ELECTRICAL INSTRUMENTS

1. BATTERY ELIMINATOR

Battery Eliminator is a device used to convert high voltage alternating current into low voltage direct current. A
circuit arrangement is employed with which 220 volt alternating current is converted into 4½ volt direct
current. Since with the help of this appliance, the use of the battery is eliminated, therefore it is known as a
battery eliminator. It consists of following parts :

Working of a Battery Eliminator : A battery eliminator consist of mainly three working parts, transformer, Rectifier,

Filter circuit. step down transformer is used. This transformer converts high voltage alternating current into low

voltage alternating current. This low voltage alternating current passes from rectifier which converts alternating

current into direct current. In our project full wave rectifier is used. In full wave rectifier two diodes D1 and

D2 are used in such a way that during 0 to II crystal diode D1 becomes forward - bias and an output current I,

flow in circuit. Similarly during next half cycle II and 2II crystal diode D2 becomes forward bias and an output

I2 flows in the circuit. In this way a crystal diode converts full wave of alternating current into a full wave of

direct current. The direct current which we get from rectifier output circuit is fluctuating direct current. In order

to make it pure direct current filter circuit are used. In our project capacitor is used as a filter circuit. It is an

electrolytic capacitor of capacity 16V, 1000 microfarad. The output now available is 4½ volt direct current and it

may be suitably connected with the transistor.

2. TRANSFORMER :
Transformer device used to convert small alternating current at high voltage into low voltage
alternating current or low voltage alternating current into high voltage alternating current. step-down
transformer.
PRINCIPLE :
It is based on the principle of mutual induction that is if a varying current is set-up in a circuit induced
e.m.f. is produced in the neighbouring circuit. The varying current in a circuit produce varying magnetic flux which
induces e.m.f. in the neighbouring circuit.
STEP-DOWN TRANSFORMER :
This transformer converts high voltage at alternating current into low voltage alternating
current. In step-down transformer the number of turns in primary coil remains large as compare to secondary
coil.
CONSTRUCTION :
The transformer consists of two coils. They are insulated with each other by insulated material and
wound on a common core. For operation at low frequency, we may have a soft iron. The soft iron core is
insulating by joining thin iron strips coated with varnish to insulate them to reduce energy losses by eddy
currents.
The input circuit is called primary. And the output circuit is called secondary.
THEORY :
Suppose, the number of turns in the primary coil is NP and that in the secondary coil is NS.
The resistance of the coil is assumed to be zero. Let dq/dt be the rate of change of flux in each turn of
the primary coil. If Ep be the e.m.f. in the primary circuit then.
EP = –NP (1)

We suppose that there is no loss of flux between the primary and secondary coils. Then, the
induced e.m.f. in the secondary coil will be :
ES = –NS (2)
From equations (i) and (ii), we find :

Ns/Np = K is called transformer ratio or turn ratio.

For step up transformer K > 1
For step down transformer K < 1
That is for step-up transformer NS > NP, therefore ES>EP.
For the step down transformer NS < NP therefore ES < EP.

Efficiency : The efficiency of the transformer is given by :

If Ip and Is be the currents in the primary and secondary circuits.

For ideal transformer = 1 = 100%.

Therefore ESIS = EPIP
or

Therefore, for step up, transformer current in the secondary is less than in the primary (IS < IP). And
in a step down transformer we have IS > IP.
Energy Losses in Transformer :
In practice, the output energy of a transformer is always less than the input energy, because energy
losses occur due to a number of reasons as explained below.
1. Loss of Magnetic Flux :
The coupling between the coils is seldom perfect. So, whole of the magnetic flux produced by the primary
coil is not linked up with the secondary coil.
2. Iron Loss :
In actual iron cores inspite of lamination, eddy currents are produced. The magnitude of eddy current may,
however be small. And a part of energy is lost as the heat produced in the iron core.
3. Copper Loss :
 In practice, the coils of the transformer possess resistance. So a part of the energy is lost due to the heat
produced in the resistance of the coil.
4. Hysteresis Loss :
The alternating current in the coil tapes the iron core through complete cycle of magnetisation. So energy is
lost due to hysteresis.
5. Magneto restriction :
The alternating current in the transformer may be set its parts in to vibrations and sound may be produced.
It is called humming. Thus, a part of energy may be lost due to humming.

3. RECTIFIER :
Rectifier device used to convert alternating current into direct current. Rectifier have two types.
(i) Half wave rectifier
(ii) Full wave rectifier.
full wave rectifier is used which converts a full wave of alternating current into full wave of direct current.

The P.N. Junction as Full Wave Rectifier.

Full Wave Rectifier :
It is a device used to convert full wave of alternating currents into full wave of direct current.
PRINCIPLE

It is based on the principle that a crystal diode conduct only in forward bias and then an output

current flows in the circuit. When D1 is forward biased, the D2 is reverse biased and vice-versa. The diode

D1 and D2 send current through the load resistance in the same direction during both halves of the time period.

This cause full wave rectification of the input power.

CONSTRUCTION

The full wave rectifier consists of two P-N junctions diodes connected to secondary part of the

transformer. When input A.C. is applied across the primary coil (P) of a transformer. One terminal of the

secondary coil (S) of the transformer is connected to the positive terminal of the junction diode D2. In the

secondary part of the transformer a load resistance R1 is connected. The output is drawn across the two

terminals of the load resistance.

