Unit-2 Newtonian Physics

Unit-2 Newtonian Physics
Rest and motion:-:

The concept of state of motion and rest are described relative to the observer.
 If a body does not change its state w.r.t surroundings, it is in the state of rest.
 If a body changes its state w.r.t surroundings, then it is in the state of motion.
 A moving body can posses both states of rest and motion, depending on the observer.
Distance: The total actual path length traversed by a body between its initial and final positions is
called distance. It is a scalar quantity in figure it is denoted by S.
Displacement: The change in the position of a body in a certain direction
from initial position to the final position is known as displacement. It is a
vector quantity. In figure it is denoted by d or Δr
By the head to tail rule it is clear from the figure that
Δr=d = r 2 - r1
 The S.I unit of distance and displacement is meter (m).
 Displacement may be positive or negative but distance is always
positive.
 A body may cover distance without having displacement
e.g
For a complete round trip of a circle the total distance covered is 2𝜋r but
displacement is zero.
Hence S ≥ d
 When a body moves along a straight line then displacement coincides with the distance.
Speed:-
It is defined as distance traveled in one second. Speed is a scalar quantity.
distance covered S
speed = =
time taken t
 S.I unit is ms-1

 It’s a scalar quantity
Uniform speed:- When a body covers equal distances in equal interval of time, however small this time
interval may be, then its speed is said to be uniform.
Average speed:-
It is the total distance covered by total time
total diatnce covered S
i.e vave = total time
= t
 If a body travels with speed v1 for time t1 and with velocity v2 for time t2, then its average speed
will be
S1 + S2 v1 t1 + v2 t2
vave = =
t1 + t2 t1 + t2
Special cases to calculate average speed:-

v +v
 If t 1 = t 2 then vave = 1 2 2
e.g If a car travelled with a speed of 100 m/s for 2 hrs and then it travels with a speed of 200
m/s for further 2 hrs. Its average speed is
By: Prof. Muhammad Amin Competitive Physics 38

100 + 200
vave = = 150 ms−1
2
S1 +S2 S +S S+S 2v1 v2
 If S1 = S2 then vave = t1 +t2
= S11 S22 = S S = v +v
+ + 1 2
v1 v2 v1 v2
e.g If a car travelled from Lahore to Islamabad with a speed of 100 m/s and then retuned back
with a speed of 200 m/s. Its average speed is
2(100)(200)
vave = = 133.3 ms−1
100 + 200
Velocity:-
Time rate of change of displacement is called velocity. It is a vector quantity and may be positive or
negative.
Displacement d OR d 2  d1
v  v
Time t t 2  t1
 S.I unit is ms-1

 It’s a vector quantity
Uniform velocity:
When a body covers equal displacements in equal interval of time, however small this time interval may
be, then its velocity is said to be uniform.
 If a body travels with uniform velocity v1 for time t1 and with uniform velocity v2 for time t2,
then its average velocity will be
𝐝𝟏 + 𝐝𝟐 𝐯𝟏 t1 + 𝐯𝟐 t2
𝐯𝐚𝐯𝐞 = =
t1 + t2 t1 + t2
Note:-If a car travelled from Lahore to Islamabad with a uniform velocity of 100 m/s and then
retuned back with a uniform velocity of 200 m/s. Its average velocity zero but average speed is not
zero.
Since its retuned back to the initial point and total displacement is zero hence average velocity
is zero.
Instantaneous Velocity:
The instantaneous velocity v of a body is defined as the limiting value of the ratio d as time
t
interval ∆𝑡 approaches zero.
d
v ins  lim
t 0 t
 The average velocity of the body may be zero even though its instantaneous velocity is not zero.
 If the average and instantaneous velocities of a body are equal then the body is moving with
uniform velocity.
 If the instantaneous velocity of a body does not change it is said to moving with uniform velocity.
For your information

The change in velocity can occur due to change in
 speed
 direction
 or in both.

Acceleration:-
Rate of change of velocity is known as acceleration. It is a vector quantity. If  v is the change in
velocity in time t, then acceleration is given as
Δv
a=
Δt
Acceleration may be positive or negative. Negative acceleration is termed as retardation. It
indicates that the velocity of the body is decreasing with time.
Uniform Acceleration:-
If the velocity of a body changes by same amount in same interval of time, then the acceleration of
the body is known as uniform acceleration.
Instantaneous Acceleration:-
Acceleration of a body at a particular instant is known as instantaneous acceleration. It is obtained
from average acceleration as t is made smaller and smaller till it approaches zero.
Mathematically,
v
a ins  lim
 t  0 t
 If the velocity of a body is increasing then acceleration is said to be positive.

 If the velocity of the body is decreasing then acceleration is said to be negative.
 If the velocity of body reduces but not to zero, then negative acceleration is called deceleration
but if the velocity reduces to zero, then negative acceleration is called retardation.
 If a body is moving with uniform acceleration its instantaneous and average accelerations are
equal.
Force:-
“Force is an agency which changes or tends to change the state of a body i.e rest or uniform motion”
 Newton’s first law of motion defines force

 Newton’s 2nd law tells us how to quantify force
∆𝐏
F = m a or 𝐅 =
𝐭
Units of force
 newton (N) : S.I unit of force is N 1 newton of force is

the force required to accelerate an object with a mass of
1 kilogram through 1 ms-2
1 N = 1 kg m s-2
 dyne : In c.g.s unit of force is dyne 1 dyne of force is
the force required to accelerate an object with a mass of
1 gram through 1 cm s-2.
 1 dyne = 1 g cm s-2
 1 N = 105 dynes

