ECE-1002

Semiconductor Devices
and Circuits
Winter Semester 2015-16

Raja Sellappan
 Personal Details
Raja Sellappan
Associate Professor
SENSE
raja.sellappan@vit.ac.in
Room no: TT218 H
Whatsapp: 7708283159

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Electron devices

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Electron devices

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Electron devices

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 Electron devices
Resistors Ac7ve components
Diodes
Passive components

Transistors

Capacitors

Inductors

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Electronic circuits

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 Electronic circuits

Discrete Circuit Integrated Circuit

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 Semiconductor Devices and Circuits
•  Semiconductor devices: Physical enPty made
of semiconductors that manipulates the flow
of electrons.
•  Electronic circuits: ConnecPng different
electron devices by a conducPng material to
perform desired operaPons or to use it for
parPcular applicaPons (Amplifier, voltage
regulator, etc.)

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 About the course
You will learn about
•  Semiconductor basics: Energy band, charge carriers,
charge transport
•  Diodes device physics, characterizaPon, and circuits that
use diodes.
•  Bipolar Junc7on Transistor (BJT) device physics,
characterizaPon, and circuits that employ BJT.
•  Metal-Oxide Field Effect Transistor (MOSFET) device
physics, characterizaPon, and circuits that employ
MOSFET.
•  Non-Silicon based transistors (Advanced)

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ECE1002 Semiconductor Devices and Circuits L T P J C
! 3" 0" 0" 4" 4"
Prerequisite: None

Objectives:
• To give the students a solid background of solid state devices.
• To apply that knowledge to understand and develop simple electronic circuits.
• To design amplifiers under different configurations and study their parameters
• To study the devices under low frequency for small signals
• To simulate the above using soft tools and compare their output with hard-wired circuitry

Expected Outcome:
Students will be able to:
1. Understand the characteristics of semiconductor devices..
2. Ability to use the devices to build circuits for different applications.
3. Design circuits and demonstrate the operation by doing projects.

Student Learning Outcomes (SLO): 1,2,3,4,5,6,7 and 13,

Module:1 Semiconductor Fundamentals: 8 hours SLO:

1,2
Formation of energy bands, Fermi level, energy- band models, direct and indirect band gap,
electrons and holes, doping, intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors, elemental and compound
semiconductor, generation, recombination and injection of carriers, Drift and Diffusion of
carriers, basic governing equations in semiconductors , Transport Equations

Module:2 PN Junction diodes: 6 hours SLO:

1,2
PN Junctions, Formation of Junction, Physical operation of diode, Contact potential and Space
Charge phenomena, I - V Characteristics, Zener diode, Physical operation of special diode s (
Tunnel diode, LED, OLED, Varactor diode and Photo Diode).

Module:3 Diode Circuits: 3 hours SLO:

3,4,5
Dc Analysis – Small Signals and Large signal models of PN junction diode and AC equivalent
circuit.

Module:4 Diode Applications: 3 hours SLO:

3,4,5
Rectifier circuits, Clipper and Clamper circuits, Photodiode and LED circuits.

Module:5 Transistor Devices: 8 hours SLO:

3,4,5,6,7
Bipolar Junction Transistor: Device structure and physical operation, current – voltage
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 characteristics.
Field Effect Transistor (FET): MOS Capacitor: Device Structure and mode of operation, C- V
Characteristics, Threshold Voltage.

Module:6 Transistor Circuits : 8 hours SLO:

3,4,5,6,7
Bipolar Junction Transistor: DC Analysis of BJT Circuits, CB, CE and CC Configuration,
Biasing BJT Circuits, Switch.
Field Effect Transistor (FET): DC Analysis of MOSFET Circuits, biasing circuits.

Module:7 Applications of MOSFETs: 6 hours SLO:

3,4,5,6,7
CMOS device structure, characteristics, gates and inverters. MOSFET CS, CG and Source
Follower Circuits.

