CHAMELI DEVI PUBLIC SCHOOL, INDORE Mohit Pal

PHYSICS PROJECT

CHAMELI DEVI PUBLIC SCHOOL, INDORE

AISSCE-2019-2020
Physics Investigatory Project

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CHAMELI DEVI PUBLIC SCHOOL, INDORE Mohit Pal
PHYSICS PROJECT

LIGHT DEPENDENT
RESISTORS

Presented by: MOHIT PAL XII ‘E’ (Sc.)

Submitted to:
Respected Physics Teacher
Mr. Durgesh Sonar

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PHYSICS PROJECT

CONTENTS

S
.
N ACKNOWLEDGEMENT BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE
o
.
1.INTRODUCTION
2.AIM & APPARATUS
3.PHOTORESISTOR DISCOVERY AND MECHANISM
4.PRINCIPLE & THEORY
5.BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF COMPONENTS
6.APPLICATIONS
7.PROCEDURE
8.OBSERVATIONS
9.RESULT & CONCLUSIONS
10.
BIBLOGRAPHY

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I express my deepest gratitude to respected
Principal Mrs. Sangeeta Poddar and also respected
Physics Teacher Mr. Durgesh Sonar for their valuable
guidance, blessings, unwavering support, both technically
and morally for providing environment to complete
project successfully.

I also thankful to all the staff members of my school for

their help in making this project a successful one.

Finally, I take this opportunity to extend my deep

appreciation to my family and friends for all the
motivation and inspiration provided me during the crucial
times of completing our project.

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CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that Mohit Pal Student of Class

12th has carried out the original and genuine
work to study and investigate about the
Project subject and related data collection
based on “Light Dependent Resistors”

Principal
Mrs. Sangeeta Poddar

Physics Teacher
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Mr. Durgesh Sonar

LIGHT DEPENDENT RESISTANCE

Project Report Physics
INTRODUCTION
In the society, sometimes street lights glow in day time due to any
reason. In mines area people face many difficulties due to absence
of light in the nights. In frontier and hilly areas, people face many
problems due to damaged street lights.
For solve above these problems, we create a device in which the
lights glow in night and in day time, they off automatically and
don't glow. Due to use of it, we can solve above problems and can
also save electricity and men's power.
LDR:Two cadmium sulphide(cds) photoconductive
cells with spectral responses similar to that of the
human eye. The cell resistance falls with
increasing light intensity. Applications include
smoke detection, automatic lighting control, batch counting and
burglar alarm systems.
The basic structure of an LDR is shown below.

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The snake like track shown below is the Cadmium Sulphide

(CdS) film which also passes through the sides. On the top and
bottom are metal films which are connected to the terminal leads.
It is designed in such a way as to provide maximum possible
contact area with the two metal films. The structure is housed in a
clear plastic or resin case, to provide free access to external light.
As explained above, the main component for the construction of
LDR is cadmium sulphide (CdS), which is used as the
photoconductor and contains no or very few electrons when not
illuminated. In the absence of light it is designed to have a high
resistance inthe range of megaohms. As soon as light falls on the
sensor, the electrons are liberated and the conductivity of the
material increases. When the light intensity exceeds a certain
frequency, the photons absorbed by the semiconductor give band
electrons the energy required to jump into the conduction band.
This causes the free electrons or holes to conduct electricity and
thus dropping the resistance dramatically (< 1 Kiloohm).
The equation to show the relation between resistance and
illumination can be written as
R = A.E^a

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PHYSICS PROJECT

where E – Illumination (lux)

R – Resistance (Ohms)
A,a – constants
The value of ‘a’ depends on the CdS used and on the
manufacturing process. Values usually range betwee 0.7 and 0.9.

AIM:
To study the variations, in current flowing in a circuit containing
a LDR, because of a variation:-
(a) In the power of the incandescent lamp, used to ‘illuminate’ the
LDR. (Keeping all the lamps at a fixed distance).
(b) In the distance of a incandescent lamp, (of fixed power), used
to ‘illuminate’ the LDR.