Important cases:-
 If a force acts parallel to the direction of motion of a body then speed increases ,the direction
remains same v
 if a force acts Anti-parallel to the direction of motion of a body then speed decreases ,the
direction remains same
F v
 if a force acts perpendicular to the direction of motion of a body then only direction changes
speed remains same
v
F
 if a force acts at some angle to the direction of motion of a body then speed & direction both
changes
F
Basic forces of Nature

To know causes of forces we must have a through comprehension of the interaction of the objects
with their environment. Nature apparently operates through four basic forces. These are
Gravitational force, Weak Nuclear force, Electromagnetic force and Strong Nuclear force. The weak
and strong forces are effective only over a very short range and dominate only at the level of
subatomic particles. Gravity and Electromagnetic force have infinite range. Let’s see each of them in
detail.
The Four Fundamental Forces and their strengths
Macroscopic level
1. Gravitational Force – Weakest force; but infinite range.
2. Weak Nuclear Force – Next weakest; but short range.
Microscopic level
3. Electromagnetic Force – Stronger, with infinite range.
4. Strong Nuclear Force – Strongest; but short range.
Gravitational Force
The gravitational force is weak, but very long ranged. Furthermore, it is always attractive. It acts
between any two pieces of matter in the Universe since mass is its source.
Weak Nuclear Force
The weak force is responsible for radioactive decay and neutrino interactions. It has a very short
range and. As its name indicates, it is very weak. The weak force causes Beta decay ie. the
conversion of a neutron into a proton, an electron and an antineutrino.
Electromagnetic Force
The electromagnetic force causes electric and magnetic effects such as the repulsion between like
electrical charges or the interaction of bar magnets. It is long-ranged, but much weaker than the

strong force. It can be attractive or repulsive, and acts only between pieces of matter carrying
electrical charge. Electricity, magnetism, and light are all produced by this force.
Strong Nuclear Force

The strong interaction is very strong, but very short-ranged. It is responsible for holding the nuclei
of atoms together. It is basically attractive, but can be effectively repulsive in some
circumstances. The strong force is ‘carried’ by particles called gluons; that is, when two particles
interact through the strong force, they do so by exchanging gluons. Thus, the quarks inside of the
protons and neutrons are bound together by the exchange of the strong nuclear force.
Types of forces:-
Our ordinary mechanical system only involves the forces of gravity and electromagnetism. We
usually divide types of forces into two categories. i.e
Contact Forces Action-at-a-Distance Forces

Frictional Force Gravitational Force
Tension Force Magnetic Force
Normal Force Electrical Force
Viscous force
Spring Force
 Frictional force (arises when one surface rubs the other)

 Normal force (arises when one body pushes the other)
 Viscous force (it is due to air resistance or fluid resistance)
 Tensile force (it arises in stretched string)
 Elastic force (in case of spring)

Types of friction
Static friction and kinetic friction are both types of friction: they act when two surfaces are moving
or attempting to move against each other, and resist the motion. The main difference between static
and kinetic friction is that static friction acts while the surfaces are at rest while kinetic friction acts
when there is relative motion between the surfaces.
Static Friction:-
Static friction is the frictional force acting between two surfaces which are attempting to
move, but are not moving. Think of having a block of wood on a table. If you attach a string to it
and pull it with a very small force, it would not move. Since you are applying a force in the
“forward” direction, according to Newton’s first law there must be another “backward” force to
maintain the object at rest. This is the frictional force. It acts along the two surfaces, in the direction
opposite to the direction of attempted motion.
Now imagine increasing the pulling force. For a while, the block would still not move. In order for
the forces to remain balanced, the force of friction must be also increasing as you increase the force
of the pull. Eventually, at some point, your pulling force will be able to overcome friction and the
object will begin to move. When the object just begins to move, the force of static friction has
reached its maximum value.
The maximum static friction f s (max) between two surfaces is given by
fs (max)=μs N
Where N is the size of the normal contact force between the two surfaces. μ s is called
the coefficient of static friction and has a constant value for two types of surfaces. e.g. μ s for steel
on steel is about 0.74 while for aluminum on steel it is about 0.61.
Kinetic Friction
Kinetic friction is the frictional force acting between two
surfaces which are in motion against each other. Going
back to our example of dragging a wooden block across a
table, once the block is moving it will experience kinetic
friction. Kinetic friction will remain largely the same for the
two surfaces regardless of their relative speed. It will
fluctuate over time, but it will do so about a fixed average
value.
The size of kinetic friction is given by:
fk = μk N
Where N is again the size of the normal contact force between the two surfaces. μ k is called
the coefficient of kinetic friction and also has a constant value for two types of surfaces. The value
for the coefficient of kinetic friction is always less than the coefficient for static friction between two

surfaces, meaning that the force of kinetic friction experienced by an object is always less than the
maximum force of static friction experienced between them. μ k for steel on steel is about 0.57
while for aluminum on steel it is about 0.47.
Acceleration due to gravity:-

If a body is falling “a” is replaced by g, the acceleration due to gravity. g is taken as positive and if it
is going up, g is taken as negative (as g = 9.8006 m/s 2)
 When the motion take place under effect of gravitational attractive force only, the motion is
known as free fall. Here free fall also not means that particle is falling down only. Even if the
particle is rising up or may be momentarily at rest at highest point, but it only gravitational
force is acting on it, then the motion will be called free fall.
 In the absence of air resistance, all the objects near the surface of the earth in free fall will have
the same acceleration due to gravity
i.e g = 9.8006 m/s2
 The value of g is independent of the mass of the body.
 The average value of g is taken as 9.8006 ms-2 near the surface of earth up to the height of 1km.
GM
 Value of g follows inverse square law since g =
r2
 Value of g is zero at the centre of earth.
 The value of g is maximum at pole and minimum at equator with reference to the surface of
earth.
 When a body is dropped freely from the top of a tower and another body is projected
horizontally from the same point, both will reach the ground at the same time but at different
points.