Module:8 Contemporary topics: 3 hours SLO:

3,4,5,6,7

Total Lecture: 45 hours

Text Books:
1. Adel S. Sedra, Kenneth C. Smith & Arun N. Chandorkar, Microelectronic Theory and
Applications, 5/ e, OUP, Chennai, 2009.
Reference Books:
1. Robert F Pierret, ‘Semiconductor Device Fundamentals ’, Pearson Education 2006.
2. B G.Streetman and S.Banerjee, “Solid State Electronic Education, Delhi, 2002.
3. A. Bell, Electronic Devices and Circuits, 6/e, Prentice Hall of India, New Delhi, 2008.
3. Kanaan Kano, ‘Semiconductor Devices’, PHI, 2005.
4. D. A. Neamen, ‘ Microelectronics Circuit Analysis and Design’, 4 / e 2009
5. Jacob Millman, Christos C Halkias and Satyabrata Jit, “Electronic devices and circuits” Tata
Mc Graw Hill 2nd Edition , 2007

Projects SLO:
6 and 13

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 Textbook

6th EdiPon Raja Sellappan 5th EdiPon 13

 Electronic structure

Classical Picture Quantum Picture

Rutherford’s Model Niel’s Bohr’s Model

Sub-atomic parPcles: Electron, Proton, Neutron

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Pictures: Google
 Electrons
•  Exhibits both parPcle and wave nature.
•  Electrons as a par7cle: Discovered by J.J.Thomson in
1897

Charge q : 1.6 x 10-19 C

rest mass mo= 9.1 x 10-31 kg
Example: Cathode ray tube
•  Stream of parPcles (Electrons) moving from
cathode to anode.
•  Applying electric or magnePc field will deviate
the path of electrons.
•  The stream of parPcles are adracted towards
the posiPve side of tube and is 1300 Pmes
smaller than atoms.
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 Electronic structure
•  DistribuPon of electrons in a chemical element.
•  It is unique (Finger print) to each and every material.
•  Determines different material properPes (thermal, electrical,
opPcal, magnePc, mechanical, etc.).

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Sodium street lamp Mercury street lamp

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Atomic Emission Spectrum

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 Bohr’s Atomic Model
•  1. Electrons revolve around the nucleus only in certain definite circular
orbits, every orbit corresponding to a certain level of energy.
•  2. These orbits are labeled sta0onary orbits. Electrons could stay in these
staPonary orbits without radiaPng any energy.
•  3. The transfer of an electron from an orbit of lower energy (E1) to an
orbit of higher energy (E2) requires absorpPon of radiaPon by the atom,
while a fall from a higher energy level to a lower energy level orbit results
in the emission of radiaPon. This energy difference, whether absorbed or
emided, is
E2 − E1 = hυ

−q 4 m −13.6eV
Hydrogen atom E = 2 2 2 = 2
, n = 1, 2, 3....
8n h ε 0 n
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Atomic energy level
•  No conPnuous energy
level.
•  Energy levels are discrete
(quanPzed).
•  Electrons are occupied
only in the specific energy
level.
•  The electronic energy level
is unique to different
chemical elements.

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 Max Planck Hypothesis
•  In 1900, Max Planck suggested that the radiaPon QuanPzed energy (Discrete energy)
energy emided by vibraPon of atoms (hot body)
is quanPzed (only certain allowable energy is
possible) rather than conPnuous.
E∞f
E = nhf smallest amount of
possible energy or quantum energy
h= proporPonality constant or Planck’s constant=6.626 x 10-34
m2 kg/s or Js
Reduced Planck's constant  = h
2π
•  Max Planck laid foundaPon for the birth of
quantum or modern physics.
•  Planck constant= Quantum of acPon

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Wave-ParPcle duality of Electrons
Electrons as a wave (1924): Louis de Broglie

Relativity theory E = mc 2 = p 2 c 2 + mo2 c 4

m0 = rest mass
E
E = mc 2 = pc ⇒ p =
c
hc h E
Photoelectric effect E = hf = ⇒ =
λ λ c
h h
p= Mader waves λ=
λ p

MaNer waves: The waves associated with acceleraPng parPcles like electrons,
protons, etc.
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 Schrödinger equaPon

•  Wave equaPon of electrons.

1926
•  MathemaPcal form for the descripPon of the
electrons as a wave.
•  Represents combinaPon of Newton’s law and
energy conservaPon in classical mechanics.