APPARATUS:
Light Dependent Resistor (LDR),Connecting Wires, Source of
different power rating(bulbs), Bulb Holder , Meter scale, Multi
Meter Battery.

Photoresistor discovery
Photoresistors, or light dependent resistors have been in use for
very many years. Photoresistors have been seen in early forms

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since the nineteenth century when photoconductivity in selenium

was discovered by Smith in 1873. Since then many variants of
photoconductive devices have been made.
Much useful work was conducted by T. W. Case in 1920 when
he published a paper entitled "Thalofide Cell - a new photo-
electric cell".
Other substances including PbS, PbSe and PbTe were studied in
the 1930s and 1940s, and then in 1952, Rollin and Simmons
developed their photoconductors using silicon and germanium.

Photoresistor mechanism
A photoresistor or photocell is a component that uses a
photoconductor between two contacts. When this is exposed to
light a change in resistance is noted.Photoconductivity - the
mechanism behind the photoresistor - results from the generation
of mobile carriers when photons are absorbed by the
semiconductor material used for the photoconductor. While the
different types of material used for light dependent resistors are
semiconductors, when used as a photo-resistor, they are used
only as a resistive element and there are no PN junctions.
Accordingly the device is purely passive.

Types of photoresistor:
Intrinsic photoresistor:
This type of photoresistor uses a photoconductive material that
involves excitation of charge carriers from the valence bands to
the conduction band.

 Extrinsic photoresistor:

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This type of photoresistor uses a photoconductive material that

involves excitation of charge carriers between an impurity and the
valence band or conduction band. It requires shallow impurity
dopants that are not ionised in the presence of light.

 Extrinsic photoresistors or photocells

They generally designed for long wavelength radiation - often
infra-red, but to avoid thermal generation they need to be
operated at low temperatures.

PRINCIPLE
This project is based on Light Dependent Resistance
(L.D.R.). Light Dependent Resistance [LDR] is a resistance, in
which opposing power of current depends on the presence of
quantity of light present, i.e. the resistance of LDR increases or
decreases, according to quantity of light which falls on it.

If LDR places in darkness, the resistance of LDR increases and

when light falls on it, the resistance of LDR decreases and act as a
conductor. Any LDR in the presence of light and darkness
changes its resistance is depends on the different types of LDR.

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ADVANTAGES
 Collection of parts of the circuit are easily available.
 Accuracy of this circuit is more than accuracy of other
circuits.
 By using laser, it can be used for security purposes.
 It can be used to stop the wastage of electricity.
 The cost of circuit is low.
 This circuit saves the men's power.

USES
 It can be used in street lights.
 It can be used in mines areas.
 It can be used in hilly areas.
 By using laser, it can be used for safety purposes.
 It can be used in frontier areas.
 It can be used in houses.
 It can be used in jail lights.
BRIEF DISCRIPTION OF COMPONENTS

1. TRANSISTOR:-When a thin slice of p-type is sandwiched

between two blocks of n-type, then n-p-n transistor is formed.
It consists of emitter, base, and collector. In the project,
common emitter n-p-n transistor ( BC-147 & SL-100) is used.

2. DIODE:- When a p-type and n-type semiconductors are joined

a diode is formed. It conducts when forward biased and does

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PHYSICS PROJECT

not conduct when reverse biased. In the project, IN-4007diode

is used.

3. RELAY:- It helps to contact and discontact. In the project, we

use relay of 6 ohms.

4. CARBON RESISTOR:- A carbon resistor has generally four

rings or bands A,B,C and D of different colours corresponding
to the value of resistance. In project, we use carbon resistance
of 220 kilo-ohms, 1.5 kilo-ohms and 820 ohms.

5. LDR:- LDR means light dependent resistance which is used to

complete the circuit.