g is independent of weight since ratio of w/m remains constant.
Newton laws motion:-

Introduction:-
Sir Isaac Newton was one of the greatest scientists and mathematicians that ever lived. He was
born in England on December 25, 1643. He was born the same year that Galileo died. He lived for 85
years.
Isaac Newton was raised by his grandmother. He attended Free Grammar
School and then went on to Trinity College Cambridge. Newton worked his
way through college. While at college he became interested in math,
physics, and astronomy. Newton received both a bachelors and masters
degree.
While Newton was in college he was writing his ideas in a journal. Newton
had new ideas about motion, which he called his three laws of motion. He
also had ideas about gravity, the diffraction of light, and forces. Newton's
ideas were so good that Queen Anne knighted him in 1705. His
accomplishments laid the foundations for modern science and
revolutionized the world. Sir Isaac Newton died in 1727.
Newton’s first law of motion
It states that
“First law of motion is also known as law of inertia. It states that “if a body is at rest it will
remain at rest, if a body is in uniform motion it will continue to do so unless acted upon by
some external force”
Thus no force is acting on the body and acceleration is zero i.e
a = 0 when F= 0
This law is often called "The law of inertia".
“Inertia is the property of a body to resist the change in its state that is the state of rest or
uniform motion”
o Newton’s first law of motion defines the force qualitatively
o The mass of the object is the quantitative measure of its inertia
i.e inertia mass

Frame of Reference
“The set of coordinate axes with references to

which measurements are taken known as frame
reference”
Inertial frame of reference

Non-Inertial frame of
“The frame of reference in which
reference
Newton’s first law of motion holds”
“The frame of reference in which
OR“A non-accelerated frame of
Newton’s first law of motion does
reference is called inertial frame of
not hold”
reference”
OR “An accelerated frame of
i.e. (It’s a= 0 ms-2)
reference is called inertial frame of
 At rest
reference”
 Moving with uniform velocity
i.e.
e.g earth is considered as inertial
 It has some acceleration ( a ≠0)
frame of reference
e.g An elevator moving up or down
with a certain acceleration

When a car stops quickly, the driver moves forward
towards the screen due to inertia. The seat belts
prevents from moving hence chance of injury
greatly reduced.
Newton’s second law of motion:-

Newton's first law of motion predicts the behavior of objects for which all existing forces are
balanced. The first law - sometimes referred to as the law of inertia - states that if the forces acting
upon an object are balanced, then the acceleration of that object will be 0 ms -2. Objects
at equilibrium (the condition in which all forces balance) will not accelerate. According to Newton,
an object will only accelerate if there is a net or unbalanced force acting upon it. The presence of an
unbalanced force will accelerate an object - changing its speed, its direction, or both its speed and
direction.

Newton's second law of motion pertains to the behavior of objects for which all existing forces
are not balanced. The second law states that the acceleration of an object is dependent upon two
variables - the net force acting upon the object and the mass of the object. The acceleration of an
object depends directly upon the net force acting upon the object, and inversely upon the mass of
the object. As the force acting upon an object is increased, the acceleration of the object is increased.
As the mass of an object is increased, the acceleration of the object is decreased.
Newton's second law of motion can be formally stated as follows:

“The acceleration of an object as produced by a net force is directly proportional to the
magnitude of the net force, in the same direction as the net force, and inversely proportional
to the mass of the object”
This verbal statement can be expressed in equation form as follows:

a = Fnet / m
The above equation is often rearranged to a more familiar form as

shown below. The net force is equated to the product of the mass
times the acceleration.
Fnet = m • a------------ (1)
Consistent with the above equation, a unit of force is equal to a unit of mass times a unit of
acceleration. By substituting standard metric units for force, mass, and acceleration into the above
equation, the following unit equivalency can be written.
1 Newton = 1 kg • m/s2
The definition of the standard metric unit of force is stated by the above equation. One Newton is
defined as the amount of force required to give a 1-kg mass an acceleration of 1 m s-2.
o Newton’s second law of motion gives quantities measure of force.
dP
i.e. F = ma Or F=
dt
Since force acting on a body of mass m acts and acceleration “a” is produced
dv dr d2 r
a= and v = dt so a =
dt dt2
Hence equation (1) can be written as
d2 r
F=m − − − − − (2)
dt2
We can derive first law from second law
If F = 0 then m a = 0
Since m ≠ 0 hence a = 0
This is according to the statement of Newton’s first laws of motion.
Vector form of Newton’s second law of motion
Let a force F acts on the body of mass m and acceleration is produced in the direction of force then
by Newton’s second law
F = m a ----------- (1)
If r is the position vector then we can write
dv dr d2 r
a= and v = so a =
dt dt dt2
Hence equation (1) can be written as
d2 r
F=m − − − − − (2)
dt 2
Since r = x I + y j+ z k
dr dx dy dz
We have v = dt = dt
i + dt j + dt k
dv d2 x d2 y d2 z
a= dt
= dt2
i + dt2 j + dt2 k − − − − − (3)
If Fx, Fy and Fz represents the rectangular components of the force then we can write
F = Fx i + Fy j + Fz k − − − −(4)
By putting substituting the values of F and a in eq (1)
d2 x d2 y d2 z
Fx i + Fy j + Fz k = m i + m j + m k
dt 2 dt 2 dt 2
d2 x
Also Fx = m dt2
d2 y
FY = m 2
dt
d2 z
Fx = m
dt 2