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 Schrödinger wave equaPon
1.Time-independent Schrödinger equaPon
The wave equaPon is a funcPon of posiPon
2.Time-dependent Schrödinger equaPon
The wave equaPon is a funcPon of Pme

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 Physical significance of Schrödinger
equaPon
•  It is a soluPon of Schrödinger equaPons.
•  WavefuncPon does not physically signify anything.
•  It predicts analyPcally the probability of outcome or parPcle’s
nature.
•  It is a complex quanPty.
•  The square of the wave funcPon tells that the probability of
finding parPcle at a given locaPon and Pme is one.
2
∫ ψψ * d τ = ∫ dτ = 1
ψ

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Quantum Numbers

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 Pauli Exclusion Principle
•  No more than two electrons can have the
same quantum numbers.

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 Electron configuraPon of Carbon

•  Carbon has 6 electrons

•  1S2 2S2 2P2
•  Electrons in the last orbital are called valence
electrons.
•  They parPcipate in bonding, chemical reacPon, etc.

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Ref: h8p://chemwiki.ucdavis.edu
Energy Band formaPon

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 E-K diagram
•  Energy band diagram is drawn between
energy and momentum of electrons.
Free electrons Particle in a box
nπ
2k 2 K= , n= 1,2,3,..... a = Size of the potential barrier
E= a
2m n 2 2π 2
E=
2ma 2

E ∝ k2

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Energy level splikng

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 Energy level splikng
•  Assume the electrons of two isolated atoms have idenPcal
energy levels.
•  As the second atom is moved closer to the first atom, the
outermost electronic orbits tend to overlap.
•  The energy levels of the two atoms are slightly modified so as
to accommodate the Exclusion Principle.
•  When a solid is formed from Ν atoms, theorePcally, Ν energy
levels are formed for each energy level that exists in one
atom.
•  The above-phenomenon is known as energy level spliAng.
•  Obviously, the degree to which splikng takes place increases
with the extent of interacPons of the atoms.

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 Energy band diagram

LaPce spacing: Distance between the center of the two neighboring

atoms in a crystal lakce or structure.
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Energy Band Structure of Silicon

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 ClassificaPon of solids

Atom

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 Energy Band diagram
•  The energy levels of isolated atoms are discrete.
•  When atoms are brought together to form a solid, these
discrete energy levels spread out into bands of allowed
energies.
•  When the spacing between adjacent atoms is large, each
atom has sharply defined discrete energy levels denoted by
quantum numbers.
•  As the atoms are far apart their orbitals do not overlap.
•  As the distance between the atoms starts decreasing (close to
Å scale), the orbitals overlap.

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 Energy Band diagram
•  The electrons of different atoms cannot remain in the
same state because of Pauli Exclusion Principle.
•  Pauli principle states that No more than two electrons
can have the same quantum numbers a parPcular state
or a state accommodate two electrons of opposite
spins.
•  When atoms are brought together, the levels must
split to accommodate electrons in different states.
•  Though they appear conPnuum, a band is actually a
very large number of closely spaced discrete levels.

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 Energy Band
•  Energy band structure amer approximaPons

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Direct bandgap Semiconductor
Bandgap: The minimum separaPon
between VBM and CBM

Conduction band maximum (CBM)

Valence band maximum (VBM)

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Indirect Bandgap Semiconductor

Conduction band maximum

Valence band maximum

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 Comparison
Direct and Indirect bandgap SCs
EPhoton ≥ Eg EPhoton ± EPhonon = Eg
Δk = 0 Δk = kPhonon
Δk = kinitial − k final

h
p = k =
λ
2π 2π f
Photon momentum k = =
λ clight
2π f
Phonon momentum k =
csound Raja Sellappan 41
 Silicon Crystal Structure
•  Diamond structure.
•  Si has 8 atoms in a unit
cell.
•  Unit cell is the smallest
basic building block that
repeats in 3-D.
•  Silicon is a group IV
element in the periodic
table and has four
valence electrons.
•  Covalent bonding

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 Semiconductors
•  Semiconductors are solid materials that conduct electricity in
between conductors and insulators.