6. TRANSFORMER:- Transformer is used to convert low

alternating voltage to high alternating voltage by decreasing
the current and vice-versa. We use a transformer of 6-0-6V for
the circuit.

7. CAPACITOR:- Capacitor is used to block DC. In the circuit,

we use the capacitor of 220mfd and 1000mfd.
8. BULB:- An electric bulb is connected to the circuit when LDR
comes in the darkness.

9. PHOTORESISTOR
A photoresistor (or light-dependent resistor, LDR, or photocell) is
a light-controlled variable resistor. The resistance of a
photoresistor decreases with increasing incident light intensity; in
other words, it exhibits photoconductivity. A photoresistor can be
applied in light-sensitive detector circuits, and light- and dark-
activated switching circuits.

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A photoresistor is made of a high resistance semiconductor. In the

dark, a photoresistor can have a resistance as high as several mega
ohms (MΩ), while in the light, a photoresistor can have a
resistance as low as a few hundred ohms. If incident light on a
photoresistor exceeds a certain frequency, photons absorbed by
the semiconductor give bound electrons enough energy to jump
into the conduction band. The resulting free electrons (and
their hole partners) conduct electricity, thereby
lowering resistance. The resistance range and sensitivity of a
photoresistor can substantially differ among dissimilar devices.
Moreover, unique photoresistors may react substantially
differently to photons within certain wavelength bands.
A photoelectric device can be either intrinsic or extrinsic. An
intrinsic semiconductor has its own charge carriers and is not an
efficient semiconductor, for example, silicon. In intrinsic devices
the only available electrons are in the valence band, and hence the
photon must have enough energy to excite the electron across the
entire band gap. Extrinsic devices have impurities, also
called dopants, and added whose ground state energy is closer to
the conduction band; since the electrons do not have as far to
jump, lower energy photons (that is, longer wavelengths and
lower frequencies) are sufficient to trigger the device. If a sample
of silicon has some of its atoms replaced by phosphorus atoms
(impurities), there will be extra electrons available for conduction.
This is an example of an extrinsic semiconductor.

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Applications
Photoconductive cells are used in many different types of circuits
and applications.
Analog Applications • Camera Exposure Control • Auto Slide
Focus - dual cell • Photocopy Machines - density of toner •
Colorimetric Test Equipment • Densitometer • Electronic Scales -
dual cell • Automatic Gain Control – modulated light source •
Automated Rear View Mirror
Digital Applications • Automatic Headlight Dimmer • Night
Light Control • Oil Burner Flame Out • Street Light Control •
Absence / Presence (beam breaker) • Position Sensor
The internal components of a photoelectric control for a typical
American streetlight. The photoresistor is facing rightwards, and
controls whether current flows through the heater which opens the
main power contacts. At night, the heater cools, closing the power
contacts, energizing the street light.
Photoresistors come in many types. Inexpensive cadmium
sulphide cells can be found in many consumer items such as
camera light meters, clock radios, alarm devices (as the detector
for a light beam), nightlights, outdoor clocks, solar street lamps
and solar road studs, etc.

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Photoresistors can be placed in streetlights to control when the

light is on. Ambient light falling on the photoresistor causes the
streetlight to turn off. Thus energy is saved by ensuring the light
is only on during hours of darkness.
They are also used in some dynamic compressors together with a
small incandescent or neon lamp, or light-emitting diode to
control gain reduction. A common usage of this application can
be found in many guitar amplifiers that incorporate an
onboard tremolo effect, as the oscillating light patterns control the
level of signal running through the amp circuit.
The use of CdS and CdSe photoresistors is severely restricted in
Europe due to the RoHS ban on cadmium.
Lead sulphide (PbS) and indium antimonide (InSb) LDRs (light-
dependent resistors) are used for the mid-infrared spectral
region. Ge:Cuphotoconductors are among the best far-
infrared detectors available, and are used for infrared
astronomy and infrared spectroscopy.