Newton’s third law of motion:-
It states that
“Every action has its reaction equal in magnitude but opposite in direction”
i.e F = −F/
 Action and reaction always occur in pair.
 They act on two different bodies.
 Action and reaction occur for the same length of time
Examples:
 Walking on the ground
 Swimming
 Rocket propulsion etc

Throwing a package onto the shore from
When a car accelerates along the
the boat that was previously at rest causes
road, actually the reaction force of
the boat to move outward from the shore by
the road is responsible to move the
Newton’s third law
car. The engine of the car simply
rotates the wheels does not move it.
Note: Newton’s third law applies in those situations, where there is no equilibrium.
Limitations of Newton’s laws of motions:-
These laws are excellent approximations at macro scales and speeds of everyday life. However,
Newton’s laws are inappropriate for use in certain situations like
 At very small scales (if a  10-10 ms-2 )
 At very high speeds (is speed is approaching to speed of light).since at high speeds mass of
object does not remain constant which is a necessary condition for the Newton’s laws to be
applicable.
 At a place where gravitational field is much strong.
 At atomic size objects (Quantum mechanics rule out these laws)

Equations for uniformly accelerated objects:-
From Newton’s law of motion we define the acceleration of a particle as time rate of change of
velocity. That is
Δv dv
a=lim Δt  0 =    (1)
Δt dt
From above equation

dv = a dt
Integrating both sides we get,
vf t
 dv=  a dt    (2)
vi 0
Where vi is the velocity at t=0 and vf is the velocity at time t.

In case of constant force acceleration is also constant so we can write eq(2)
vf t
 dv = a  dt
vi 0
v f - vi = a t
vf = vi + a t - - - - - - - (3)
Eq(2) gives the velocity at any time t.

As we know that
Δx dx
v =lim Δt  0 =
Δt dt
From above equation
dx = v dt
Integrating both sides we get,
x t
 dx = v dt    (4)
xo 0
Where x0 is the post ion at t=0 and x is the position of the particle at time t.
Putting value of v from eq (3)
x t t t
 dx = (vi + at) dt=  vidt+ a t dt

xo 0 0 0
1
x-x o = vi t+ at 2
2
1
x (t) =vi t+ at 2 ------ (5)
2
Eq(5) represents the displacement covered by the particle after time t.
Since acceleration is given by
vf -vi vf -vi
a=  t=
t a
Putting this value in equation (5)
2
vf -vi 1  vf -vi 
x = vi ( )+ a  
a 2  a 
By solving above equation we get,
2 a x = vf2 - vi2 - - - - (6)
Hence we can summarize the equation of motion as

1 2
(i) vf  vi  at (ii) s  vi t  (iii) 2as  v f  vi
2 2
at
2
Where
 Vf = final velocity
 Vi = initial velocity
 a = acceleration
 t = time taken
 S= x = total distance covered
 Above equations are applicable only if the motion is under constant acceleration.
2
 If a car stopped by applying brakes, then the stopping distance s  mv  s  v 2
2F
Here F is the force applied by brakes and v is the velocity of car.
 A body is dropped from a height h. The time taken by the body to reach the ground and velocity
just before reaching the ground is given by
Time taken to reach the ground:

1
S  vi t  gt 2
2
1 2h
or h  gt 2  t 
2 g
Velocity on reaching the ground:
vf  vi  gt
2h
or vf  g  vf  2gh
g
Linear momentum of a particle & a system of particles:-

The momentum of a particle is defined as the product of its mass m and velocity v.
i.e p = mv    (1)
 It is a vector quantity and is denoted by p.
 The direction of linear momentum is same as that of the velocity of the body.
 An object having more momentum is hard to stop.
 SI unit of momentum is kg ms – 1 or N-s
 Its dimension is [p] = [MLT – 1]
 The momentum of a particle depends on the reference frame of the observer as it is proportional
to the velocity v which depends on the reference frame of the observer.
Momentum and Newton's 2nd law of motion
Newton called momentum as the quantity of motion and in terms of Newton’s second law
momentum is expressed as
“The rate of change of momentum of a body is directly proportional to the applied (resultant) force
acting on the body and takes place in the direction of force” That is
dp
F=      (2)
dt
d
= (mv)
dt
d
=m (v) if m is constant
dt
=ma
K.E in terms of momentum:-

A relationship b/w kinetic energy and momentum can be obtain in the form of
1 (mv)2
K. E = mv2 =
2 2m
1 p2
K. E = − − − − − − − −(3)
2m
In case of relativistic mechanics:-
Eq (2) is valid only for classical mechanics. It no longer remains valid if object is moving
approaching to speed of light (speed greater than or equal to 1/10th speed of light). However it is
dp
still valid law in the form of F= , if momentum is defined as
dt
mv
p=      (4)
v2
1- 2
c
Momentum of system of particles:-

Let us take a system of N-particles with mass and assume that no mass enters or leave the system
so that  mn =M = total mss remains constant with time. The particle may attract each other and
external force may act on them. Each particle will have a certain velocity and momentum in the
given frame of reference.
Then total momentum P of the system is simply the vector sum of the momenta of the individual
particles in that frame of reference. i.e
P=p1 +p2 +p3 ----pn
P=m1v1 +m2 v2 +m3 v3 +-----+mn vn
(m1v1 +m 2 v 2 +m3 v3 +- - - - -+m n v n )

