215 Nikolić et al. (2003)
29.5 222 van Bommel et al. (2004)
Methyl heptadecanoate C18H36O2 284.48 29.9 225 van Bommel et al. (2004)
Methyl stearate C19H38O2 298.50 37.8 240 Nikolić et al. (2003)
38.0 208 Suppes et al. (2003)
38.7 222 van Bommel et al. (2004)
Methyl nonadecanoate C20H40O2 312.53 38.3 227 van Bommel et al. (2004)
Methyl eicosanoate 326.56 46.3 241 van Bommel et al. (2004)
Octadecyl dodecanoate 42.2 201 Aydın (2013b)
Octadecyl tetradecanoate 48.9 204 Aydın (2013b)
Octadecyl hexadecanate 57.3 220 Aydın (2013b)
Octadecyl octadecanoate 59.2 215 Aydın (2013b)
Octadecyl eicosanoate 65.0 226 Aydın (2013b)
Tetradecyl tetradecanoate C28H56O2: 424.74 41.6 210 Aydın and Okutan (2011a)
Tatradecyl oxadecanoate C30H60O2 452.80 48.0 214 Aydın and Okutan (2011a)
Tetradecyl heptadecanoate C31H62O2 466.82 46.7 217 Aydın and Okutan (2011b)
Tetradecyl dodecanoate C26H52O2 396.59 38.0 208 Aydın and Okutan (2011a)
Tetradecyl nonadecanoate C33H66O2 494.88 50.2 203 Aydın and Okutan (2011b)
Tetradecyl octadecanoate C32H64O2 480.85 49.6 222 Aydın and Okutan (2011a)
Tetradecyl pentadecanoate C29H58O2 438.77 45.4 215 Aydın and Okutan (2011b)
Tetradecyltradecanoate C27H54O2 410.72 40.0 208 Aydın and Okutan (2011b)
Tetradecyl eicosanoate C34H68O2 508.90 52.8 201 Aydın and Okutan (2011a)
Vinyl stearate C20H38O2 310.51 27.0 122 Feldman et al. (1986)
Xylitol pentastearate 32.3 206 Bicßer and Sarı (2012)
Xylitol pentapalmitate 18.7 170 Bicßer and Sarı (2012)

Table 16
Coefficients of the second order polynomials of heat capacity for some esters Cp(J/g °C) = AT2(°C) + BT(°C) + C. Adapted from Aydın and Aydın (2012).
Fatty acid ester Solid phase Liquid phase
A B C R2 A B C R2
5
Hexadecyl decanoate 0.0048 0.1058 2.4512 0.97 6
10 0.0105 1.7885 0.98
5
Hexadecyl dodecanoate 0.0001 0.0148 1.3717 0.99 5
10 0.0113 1.4746 0.99
Hexadecyl tetradecanoate 8
10 6 0.0089 1.7104 0.99 0.0002 0.0197 2.9577 0.98
Hexadecyl hexadecanoate 0.0003 0.0009 2.0762 0.99 0.0002 0.0171 3.1015 0.99
Hexadecyl octadecanoate 0.0001 0.0048 1.6647 0.99 0.0002 0.0212 2.8942 0.99
Hexadecyl eicosanoate 0.0001 0.0033 1.6808 0.99 0.0001 0.0132 2.7233 0.99

of investigation are given in Table 7. Variation of heat Thermal conductivity was measured with the method of
capacity and density with temperature are shown in Fig. 4. stationary plane layer. Specific heat capacity was deter-
A set of thermophysical properties of Suntech P116 par- mined with DSC technique. The basic results of measure-
affin has been investigated by Haji-Sheikh et al. (1983). ments are presented in Table 7. Measurement of thermal
 M.M. Kenisarin / Solar Energy 107 (2014) 553–575 565

