Introduction:

FOUNDATIONS & FOUNDATION

ENGINEERING
The foundations of the building transfer the weight of the building to the
ground. While 'foundation' is a general word, normally, every building has
a number of individual foundations. Most buildings have some kind of
foundation structure directly below every major column, so as to transfer
the column loads directly to the ground.

There are many different kinds of foundations, see our page on types of
foundations for more information.

Since the weight of the building rests on the soil (or rock), engineers have
to study the properties of the soil very carefully to ensure that it can carry
the loads imposed by the building. It is common for engineers to determine
the safe bearing capacity of the soil after such study. As the name
suggests, this is the amount of weight per unit area the soil can bear. For
example, the safe bearing capacity(SBC) at a location could be 20 T/m2, or
tonnes per square metre. This figure is the maximum the soil can bear, so
an engineer will take pains to see that her design does not exceed this
figure in any part of the building.

This capacity also changes at different depths of soil. In general, the

deeper one digs, the greater the SBC, unless there are pockets of weak
soil in the earth. To properly support a building, the soil must be very firm
and strong. It is common for the soil near the surface of the earth to be
loose and weak. If a building is rested on this soil, it will sink into the earth
like a ship in water. Building contractors will usually dig until they reach
very firm, strong, soil that cannot be dug up easily before constructing a
foundation.
To study the properties of the soil before designing foundations, engineers will ask for
a soil investigation to be done. A soil investigation engineer will drill a 4" or 6" hollow
pipe into the ground, and will remove samples of the earth while doing so. He will then
send these samples to a lab to find out the detailed properties of the soil at every depth. Soil is usually composed of strata, or
different layers, each with its own set of properties. Drilling technology today makes it easy and
economical to drill to great depths, easily several hundred metres or more, even in hard rock.

The soil investigation team will then prepare a soil investigation report that lists the engineering
properties of the soil at regular intervals, say every 2 meters. Based on this deport, engineers designing
the structure can decide at what depth of soil to provide the foundations, the type of foundations they
should provide, and the size of the foundations.

Every once in a while, engineers will find fill at a site. This occurs when humans have previously dug up
the earth there, and then filled it back in. This happens if a quarry was dug or a building built there
previously. Since fill is loose and soft and cannot support weight, engineers will dig to a depth below that
of the fill, where strong soil is found, and construct foundations there.

The study of soil, and its properties and behavior, is called soil mechanics.

Once the foundations have been built, the loose soil that has been excavated must be put back over and
around the foundations. This is called backfilling. Backfilling must be done carefully, as the soil there must
support the weight of the floor slab at ground level (called the first floor in the US). Backfilling is done by
putting back the soil in horizontal layers about a foot thick, and then compacting the earth, or squeezing
it under pressure in a wet condition. This causes the soil particles to be squished together and removes
air voids, there by making the layers strong. Good backfilling also improves the performance of the
foundations, as the earth holds them firmly in place, and weighs down on the foundations to anchor them
in position.
DEFINITION OF TERMS:
BUILDING- Permanent or temporary structure enclosed within exterior walls and a roof, and
including all attached apparatus, equipment, and fixtures that cannot be removed without
cutting into ceiling, floors, or walls.

CONSTRUCTION- Construction is the process of constructing a building or infrastructure.

Construction differs from manufacturing in that manufacturing typically involves mass
production of similar items without a designated purchaser, while construction typically takes
place on location for a known client.

Deformability- is the degree to which applying a force can make a particle or solid change
shape.

Engineering- the branch of science and technology concerned with the design, building, and use
of engines, machines, and structures.

Foundation- Part of a building or structure that transmits structural loads to the earth and
supports the superstructure.

Geological-relating to the study of the earth's physical structure and substance.

SPECIFICATION:
Nobody can deny the need for a good house foundation. Improperly
built foundation footings—unlike poorly installed gutters or gapped hardwood
flooring—can eventually bring down the house. Building codes have a few things
to say about foundation footings. Like any code recommendations, these are not
how-to guides to building footings so much as parameters you need to observe,
based on local code requirements.

Code Basics

The following code specifications are derived from the International Building
Code(IBC) for 1- and 2-story residences. This "nutshell" guide is intended to give
you a general sense of code requirements for foundation footings. The
IBC encompasses the International Residential Code (IRC) but includes provisions
for commercial buildings as well as residential. The IRC is equally suitable for
residential buildings. In the IRC, the chapter relating to foundations and footings is
chapter 4.

Keep in mind that each construction project is unique. For example, the soil is
different from place to place, and thus the load-bearing value of the soil will
change. Also, code rules are enforced at the local level, typically through each
city's building department. Most local code authorities use the IBC and/or IRC as
their model codes but may omit, modify or expand any code specification to suit
local conditions and legal requirements. While the IBC and IRC are merely
suggested guidelines, the local code is the law.

Site Grading

The ground immediately adjacent to the foundation footings—on the exterior of the
footings—should slope down at a 5 percent minimum slope. This must continue for
at least 10 feet.

Load-Bearing Value of Soil

Code refers to load-bearing values (LBVs) as "presumptive." This means that

a soil test is the only way to really know the load-bearing value (LBV) of the soil for
the footings on a given site.