P= M
M
( m n v n )
P= M = M v c.m.      (5)
M
Where vc.m is the velocity of center of mass of the system of particle.
Hence we can say
“Total linear momentum of system of particles is equal to the product of the total mass of the
system and the velocity of its center of mass”
By differentiating eq(5) w.r.t time, we get
dP d(vc.m. )
=M = M a c.m.
dt dt
So we can write Newton’s second law of motion for the system of particles in the form
dP
F=  Fext =      (6)
dt
Conservation of momentum:-
Conservation of momentum is a fundamental law of physics which states that the momentum of a
system is constant if there are no external forces acting on the system. It is embodied in Newton's
first law (the law of inertia).
Suppose we have two interacting particles 1 and 2, possibly of different masses. The forces between
them are equal and opposite. According to Newton's second law, force is the time rate of change of
the momentum, so we conclude that the rate of change of momentum P1 of particle 1 is equal to
minus the rate of change of momentum P2 of a particle 2,
dp1 dp 2
=-      (1)
dt dt
Now, if the rate of change is always equal and opposite, it follows that the total changes in the
momentum of particle 1 is equal and opposite of the total change in the momentum of particle 2.
That means that if we sum the two momenta the result is zero,

d (p1 +p 2 )
= 0 - - - - - -(2)
dt
Hence we can say that
“If no external force acts on the system, the total linear momentum of the system remains constant”
dp
i.e = 0  p =constant ------ (3)
dt
From above equation we can also conclude that
The momentum of the particle remains constant when no external force acts on it. This
simply furnishes us with statement of Newton’s first law.

When a fighter plane chasing another opens fire, its momentum in backward direction
because of which its speed decreases. When a perused plane opens fire its speed
increases because it gains momentum along the direction of its motion.
Impulse:-
“When a very large average force acts upon a body for a very short interval of time that varies
instant to instant then product of such force and time is called Impulse”
Mathematically impulse =F x t
It is a vector quantity. Its SI unit is N-sec. Dimension of impulse is [MLT–1 ]
According to Newton's second law of motion.
mv f  vi
F=
t
Impulse = F t  mvf  mvi
Note: when time of impact extends then average impulsive force reduces.
Examples:-
 The impulsive force is the product of F and t. The padded helmet will increase the time of
collision thus impulsive force F decreased.
 When you hit the football and a stone with the same force you will hurt in case of stone since
time of collision is smaller and therefore, impulsive force will be larger.

 Your hair acts like a crumple (soft) zone on your skull. A force of 5 N might be enough to
fracture your skull (cranium i.e bony part), but with covering the skin and hair time of collision
increases and so a force of approximately 50 N is needed to break the skull.
 Which will be more effective in knocking the bear down?

o Lead bullet
o Steel bullet
For knocking the bear down rubber bullet is more effective since due to bouncing it has small
collusion time hence impulsive force will be large but in case of lead bullet time of collision will be
large due to penetration and hence impulsive force will be small.
Projectile
When a body is thrown upward at some angle with the horizontal then the body is called
a projectile.
Projectile motion
The motion in which a body has constant horizontal component of velocity but changing
vertical component of velocity is called
projectile motion.
Explanation
Consider the motion of a ball, when it is
thrown horizontally from certain height. It is
observed that the ball travels forward as well
as falls downwards, until it strikes the ground
suppose that the ball leaves the hand of the
thrower at point A as shown in fig. (a)
When it is observed that its velocity at that
instant is complete horizontal. Let this
velocity is V x . According to Newton’s first law
of motion, there will be no acceleration in
horizontal direction, unless a horizontally
directed force acts on the ball. Air friction is
neglected in projectile motion, only force acting on the ball during flight is the force of
gravity.

There is no horizontal force acting on it. So its horizontal velocity will remain
unchanged and will be V x until the ball hits the ground.
Hence the horizontal distance x is given by x = v x  t _______________(1)
Now consider the vertical motion of the ball. It will accelerate downward under the
force of gravity and hence a = g.
This vertical motion is the same as for a freely falling body.
Since V i y = o
The vertical distance y is given by
1
y = Viy t + g t2
2
1
y = 0×t + g t2
2
1
y= g t2 __________(2)
2
Instantaneous Velocity
Consider a projectile is fired form a point ‘o’ with an initial velocity Vi making angle 
with the horizontal or x – axis as shown in fig. (b)
In this case, the motion of a projectile can be studied by resolving it into horizontal and
vertical components
1. Horizontal Component
Vfx =Vix =V=VCosθ_______________(3)
i i
ax  o
Bit vertical acceleration = a y = –g
Now we consider the vertical motion initial vertical component of the velocity in
upward direction is

2. Vertical Component
Viy =VSinθ___________(4)
i
The vertical component V fy of the velocity at any instant t is given by

Vfy = Viy - gt
Vfy = VSinθ-
i g t__________(5)
Magnitude
The magnitude of velocity at any instant is
V= Vf2 +Vfy2      (6)

Direction
The angle  which this resultant velocity makes with horizontal can be found form
Vfy
tan=    (7) .
Vfx
Time taken to reach maximum height
Consider a projectile is thrown upward form a point ‘o’ with an initial velocity V i making
an angle  with the horizontal (i.e. x – axis).
At maximum height ‘A’, the value of vertical component of velocity becomes zero.
So VV fy = o V iy = V i Sin 
Acceleration against gravity = a = – g
Time taken to reach max height = t =?
Vf y = V iy + at
o = V i Sin –gt
or it = V i Sin
VSinθ
i
t=
g

