Unit Four: Process and Guidelines in Technical Writing

Introduction: Communicator’s Craft

Technical reports aim primarily to provide relevant information. This discipline

encourages the analysis of information like giving appropriate analysis, which serves as
basis for recommendations. In technical writing, it is common to presuppose definite
employer-employee, corporation-expert, and/or society-researcher relationships.
There are many types of Technical Reports and they vary in length, in content, in style,
and in format. From brief letters or memoranda to lengthy works of several volumes,
from the daily timekeepers’ reports to voluminous reports on national planning and
economic resources, these different types of technical reports are essential in providing
relevant information and crucial bases for making decisions.

Objectives
At the end of this module, you should be able to:
1. Understand the process and purposes of technical writing.
2. Think about the data and information being requested in technical writing.
3. To record data transpired at a meeting and to justify a transactional that requires
approval.

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Process of Technical Report Writing

In order to finish something, one has to start first. Writers, however, mostly find it hard to
begin writing. Where do I start? How do I begin? Should I begin with a quotation, or an
anecdote? How do I engage my audiences? These questions and a lot more crowd the
mind of any writer.

Lafcadio Hearn has a suggestion about these indecisions to start writing. One time,
when he was attending a painting contest in Japan, Hearn observed how a painter
begins his work. At first, nobody could pinpoint what the painter was trying to begin with.
At first, what he witnessed was the painter drafting something like a comet; and then a
broom or a piece of curtain. The painter went on, without minding the observers around
him. He just went on and dipped his brush with paint and then smeared the canvas with
it. A thing in front of him was formed, and this time it is a lot easier to recognize. The
man painted a horse and the first part he painted was the tail of the animal.

Lafcadio Hearn said that a piece could be started with its ending part, middle or its
opening. There is no surefire beginning. Only the writer knows exactly what is best for
him to start his work.

The Pre Writing Stage

This asks the question on how to begin. It includes some reflections before putting your
thoughts on paper. Parts of these preparations are: finding a topic, narrowing the topic
and determining the audience.

Finding a topic

There are points to consider in choosing a topic. Two of these considerations are:

1. Your appeal/interest to the topic, which includes your knowledge and background
about the topic area. Is the topic really of your interest?
2. And if it is your interest, do you have enough materials to proceed into writing a
relevant material? Materials here refer to the knowledge.

Knowledge, as we all know, matters in effective writing. So far, among all the methods
of enhancing ones knowledge on a particular topic reading is still guaranteed to be
effective.

With reading you will soon discover your limitation on your chosen topic. Some
important ideas get discovered and will give you a new direction in your writing. Reading
sharpens your mind and only those with sharp mind can produce a powerful write up.

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The same suggestion is provided if the writer is not free to choose a topic. Say, for
example, if someone is asked by someone of higher position in the company to write
something, it is not easy to say no. You will just need to write it, yes? That is why,
reading, as a skill and a technique is an important strategy.

Internal Brainstorming

Let’s have a list of possible scenarios:

 a group of pigeons swerving above the basketball court,

 a peddler with his voice getting obscure in the distance,
 the tolling of bells of a nearby church; and so on.

All these topics are worth writing about. However, coming up with such kind of list could
not be as helpful in discovering a wide range of information on your chosen subject
area. What you need is a more specific area. You can allow your imagination to touch
every possible topic from which you can choose to develop.

Okay. Here’s how you do it. Pull out your ball pen and a blank sheet of paper. You write
into paper any idea that appears in your mind. Make a list of it; do not mind whatever it
is; just write each of them; simply write. For around twenty minutes write anything on
the paper.

Here’s an example:

Sports corruption ocean mythology

Soldier Dance Vacation Train

Crowd cake sky rain

Beauty drama comedy corruption

Road money Politicians secretary

Manager Student Rivers Skies

Teacher Jeep Campaign Stars

Train Car Beauty Map

Food chain good men enemy atlas

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Fish Adobo Boat Karate

Next is to group your random ideas into its respective categories. Once you have
completed categorizing your random ideas, it will somehow look like this:

People Entertainment Food Travel

Secretary Sports Fish Train
Teacher Drama Adobo Boat
Manager Comedy Food chain Car
Politicians Dance Cake Map
Good men Karate Atlas

Now, you see, from the table above you can easily choose which area you’d like to
focus on. For example, if you want to focus on entertainment, you can either give a
general discourse about the category (making use of the items under the category as
sub-topics), or you can specifically choose just one, and elaborate further.

