CHAPTER -1

1. INTRODUCTION:

As a species, the canine is one of a kind. Dependency on the breed, body weight changes 100-
crease from the 1-kg Chihuahua to the 115-kg St. Bernard. The growth rate is distinctive for
various breeds or in a breed dependent on gender. The bigger breeds having a larger growth
rate than littler breeds. Rate of growing isn't consistent all through these periods, the energy
requirement is decrease as the puppy develops [1]. Due to the huge difference in size,
temperature and coat type, there is a difference in growth rate and energy requirement for
breeds. Also energy requirement of the dog is different for different breeds. Total energy
requirement is depend on body weight of the dogs and there activity, weight gain, weight
gain.

1.1 Impact of nutrition on ageing the process:

The idea of maturing in pets is well establish and perceived by owner and veterinarians.
Terms, for example, senior and geriatric are generally used to depict the maturing pet; in any
case, these life stages are not very much characterized and are typically appointed in view of
the sequential age of the pet [2]. This methodology is to some degree self-assertive and may
not mirror the genuine 'natural' age of the pet or mirror a portion of the inconspicuous
changes that may be perceived by the owner, for example, activity, food intake, body weight,
body composition, time spent sleeping or other changes in behavior.

1.2 Biology in ageing:

In people, it is believed that the collection of irregular sub-atomic harm in the

macromolecules of all cells is the real determinant of life expectancy, and this outcomes in

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age dependent surrenders in cell work and diminished capacity at a tissue level which show
as age-related slightness, incapacity what's more, disease. Numerous elements, both
endogenous and exogenous, are considered to add to the cell and tissue harm that add to
maturing process. The advancement of intercessions to draw out life expectancy and
additionally stop the beginning of age-related illnesses is reliant on propelling learning
furthermore, comprehension of the major science of maturing [3].

1.3 Factor influencing the ageing in the pets:

Reproductive status has been appeared to influence life range in pets. There is proof that
disinfection is related with expanded life expectancy in pets. Sterilized dogs are less likely to
die from infectious disease, trauma, vascular disease and degenerative disease and more
likely to die from neoplasia and immune mediated disease. The nature of this group is not
well explained it could be directly understood by physiological pathway, or indirectly
through behavior change or both. Body estimate in dogs is another factor known to impact
life expectancy. Dogs are unordinary in light of the fact that the connection among life
expectancy and body estimate is not quite the same as that of the interspecies association,
where for the most part bigger creatures live more. but In dogs, small breeds are expected
to live longer (from 10 to 14 years) than huge and giants breeds (from 5 to 8 years)[4].

An examination of life span of pet dogs and people appeared that at any sequential age,
bigger breed hounds are more established in human year reciprocals contrasted and their
littler partners, dissipating the legend that 1 human year is proportionate to 7 hound years.
An ongoing study researched distinctive models of maturing to check whether they could
recognize properties of the maturing process that could clarify why substantial and larger
breeds have a 'shorter' life expectancy. They found no impact of breed measure on baseline
mortality, early life mortality or the age at which mortality began to build (senescence). In
any case, there was an unmistakable positive connection between the outright rate of
maturing and body estimate, showing that expansive and larger breed hounds essentially
age quicker than their littler breeds[5].

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1.4 Effect of dietary levels of vitamin A:
Research in rodents has appeared dietary nutrient A decreases muscle to fat ratio by
upgrading fat preparation and vitality usage; be that as it may, their impacts in developing
pooches stay unclear. In the present evaluation, we assessed the improvement of body
weight and body composition and compare observed energy intake with predicted energy
intake in forty nine puppies from two breeds (24 Labrador retriever and 25 miniature
schnauzer). A total four unique weight control plans with increasing nutrient A substance
among 5·24 and 104·80mmol retinol (5000– 100 000 IU nutrient A)/4184 kJ (1000 kcal)
metabolisable energy were fed from the age of about two weeks up to 52 (MS) furthermore,
78 weeks (LAB). The day by day energy intake was recorded all through the trial time frame.
The body condition score was evaluate week by week utilizing a seven-class category, and
nourishment recompenses were changed in accordance with keep up ideal body condition.

Fig.1.1 Changes in metabolisable energy intake (MEI) with age in Miniature

Schnauzer (Δ) and Labrador retriever (▲) puppies. Values are means, with
Standard deviations represented by vertical bars. BW, body weight [5].

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Energy intake was measured during the entire growth phase provided that energy
allocation was adjusted to maintain optimal body condition. Body composition was
assessed twice during the first year of life for both breeds and at 78 weeks of age for the
LAB breed due to the prolonged growth phase.