(2) Maximum Height

Let the maximum height reached = S = h
As the body moves upward, so a = – g
V iy = V i Sin
We use the equation of motion
2a S= Vfy2 -Viy2
-2gh= o -Vi2Sin2θ
Vi2Sin2θ
h =
2g
(3) Time of Flight
It is the total tie for which the projectile remains in air.
As the body goes up and comes back to same level, thus covering no distance.
S=h =o a = -g
Viy = Vi sinθ Time = t
1 2
S = Viy t + at
2
1 2 1
gt =Vi Sinθt- gt2
2 2
1 2
gt = VSinθ×t
i
2
2VSinθ
i
or t=
g
(4) Horizontal Range
The distance which a projectile covers in the horizontal direction, is called horizontal
rang.
It is represented by R
2Vi Sinθ
S=R , t =
g
Vix = VCosθ
i
Q S= Vix × t
2VSinθ
i
R = VCosθ
i ×
g
2 Sin Cos
R  Vi 2 
g

 2Sin Cos   Sin2 
Vi 2 Sin2
R
g
(5) Maximum Horizontal Range
Maximum distance which a projectile coves in the horizontal direction is called
maximum horizontal range. It is denoted by R max
Vi 2 Sin2
R  ____________(1)
g
If V i and g are constants, then equation (1) shown that R is maximum when the value of
Sin 2 is maximum.
The maximum value of sin 2 = 1 ________ (2)
Sin90o = 1 _____________(3)
From equation (2) and (3), we get
Sin 2 = Sin90 o
Or 2 = 90 o
Or  = 45 o
Putting R = R max and  = 45 o in equation (1).
Vi2Sin2×45 V2Sin90o Vi2 ×1
Rmax = = i =
g g g
Vi2
Rmax =
g
Thus for maximum horizontal range, the angle of projection should be 45 o .
Trajectory of projectile
Let us consider a body of mass m, projected in y-z
plane at the angle θ with the horizontal with a
velocity of “v o ”. Let r be the position vector and v
be the velocity of projectile at any time. The only
force acting on the projectile is its weight. If we
take z-axis in upward direction
Then
̂
𝐅 = −mg K
d2 r
Since F = m dt2

d2 r
So ̂
m dt2 = −mgK
d2 r
Or ̂ − − − − − (1)
= −gK
dt2
By integrating the equation (1)
dr
= −gK̂ t + A − − − −(2)
dt
Where A is a constant & from initial condition
At t= 0 v= v 0
dr
So = v0 = −gK̂ (0) + A ⇒ A = v0
dt
Now equation (2) can be written as
dr
= −gK̂ t + v0
dt
Integrating again
1
r = − gK̂ t 2 + v0 t + B − − − −(3)
2
Where B is constant and from initial condition
R= 0 when t= 0
So 0 =0 + 0 + B ⇒ B=0
Now equation (3) can be written as
1
r = v0 t − gK̂ t 2 − − − −(4)
2
Let’s write equation (4) in components form
Since r = rx i + ry j + rz k
& vo = v0 cosθ j + v0 sinθ k
Putting these values in eq(4)
1
rx i + ry j + rz k = (v0 cosθ j + v0 sinθ k)t − gK̂ t 2
2
Comparing co-efficient
x = 0 − − − − − − − − − − − (5)
y = v0 cosθ t − − − − − − − −(6)
1
z = v0 sinθ t − g t 2 − − − −(7)
2
This results shows that projectile remains in yz -plane. Hence we can conclude that
projectile motion is a two dimensional motion.
Equations for trajectory
y
Since y = v0 cosθ t ⇒ t=v
0 cosθ
Putting this value in equation (7)

y 1 y 2
z = (v0 sinθ) ( )− g ( )
v0 cosθ 2 v0 cosθ

g
z = y tanθ − ( ) y 2 sec 2 θ − − − −(8)
2v0 2
1 g
Let tanθ = a and . sec 2  b
2 v02
Putting these values in above equation, we get
z = a y - b y2    (9)
Equation (9) is the equation of parabola, hence we can c onclude that trajectory of
projectile in the absence of friction is perfect parabola
Ballistic flight
A flight in which a projectile is given an initial push and is then allowed to move freely
duet to inertial and under the action of gravity is called ballistic flight.
Ballistic missile
A ballistic missile is a flying object which is given an initial push then is allowed to move
freely due to inertia and gravity. It is an un -powered and un-guided missile.
Ballistic trajectory
The path followed by the ballistic missile is called ballistic.
Application to ballistic missiles
A ballistic missile moves in curved path. This is the result of superposition of two
motions. One linear motion, along the direction of initial velocity. The other motion is
along the direction of force of gravity.
The downward force of gravity changes the straight path to curved path. For short
ranges (distances) considering the earth as flat, the path is parabola. For short flight,
the air friction cannot be neglected sometimes it becomes more than gravity. Therefore,
the angle of projection could not be found by the geometry of situation.
The actual flight needs high degree of precision. For long range, the earth’s surface does
not remain flat but becomes spherical. Therefore, the4 path becomes elliptical. The
ballistic missiles are useful only for short ranges. For long ranges and greater precision
we use powered and remote control guided missiles (i.e. laser guided missiles).
Guided missile
The powered missile in which effect of inertia and gravity are controlled and is guided
to hit the target, is called guided missile.