conductivity (Fig. 5) showed that the value 0.24 W/m°C
giving by manufacturer and cited by many investigators
is correspond to 15–18 °C. As seen from Fig. 5, thermal
conductivity of paraffin with increasing temperature has
dropped to 34 °C (transition temperature) and then rises
monotonically up to melting point. After melting the ther-
mal conductivity is not changed in some temperature
range.
The examples of heat storage materials on the basis of
paraffins can be found in Abhat et al. (1981), Abhat
(1983), Garkushin et al. (2006a), Donskoy et al. (1998),
Kablov et al. (1998, 2002) and Parmon et al. (1994)).
3. Fatty acids, their compositions and derivatives
Among organic substances studied for last years, fatty
acids attract the attention of many scientists as promising
materials for thermal energy storage. They are relatively
cheap and used in large scale in various fields. Melting
points of widespread fatty acids are within 7 to 71 °C
while heat of fusion is changed from 45 to 210 J/g. Transi-
tion temperatures and enthalpies of some fatty acids exper-
imentally found by various researchers were averaged and
presented in Table 8. The majority of measurements has
been carried out with DSC technique. Only three figures
were excluded from consideration since registered transi-
tion temperatures are substantially differed from others.
As seen from Table 8, the averaged data are very close to
the data obtained by Schaake et al. (1982a,b) with using
classic precise adiabatic calorimeter. Specific heat capacity
of widespread fatty acids in the neighborhood of transition
temperatures extracted from (Schaake et al., 1982a,b) and
interesting for heat storage applications are presented in
Table 9.
There are a few measurements (mainly studied by USSR
researchers) on thermal conductivity of some liquid fatty
acids which were summarized by Vargaftik (1994). The
data of Vargaftik was recalculated by us and are presented
in Table 10. The accuracy of these data is estimated in 3–
5%. Recently Wang et al., 2008 has measured thermal con-
ductivity of palmitic acid (PA) in solid and liquid states.
The measurement was made with using high-precision a
transient short-hot-wire method. Fig. 6 shows the depen-
dence of the thermal conductivity of PA on the tested tem-
peratures. As seen from the figure, the thermal conductivity
of PA changes slightly only with the temperature at

Table 17
Heat capacity of some fatty acids esters in solid and liquid state (J/gK). Adapted from van Bommel et al. (2004), van Miltenburg and Oonk (2005) and
Agafonova et al., 2011.
Ester Temperature (K)
210 220 230 240 250 260 270 280 290 300 310 320
Ethyl undecanoatea 1.28 1.34 1.42 1.96 1.98 2.00
Ethyl tridecanoatea 1.33 1.40 1.47 1.54 2.01
Ethyl stearateb 1.58 1.66 1.75 1.86 1.95 2.15 2.16 2.20 2.22 2.26
Methyl octanoate 1.31 1.38 1.54 1.91 1.91 1.92 1.96 1.96 1.98 2.00 2.03 2.05
Methyl nonanoate 1.31 1.38 1.54 1.92 1.92 1.94 1.93 1.97 1.99 2.01 2.04 2.06
Methyl decanoate 1.26 1.32 1.38 1.45 1.62 2.90 1.94 1.98 2.00 2.02 2.05 2.07
Methyl undecanoate 1.27 1.33 1.39 1.46 1.60 2.88 1.98 2.00 2.02 2.04 2.06 2.08
Methyl dodecanoate 1.24 1.30 1.35 1.40 1.48 1.55 1.84 2.00 2.02 2.05 2.07 2.10
Methyl tridecanoate 1.25 1.30 1.35 1.40 1.48 1.54 1.63 2.04 2.06 2.08 2.10
Methyl tetradecanoate 1.23 1.28 1.33 1.38 1.45 1.52 1.61 1.98 2.07 2.09 2.11
Temperature (K)
240 250 260 270 280 290 300 310 320 330 340 350
Pentadecanoate 1.39 1.45 1.51 1.58 1.69 2.93 2.05 2.09 2.11 2.13 2.15
Hexadecanoate 1.38 1.44 1.50 1.57 1.66 1.79 2.74 2.11 2.14 2.16 2.19 2.21
Heptadecanoate 1.41 1.48 1.55 1.61 1.69 1.82 3.45 2.11 2.13 2.15 2.17 2.19
Octadecanoate 1.39 1.44 1.50 1.57 1.67 1.82 2.34 2.14 2.17 2.20 2.23
Nonadecanoate 1.39 1.45 1.51 1.58 1.66 1.76 1.88 2.22 2.17 2.20 2.22
Eicosanoate 1.36 1.42 1.48 1.54 1,61 1.69 1.80 2.05 2.19 2.20 2.25
a
Adapted from van Miltenburg and Oonk (2005).
b
Adapted from Agafonova et al. (2011).