Clustering

Although still considered brainstorming, clustering is quite better because it provides

more details that can support the main argument of your composition. Clustering
doesn’t just simply list down areas. It offers more information connected to the main
topic and offers a more diverse listing down of related sub-topics and/or sub-categories
under each category.

This strategy is almost the same as making an outline. Clustered ideas could be
selected, thus, filling out the outline before the actual writing. Good, yes?

Free Writing

This technique helps you start your writing gear into a race. And did I mention that this
strategy also stimulates your mind? This pre-writing exercise is called free-writing
because you are allowed to put into paper anything that appears in your mind whether it
is connected to the topic or not.

To begin, write a title at the center of the upper margin, and then write sentences
connected to the topic. Remember: you must continue on writing whatever happens.
Suppose you run out of ideas, keep on writing still, even if it is not connected to the
topic.

Free-writing provides you a good avenue to begin to imagine, construct and organize
your thoughts through your initial subliminal thoughts. From this exercise, you will be
able to come up with a list of possible ideas and connected sub-topics that could help
you organize your upcoming discourse.

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Journal Writing

Like a diary, a journal is a compiled notepad with entries that include the date, the time,
and the actual entry or the record of the event. However, unlike a diary, journals are less
concerned about what happened. In a journal, you do not simply write what you did.
Journal writing also includes your reactions to whatever happened. A journal records
your thoughts about practically everything else.

Let’s take this scenario for an example: you are stuck in traffic and you are late for an
appointment. If you decide to write about this experience, you are making a diary entry.
By saying narrating what happened during the day and while you were waiting in traffic,
this exercise is called diary-writing.

Now, say for example that you are writing about your opinion on what the local
government should do to manage the color-coding policy, which – you think – will help
in minimizing the bearing problems that your city is now going through. When you write
down these thoughts, you are making a journal entry.

A high school student and elementary graders could easily write a diary, but young
learners may have difficulties in composing their thoughts into writing; much more
organizing their ideas and opinions. On the other hand, you are more experienced and
exposed to writing and reading. As a future technical communicator; you are expected
to learn how to put into paper your ideas and opinions, rather than just jotting down your
experience of the day.

Narrowing a topic

Now that you have found a topic, you are ready to put it into writing.

However, most primary topics are too general and broad; writing something that is
general and vast could be far from possibility.

This strategy is the most commonly ignored area in effective writing. Young writers tend
to put so much focus on too many things, thus, making the writing process rigorous,
unfocused and unclear. Reading these kinds of outputs is as tiring, as well.

Narrowing your chosen topic could make things easier for you. Start with the things that
you want to emphasize. Ask yourself which part of the topic you wanted to discuss. For
example, you would like to discuss about Manny Pacquiao. Since there are many things
to write about him, you can narrow down your ideas into sub-details about him as a
sportsman and as an athlete. You can focus on his stamina and speed. Just that and
nothing more.

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Determining the readers

You may have the edge when it comes to writing and your essays may be beautifully
worded, but if your reader cannot understand what you mean, your writing has already
failed to do its basic purpose which is to deliver a message. Determining the reader is
determining the understandability of the reader. Although the suggestion of Lafcadio
Hearn is firm and final, a writer must properly understand the want and need of their
readers. Hearn said “use the speech in the sidewalk, and not the speech in the
academe.” Hearn meant that a writer must learn how to make use of simple words and
sentences.

Determining the readers means understanding and empathizing with the needs and
wants, the likes and dislikes of your target readers.

Writing stage

This is the stage where everything that you have prepared is put into actual writing. For
engineers, this is the stage when the plan in a blue print is translated into an actual
construction.

During this stage, you develop the argument that you want to point out and put it into
writing. Experts keep on reminding us to write freely. To “write freely” means that while
writing do not allow the structure of language like grammar, spelling, tenses, and
agreements distract the fluidity of your thought; just keep on writing no matter what.
You know it is wrong; you know you are carried away and your writing has rerouted your
argument. Never mind it; the first draft is always rough. What is important in this period
of your writing is the process of transferring your mind into a piece of paper (or Word
document in your PC).