Soil Type LBV Per Square Foot

Bedrock 12,000
Sedimentary Rock 4,000
 Sandy Gravel or Gravel 3,000
Sand, Silty Sand, Clayey Sand, Silty Gravel, Clayey Gravel 2,000
Clay, Sandy Clay, Silty Clay, Clayey Silt 1,500

Depth and Width of Footings

Undisturbed soil is soil that has never been turned over, tilled, graded, hoed, or
anything of that nature, by man or machine. Undisturbed soil is significantly
stronger than soil that has been disturbed.

 Depth: Footings should extend to a minimum depth of 12 inches below previously

undisturbed soil. Footings also must extend at least 12 inches below the frost line
(the depth to which the ground freezes in winter) or must be frost-protected.
 Width: Footings should have a minimum width of 12 inches.

Levelness

Requirements for levelness are different for the top and bottom of the footing:

 Top: Top of the footings must be level; no exceptions.

 Bottom: Preference for the bottom of the footing is that it is level. Exception: If
building on a sloped grade, you can step the footing as much as 1 unit vertical
per 10 units horizontal (or a 10 percent slope).

Spread Footings

Spread footings help distribute the load carried by the footings over a wider area.
The "spread" part is a base that looks like an upside-down "T" and transfers the
weight across its area. The spread footing should be no less than 6 inches thick. It
should project, on both sides, no less than 2 inches.
 USES:
Types of Foundation and their Uses
Following are different types of foundations used in construction:

1. Shallow foundation
1. Individual footing or isolated footing

2. Combined footing

3. Strip foundation

4. Raft or mat foundation

2. Deep Foundation
0. Pile foundation

1. Drilled Shafts or caissons

Types of Shallow Foundations

1. Individual Footing or Isolated Footing
Individual footing or an isolated footing is the most common type of foundation used for
building construction. This foundation is constructed for single column and also called as
pad foundation.

The shape of individual footing is square or rectangle and is used when loads from
structure is carried by the columns. Size is calculated based on the load on the column
and safe bearing capacity of soil.

Rectangular isolated footing is selected when the foundation experiences moments due to
eccentricity of loads or due to horizontal forces.

For example, Consider a column with vertical load of 200 kN and safe bearing capacity
of 100 kN/m2 then the area of the footing required will be 200/100 = 2m2. So, for a square
footing, length and width of footing will be 1.414 m x 1.414 m.
2. Combined Footing
Combined footing is constructed when two or more columns are close enough and their
isolated footings overlap each other. It is a combination of isolated footings, but their
structural design differs.

The shape of this footing is rectangle and is used when loads from structure is carried by
the columns.

3. Spread footings or Strip footings and Wall

footings
Spread footings are those whose base is more wider than a typical load bearing wall
foundations. The wider base of this footing type spreads the weight from the building
structure over more area and provides better stability.

Spread footings and wall footings are used for

individual columns, walls and bridge piers
where the bearing soil layer is within 3m (10
feet) from the ground surface. Soil bearing
capacity must be sufficient to support the
weight of the structure over the base area of the
structure.

These should not be used on soils where there is any possibility of ground flow of water
above bearing layer of soil which may result in scour or liquefaction.

4. Raft or Mat Foundations

Raft or mat foundations are the types of foundation which are spread across the entire
area of the building to support heavy structural loads from columns and walls.
The use of mat foundation is for columns and walls foundations where the loads from
structure on columns and walls are very high. This is used to prevent differential
settlement of individual footings, thus designed as a single mat (or combined footing) of
all the load bearing elements of the structure.
It is suitable for expansive soils whose bearing capacity is less for suitability of spread
footings and wall footings. Raft foundation is economical when one-half area of the
structure is covered with individual footings and wall footings are provided.

These foundations should not be used where the groundwater table is above the bearing
surface of the soil. Use of foundation in such conditions may lead to scour and
liquefaction.

Types of Deep Foundation

5. Pile Foundations
Pile foundation is a type of deep foundation which is used to transfer heavy loads from
the structure to a hard rock strata much deep below the ground level.

Fig: Pile Foundation

Pile foundations are used to transfer heavy loads of structures through columns to hard
soil strata which is much below ground level where shallow foundations such as spread
footings and mat footings cannot be used. This is also used to prevent uplift of structure
due to lateral loads such as earthquake and wind forces.

Read More on Deep Foundations

Pile foundations are generally used for soils where soil conditions near the ground
surface is not suitable for heavy loads. The depth of hard rock strata may be 5m to 50m
(15 feet to 150 feet) deep from the ground surface.

Pile foundation resists the loads from structure by skin friction and by end bearing. Use
of pile foundations also prevents differential settlement of foundations.

Read More on Pile Foundation

6. Drilled Shafts or Caisson Foundation
Drilled shafts, also called as caissons, is a type of deep foundation and has action similar
to pile foundations discussed above, but are high capacity cast-in-situ foundations. It
resists loads from structure through shaft resistance, toe resistance and / or combination
of both of these. The construction of drilled shafts or caissons are done using an auger.

Fig: Drilled Shafts or Caisson Foundation (Source: Hayward Baker)

Drilled shafts can transfer column loads larger than pile foundations. It is used where
depth of hard strata below ground level is location within 10m to 100m (25 feet to 300
feet).

Drilled shafts or caisson foundation is not suitable when deep deposits of soft clays and
loose, water-bearing granular soils exists. It is also not suitable for soils where caving
formations are difficult to stabilize, soils made up of boulders, artesian aquifer exists.