Questionnaire
Topic Newtonian Physics
1. (a) What is projectile motion? Why a cricket player re-traces his hand before catching the ball?
(2017)
(b) Derive Newton’s first law from the second law?
(c) A particle moves along the curve 𝐱 = 𝟐 𝐭 𝟐 , 𝐲 = 𝐭 𝟐 − 𝟒𝐭, 𝐳 = 𝟑𝐭 − 𝟓 where t is time. Find the
components of its velocity and acceleration at time t =1 in the direction of 2 i – 3 j + 2k? (2016)
Hint: write position of vector according to the given coordinates and take first order derivative for
velocity and second order to find acceleration.
2. (a) A batsman hits a cricket ball at an angle with respect to the horizontal. The ball would strike
the ground at 60 m from the batsman if not stopped. But a fielder at a distance of 55m catches
the ball at a height of 1.5 m. calculate the angle of projection and the velocity of projection.
(b) Explain the law of conservation of linear momentum? (2017)
(c) Derive the following equations of motion
1 2
(i) vf  vi  at (ii) s  vi t  (iii) 2as  v f  vi
2 2
at
2
3. (a)Define momentum and also find the momentum for system of particles?
(b) Deduce Newton’s first law of motion from law of conservation of momentum?
(c) A particle’s position vector is initially r = 5i -6 j +2k and 10 s later it is r =-2i +8 j-2k.if the
units of distance is meter what was its average velocity after 10 s?
7 7 2
Ans:- (- i + j - k) ms 1
10 5 5
4. (a) Derive the following for a projectile
(i) Maximum height
(ii) Time of flight
(iii) Horizontal range
(b) Prove that horizontal range is maximum at 450?
(c) A particle leaves the origin with an initial velocity v = 3i (ms-1).it experience a constant
acceleration a = i - 0.5 j (ms-2).
(i) What is the velocity of the particle when it reaches its maximum x coordinate?
(ii) Where is the particle at that time?
Ans:- (i) -1.5 j (ms-1) (ii)=4.5 i -2.25 j (m)
5. (a) Prove that trajectory of a projectile in the absence of air friction is parabola?
(b) What are the limitations of Newton’s laws of motion?
(c) A foot ball is thrown upward with an angle of 30 o with respect to the horizontal. To
throw a 40 m pass what must be the initial speed of the ball?
Ans v i = 21.3m / s .
:-

6. (a) State Newton second law also describes it in vector form?
(b) At what point or points in the path of a projectile it has maximum and minimum speed?
(c) The velocity v of a particle moving in xy-plane is given by v = (6t-4t2)i +8j (ms-1).
(i) What is the acceleration of the particle when t =3 s?
(ii) When (if ever) the acceleration is zero?
(iii) When (if ever) the velocity is zero?
(iv) When (if ever) the speed is equal to 10 m/s?
Ans:- (i) =-18i (ms-2) (ii) t =3/4 s (iii) velocity never zero at any time (iv) t =2 s
7. (a) Briefly explain the basic forces of nature? (2013)

(b) Explain basic types of friction?
(c) A ball is thrown horizontally from a height of 10 m with velocity of 21 ms -1. How far off it hit
the ground and with what velocity? Ans:- x = 30 m
Ans :- v = 25m / s
8. (a) Name different types of forces which we interact in classical mechanics?

(b)Find the angle of projection of a projectile for which its maximum height and horizontal range
are equal.  = 76o Ans
(c) A bomber dropped a bomb at a height of 490 m when its velocity along the horizontal was
300 kmh-1.
(i) How long was it in air?
(ii) At what distance from the point vertically below the bomber at the instant the bomb
was dropped, did it strike the ground?
Ans:- t = 10s
Ans :- x = 833m
Wisdom Words
“Three things cannot recover in life: The
WORDS after its said,
The MOMENTS after its missed, and the TIME
after its gone”

Multiple Choice Questions
1. Two car racers are 100 Km away from each other. They drive their cars at 40 Km/h and
60 Km/h respectively towards each other. After 15 minutes they will be at a distance of:
(A) 25 Km (C) 50 Km
(B) 60 Km (D) 75 Km
2. A ball is thrown with a velocity of 8j (ms-1). The acceleration (ms-2) is 4i + 2j (i and j are
unit vectors). The displacement after 5 seconds:
(A) 52m (C) 68m
(B) 82m (D) None of these
3. Law of Inertia can be defined in:
(A) Accelerated system (C) Both (A) and (B)
(B) Non accelerated system (D) None of these
4. What type of force acts on a raindrop to reduce its speed?
(A) Gravitational Force (C) Force of Friction
(B) Electromagnetic Force (D) Drag Force
5. The rate of change of Momentum of the particle is:
(A) Energy (B) Force
(B) Impulse (D) None of these
6. The displacement time graph of a particle moving with uniform velocity is
(A) Straight line parallel to x-axis (C) Straight line making angle with x-axis
(B) Straight line parallel to y-axis (D) Parabola
7. The ratio of distance to displacement along a semi circle of radius r is
(A) 2 (C) 
(B) /2 (D) None of these
8. Which of the following changes when particle is moving with uniform velocity?
(A) Speed (C) Acceleration
(B) Velocity (D) Position vector
9. The displacement of a body is zero. The distance covered
(A) Is zero (C) May or may not be zero
(B) Is not zero (D) Depends upon acceleration
10. If a stone is dropped from window of moving train its path will be
(A) Straight line (C) Hyperbola
(B) Parabola (D) None of these
11. The horizontal component of a projectile moving with initial velocity of 500m/s at a
angle 60o to x-axis is
(A) 500m/s (C) 250m/s
(B) 1000m/s (D) Zero
12. The vertical height and horizontal range of a projectile will be equal if angle of
projection is
(A) 76o (C) 60o
(B) 45o (D)90o
13. A force of 25N acts on a body for 20 seconds. What will be the change in momentum