Table 18
Recommended thermal conductivity of some fatty acids esters. Adapted from Vargaftik (1994).
T (°C) 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110
Butyl palmitate 151 150 148 147 145 143 142 140 139
Butyl stearate 155 154 132 150 149 147 146 144
Ethyl caprilate 141 139 137 135 133 131 129 127 126 124 122
Methyl caprilate 140 138 136 134 132 130 128 126 124 122 120
Octyl butyrate 139 137 135 133 131 129 127 125 124
566 M.M. Kenisarin / Solar Energy 107 (2014) 553–575

Table 19 ising heat storage materials are tested during numerous ther-
The percentage changes in phase change temperatures and enthalpies of mal cycles from the temperature below of melting point to
some octadecyl esters after 1000 thermal cycles (Aydın, 2013a).
the temperature exceeding the one on 20–30 °C. The purity
Ester Tm (°C) Tf (°C) DHm (J/g) DHf (J/g) of technical grade fatty acids to be investigated varied from
Octadecyl dodecanoate 0.41 0.70 0.05 0.61 95% to 97%. The results of thermal cycle tests of fatty acids
Octadecyl tetradecanoate 0.40 0.58 0.01 0.10 and their compositions made by various researchers can be
Octadecyl hexadecanoate 0.09 0.41 0.31 0.21
Octadecyl octadecanoate 0.22 0.09 0.08 0.17
found in Tables 12–14. From Table 12, it follows that the
Octadecyl eicosanoate 0.30 0.24 0.27 0.32 melting points of acids after 1200 thermal cycles decreased
from 1.4 °C (lauric acids) to 7.9 °C (stearic acid) while heat
of fusion decreased from 0.1% (stearic acid) to 13.1% (pal-
temperatures lower than 50 °C and higher than 63 °C. Inter- mitic acid). Similar tests with fatty acids compositions
estingly, the thermal conductivities of PA near the melting (Table 14) demonstrated that the melting temperatures after
point in solid state zooms and suddenly falls down when 5000 thermal cycles lowered within 1 °C while heat of fusion
the PCMs turn to liquid state. Unfortunately, the cause of decreased from 4% (CA-MA) to 20% (CA-LA). Thermal
this phenomenon is not known. In accordance with Fig. 6, cycling tests with stearic acid from Australia (purity and
the thermal conductivity of PA in solid state is twice higher manufacturer are unknown) carried out by Postnikov et al.
the thermal conductivity of PA in liquid state. (2012) gave amazing results (see Table 13). Heat of fusion
Along with pure fatty acids, their blends and com- of steric acid samples after 1024 thermal cycles increased
pounds are very attractive as thermal energy storage from 130 J/g to 182 J/g (or 40%). The nature of this phenom-
PCMs. The investigation of some fatty acids blend carried enon is unknown. From abovementioned, it follows that the
out by Dotsenko with colleagues (2004) showed that they fatty acids of technical grade before using as heat storage
form compounds which have not been else confirmed by materials are needed in preliminary accurate tests of long-
other group researchers. Some compositions and com- term thermal energy storage properties.
pounds of fatty acids recommended for thermal energy For practical application, the commercial products of
storage by various scientists are given in Table 11. natural origin on the basis of fatty acids are more
Long-term stability of PCM thermal energy properties is preferable in comparison with composition of pure
very important for heat storage systems. Therefore the prom- fatty acids. Therefore Feldman with colleagues (1989)

Table 20
Long-term thermal energy storage properties of some fatty acids esters (Sarı and Karaipekli, 2009; Sarı et al., 2011b; Sarı, 2012).
Fatty acid esters Number of cycles Tm (°C) Tf (°C) (Tm Tf) (°C) DHm (J/g) DHf (J/g)
Butyl stearate 0 23.7 24.4 0.7 121 128
1000 24.4 24.4 0 124 126
Isopropyl stearate 0 22.1 22.0 0.1 113 111
1000 21.3 21.9 0.4 108 112
Glycerol tristearate 0 63.4 64.6 0.2 149 152
1000 62.8 60.1 2.7 153 147
Eryithritol palmitate 0 21.9 18.8 3.1 201 201
1000 20.9 17.1 3.8 209 188
Erythritol stearate 0 30.3 28.8 1.5 209 207
1000 33.3 27.8 5.5 208 205
Mannitol palmitate 0 65.0 62.2 2.8 202 197
1000 61.9 58.4 3.5 205 191
Mannitol myristate 0 48.8 41.2 7.8 182 185
1000 45.1 45.2 0.1 178 171
Mannitol laurate 0 44.2 38.8 5.4 152 149
1000 42.0 35.3 6.7 145 142