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Ref: hdp://www.semi1source.com/materials/
 Semiconductors (SCs)

•  Semiconductors: Solid materials that conduct electricity in between

conductors and insulators are classified as semiconductors.
•  Most known semiconductors have 4 valence electrons (4N
electrons in the VB), N= no.of atoms.
•  Bonding type: Covalent bonds
•  Elementary semiconductors: Si, Ge
•  Compound semiconductors: GaAs, GaN, InP
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 Si at absolute 0K

•  Si atom is connected to each neighbor with two dots

represenPng the two shared electrons in the covalent bond.
•  There are no free electrons to conduct electric current at 0K.
•  Si at 0K is an insulator.

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 Electrons and Holes
•  At any other temperature, thermal energy will
cause a small fracPon of the covalent
electrons to break loose and become
conduc7on electrons.
•  ConducPon electrons can move around in a
crystal and therefore can carry electrical
currents.
•  When an electron breaks loose and becomes
free. It leaves behind a void, or a hole.
•  The hole can readily accept a new electron.
•  An alternaPve way to think of this process is
that the hole moves to a new locaPon.

Thermal Energy E T = K BT
E T = 8.6173324 ×10 −5 eV / K ×Raja Sellappan
300K = 26meV 46
 Intrinsic Semiconductors
Pure SCs
•  No free charge carriers at 0 Kelvin (SCsàInsulator).
•  At room temperature(RT): Thermal energy breaks some of
the covalent bond (Thermal ionizaPon): CreaPon of free
electrons and holes and thus conducPng electricity.
•  Charge carriers: Electrons and holes
•  Holes: PosiPve charge
•  Electrons: NegaPve charge

Zero Kelvin Raja Sellappan RT 47

 Intrinsic semiconductor
•  Thermal ioniza7on (TI): Number of generated electrons (n)
and holes (p) are equal in concentraPon.
•  Intrinsic carrier concentraPon ni=no=p0
−Eg
ni2 = BT 3e K BT
= no po
B= Material-dependent parameter =5.4x1031 K-3 cm-6
T=Temperature
Eg=bandgap energy (Minimum energy required to break covalent bonds to create
electron-hole pair) 1.12 eV for Silicon
KB= Boltzmann constant (8.62x10-5 eV/K)

At T=300 K, ni=1.5x1010 cm-3

Intrinsic carrier concentra,on depends on Temperature!

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 Doping
•  Doping is the process of increasing number of free charge
carriers in a given semiconductor in order to improve its
conducPvity.

Thermal Diffusion
Ion ImplantaPon

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 N-doping
3 4 5

•  N-doping: Mixing 5 valence phosphorus or anPmony atoms into the

silicon matrix.
•  Impurity atoms: Donors (As it donates electrons to Si).
•  Majority carriers: Electrons nn0 ≈ N D
ND= Donor concentraPon
•  Minority carriers: Holes 2
nn0 pn0 = ni nn0=Free electrons concentraPon in equilibrium
pn0=Free holes concentraPon in equilibrium
ni2 ni2
pn0 = =
nn0 N D
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 P-doping
3 4 5

•  P-doping: Mixing 3 valence boron atoms into the silicon matrix.

•  Impurity atoms: Acceptors (As it accepts electrons from Si).
•  Majority carriers: Holes
•  Minority carriers: Electrons
p p0 ≈ N A NA= Acceptor concentraPon
np0=Free electrons concentraPon in
ni2 equilibrium
n p0 = pp0=Free holes concentraPon in
NA equilibrium
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 Elemental Semiconductors
•  Single element semiconductors
exist in nature.
•  Group-IV elements with 4 valence
electrons in their outermost shell.
Examples: Silicon, Germanium,
etc.
•  ProperPes of materials such as
bandgap is fixed.
•  They crystallize in a diamond
structure.
•  Neighboring atoms are bound by
covalent bonds.

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 Compound Semiconductors
•  A semiconductor material formed with
more than one element.
•  Group III-V and II-VI semiconductors.
•  III-V semiconductors are synthesized
using elements from 3rd and 5th
group of periodic table; e.g. GaAs,
GaP, GaN, GaAlAs, InP, InSb, etc.
•  II-VI semiconductors are synthesized
using elements from 2nd and 6th
group of periodic table; e.g., CdSe,
CdTe, CdHgTe, ZnS.

