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COMMUNICATION
M R Abidi
Lecture 3
Current Wireless Systems
Cellular Systems
Wireless LANs
WIMAX
Satellite Systems
Paging Systems
Bluetooth
Ultrawideband radios
Zigbee radios
Fundamentals of Cellular Systems
Cellular System Infrastructure
Ad Hoc and Sensor Networks
“An ad hoc network is a collection of wireless mobile
hosts forming a temporary network without the aid of any
centralized administration or standard support services
regularly available on the wide area network to which the
hosts may normally be connected.”
D B Johnson and D A Maltz
Lecture 4 & 5
Cellular Concept
D = 3N R
ΔD
Frequency reuse ratio q = = 3N
R
Frequency reuse ratio and frequency reuse factor
carry the same information:
q (or N) ↑ ⇒ cochannel interference ↓
⇒ frequency reuse less often and system
capacity ↓
We should choose the minimum q (or N) subject to the
constraint on the signal to cochannel interference ratio
requirement.
Cochannel interference
Let
NI- the number of co-channel interfering cells
Ii- cochannel interference from the ith co-channel cell
S - the received power of the desired signal
The signal-to-cochannel interference ratio (S/I), also
referred to as carrier-to-co-channel interference ratio
(CIR), is
S S
=
∑
I NI
Ii
i =1
Consider only distance-dependent path loss
Pr(d) = P0(d/d0)−κ
where
Pr(d) – the received power at distance d (≥ d0)
P0 – the received power at distance d0
κ - the path loss exponent
d - the distance between the transmitter and receiver.
Consider the forward link and assume that the
transmitted power levels from all the BSs are the same,
then
Ii∝ Di -k ,
where Di is the distance from the ith cochannel cell BS
to the mobile.
When the mobile is at the cell boundary (the worst
case),
S∝ R -k
⇒
S R −k
=
∑
NI
I D i− k
i =1
If we neglect cochannel interference from the second
and other higher tiers ⇒ NI = 6.
If r = R and using Di≈ D for i=1, 2 ,….., NI
S (D / R)
=
κ
=
qκ
=
( 3N )
κ
I NI NI NI
1/ κ 1/ κ
⎛ S⎞ ⎛ S⎞
⇒ q = ⎜ NI × ⎟ = ⎜6× ⎟
⎝ I ⎠ ⎝ I ⎠
Lecture 6
CCI
CCI
CCI
S R −κ
≈
I 2( D − R ) −κ + 2 D −κ + 2( D + R ) −κ
S 1
⇒ =
I 2(q − 1) −κ + 2q −κ + 2(q + 1) −κ
Consider a cellular system that requires an S/I ratio of
18 dB
For a frequency reuse factor of 7, calculate the worst-case
S/I.
Is a frequency reuse factor of 7 acceptable in terms of CCI?
If not, what would be a better choice of N?
Solution
For κ = 4, N = 7, q = (3N)1/2 = 4.6 ⇒ S/I = 17.3 dB
For κ = 4, N = 9, q = (3N)1/2 = 5.2 ⇒ S/I = 19.8 dB
Adjacent channel interference (ACI)
Near-far effect:
d1 « d2 ⇒ Pr1 » Pr2 at the BS
For the signal from MS2, the adjacent channel interference ↑↑ due to the near-far effect
ACI
To reduce ACI
use modulation schemes which have small out-of-band
radiation (e.g., MSK is better than QPSK)
carefully design the receiver BPF
use proper channel interleaving by assigning adjacent
channels to different cells
furthermore, do not use adjacent channels in adjacent cells,
which is possible only when N is very large. For example, if
N =7, adjacent channels must be used in adjacent cells
use FDD or TDD to separate the forward link and reverse
link
Trunking
Trunking allows a large number of users to share the relatively small
number of channels in a cell with full availability
Definitions
set-up time: the time required to allocate a trunked radio channel to a
requesting user
blocked call (lost call): call which cannot be completed at the time of
request, due to congestion
holding time (H): average duration of a typical call
traffic intensity (ρ): measure of channel time utilization, which is the
average channel occupancy measured in Erlangs
load: traffic intensity across the entire trunked radio system, measured
in Erlangs
request rate (λ): the average number of call requests per unit time per
user
The traffic intensity offered by each user is (in Erlangs)
ρu = λH
For a system with u users and an unspecified number of channels, the total
offered traffic intensity is (in Erlangs)
ρ = uρ u = uλH
In a J channel trunked system, if the traffic is equally distributed among the
channels, then the traffic intensity per channel is
ρ c = uρ u / J = uλ H / J
Difference between offered traffic and carried traffic
offered traffic intensity = ρ
blocking probability = PB
carried traffic intensity = ρ(1 - PB) ≤ ρ
Types of trunked systems
ρ J / J!
PB =
∑
J
ρk / k!
k =0
Blocked calls delayed
If a channel is not available immediately, the call
request may be delayed until a channel becomes
available
Other conditions (assumptions) are the same as those in
the case of blocked calls cleared
Erlang – C formula: The probability of a call not
having immediate access to a channel
Probability of non-zero delay
Process consists of
Link quality evaluation and handoff initiation
Allocation of resources
No. of cell boundary crossings ∝1/cell size
Handoff rate ∝√cell density in macrocell
∝ cell density in microcell
More robust and reliable algorithms for smaller
cell sizes
Monitoring of link quality to determine when the
handoff is needed
Improper strategy results in excessive switching load or
large amount of CCI
Link quality measurements depends on
BER
C/I
Distance
Traffic load
Signal strength etc.
HO operation involves
Identifying a new BS
Allocation of voice and control signals to the channels
associated with the new BS
HO operation
Successfully
As infrequently as possible
Imperceptible to the users
Define:
Pr,minimum usable : min usable signal power for acceptable
voice quality at BS
Pr,handoff : HO threshold
Δ = Pr,handoff - Pr,minimum usable
where
H : hysteresis (in dB)
Y0(n) : estimated mean signal strength (in dBm) of BS0
Y1(n) : estimated mean signal strength (in dBm) of BS1
SS of BSi, i=0, 1,…., N – 1 can be obtained by calculating
time averages of the received squared envelope,
Many Variations of the algorithms exist
HOs are also trigerred when the measured signal strength of the
serving BS drops below a threshold
HO could be performed, when
Another variation discourages handoffs when the received
signal strength from the serving BS exceeds another threshold
ΩU
HO is performed if
Direction biased HO algorithm
Incorporate moving direction information into the handoff
algorithm to encourage handoffs to BSs that the MS is
approaching, and to discourage handoffs to BSs that the MS is
moving away from
Algorithm can be defined by grouping all the BSs being
considered as handoff candidates, including serving BS, BSs
into two sets based on their direction information
He: encouraging hypothesis
Hd : discouraging hypothesis
HO to BSj is requested if BSj ∈ R and
Zone cell concept
Channel assignment techniques
Fixed Dynamic
Basic
Fixed Flexible
Borrowing
Hybrid Predictive
Scheduled
FCA
Centralized
Decentralized
Fully decentralized
Flexible channel assignment