(A) 5N-s (C) 500 N-s
(B) 200 N-s (D) 800 N-s
14. In rotational momentum the analogous of force is
(A) Torque (C) Momentum
(B) Moment of inertia (D) Velocity
15. If the slope of a velocity time graph gradually decrease then the body is said to be
moving with
(A) Positive acceleration (C) Uniform velocity
(B) Negative acceleration (D) None of these
16. Dimensions of impulse are similar to the dimension of
(A) Torque (C) Momentum
(B) Work (D) Force
17. Motion of a projectile is
(A) One dimensional (C) Three dimension
(B) Two dimensional (D) Four dimensional
18. If the slope of the velocity time graph is increasing with the time at constant rate, its
shows that the body
(A) Is thrown up in frication less environment
(B) Is falling freely
(C) Is moving with uniform velocity
(D) Negative acceleration
19. Change in momentum is called
(A) Impulse (C) Torque
(B) Force (D) Momentum
20. Which law of motion is also called law of inertia
(A) 1st (C) 3rd
(B) 2nd (D) All
21. Whenever a body moves from one position to another, the change in positions called
(A) Velocity (C) Displacement
(B) Speed (D) Acceleration
22. Inertial of a body is measured in terms of
(A) Its weight (C) Its velocity
(B) Its mass (D) Momentum
23. A light and a heavy body have equal momentum which has greater kinetic energy.
(A) Light body (C) Both have equal K.E
(B) Heavy body (D) None of these
24. Area under force displacement graph and time gives
(A) Velocity (C) Work
(B) Power (D) Acceleration
25. A car travels for a certain time. Its speed during the first half time is v 1 and during the
second half time is v2. Average speed
v1  v2 v1  v2
(A) (C)
2 2v1  v2
2v1  v2
(B) (D) Total disp./ Total time
v1  v2

26. A truck weighing 2500kg and moving with a velocity 21m/s collides with stationary
car weighing 1000kg. The truck and car moves together after the impact. The final
velocity of truck is
(A) 15 ms – 1 (C) 24 ms – 1
(B) 10 ms – 1 (D) 55ms – 1
27. A ball is projected at 45 . If horizontal range is 10m. Velocity of projection is
o
(A) 5 ms– 1 (C) 15 ms– 1

(B) 10 ms– 1 (D) None
28. If R = 4H the angle of projection is
(A) 30o (C) 60o
(B) 45o (D) 76o
29. A moving body may not has
(A) K.E (C) Impulse
(B) Momentum (D) Velocity
30. K.E of projectile at highest point is half of its initial K.E. The angle of projection is
(A) 30o (C) 60o
(B) 45 o (D) None
ANSWER KEY
Q.No. Ans Q.No. Ans Q.No. Ans
1 11 21
2 12 22
3 13 23
4 14 24
5 15 25
Competitive
6 16 26
physics
7 17 27
8 18 28
9 19 29
10 20 30

Unit-2 Newtonian Physics

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Unit-2 Newtonian Physics

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Unit-2 Newtonian Physics

Rest and motion:-:

 S.I unit is ms-1

Special cases to calculate average speed:-

By: Prof. Muhammad Amin Competitive Physics 38

 S.I unit is ms-1

For your information

By: Prof. Muhammad Amin Competitive Physics 39

 If the velocity of a body is increasing then acceleration is said to be positive.

 Newton’s first law of motion defines force

 newton (N) : S.I unit of force is N 1 newton of force is

By: Prof. Muhammad Amin Competitive Physics 40

Basic forces of Nature

By: Prof. Muhammad Amin Competitive Physics 41

Strong Nuclear Force

Contact Forces Action-at-a-Distance Forces

 Frictional force (arises when one surface rubs the other)

By: Prof. Muhammad Amin Competitive Physics 42

By: Prof. Muhammad Amin Competitive Physics 43

Acceleration due to gravity:-

By: Prof. Muhammad Amin Competitive Physics 44

For your information

Newton laws motion:-

By: Prof. Muhammad Amin Competitive Physics 45

“The set of coordinate axes with references to

Inertial frame of reference

For your information

Newton’s second law of motion:-

By: Prof. Muhammad Amin Competitive Physics 46

Newton's second law of motion can be formally stated as follows:

This verbal statement can be expressed in equation form as follows:

The above equation is often rearranged to a more familiar form as

Hence equation (1) can be written as

This is according to the statement of Newton’s first laws of motion.

Vector form of Newton’s second law of motion

If r is the position vector then we can write

Hence equation (1) can be written as

By putting substituting the values of F and a in eq (1)

By: Prof. Muhammad Amin Competitive Physics 48

For your information

By: Prof. Muhammad Amin Competitive Physics 49

From above equation

Integrating both sides we get,

Where vi is the velocity at t=0 and vf is the velocity at time t.

Eq(2) gives the velocity at any time t.

 dx = (vi + at) dt=  vidt+ a t dt

Since acceleration is given by

By solving above equation we get,

2 a x = vf2 - vi2 - - - - (6)

Hence we can summarize the equation of motion as

Time taken to reach the ground:

Linear momentum of a particle & a system of particles:-

By: Prof. Muhammad Amin Competitive Physics 51

Momentum and Newton's 2nd law of motion

K.E in terms of momentum:-

Momentum of system of particles:-

By: Prof. Muhammad Amin Competitive Physics 52

P=m1v1 +m2 v2 +m3 v3 +-----+mn vn

(m1v1 +m 2 v 2 +m3 v3 +- - - - -+m n v n )

By differentiating eq(5) w.r.t time, we get

By: Prof. Muhammad Amin Competitive Physics 53

For your information

By: Prof. Muhammad Amin Competitive Physics 54

 Which will be more effective in knocking the bear down?