Energy intake (EI) by breed at different stages during growth relative to EI at

adulthood
(Mean values and standard deviations)[5].

1.5 Change in percentage in lean body mass in puppies:

Mean value and 95% confidence intervals [5].
Measures Age(weeks) Breed Mean 95% CI
Percentage of 26 MS 82.9 78.6, 87.5
lean body mass
LAB 77.2 72.3, 82.3
52 MS 81.5 77.3, 86.0
LAB 76.3 71.6, 81.5
78 MS 75.2 70.5, 80.2
Table: 1.1

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1.6 Estimation of maintenance energy requirement:
1.6.1 Metabolism energy:
Metabolisable energy define the amount of food energy that is available for utilization by the
body following digestion and absorption plus loss in urine and faces and equate to energy
expenditure. Or It is value used to calculate and express energy requirements for growth,
maintenance of adult body weight, physical activity, gestation and lactation in dogs as well
as cats. Typical range of metabolism energy is 1 to 90kgs [6].
Generally metabolism energy is directly proportional to (body weight)^x.
For dogs value of x is vary from 0.64 to 0.88, most appropriate approximation value of x is
0.75
Approximate range of metabolism energy requirement is 94-183 kcal/kg BW^.75
There were no large difference in MER between the two breeds, or among males and females
in sam breeds and between the two breeds. There was a significant reverse connection
among MER and body condition score, reflecting the lower energy consumption of fat tissue.
The lower MER of dogs in this investigation, in respect to past perceptions, may reflect
climatic and environmental and showing the need for exact estimates of MER in connection
to the production and feeding of pet nourishments.

1.6.2 Body condition score:

Body weight is not an accurate measure to assess body fat in growing dogs and relationship
between the body condition score and body fats has been shown to be more accurate.

Body condition score criteria is given by nestle Purina in 1997.

In this 9 points scoring system, the dogs who are body condition score of 1 is known to very
thin- generally truly starving due to illness or poverty.

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 Fig. 1.2
On the other side of the end body condition score of 9, these dogs are looks very giant,
overstuffed sausage. This type of dogs have huge fat deposit over the chest, spine and base
of the tail. This type of dog also have obvious abdominal distension due to fat in abdomen.

Fig. 1.3
If the dog has body condition score between 4 to 5, then this type of dog is known as ideal
dog. The Dog which has body condition score of 4.5 is known as athletic trim.

Fig. 1.4

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The present investigation was intended to decide the MER of free-living grown-up pet
German shepherd and Labrador retriever hounds utilizing a forthcoming in-home
nourishing preliminary and was directed in the Indian city of Bangalore. The examination
configuration additionally took into account the evaluation of how MER was affected by
breed, sex, body condition score and movement level.

Nutrient Percent
Organic matter 95.3
Crude protein 23.5
Ether extract 8.2
Crude fiber 4.4
Total ash 5.7
Gross energy (Kcal/100g) 451
Metabolisable energy (Kcal/100g) 371
Table: 1.2 Nutrient composition of the diet [6]

Proprietors were furnished with an estimating cup and the day by day apportion offered in
two to six dinners. Any nourishment left throughout the following day was fixed in polythene
bags, and gathered and weighed by the examine specialists. Be that as it may, there was no
distinction seen between breeds with respect to food left finished.

Consistently, the dog’s day by day movement was evaluated dependent on a composite
measure from owner's evaluations of the time that the puppy spent strolling, playing, resting
and dozing every day. Body weight also, body condition score were recorded at the training
by the same veterinarian at regular intervals, following the 7-point WALTHAM S.H.A.P.E™
Guide for Dogs (German et al., 2006). Evaluations of general wellbeing, coat condition and
any afflictions were additionally made at these occasions.

Day by day ME intake were determined from the owner' nourishing records. Where dogs had
put on or lost the body weight amid the preliminary stage, the ME commitment to the body
weight change was determined expecting an estimation of 7.92 kcal per gram of change in

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body weight (Laflamme and Kuhlman, 1995). This was then subtracted from the normal day
by day ME intake to decide the ME consumption for support.