Table 21
Long-term thermal energy storage properties of some commercial products on the basis of fatty acids esters. Adapted from Aydın (2013b).
Commercıal products Number of thermal cycles Tm (°C) Tf (°C) (Tm Tf) (°C) DHm (J/g) DHf (J/g)
Cutina EGMS 0 52.9 53.1 0.2 184 184
1000 51.9 54.3 +2.4 177 177
Cutina AGS 0 59.6 59.0 0.6 213 213
1000 59.4 59.7 +0.3 208 208
Cutina CP 0 44.7 48.7 4.0 203 203
1000 44.5 48.8 4.3 198 199
 M.M. Kenisarin / Solar Energy 107 (2014) 553–575 567

investigated a set of natural compositions produced by
Henkel Canada Inc. It should be pointed out that some
of them had unpleasant odor restricting the field of their
application.
Last years the attention of many researchers was
focused on the investigation of fatty acids esters. These
compounds have high heat of fusion and the majority
of their melting temperatures can be suitable for applica-
tion in heating and air conditioning systems. The results
of last investigations are summarized in Table 15. The
values of melting point of methyl esters and ethyl stearate
determined by van Bommel et al. (2004) and Agafonova
et al. (2011) can be used as reference materials in investi-
gations of thermophysical properties of fatty esters by
DSC technique since they were obtained by using
the high-precision adiabatic calorimeters. Heat capacity
of some esters on the basis of hexadecyl has been
investigated by Aydın and Aydın (2012) with use DSC
technigue. The results of their measurements were approx-
imated with the second order polynomials the coefficients
of which are given in Table 16. Specific heat capacities of
other esters in solid and liquide state measured with pecis-
ious adiabatic calorimeters are presented in Table 17.
Thermal conductivity of some fatty acids esters which
was adapted from the data recommended by Vargaftik
(1994) is presented in Table 18.
The thermal reliability tests (see Table 19) of some octa-
decyl fatty esters made by Aydın (2013a) showed no prac-
tical changes in melting points and heat of fusion. Table 20
presents the results of studies carried out by Turkish
researchers from Gaziosmanpasßa University in Tokat. As
seen from the table, after 1000 thermal cycles small
decrease in melting (solidification) point is observed while
heat of fusion is practically stable. The long-term tests
(see Table 21) made by Aydın (2013b) demonstrated that
some commercial products on the basis of fatty acid esters
has also good thermal reliability.
4. Polyols
Polyols are compounds with multiple hydroxyl
functional groups. These compounds have high heat of

Table 22
Melting points and heats of fusion of some polyols with high heat of fusion.
Polyols Chemical formula MM (g/mol) Method used Tm (°C) DHm (J/g) References
Erythritol C4H10O4 122.12 DSC 118.0 319 Lopes Jesus et al. (2005)
AC 117.1 310 Tong et al. (2009)
DSC 116.4 278 Tong et al. (2009)
DSC 117.7 323 Barone et al. (1990)
DSC 118.0 315 Talja and Roos (2001)
120.0 339 Kakuichi et al. (1998)
116 338 Shukla et al. (2003)
Threitol C4H10O4 122.12 DSC 88.6 238 Lopes Jesus et al. (2005)
Xylitol C5H12O5 152.15 AC 96.2 219 Tong et al. (2007)
DSC 94.3 221 Tong et al. (2007)
DSC 92.5 246 Barone et al. (1990)
DSC 92.7 232 Talja and Roos 2001
Arabinitol C5H12O5 152.15 DSC 106.2 256 Barone et al. (1990)
Adonitol C5H12O5 152.15 AC 96.5 239 Tong et al. (2010a)
(Ribitol) DSC 104.4 256 Tong et al. (2010a)
DSC 101.5 247 Barone et al. (1990)
Sorbitol C6H14O6 182.17 AC 96.0 167 Tong et al. (2008)
(Glucitol) DSC 99.2 168 Tong et al. (2008)
DSC 93.3 166 Barone et al. (1990)
DSC 95.0 165 Talja and Roos (2001)
97.7 185 Kakuichi et al. (1998)
D-Mannitol C6H14O6 182.17 DSC 165.9 308 Barone et al. (1990)
167.0 316 Kakuichi et al. (1998)
Dulcitol C6H14O6 182.17 DSC 187.1 357 Barone et al. (1990)
(Galactitol) 189.0 352 Kakuichi et al. (1998)
Inositol C6H12O6 180.16 DSC 223.7 266 Barone et al. (1990)

Table 23
Heat capacity of some polyols in solid and liquid state (J/gK). Adapted from Tong et al. (2007, 2008, 2009, 2010a).
Ester 270 K 280 K 290 K 300 K 310 K 320 K 330 K 340 K 350 K 360 K 370 K 380 K 390 K 400 K
Erythritol 1.11 1.15 1.20 1.24 1.28 1.31 1.35 1.40 1.44 1.49 1.54 2.64 2.65
Xylitol 1.32 1.37 1.41 1.45 1.50 1.56 1.64 1.75 1.90 2.11 2.81 2.84 –
Adonitol 1.35 1.39 1.43 1.46 1.49 1.53 1.59 1.67 1.79 1.96 2.80 2.82 2.84
Sorbitol 1.30 1.36 1.41 1.45 1.51 1.58 1.71 1.82 2.27 2.84 2.87 –
568 M.M. Kenisarin / Solar Energy 107 (2014) 553–575