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(ref:
 Compound Semiconductors
Group III-V
•  “Crystallize in zinc blende structure.
•  8 valence electrons are shared between a pair of
nearest atoms.
•  The bonding has a covalent character.
•  The group III elements are more electroposiPve and
group V elements are more electronegaPve.
•  Hence, the bonding has a parPal ionic character as
well.
•  But the covalent nature is predominant.”

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 Compound Semiconductors
Group II-VI
•  Crystal structures
1.  CdS and CdSe: wurtzite (two interpenetraPng hexagonal close-packed
lakces)
2.  ZnTe and CdTe: zinc blende
3.  ZnS and ZnSe: can be both (depeding on the substrate on which it is
grown)
•  Bonding: mixture of covalent and ionic types.
•  Stronger ionicity than III-Vs, since group- VI elements are considerably
more electronegaPve than group II elements.
•  The ionic character has the effect of binding the valence electrons rather
Pghtly to the lakce atoms.
•  The band gaps of these compounds are larger than those of the covalent
semiconductors of comparable atomic weights.

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 Advantages of compound
semiconductors
•  “Wider choice of bandgap than elemental
semiconductors: IR-visible-UV.
•  Direct bandgap materials: optoelectronic
applicaPons, LEDs, lasers, sensors.
•  A major difficulty with compounds is that
their prepara7on in single crystal form is
more difficult.”

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 DeterminaPon of Bandgap

hc 1240nm
Photon energy E = hf = = eV
λ λ (nm)

•  The minimum photon energy required to create an electron-hole pair is

the bandgap energy.

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 EffecPve mass (m )
*

•  Electron mass (Free) in vacuum mo = 9.1×10 −31 kg

•  The mass of the electron in semiconductors when an electric field is
applied is called effecPve mass (m*).
•  LaPce forces: Semiconductor crystal exerts some forces (internal) on the
electrons.
•  The electrons and holes in a crystal interact with a periodic columbic field
in the crystal.
•  They surf over the periodic potenPal of the crystal, and therefore mn and
mp are not the same as the free electron mass.

F = ma
dv 1 p 2
 2 2
k
F + latticeforces = mo
dt
E = mv 2 = =
2 2mn* 2mn*
dv
F = m*n −1
dt *
" d 2E %
F = External applied force (Electric field) mn ∝ $ 2 '
m*n = The mass of the electron in the crystal
# dk &
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EffecPve mass

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 Density of States
•  Number of allowable energy states available per unit energy
per unit volume.

•  The product DC(E) dE and DV(E) dE are the

numbers of energy states located in the
energy range between E and E + dE per cubic
cenPmeter of the semiconductor volume.

Raja Sellappan 60
 Fermi-Dirac DistribuPon
•  Fermi func7on: The probability of an energy state being
occupied by an electron.

1 At T = 0
F(E) =
" E − EF %
1+ exp $ ' F(E) = 1
K
# B & T

•  If an energy level is completely

filled by electrons, then F(E)=1
•  If an energy level is completely F(E) at E=EF is ½
empty, then F(E)=0

Raja Sellappan 61
 Fermi-Dirac DistribuPon
•  EF is called the Fermi energy or the Fermi level.
•  f(E) is the probability of a state at energy E being occupied by
an electron.
•  At large E (i.e., E – EF >> kT) the probability of a state being
occupied decreases exponenPally with increasing E.

Boltzmann approximation (E-E F >> kT )

f (E) ≈ e−(E−EF )/kT
f (E) ≈ 1− e−(EF −E )/kT (E − EF << −kT )
The probability of a state being occupied by a hole
1− f (E) ≈ e−(EF −E )/kT
Raja Sellappan 62
 Fermi energy (EF)
•  Important parameter in energy band diagram.
•  Electronic properPes of materials are related to the posiPon
of the Fermi energy.
•  Fermi energy: “Highest energy that the electrons assume at
zero kelvin”
•  Fermi energy of materials: Span from 2 eV to 12 eV.

Raja Sellappan 63
 Electron and Hole ConcentraPon
•  Dc(E) dE is the number of energy states between E and E + dE for each
cubic cenPmeter, the product f(E)Dc(E) dE is then the number of electrons
between E and E + dE per cubic cenPmeter of the semiconductor.