Daily food intake (g, dry matter basis), metabolisable energy (ME) intake,
ME for daily gain in body weight, ME for maintenance and ME per kg
BW0.75 of dogs[6]

Breed sex Total Total ME ME for ME for ME/Kg

food intake daily maintenan BW^0.75
intake (Kcal) gain ce (Kcal)
(Kcal)
GERMAN Male 388.8 ± 1440 ± 68 91.9 ± 32 1348 ± 75 109.5 ± 5.3
SHEPHER 18.4
D
Female 356.4 ± 1320 ± 60 94.3 ± 59 1226 ± 105 102.7 ± 8.2
16.2
Mean 371.7 ± 1376 ± 46 93.2 ± 34 1283 ± 66 105.9 ± 4.9*
12.4
Labrador Male 396.9 ± 1470 ± 30 70.7 ± 46 1399 ± 55 99.2 ± 3.6
Retriever 8.1
Female 388.8 ± 1440 ± 0.0 28.3 ± 26 1412 ± 26 104.5 ± 4.3
0.0
mean 393.7 ± 1458 ± 18 53.7 ± 29 1404 ± 34 101.3 ± 2.7*
4.9
Overall 383.6 ± 1421 ± 24 71.9 ± 22 1349 ± 36 103.4 ± 2.7*
mean 6.5
Table: 1.3

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While this study indicated that, for young adult pet dogs on the Indian subcontinent, mean
MER are some 20% lower than standard recommendations (NRC, 2006), it should also be
borne in mind that there was substantial variation around this mean with individual values
ranging from 66.8 to 141 kcal/kg BW0.75. Such inter individual variation is not unique to
this study, with others reporting SD typically equivalent to 10% of the mean value with
ranges of between 4% and 42% cited (NRC, 2006).

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 CHAPTER-2

2.1 Body weight changes during growth in puppies of different breeds:

As an species types, the dog is one of a kind. dependency upon the breed, body weight differs
100-times from the 1-kg Chihuahua to the 115-kg St. Bernard .the time taken for a growing
doggie to achieve adult’s body weight also vary considerably larger breeds having a longer
growth periods than smaller breeds. Also the rate of growing is not constant for same breeds;
energy requirement decrease from 3 times maintenance at weaning to 1.2 times
maintenance as puppy approach to adults.
The provision of right feeding guide is vital if under and over nutrition are to be prevented.
Over nutrition of puppy’s results in overweight, however in large breeds over nutrition
additionally causes musculoskeletal scatters. Notwithstanding, present feeding guides
depend on typical growth data that use only single mathematical equation.
Growth rate pattern might be different for different breed due to, they are different in size,
different temperament, different coat type, and all these things are change the energy
requirement for breeds. This was apparent in an investigation of six types of doggies that
shown altogether different energy requirement in spite of comparable total body weight in
Great Danes versus Newfoundland’s and Briards versus Labrador Retrievers
The objective of this study is to compare growth pattern of different size dog breeds and to
investigate a mathematical basis for the provision of breed specific feeding guide [1].

2.2 Method and materials:

Total number of puppies taken in this study is 173, out of which 90 males and 83 females
representing 12 different dog breeds. The puppies were recruited into the study either at
birth
(Newfoundlands, Labrador Retrievers, English Springer Spaniels, Cocker Spaniels, Miniature
Schnauzers, and Cairn Terriers) or at 8–11 wk of age (other breeds) and were studied until
they were 12 month old (toy to medium-sized breeds) or 18 mo old (large and giant breeds).
All through this period, the doggies were fed a verity of commercially available, nutritionally
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complete diet that are formulation of puppies growth, at a dimension intended to keep up
ideal body arrangement. All the puppies were weighted once in week using calibrated
electronic scale. The information were gathered as litters arrived so represent a series of
growth studies conducted over a periods of year. Be that as it may, once enrolled into the
investigation, an individual dog was pursued to think about end. All dogs were maintained
at the WALTHAM Centre for Pet Nutrition (Melton Mowbray, UK) throughout, and the
studies conformed to WALTHAM ethics.

2.3 Statistical analysis:

For each breed, a growth curve was constructed by plotting mean body weight against age.
The logistic equation
(W -Wb ) / (Wmax - Wb ) = t n / (t n +k n )
Was fitted to each growth curve.
Where, Wb is weight of any breed at the of birth, Wmax is the maximum weight achieved by
dogs, w is the weight at any time t, t is the time in weeks, n and k are arbitrary constant.

(Wmax - Wb )/ (W -Wb ) = (t n +k n ) / t n

(Wmax - Wb )/ (W -Wb ) = 1 + (k/t)n

((Wmax - Wb )/ (W -Wb ))-1 = (k/t)n

Let’s us assume that ((Wmax - Wb )/ (W -Wb ))-1 = y;

Log(y) = n*log (k) – n*log (t)

We will fit the data for each breeds and calculate the value n and k for each breed.