The first draft is never final. It will always need appropriate polishing. There are points
that need to be clarified; the style needs to be evaluated; there may be paragraphs that
need to be transferred, inserted, deleted or restructured. At this stage, you will also
need to check your spelling, grammar and proper organization.

This part of the writing process is called the post writing or final drafting.

Rewriting

Some writers leave behind a second or third draft on the shelf and “sleep on it.” After
two or three days, they go back to it for review. Most of the time, these writers will be
able to notice other mistakes in the draft that they may have missed the first time they
made the most recent draft. This strategy is very useful especially if you have enough
time to spare.

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Rewriting is the polishing stage of the writing process. Everything should be checked
and structures should be well considered. Below are different things you might need to
ask yourself while you are on this stage:

Information

 Is the argument represented by the thesis clearly stated?

 Are data presented logically?

 Are there important facts omitted which should have been the points to convince
the readers?

 Are the opposing arguments answered and now mutilated?

 Is the conclusion clear enough, and does it follow according to the data given?

 Do the statements support the argument?

 In general, is the purpose of the writer achieved?

Style

 Are the words used appropriate to the taste of the readers?

 In general, is the write up interesting?

 Are the statements correct?

 Are the verbs strong enough?

Grammar

“Are the following already verified and checked?”

 Fragment

 Comma splice

 Run-on sentence
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 Agreement

 Subject-verb

 Noun-pronoun

 Singular-plural

 Parallelism

 Modifier

 Punctuation

 Capitalization

 Spelling

The Final Draft

The final draft depends on your readers and/or company who will read your write up.
Most organizations already have a preferred communication culture and style which you
can use and follow. Nevertheless, as a general rule, here are the basic things you need
to review for your final drafting:

 Type of Paper
o Size
o Color

 Font
o Style
o Size
 The letterhead
 Pagination
 Margin
 Spacing
 Title Page

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Proofreading

Proofreading is never an easy task. First, you can never be sure who will do it for you.
Second, other people might be busy. However, the people who can do it are all around
you. Your English teacher could be a good candidate for a proofreader. Other friends
who are familiar with grammar and usage could be a quite a good bet, too. Just
remember being good in English does not always follow to be good in writing. Teachers
may know the rules of grammar and the technicalities of writing, but not all of them can
write well. Phrase well your approach to your prospective proofreader. Most of the time,
there are professional proofreaders who would require a fee for these services, but
don’t lose hope, there are other people who would gladly do this for free.

Once you’re done with proofreading, you can encode your revisions to your draft and
recheck everything by comparing it to the most recent draft.

Proofreading could be defined as identifying and correcting errors in your drafts. Always
remember that, the first draft is just your starting point. Revise your drafts as clearly as
possible. Check the spelling, punctuations, sentence forms, paragraph divisions,
transitions, etc. Other writers would need to have more than two to three drafts to
increase the level of accuracy and completeness; others can get things done in good
shape quickly.

To avoid biases, ask another person to read your draft. You may know what you mean,
but as a thoughtful writer, you may need major changes to benefit your readers.

Whenever you revise your draft, consider the following questions, which could help as
you write your draft.

1. Have I started my main idea clearly?

2. Have I proven my point to my readers? Do I have enough information and

examples?

3. Do I need to rearrange any of my ideas to help my audience understand my

paper more easily?

Using Transitional Devices

Writing is effective only if the readers understand the writer’s ideas. As you write your
draft, keep in mind the reader’s needs, limitations and expectations. Begin with your
main idea and stick to it. Get adequate specific evidence, connect your evidence, and
write a conclusion. You can connect ideas by using transitions, words or sentences that
show the relationship between ideas.