Table 24
Melting points and heats of fusion of some organic compounds with solid–solid transitions.
Compound Chemical formula MM (g/mol) Ttr (°C) DHtr (J/g) Tm (°C) DHm (J/g) References
NPG C5H12O2 104.15 43.0 131 126 45 Murrill and Breed (1970)
41.6 130 119 43 Zhang et al. (1988)
40.0 126 Chandra et al. (2002b)
42.0 117 128 41 Divi et al. (2006)
41.3 120 Kamae et al. (2001)
TRMP C6H14O3 134.17 54.6 59 122 7 Chandra et al. (2002a)
AMPL C4H11NO2 105.14 80.0 239 112 28 Murrill and Breed (1970)
80.0 107 Chandra et al. (2002b)
80.6 223 111 Zhang and Yang (1990)
PG C5H12O3 120.15 81.0 193 197 45 Murrill and Breed (1970)
82.0 Chandra et al. (2002b)
82.5 196 111 23 Divi et al. (2006)
TRIS C4H11NO3 121.14 134.0 283 169 25 Murrill and Breed (1970)
135.0 174 Chandra et al. (2002b)
136.0 276 171 26 Divi et al. (2006)
134.4 276 170 20 Zhang and Yang (1990)
PE C5H10O4 136.15 183.0 301 258 37 Murrill and Breed (1970)
185.1 297 240 34 Barone et al. (1990)
180.0 Chandra et al. (2002b)

Table 25
Heat capacity of some organic compounds with solid–solid transitions (J/gK).
T PE PE PG PG NPG NPG NPG NPG NPG AMPL AMPL AMPL TRIS
(K) Chandra Zhang Chandra Suenaga Chandra Zhang Tong Kamae Divi Chandra Divi Tong Divi
et al. and Yang et al. et al. et al. et al. et al. et al. et al. et al. et al. et al. et al.
(2002a) (1989) (2002a) (1990) (2002a) (1988) (2007) (2001) (2006) (2002a) (2006) (2010b) (2006)
270 1.22 1.41 1.46 1.49 1.52 1.42 1.30 1.22 1.30
280 1.27 1.46 1.61 1.54 1.57 1.48 1.33 1.27 1.34
290 1.33 1.51 1.69 1.60 1.63 1.56 1.37 1.31 1.39
300 1.38 1.55 1.76 1.68 1.72 1.61 1.41 1.36 1.43
310 1.53 1.44 1.66 1.61 1.92 1.78 1.78 2.00 – 1.69 1.45 1.41 1.48
320 1.62 1.50 1.72 1.66 – 2.47 – 2.98 – 1.79 1.48 1.48 1.53
330 1.71 1.55 1.70 1.74 – 2.54 2.58 2.53 2.50 1.80 1.54 1.58 1.59
340 1.80 1.61 1.78 1.81 2.59 2.60 2.66 2.60 2.57 – 1.59 1.71 1.63
350 1.90 1.66 1.88 1.89 2.63 2.69 2.73 2.66 2.62 – – – 1.67
360 1.99 1.72 – – 2.67 2.74 2.79 2.71 2.67 – – 2.76 –
370 2.08 1.78 – – 2.72 2.78 2.85 2.77 2.78 – 2.83 2.85 –
380 2.17 1.83 2.64 – 2.76 2.85 2.91 3.03 – – –
390 2.27 1.89 2.68 – 2.81 3.11 2.97 3.29 2.97 –
400 2.36 1.94 2.72 – 8.84 3.34 3.17 2.97 –
410 2.45 2.00 2.76 3.04 3.13 3.40 –
420 2.66 2.05 2.84 3.08 3.17 3.55 –
430 2.82 2.12 2.88 3.11 3.21 3.59
440 2.76 2.18 2.92 3.14 3.23 3.63
450 3.34 2.24
460 – –
470 – 2.80
480 3.44 2.83

fusion and therefore they can be used as perspective phase
change materials for thermal energy storage. The melting
points and heats of fusion of some polyols determined by
different researchers are presented in Table 22. As seen
from the table, there are the sufficient differences in melting
points polyols measured by different authors. Fewer differ-
ences are observed in heat of fusion. Heat capacity of four
polyols determined by Tong and his colleagues are given in
Table 23. Since the measurement made with adiabatic
calorimeter are more accurate that one with differential
scanning calorimetry, the preference it should be given the
data obtained by Tong et al. (2007, 2008, 2009, 2010a).
 M.M. Kenisarin / Solar Energy 107 (2014) 553–575 569