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 Size and breed Number of dogs 𝐑𝟐 n K(weeks)
Male female

Giant

St. Bernard 2 2 0.993 2.640 21.68

Great Dane 6 5 0.984 3.040 17.514

Newfoundland 7 8 0.949 3.297 12.60

large

Labrador Retriever 16 21 0.941 2.909 17.238

Medium

Beagle 12 0 0.904 2.788 13.984

English Springer 8 6 0.942 3.883 11.306

Spaniel

small

Miniature Schnauzer 11 9 0.875 2.612 18.560

Toy

Papillon 1 2 0.918 2.377 14.436

Table: 2.1 Growth characteristic of different dog breeds calculating by fitting a logistic
equation to growth

Adult body-weight values ranged from 2.2 ± 0.01 (Papillon) to 66.9 ± 0.28 kg (English
Mastiffs) (Table 1). During this time, growth rates were exponential (log–body weight
increased linearly), and the duration of this phase increased in proportion to adult body
weight. Thus for toy breeds, the end of this period of rapid growth was reached at 11 week
of age, whereas for small and medium breeds, exponential growth continued until 14–16
week of age, and for giant Breeds this period lasted until ~5 month of age.

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 St. Bernard
80

70
body weight (Kg)

60

50

40 W(observed)
30 W(estimated)

20

10

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
age (weeks)
Figure: 2.1 Mean growth curve for St. Bernard

Great Dane
60

50
body weight (Kg)

40

30
W(observed)

20 W(estimated)

10

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
age (weeks)
Figure: 2.2 Mean growth curve for Great Dane

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 Figure: 2.3 Mean growth curve for New Foundland
New Foundland
50
45
40
body weight (Kg)

35
30
25 w(estimated)
20 W(observed)
15
10
5
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
age (weeks)

Labrador Retriever
35

30

25
body weight (kg)

20
W(observed)
15
W(estimated)
10

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
age (weeks)

Figure: 2.4 Mean growth curve for Labrador retriever

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 Beagle
25

20
body weight (Kg)

15

W(observed)
10
W(estimated)
5

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
age (weeks)

Figure: 2.5 Mean growth curve for Beagle

English springer spaniel

20
18
16
body weight (Kg)

14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
age (weeks)

Figure: 2.6 Mean growth curve for English springer spaniel

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 Miniature Schnauzer
8

6
body weight (Kg)

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
age (weeks)
Figure: 2.7 Mean growth curve for Miniature Schnauzer

Papillon
3.5

2.5
body weight (Kg)

1.5 W(observed)
W(estimated)
1

0.5

0
0 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 27 30 33 36 39 42
age (weeks)

Figure: 2.8 Mean growth curve for Papillon

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The growth curve for each breed is presented in Figures. The fit of the equation to each curve
was excellent for St. Bernard and Great Dane. Adult body weight value range 2.2 (papillon)
to 66.8 (St. Bernard).
The slowest growth rate is observed for St Bernard and fastest growth rate observed for
English springer spaniel, although most of the breeds fall between these two breed. Adult
body weight achieved when growth rate fall to zero. However this cannot be calculate the
logistics curve which run to infinity. Therefore, the age at which each breed reached 99% of
adult weight (T99) was calculated. The growth rates during the exponential phase
(approximating to the rate of increase of body weight per week) were, however, relatively
similar. The slowest exponential growth rate was recorded for English Mastiffs (10.8%) and
the fastest was achieved for English Springer Spaniels (18.3%), although most breeds fell
within the range of 13–17% per weeks.

2.4 Determine daily calorie intake:

Obesity is a common problem among dogs, and it is one that is easily cured. By understanding
the nutritional needs of your dog, you can provide him with a nutritious, balanced diet while
helping him to maintain a healthy weight. The first step in creating a healthy diet for your
dog is to calculate his calorie requirements [7]. Once you know how many calories your dog
needs each day, you can provide him with the right amount of healthy foods to fulfill those
needs.

2.5 Calculating Resting Energy Requirements:

Your dog's resting energy requirement (RER) is the number of calories your dog's body
burns at rest. In humans, the equivalent of this would be the BMR, or basal metabolic rate --
the minimum number of calories required to maintain basic bodily functions. To calculate
your dog's RER, multiply the animal's weight in kilograms by 30, then add 70 to the total.
The result of this calculation should fall somewhere in the range between 130 calories and
1,420 calories.