Raja Sellappan 64
 Electron and Hole ConcentraPon
Electron Concentra7on Hole Concentra7on

N C = Effective density of states of the conduction band

NV = Effective density of states of the valence band

Raja Sellappan 65
Intrinsic Carrier ConcentraPon

−Eg
ni2 = BT 3e K BT
= no po

ni at room temperature is roughly 1010cm–3 for Si

Raja Sellappan 66
Temp. Vs Charge Carrier
ConcentraPon

Raja Sellappan 67
Charge Transport in Semiconductors

Raja Sellappan 68
 EffecPve mass (m )
*

•  Electron mass (Free) in vacuum mo = 9.1×10 −31 kg

•  The mass of the electron in semiconductors when an electric field is
applied is called effecPve mass (m*).
•  LaPce forces: Semiconductor crystal exerts some forces (internal) on the
electrons.
•  The electrons and holes in a crystal interact with a periodic columbic field
in the crystal.
•  They surf over the periodic potenPal of the crystal, and therefore mn and
mp are not the same as the free electron mass.

F = ma
dv 1 p 2
 2 2
k
F + latticeforces = mo
dt
E = mv 2 = =
2 2mn* 2mn*
dv
F = m*n −1
dt *
" d 2E %
F = External applied force (Electric field) mn ∝ $ 2 '
m*n = The mass of the electron in the crystal
# dk &
Raja Sellappan 69
 Fermi-Dirac DistribuPon
•  Fermi func7on: The probability of an energy state being
occupied by an electron.

1 At T = 0
F(E) =
" E − EF %
1+ exp $ ' F(E) = 1
K
# B & T

•  If an energy level is completely

filled by electrons, then F(E)=1
•  If an energy level is completely F(E) at E=EF is ½
empty, then F(E)=0

Raja Sellappan 70
Intrinsic Carrier ConcentraPon

−Eg
ni2 = BT 3e K BT
= no po

ni at room temperature is roughly 1010cm–3 for Si

Raja Sellappan 71
 Thermal MoPon
3
•  Average kinePc energy of charge carriers = kT
2

3kT
Thermal Velocity vth =
m*
vth = 2.3×10 7 cm / s @300 K for electrons in Si

•  Due to thermal energy present, the charge carriers acquires

kinePc energy and moves in a random fashion.
•  But the net velocity of charge carriers is Zero under thermal
moPon.
•  No electrical current flows because the velocity is zero.

Raja Sellappan 72
 Electrical conducPvity in
semiconductors
•  Flow of charge carriers is called electricity.

•  Flow of charge carriers in SCs are carried out by

1.  Diffusion
2.  Dri]

Raja Sellappan 73
 Drim Current
•  Dri] is the moPon of charge carriers in
response to an electric field.
•  I.e. Drim plays a role when voltages are
applied to a semiconductor device.

Raja Sellappan 74
 Carrier Scadering
•  The electron that is moving in a solid, subjected to an electric
field, collides with the atoms and with the non-ideal lakce
structure.
•  The electron loses most of its velocity, and then repeats the
process.
•  This process of collision is more accurately known as
sca8ering.

Raja Sellappan 75
 Carrier Scadering
Carrier scaNering is caused by
1.  Thermal (Lakce) VibraPon of atoms (Phonons)
2.  Ionized Impurity atoms in the crystal
3.  ImperfecPons such as vacancies in the crystal structure and
crystallographic defects.
•  Mean free 7me: The Pme it takes for charge carriers between
collisions or before scadering.
•  Mean free path: The distance over which the charge carrier
travels before scadering.