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Transition Words

 When including examples:

To introduce your example -

- for example

- for instance

- specifically

To connect examples –

- also, as well as

- another example of, furthermore

- next, in addition, similarly

- not only, but also

 When telling a story or explaining a process:

after during last since as

eventually later soon as soon as finally

meanwhile then at last first next

when before following now while

 When persuading with reasons

To introduce your reasons –

first (second, third…..)

another, in addition

because, since

last, finally

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To conclude your argument –

consequently, hence

therefore

in conclusion

clearly, above all

When writing about the effects -

as a result hence then thus

consequently so therefore because

 When comparing or contrasting

To indicate similarities To indicate differences

similar to equally on the other hand different from

like also on the contrary but

just as too instead of although

unlike whereas

 When concluding your paper:

In conclusion

Evidently

Clearly

Finally

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Writing your conclusion

Conclusions are made to bring a piece of writing to a definite, satisfying end. Powerful
conclusions refer back to the main idea to establish unity, coherence, and a sense that
the writing has delivered a full cycle of thought.

Three possibilities in writing the conclusion:

Review your work, pay close attention to the main idea which you stated at the
beginning, and then consider one of the following:

1. Include an idea that readers might not have understood before reading your
work. To find an effective insight, read your paper and ask yourself, “So what”
and then answer that question.
2. Repeat a key word from the main idea.
3. Restate the main idea in different words and from a slightly different angle or
point of view.

When drafting your conclusion, AVOID THE FOLLOWING:

1. REPEATING THE MAIN IDEA WORD-FOR-WORD. That kind of repetition is

boring for readers and suggests that you do not see the significance of your
point.
2. SIMPLIFYING THE THOUGHT OF THE MAIN IDEA (“As you can see from
what I have written….”). This approach is unnecessary and can offend
readers’ intelligence.
3. ADDING A NEW IDEA. This can only cause another additional confusion on
the part of the readers.

Revising and Editing Written Tasks

A lot of beginning writers do not give much attention to the importance of revision. There
is more to revising drafts than just looking at it as an unnecessary delay especially when
trying to beat a deadline. It is always important to note that the revising process is the
center of your writing task.

There is a chance for your first draft to barely reach a satisfactory level. It will contain
statements that do not flow smoothly over the next. It will contain sentences that go off
in a wrong direction. It will contain certain ideas that may refer further explanation or
expansion. It will have sentences that are unintelligible to an outside reader. Hardly
anyone ever turns out a perfect draft on his/her first try! Even experienced writers
revise. And they tell us we should, too.

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How do I revise?

Manalo, et al. (2008) relayed that many writing experts advise that you give your first
draft a “breather”. This means writing your way through your initial draft and keeping it
away for a few days while you do other things. This, according to them, gives you a
“fresh frame of mind with which to critically look at your own draft.” When the time
comes to return to your draft for review, you will be more objective when you read your
work with a fresher frame of mind. With it, you will be able to spot which paragraphs
should go where, what sentences are irrelevant, what ideas need more details.

Manalo added that while objectivity is the first tool you need for your revision, the
second is a set of things you would need to judge your work. These criteria may vary
based on who your readers are, without forgetting your primary purpose.

Here are some tips on how to help you revise your drafts as you go along:

 develop the supporting sentences that elaborates your topic sentence

 delete the parts that are repetitious or do not belong
 review and change (if necessary) the way the essay is organized into
paragraphs, or the order of the sentences within the paragraph
 improve the introduction or conclusion or both

Editing, on the other hand, has to do with correctness. Andrews said that, “when writers
edit, they look for errors in grammar, spelling, and punctuation. In order to edit, writers
must proofread their work.”

Proofreading is a type of slow reading that focuses on correctness rather than on

meaning. Here are some things you should do when you proof read:

 Wait a few hours or days between revising and editing.

 Point each letter with a finger or a pencil to force your eyes to slow down
enough to see every letter and punctuation mark.
 Read the work aloud, while paying attention whether what you say is what
is written.
 Look carefully at the end of words since this is where most errors occur.

While revising, it is important to step back and scan the draft so that you can see the
work as a whole. This way, you will identify the relationships between the sections of the
draft.

Paragraph
By now, we already know that a paragraph is a collection of sentences. A good
paragraph is something that is unified, coherent and cohesive, as it supports the topic
sentence. Most of the time, the topic sentence is placed at the start of the paragraph.
But for purposes of style and technique, you can also put it in the middle or at the end of
the paragraph.

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On Paragraph Development
Different situations and scenarios demand different ways of writing. There are different
types of paragraphs and ways on how to develop them. You can describe, narrate,
compare-and-contrast, etc. For this purpose, we will identify the most important types.