Unfortunately the data on thermal conductivity of these com-
pounds are not found.
5. Polyhydric alcohols
Polyhydric alcohols or so called organic molecular crys-
tals exhibit high enthalpies of solid–solid phase transition.
This behavior of polyhydric alcohols drew attention of
some researchers to study their property to use as phase
change materials for heat storage. Results of measurements
of thermo-physical properties of these compounds are
shown in Tables 24–26. The most of measurements were
made by using DSC techniques. More accurate data were
obtained with use adiabatic calorimeters in works of
Zhang et al. (1988, 1990), Suenaga et al. (1990), Tong
et al. (2010a,b). As it is seen from Table 26, thermal con-
ductivity of organic molecular crystals is very low and they
are needed in enhancing.

Table 26
Thermal conductivity of some compositions with solid–solid transitions (mW/m°C). Adapted from Zhang et al. (2000) and Zhang and Xu (2001).
T (°C) PE PG (PE + PG) Mole ratio 50:50 NPG TMP (NPG + TMP) Mole ratio 50:50
20 35.4 134.7 58.7 153.6 256.5 243.9
30 35.9 130.7 53.6 154.0 255.9 265.6
40 36.4 126.7 48.6 – 255.2 –
50 36.9 122.6 43.5 83.8 254.5 227.6
60 37.3 118.6 38.4 115.9 – 226.0
70 37.8 114.6 33.3 142.2 235.2 224.0
80 38.2 110.4 41.3 162.7 235.9 221.5
90 38.7 71.2 47.5 177.5 236.6 218.5
100 39.1 71.6 51.3 186.5 215.1
110 39.5 72.4 52.1 189.7 211.2
120 39.9 73.0 51.6 187.1 –
130 40.3 73.7 48.1 178.7 217.0
140 40.7 74.3 48.1 – 214.4
150 41.4 74.9 – 144.8 219.3
160 41.1 75.5 131.5 187.7 231.7
170 41.7 76.6 170.5 205.5
180 42.1 76.8 168.5
190 142.7 77.8 –
200 177.1 168.9 180.5

Table 27
Melting points and heats of fusion of some high-molecular alcohols.
Alcohol Chemical formula MM (g/mol) Ttr (°C) DHtr (J/g) Tm (°C) DHm (J/g) References
Dodecanol C12H25OH 186.34 24.1 216a van Miltenburg et al. (2003)
Tridecanol C13H27OH 200.36 21.5 31.6 223a van Miltenburg et al. (2003)
31.7 225a Mosselman et al. (1974)
Tetradecanol C14H29OH 214.39 37.8 231a Mosselman et al. (1974)
Pentadecanol C15H31OH 228.42 42.2 94 43.7 141 van Miltenburg et al. (2003)
43.7 240a Mosselman et al. (1974)
43.2 130 Ventola et al. (2002c, 2004)
Hexadecanol C16H33OH 242.45 49.1 238a Xing et al. (2008)
49.0 240 Mosselman et al. (1974)
48.4 136 Ventola et al. (2002c, 2004)
Heptadecanol C17H35OH 256.47 50.1 98 53.4 144 Ventola et al., 2002b
50.5 92 54.1 154 van Miltenburg et al. (2003)
49.6 113 53.0 136 Reuter and Würflinger. (1995)
53.4 144 Ventola et al. (2002c, 2004)
Octadecanol C18H37OH 270.50 55.2 57.8 246a van Miltenburg et al. (2001)
56.3 98 57.1 148 Ventola et al. (2002b,c, 2004)
55.3 69 145 Kuchhal et al. (1979)
57.1 148 Ventola et al. (2002c, 2004)
Nonadecanol C19H39OH 284.53 55.5 61.1 255a van Miltenburg et al. (2001)
56.5 102 60.7 156 Ventola et al. (2002b)
60.7 152 Ventola et al. (2002c, 2004)
Eicosanol C20H41OH 298.55 56.5 64.5 247a van Miltenburg et al. (2001)
58.8 54 66.4 140 Ventola et al. (2002b)
62.8 146 Ventola et al. (2002c, 2004)
Docosanol C22H43OH 326.61 66.6 70.4 263a van Miltenburg et al. (2001)
a
Total heat of solid–solid transition and fusion.
570 M.M. Kenisarin / Solar Energy 107 (2014) 553–575