Raja Sellappan 76
 Drim Current
•  Consider that the mean free Pme between collisions is τmp
and that the carrier loses its enPre drim momentum, mpv,
amer each collision.
•  The drim momentum gained between collisions is equal to the
force, qE, Pmes the mean free Pme.
•  At steady state Gain = Losses

m p vdrift = qEτ mp , E= Electric field

qEτ mp
vdrift =
mp
vdrift = −µ n E
vdrift = µ p E
qτ mp
qτ mn
µp = µn =
mp Raja Sellappan mn 77
 Drim Current
I = Aqnv
v= Velocity, q = Charge of an electron, A = Area, n = Number of carriers

I J p,drift = qpv = qpµ p E

J n,drift = = −qnv = qnµ n E
A
J total = J n,drift + J p,drift = (qnµ n + qpµ p )E

J total = σ E
Conductivity σ = qnµ n + qpµ p

Resistivity ρ = 1 / σ
Raja Sellappan 78
Diffusion Current
Diffusion: Flow of charge carriers from a
higher concentraPon to a lower
concentraPon side.
•  It is strongly temperature dependent.
•  Diffusion of charge carriers gives rise to
diffusion current.

Raja Sellappan 79
 Diffusion and total Current
dp dn
J p,diffusion = −qDp J n,diffusion = qDn
dx dx
dn dp
J total,diffusion = qDn − qDp
dx dx

J total = J Drift + J Diffusion

dn dp
J total = (qDn − qDp ) + (qnµ n + qpµ p )E
dx dx

Raja Sellappan 80
 Einstein relaPonship
•  Relates the drim with diffusion parameters.

Einstein rela7onship

Dn Dp
= = VT VT= Thermal voltage (KBT/q)=26mV at 300K
µn µ p

Raja Sellappan 81
 RelaPon between energy band,
PotenPal (V) and Electric field (E)
•  PosiPve voltage raises the
potenPal energy of posiPve
charge and lowers the
energy of negaPve charge.
•  The electrons roll downhill
like water drops in the
energy band diagram and
the holes float up like
bubbles.

Raja Sellappan 82
Carrier generaPon and recombinaPon
1.  Charge carrier generaPon (absorpPon)
2.  Charge carrier annihilaPon (RecombinaPon)

Ø Fundamental operaPon process in (most of
the) opto-electronic devices.
Ø Energy (E) and Momentum (K) must be
conserved in both generaPon and
recombinaPon.
Raja Sellappan 83
 GeneraPon
•  Charge carriers are generated by photon (light), thermal energy,
and impact ionizaPon.
•  The process of generaPng charge carriers by means light is called
absorp7on.
•  Important one is the minority carriers as the change in
concentraPon is a lot than majority carriers.

P-type Equilibrium (At Non-equilibrium Total

RT) (Under excita7on concentra7on
by light, injec7on (Equilibrium+non-
of charge carriers, equilibrium)
etc)
Majority carriers 1018 200 ~1018 (Roughly no
concentraPon/cm3 change)
Minority carriers 225 200 425 (change by 2
concentraPon/cm3 Raja Sellappan 7mes) 84
 Pair formaPon
•  Pair forma7on: Raising an electron from the valence band
(VB) to the conducPon band (CB) and leaving behind a hole in
the VB.
•  An e-h pair is formed.
•  GeneraPon results in equal number of electrons and holes.
•  Energy is needed to raise an electron from the VB to the CB.
•  Source of energy: Solar light, electrical energy, etc.

Raja Sellappan 85
 RecombinaPon
•  AnnihilaPon of e-h pairs. CB
•  Types of RecombinaPon
1.  RadiaPve (R) (photon) Eg NR R
2.  Non-radiaPve (NR) (Thermal
energy)

Life7me (τ): The Pme it takes for excess generated minority VB

carriers (reside in the excited state for a while) before they get
recombined with majority carriers.

Raja Sellappan 86
 RecombinaPon
Excess Carrier Concentration
n = n0 + n*
n 0 = Equilibrium concentration, n* = Excess carrier concentration
p = p0 + p*
* *
Under light n = p

•  If the light is suddenly turned off, n* and p* will decay with Pme unPl
they become zero and n and p return to their equilibrium values, no and
po.
•  The process of decay is recombina7on, whereby an electron and a hole
recombine and annihilate each other.
•  The Pme constant of the decay is called the recombinaPon Pme or carrier
lifePme, τ.
Raja Sellappan 87
 RecombinaPon
•  When the np = ni2, the rate of thermal generaPon is equal to
the rate of recombinaPon. Under this condiPon, n and p are
said to be at thermal equilibrium.
•  When np > ni2, there is net recombina7on.
•  When np < ni2, there is net genera7on.

Raja Sellappan 88