2.6 Calories for Weight Loss:

The same principles of weight loss for humans apply to dogs -- in order to lose weight, you
will need to decrease your dog's caloric intake. To ensure that your dog's body receives all

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the nutrients it needs, however, you should not feed your dog less than his RER. To find out
how many calories to feed your dog in order to achieve weight loss, simply calculate his RER
and use that as his calorie goal. You may want to switch to a low-fat or healthy weight dog
food formula to help your dog lose weight.

2.7 Calories for Puppies and Pregnant Dogs:

While they are young, puppies need to eat a lot in order to grow. Similarly, pregnant dogs
need extra calories to support their own health as well as the growth of developing puppies.
Female dogs in their first 42 days of pregnancy have a calorie requirement equal to 1.8 times
their RER -- but during the last 21 days of pregnancy, this requirement jumps up to about 3.0
times the RER. After puppies have been born, lactating female dogs have a calorie
requirement equal to 4.8 times their RER. When they are first born, puppies will live off their
mother's milk. As you wean the puppies, however, they will have a calorie requirement equal
to 3.0 times their RER up to 4 months of age. Between the age of 4 months and adulthood,
puppies have a calorie requirement of 2.0 times their RER.

According to WALTHAM research, the daily calorie requirement for dog is equal to

RER (Kcal/day) = 70× (BW)0.75

For calculating total calorie intake for dog

Total calorie (Kcal/day) = RER + Activity + weight loss + weight gain + normal work +
heavy work + breeds variety

According to WALTHAM research, for calculating maintenance energy requirement

following appropriate multiplier are used

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Weight loss 1 × RER
Weight gain 1.2-1.8 × RER
Neutered adult normal activity 1.6 × RER
Intact adult normal activity 1.8 × RER
Moderate work 3 × RER
Heavy work 4 × RER
Pregnancy early 1.8 × RER
Pregnancy late 3 × RER
Puppy ( 1 to 4 month) 3 × RER
Puppy ( 4 to 12 month) 2 × RER
Table 2.2 known the life stage and corresponding factor used to estimate daily
energy needs for dog

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References:
[1]. Amanda J. Hawthorne,2 Derek Booles, Pat A. Nugent, George Gettinby,* and Joy
Wilkinson
WALTHAM Centre for Pet Nutrition, Waltham-on-the-Wolds, Leicestershire, UK and
*Department of Statistics and Modelling Science, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, UK

[2]. Mathers JC (2013) Nutrition and ageing: knowledge, gaps and research priorities. Proc
Nutr Soc

[3]. Taylor EJ, Adams C & Neville R (1995) Some nutritional aspects of ageing in dogs and
cats. Proc Nutr Soc

[4] Richard F. Butterwick*

WALTHAM Centre for Pet Nutrition, Waltham-on-the-Wolds, Melton Mowbray, Leicester
LE14 4RT, UK

[5]. Thomas Brenten1*, Penelope J. Morris2, Carina Salt2, Jens Raila3, Barbara Kohn4,
Leo Brunnberg4, Florian J. Schweigert3 and Ju¨rgen Zentek5
1 Mars GmbH, Eitzer Straße 215, Verden 27283, Germany
2 WALTHAMw Centre for Pet Nutrition, Freeby Lane, Waltham on the Wolds, Melton
Mowbray, Leicestershire, UK
3 Institute of Nutritional Science, University of Potsdam, Arthur-Scheunert-Allee 114-116,
Bergholz-Rehbru¨ cke D-14558, Germany
4 Department of Veterinary Medicine, Clinic of Small Animals, Freie Universita¨ t Berlin,
Oertzenweg 19b,Berlin 14163, Germany
5 Department of Veterinary Medicine, Institute of Animal Nutrition, Freie Universita¨ t
Berlin, Ko¨nigin-Luise-Straße

[6]. Brody, S., Proctor, R. C., & Ashworth, U. S.

(1934). Growth and Development with Special
Reference to Domestic Animals. XXXIV. Basal Metabolism,Endogenous Nitrogen, Creatinine
and Neutral Sulphur Excretions as Functions of Bodyweight. Agricultural Experiment
Station Research Bulletin No. 220. Columbia: University of Missouri.

[7]. 2014 AAHA Weight Management Guidelines for Dogs and Cats*y
Dawn Brooks, DVM, Julie Churchill, PhD, DVM, DACVN, Karyn Fein, DVM, CSCS, Deborah
Linder, DVM, DACVN, Kathryn E. Michel, MS, DVM, DACVN, Ken Tudor, DVM, Ernie Ward,
DVM, Angela Witzel, PhD, DVM, DACVN

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