6. Other organic substances
Beside of the above mentioned paraffins, fatty acids,
fatty acid esters, polyols and polyhydric alcohols, there is
a set of other organic substances having high heat of fusion
and they are of interest as potential heat storage materials.
A set of high-molecular alcohols is attractive due to the
suitable melting temperatures and heats of fusion. The
transition temperatures and heats of fusion of such alco-
hols are presented in Table 28. Similar n-alkanes, high-
molecular alcohols undergo phase transition in solid state
at the temperature close to melting point. The total heats
of transitions lie in the range 190–258 J/g. Specific heat
capacity determined by van Miltenburg et al. (2001,
2003) with use adiabatic calorimeter are tabulated in
Table 27. Other thermophysical properties needed for
designing thermal energy storage system are not available.
The benzene compounds are the striking representatives
of the molecular alloys. Table 29 presents the transition
temperatures and heats of fusion for some benzene

Table 28
Heat capacity of high-molecular alcohols in solid and liquid state (J/gK). Adapted from van Miltenburg et al. (2003), Mosselman et al. (1974) and van
Miltenburg et al. (2001).
Alcohol Temperature (K)
270 280 290 300 310 320 330 340 350 360
Dodecanol 1.67 1.76 1.86 2.39 2.44 2.51 2.59 2.66 2.53 2.79
Tridecanol 1.67 1.73 1.84 1.96 2.45 2.51 2.58 2.65 2.71 2.78
Pentadecanol 1.89 2.04 2.52 2.57 2.60 2.65 2.73
Hexadecanol 1.62 1.66 1.73 1.79 1.86 2.48 2.55 2.63 2.70
Heptadecanol 1.81 1.96 2.11 2.57 2.62 2.68 2.74
Octadecanol 1.50 1.60 1.71 1.82 1.92 2.03 2.61 2.67 2.72
Nonadecanol 1.50 1.59 1.68 1.78 1.87 1.96 2.61 2.67 2.72
Eicosanol 1.47 1.60 1.72 1.85 1.98 2.11 2.62 2.66 2.71
Dodecanol 1.54 1.61 1.69 1.76 1.83 1.91 2.61 2.66 2.70

Table 29
Melting points and heats of fusion of some benzene compounds.
Benzene compounds Chemical formula MM (g/mol) q (g/cv3) Tm (°C) DHm (J/g) References
Chlorobenzene C6H5Cl 112.6 45.0 95 Michaud et al. (1996)
Bromobenzene C6H5Br 157.0 31.1 65 Michaud et al. (1996)
Dichlorobenzene C6H4Cl2 147.0 1.52 52.8 121 Mondieig et al. (1991) and Labrador et al. (1991a,b)
Dibromobenzene C6H4Br2 235.9 2.29 86.9 86 Mondieig et al. (1991) and Labrador et al. (1991a,b)
Chloroiodobenzene C6H4ClI 238.4 2.26 53.0 66 Tauler et al. (1994)
Bromoiodobenzene C6H4BrI 282.9 2.20 90.0 78 Tauler et al. (1994)
Bromochlorobenzene C6H4BrCl 191.4 1.91 64.2 97 Tauler et al. (1994)
Trichlorobenzene C6H3Cl3 181.4 1.46 87.3 97 Tauler et al. (1994)
Tribromobenzene C6H3Br3 314.8 121.8 67 Tauler et al. (1994)