1. Description
This answers the questions what and how does one feel, look, smell and sound. Writers
use adjectives to describe a subject like how a painter uses brush and paint. Effective
descriptions, however, avoid telling much. Effective writers “show” and don’t “tell.”
So how do we do that? Instead of saying that your special someone is handsome or
beautiful, it would be best to describe him/her, accordingly. Here’s an example:

Ineffective description:
Mark, my boyfriend for four years is handsome and gorgeous.

Effective description:
Mark has the most attractive eyes. Whenever he looks at me, I cannot help but
be proud to have a boyfriend who has great eyes. His nose protrudes so
wonderfully, and whenever he smiles, I can’t help but smile, too.

2. Narration
When you recall an event that happened in the past and put it into writing, you call it a
narration. Generally, you use the past form whenever you narrate a recollection, or a
chain of events. This type of paragraph development answers the questions; what
happened? Who were involved? The “when” and “where” of events is also considered
important in this type of writing.
Ideas in a narrative paragraph are best arranged according to time. In a more ideal
term, it must be arranged “chronologically.” The word chronological comes from
“chromos” which means “in logical order.”
Below are some transitional devices that you can use as you narrate the series of
events for your narrative:

After Subsequently
Afterward First

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As soon Second
Before Meanwhile
Finally Immediately
Later Soon
Now Yesterday
Not Long After Tomorrow
Until Once
When In the meantime
While
One day

3. Exposition
This is the type of paragraph used if a thorough explanation and detailed information of
an idea is needed by the readers. An expository paragraph provides an exposition of a
single idea by elaborating it through sub-ideas that support the main thought. Writers
are encouraged to use this type of development to justify ideas, opinions and biases to
defend a purpose or a thought. As students, it is important that you develop the skill in
elaborating. This way, you will be able to provide a streamlined and straightforward
justification of your main idea by offering supporting details.
Here’s an example of an expository paragraph:
Humanity has been amazed by stars for centuries. In the age of
ancient myths and legends, in the times when sailors used
constellations to navigate in oceans, and until now, stars have
remained one of the biggest mysteries people have ever
encountered. Nowadays, scientists can figure out not only the
distance between a certain star and Earth, but also the star’s
composition, mass, age, and many other parameters.
Technological progress allows us to understand the universe much
deeper than it was possible for scientists in the past.
(SOURCE: https://academichelp.net/samples/academics/essays/expository/supernovae.html)

The highlighted sentence is the topic sentence. Notice how the writer was able to prove
the topic sentence by providing additional information that would support the main idea
of the paragraph.

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4. Spatial
This paragraph development has something to do with the description of “space.” It is
used to describe location of people, places or things. To start describing a space, the
writer needs a reference. For example, you are in the town plaza. How would you
describe it? Where is your point of reference? If you are standing near the center statue
of the plaza, you can begin there before proceeding to describe the different parts of the
plaza until you’ve reached your limitations.
Here’s an example of a spatial paragraph by Nechama Tec in his autobiography Dry
Tear: The Story of a Lost Childhood (1982).
Our new home was one of a number of wooden single-story units
huddled together in a horseshoe enclosing a courtyard. Our new
apartment was toward the rear center of the horseshoe, away
from the entrance to the courtyard. To reach the kitchen, one had
to pass through a small windowless anteroom made of loosely
arranged planks. Anybody inside could easily look through the
chinks without being observed. Against the wall opposite the
entrance to the kitchen was a large stove, which took up about
one fifth of the room. Right next to the stove was a bench with a
bucket of water resting on it. Past the bench, in the middle of the
wall, was a door leading to the only other room. To the right of the
door stood a cupboard for pots, dishes, and food. Next to the
cupboard, leaning against the wall on the right, was old Helena's
bed. The kitchen was too small to accommodate another bed.
There was just enough room for a table and chairs, which had to
be placed next to the kitchen window. It was a strategic window,
affording a view of the entire courtyard.