Electrical Characteristics:

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Guide to source illuminations

Sensitivity
The sensitivity of a photodetector is the relationship between the
light falling on the device and the resulting output signal. In the
case of a photocell, one is dealing with the relationship between
the incident light and the corresponding resistance of the cell.

RESISTANCE AS FUNCTION OF ILLUMINATION

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SPECTRAL RESPONSE:
Like the human eye, the relative sensitivity of a photoconductive cell is
dependent on the wavelength (color) of the incident light. Each photoconductor
material type has its own unique spectral response curve or plot of the relative
response of the photocell versus wavelength of light

Dimensions:

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Typical Application Circuits

Sensitive light operated relay

Logarithmic Law photographic light meter

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Light Interruption detector

Extremely sensitive light operated relay

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Automatic light circuit

PROCEDURE
1. Choose a specific position for the source and mount it using
a holder, make sure it is stable.
2. Select the bulb with the lowest power rating and connect it
to the holder as shown in the figure.
3. Connect the LDR, battery (6V) and the multimeter in series.
4. Set the multimeter to ohm section and select suitable range
and measure the resistance with a bulb on.
5. Similarly switch to current section and move to micro
ampere in the multimeter. This gives the value of the
current.
6. Repeat these steps with different power sources at different
distances and note down observations.
OBSERVATIONS:-
The experiment has been conducted by using various sources with
different power ratings.Voltage of the battery = 6 V.

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OBSERVATIONS TABLE:-

(a) Variation in current of LDR with lamps of different power,

keeping distance fixed.

S. No. Distance
Source(Bulb)
between LDR Resistance
Of power Current(mA)
and the source (Ω )
imputs(W)
d(cm)
1. 10 15 1310 4.58
2. 10 30 770 7.00
3. 10 60 285 21.00
4. 10 100 195 30.00
5. 20 15 2800 2.14
6. 20 60 650 9.00
7. 20 100 435 13.79
8. 30 15 4300 1.4
9. 30 60 1000 6.00
10. 30 100 660 9.00

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(b) Variation in current of LDR with distance :-

FOR 15 W POWER SOURCE

Distance between
S. No. LDR and the Resistance(Ω ) Current(µA)
source d(cm)
1. 4 1010 5.94
2. 6 1350 4.44
3. 8 1490 4.03
4. 10 1610 3.73
5. 12 1740 3.45
6. 14 1880 3.19
7. 16 2300 2.61
8. 18 2540 2.36
9. 20 2800 2.14
10. 22 3000 2.00
11. 24 3240 1.85

FOR 60 W POWER SOURCE

Distance between
S. No. LDR and the Resistance(Ω ) Current(mA)
source d(cm)
1. 4 105 57
2. 6 180 33
3. 8 230 26
4. 10 280 21
5. 12 360 16
6. 14 440 13
7. 16 500 12
8. 18 575 10
9. 20 675 8.8
10. 22 740 8.1
11. 24 820 7.3

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FOR 100 W POWER SOURCE

Distance between
S. No. LDR and the Resistance(Ω ) Current(mA)
source d(cm)
1. 4 80 75
2. 6 130 46
3. 8 170 35
4. 10 205 29
5. 12 270 22
6. 14 300 20
7. 16 360 16
8. 18 410 14
9. 20 460 13
10. 22 525 11
11. 24 585 10

CONCLUSION & RESULT

1. The LDR resistance decreases with increase in intensity of
light and hence there is an increase in the flow of current.
2. There is an increase in the current as the distance from the
source decreases.
3. The intensity decreases as the distance from the source
increases
4. The error lies within the experimental limit.

SOURCES OF ERROR
1. The LDR may not be perpendicular to the source.
2. Connections may be faulty.
3. The experiment should be conducted in a dark room.
4. Measurements should be taken accurately.

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Biblography

1. NCERT CLASS 12 PHYSICS TEXTBOOK

2. www.google.co.in
3. www.wikipedia.com
4. www.yahoo.co.in

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