Table 30
Melting points and heats of fusion of some other organic materials.
Phase change material Tm (°C) DHm (J/g) References
Acedamid 82 263 Sharma et al. (2000)
80 252 Lorsch et al. (1975)
Acedamid (83 wt.%) + SA (17 wt.%) 65.4 213 Lorsch et al. (1975)
Acedamid (81 wt.%) + PA (19 wt.%) 59.1 177 Lorsch et al. (1975)
Acedamid (89 wt.%) + MA (11 wt.%) 48.7 192 Lorsch et al. (1975)
Acedamid (91 wt.%) + LA (9 wt.%) 39.4 183 Lorsch et al. (1975)
Acedamid (93 mol.%) + KNO3 (6.8 mol.% wt.%) 77.3 257 Nikolić and Ristić (1992)
Acedamid (84.6 mol.%) + NaNO3 (15.4 mol.% wt.%) 65.4 198 Nikolić and Ristić (1992)
Acedamid (65.6 mol.%) + NH4NO3 (34.4 mol.% wt.%) 77.3 257 Nikolić and Ristić (1992)
Acedamid (87.4 mol.%) + Ca(NO3)2 (12.6 mol.% wt.%) 77.3 257 Nikolić and Ristić (1992)
Acetanilid 118.9 222 Buddhi et al. (2003)
PCM 86 (40 wt.% Erythritol + 60 wt.% TME) 86–96 246 Hidaka et al. (2004)
PCM 80 (90 wt.% Erythritol = 10 wt.% TMP) 80–95 231 Hidaka et al. (2004)
PCM 30 (62.5 wt.% TME + 37.5 wt,% water) 29.8 218 Kakuichi et al. (1999)
PCM 13 (38.5 wt.% TME + 31.5 wt.% water + 30 wt.% urea 14.4 160 Kakuichi et al. (1999)
 M.M. Kenisarin / Solar Energy 107 (2014) 553–575
compounds. Though these compounds have more low heat
of fusion in comparison with alkanes, fatty acids and their
composition, the density of benzene compounds exceeds
almost twice compared to alkanes and fatty acids. The
blends of benzene compounds form the solid solutions with
narrow gap between solidus and liquidus. It allows obtain-
ing the phase change material with required melting
temperature.
Thermophysical properties of some other organic
materials that have not been considered above are pre-
sented in Table 30. Some data relating to other organic
substances and materials not reflected in present paper
can be found in (Kenisarin, 1993; Sharma and Sagara,
2005; Sharma et al., 2009; Canik and Alkan, 2010;
Alkan et al., 2011; Sarier and Onder, 2012; Kenisarin
and Kenisarina, 2012).
7. Conclusions
Practically, all the experiments on the properties of pro-
spective PCMs were restricted to measurements of the
melting temperature and the heat of fusion. The main
methods used by researchers in studying the thermal prop-
erties of PCMs were ‘‘quick’’ methods such as differential
thermal analysis (DTA) and differential scanning calorime-
try (DSC). It is a well-known fact that the results obtained
with the use of these methods can considerably differ from
those obtained using rigorous thermophysical methods.
The significant discrepancies in the data published on
the properties of PCMs demonstrate that the accuracy of
the above express methods is not sufficiently high. The
review also shows that, except in a very few cases, no mea-
surements were performed to establish the temperature
dependence of the heat conductivity, the heat capacity
and the density of prospective PCMs. For the creation of
high-performance solar applications, it is of paramount
importance to have accurate information on the tempera-
ture dependency of the properties of prospective PCMs.
To sum up the main conclusions from this review the
following it should be noted:
1. Relating to n-alkanes, it should be noted that their ther-
mophysical properties are investigated more extensively
that other group of perspective organic materials. Ther-
mophysical properties were mainly studied in liquid
state. Thermophysical properties of n-alkanes blends
practically are not investigated. Some thermophysical
properties of commercial paraffins that are the most
attractive for thermal energy storage are only studied
for separate grades.
2. Last decades are characterized by intensive developing
phase change heat storage materials based on fatty acids
and their esters and compositions. As recent studies
show, their long-term heat storage properties are
remaining practically constant during several thousand
thermal cycles. There are the reliable data on heat
capacity and heat conductivity pure fatty acids and
571
some fatty acid esters only. Thermophysical properties
of remain fatty acid compositions and esters are needed
in similar investigations.
3. The measurements of some organic substances in solid
and liquid states demonstrated that their thermal con-
ductivity is very low. Such a low conductivity of organic
materials is the significant barrier in their application for
thermal energy storage.
4. At present, the cost of PCMs is quite high (Kenisarin
and Mahkamov, 2007). For example, paraffin products
of Rubitherm GmbH cost 4000–5000 $/ton (2900–
3500 €/ton) and the price for a salt hydrate product is
8400–10,300 $/ton (9000–11,000 AUD/ton). At these
prices, application of PCMs is mainly restricted to
research or demonstration projects. Nevertheless a lot
of companies produce and sale PCM products for mis-
cellaneous application. For large-scale solar energy
applications, the cost of latent heat storage products
should be on the level of 1–2 $/kg. This aim can be
reached only if technical grade materials produced with
a minimum of technological processing are used. Hence,
research on solar applications of PCMs should include
investigations of such low-grade materials.
5. As it seen from the review some developers of novel
phase change materials undergone to thermal cycling
test only 3 times whereas other researchers 5000 times.
Thermal cycling less than one hundred times is not rea-
sonable. At the same time, it is improbable that the
PCM product can be undergone 5000 times to thermal
cycling in real condition of operation. It is expected that
PCM product in solar applications will be undergo to
thermal cycling about 1000 times. Therefore when devel-
oping commercial latent heat storage products at accept-
able prices, stability of thermal properties of these
substances we recommend to carry out at least 1000
thermal cycles.
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