5. Climactic

This type of paragraph development starts with the least important to the most essential
part of the discourse. The writer makes use of suspense or strategic style to engage
his/her readers to continue on reading the piece.
6. Coherence
This is the interconnectedness of the ideas in the paragraph. A paragraph is said to be
effective if the ideas and statements area unified. In other words, it means that all the
ideas support the topic sentence. But these ideas should be arranged accordingly. See
this comparison:
The water travels through the creek; the creek travels to the river;
the river travels to the sea.
Versus this:

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First, the water travels through the creek, and then, the creek
travels to the river. Finally, the river travels to the sea.

So you see, the use of effective cohesive devices makes a smooth writing experience
for you and fluid reading experience for your readers.
7. Emphasis
All the sides in a paragraph are useful. They contribute to the development of the topic
sentence. But there is one important idea you want your readers to focus on. That is
why it is sometimes advisable to make use of effective phrasing to offer emphasis and
priority.

APA Style for Citing References

SOURCE: Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association. (6 th Edition, 2010).

During the course of the writing process, one can’t help to refer to other sources for
references and citations. It is important that you consider giving due respect and cite
the authors to whom you have referred to. The following guidelines are directly
referred from the 6th Edition of the Manual of American Psychological
Association. These will guide you in carefully selecting which to cite and how to refer
from your sources.
Cite the words of those individuals whose ideas, theories or research have directly
influenced your work. They may provide key background information, support or dispute
your thesis, or offer critical definitions and data. Citation of an article implies that you
have personally read the cited work. In addition to crediting the ideas of others that you
used to build your thesis, provide documentation for all facts and figures that are not
common knowledge.

Plagiarism
“Authors do not present the work of another as if it were their own work.” Whether
paraphrasing, quoting an author directly, or describing an idea that influenced your
work, you must credit the source. To avoid charges of plagiarism, take careful notes as
you research to keep track of your sources and cite those sources according to the
guidelines.

Self-Plagiarism
Whereas plagiarism refers to the practice of claiming credit for the words, ideas, and
concepts of others, self-plagiarism refers to the practice of presenting one’s own

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previously published work as though it were new. “The core of the new document must
constitute an original contribution necessary to understand that contribution to
knowledge, and only the amount of previously published material necessary to
understand that contribution should be included, primarily in the discussion of theory
and methodology.” Avoid charges of self-plagiarism by familiarizing yourself with the
ethical standards regarding duplicate publication and the legal standards of fair use.

Direct Quotation of Sources

Reproduce word for word material directly quoted from another author’s work or from
your own previously published work, material replicated from a test item, and verbatim
instructions to participants. When quoting, always provide the author, year, and specific
page citation of paragraph number for non-paginated material in the text and include a
complete reference in the reference lists.

Paraphrasing Material
When paraphrasing or referring to an idea contained in another work, you are
encouraged to provide a page or paragraph number, especially when it would help an
interested reader to locate the relevant passage in a long or complex text.
Citing Reference in Text
References in APA publications are cited in text with an author date citation system and
are listed alphabetically in the reference list. This style of citation briefly identifies the
source for readers and enables them to locate the source of information in the
alphabetical reference list at the end of the article. Each reference list must be cited in
the text. Make certain that each source referenced appears in both places and that the
text citation and reference list entry are identical in spelling of author names and year.
However, two kinds of material are cited only in text: references to classical works such
as the Bible and the Qur’an, whose sections are standardized across editions, and
references to personal communications. References in a meta-analysis are not called in
text unless they are also mentioned in the text.

One Work by One Author

The author-date method citation requires that the surname of the author (do not include
suffixes such as Jr.) and the year of publication be inserted in the text at the appropriate
point. Here are some examples:
Kessler (2003) found that among epidemiological samples
Early onset results in a more persistent and severe course (Kessler, 2003).

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One Work by Multiple Authors

When a work has two authors, cite both names every time the reference occurs in text.
When a work has three, four, or five authors, cite all the authors the first time the
reference occur; in subsequent citations, include only the surname of the first author
followed by et al. (not italicized and with a period after al) and the year if it is the first
citation of the reference within a paragraph.
Here are some examples:
Kisangau, Lyrauu, Hosea, and Joseph (2007) found that…
Kisangau et al. (2007) found that…

Works with No Identified Author or With an Anonymous Author

When a work has no identified author, cite in text the first few words of the reference list
entry (usually the title) and the year. Use double quotation marks around the title of an
article, a chapter, or web page and italicize the title of periodical, a book, a brochure, or
a report.
on free care (“Study Finds,” 2007)
the book College Bound Seniors (2008)

Secondary Sources
Use secondary sources sparingly, for instance, when the original work is out of print,
unavailable through usual sources, or not available in English. Give the secondary
source in the reference list.
For example, if Allport’s work is cited in Nicholson and you did not read Allport’s work,
the list of Nicholson reference in the reference list. In text, use the following citation:
Allport’s diary (as cited in Nicholson, 2003)
Personal communications
Personal communications may be private letters, memos, some electronic
communications (e.g. e-mail or messages from non-archived discussion groups or
electronic bulletin boards), personal interviews, telephone conversations, and the like.
Because they do not provide recoverable data, personal communications are not
included in the reference list.

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 Unit Four: Process and Guidelines in Technical Writing

Cite personal communications in text only. Give the initials as well as the surname of
the communicator, and provide as exact date as possible:
T.K. Lutes (personal communication, April 18, 2001)
(V-G, Nguyen, personal communication, September 28, 1998)

Use your judgment in citing other electronic forms as personal communications; outline
networks currently provide a casual forum for communicating, and what you cite should
have scholarly relevance.
Some forms of personal communication are recoverable, and these should be
referenced as archival materials.

References Included in a Meta-Analysis

Do not list studies included in a meta-analysis in a separate appendix. Instead, integrate
these studies alphabetically within the references section, and identify each by
preceding it with an asterisk.
Add the following statement before the first reference entry:

References marked with an asterisk indicate studies included in the meta-

analysis.

Here’s an example:

*Bretschneider, J.G., & McCoy, N.L. (1968). Sexual Interest and behavior in
healthy 80-102-year olds. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 14, 343-350.

Reference Components
In general, a reference should contain the author name, date of publication, title of the
work, and publication data.
Periodical title: Journals, newsletters, magazines. Give the periodical title in full, in
uppercase and lowercase letters. Italicize the name of the periodical.
Social Science Quarterly

Non-periodical title: Books and reports.

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 Unit Four: Process and Guidelines in Technical Writing

Capitalize only the first word of the title and the subtitle, if any, and any proper nouns;
italicize the title.
Enclose additional information given on the publication for its identification and retrieval
(e.g. edition, report number, volume number) in parenthesis immediately after the title.
Do not use a period between the title and the parenthetical information; do not italicize
the parenthetical information.
Development of entry-level tests to select FBI special agents (Publication No. FR-PRD-
94-06).
If a volume is part of a larger, separately titled series or collection, treat the series and
volume titles as two-part title.

Electronic Sources and Locator Information

Publishing in the online environment has greatly increased the efficiency of publication
process and has contributed a more vibrant and timely sharing of research results.
However, electronic dissemination of information has also led to a number of new
publishing models. Unedited articles can now be disseminated on the Internet in
advance of publication. Links to supplementary material such as long data sets and
videos can be embedded in electronic articles and made accessible with a simple click.
Corrections that were formerly noted in a subsequent journal issue can now be made
with no fanfare as simple update to online files. All of these circumstances have called
for new ways of tracking digital information.
In this new environment, some former models for referencing material no longer apply.
It is not always clear how to distinguish the advance online version of an article from the
final published version or how to determine which the “version of record” is. Moreover,
readers may be consulting the electronic version with supplemental material or the print
version of the same article without supplemental material. In the ephemeral world of the
web, article links are not always robust.
In general, we recommend that you include the same elements, in the same order, as
you would for a reference to be a fixed-media source and add as much electronic
retrieval information as needed for others to locate the sources you cited.

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 Unit Four: Process and Guidelines in Technical Writing

References:

Manalo, Paterna E., Fermin, Virginia G. (2008). Technical and Report Writing. Mandaluyong
City, Manila, Philippines: National Bookstore.

Andrews, Deborah C. Technical Writing: Principles and Forms. New York: McMillan, 1982.

Blicq, Ron S. and Nisa Moretto. Technically Write! New Jersey: Prentice-Hall., Inc., 1999.

Nechama Tec, Dry Tears: The Story of a Lost Childhood. Oxford University Press, 1984.

Publication Manual of the American Psychological Associations. (6th Edition, 2010).

22 Technical Scientific and Business English