WORKING

In case of a crystal diode as full-wave rectifier the two diodes D1 and D2 are used in such a way that

during 0 to II crystal diode D1 becomes forward-bias and on output current I, flows similarly during next half

cycle II and 2II crystal diode D2 becomes forward bias and on output current I2 flows in the circuit in this way a

crystal diode converts full wave of alternating current into a full wave of direct current.
EFFICIENCY OF FULL WAVE RECTIFIER :

The efficiency of the full wave rectifier may be 80%.

4. RHEOSTAT

Rheostat definition

Rheostat is a variable resistor, which is used to control the flow of electric current by manually increasing or
decreasing the resistance. The English scientist Sir Charles Wheatstone coined the word rheostat, it is derived
from the Greek word “rheos” and “-statis” which means a stream controlling device or a current controlling
device.

Construction of rheostat

The construction of rheostat is almost similar to the potentiometer. Like the potentiometer, the rheostat also
consists of three terminals: terminal A, terminal B and terminal C. However, we use only two terminals: either A
and B or B and C. Terminal A and terminal C are the two fixed terminals connected to both ends of the resistive
element called track and terminal B is the variable terminal connected to the sliding wiper or slider.

The wiper that moves along the resistive element varies the resistance of the rheostat. The resistance of the
rheostat is changed when the slider or wiper is moved over the resistive path. The resistive element of the
rheostat is made of a coil of wire or a thin carbon film.

Rheostats are mostly wire wound. Hence, rheostats are also sometimes referred as variable wire wound
resistors. Generally, rheostats are made by winding the Nichrome wire around an insulating ceramic core. The
ceramic core of the rheostat acts as the insulating material to the heat. Hence, the ceramic core does not allow
heat through it.

Resistance of rheostat is depends on the length of the resistive track

The resistance of the rheostat is depends on the length of the resistive track through which electric current is
flowing.
If we use the terminals A and B in the rheostat, the minimum resistance is achieved when we move the slider or
wiper close to the terminal A, because the length of the resistive path decreases. As a result, only a small
amount of electric current is blocked and large amount of electric current is allowed.

In the similar way, the maximum resistance is achieved when we move the slider close to terminal C, because
the length of the resistive path increases. As a result, a large amount of electric current is blocked and only a
small amount of electric current is allowed.

If we use the terminals B and C, the minimum resistance is achieved when we move the slider or wiper close to
the terminal C, because the length of the resistive path decreases. As a result, only a small amount of electric
current is blocked and large amount of electric current is allowed.

In the similar way, the maximum resistance is achieved when we move the slider close to terminal A, because
the length of the resistive path increases. As a result, a large amount of electric current is blocked and only a
small amount of electric current is allowed.

Remember we are not reducing the resistance of the wire or resistive path; instead, we are just reducing the
length of the resistive path to decrease the resistance. When we turn the outside knob with our hands, the
wiper or slider moves along the resistive path.

Symbol of rheostat

The American standard and the international standard symbol of rheostat is shown in the below figure.

The zigzag lines with three terminals represent the American standard symbol of rheostat and the rectangular
box with three terminals represents the international standard symbol of rheostat.
Types of rheostats

Rheostats are of two types:

 Rotary rheostats
 Linear rheostats

Rotary rheostats

Rotary rheostat is also sometimes referred as circular rheostat because its resistive element looks like a circle.
The resistive element of the rotary rheostat is circular or angled. In these types of resistors, the wiper or slider
moves in a rotary manner. Rotary rheostats are used in most of the applications than the linear rheostats
because their size is smaller than the linear rheostats.

Linear rheostats

Linear rheostat is also sometimes referred as cylindrical rheostat because its resistive element looks like a
cylinder. In these types of resistors, the wiper or slider moves in a linear manner. Linear rheostats are used in
laboratories of doing research and teaching.

Difference between potentiometer and rheostat

The construction of both the potentiometer and rheostat is same. The main difference is the way we used it for
operation. In potentiometers, we use all the three terminals for performing the operation whereas in rheostats,
we use only two terminals for performing the operation.

Applications of rheostat

 Rheostat is generally used in the applications where high voltage or current is required.
 Rheostats are used in dim lights to change the intensity of light. If we increase the resistance of the
rheostat, the flow of electric current through the light bulb decreases. As a result, the light brightness
decreases. In the similar way, if we decrease the resistance of the rheostat, the flow of electric current
through the light bulb increases. As a result, the light brightness increases.
 Rheostats are used to increase or decrease the volume of a radio and to increase or decrease the
speed of an electric motor.

5. Meter Bridge

Meter Bridge is an instrument that is used to find the unknown resistance of a coil or any other material. This
bridge works under the principle of Wheatstone bridge. We know that the Wheatstone Bridge is used to
measure the unknown resistance connected in a circuit. It consists of four resistors of which two resistors are
known Resistors, one variable resistor and one unknown resistor. It also consists of a galvanometer. The bridge
has two series-parallel arrangements of resistors

Thus Rx = R2 R3 / R1. Finally the unknown resistance is determined in terms of other known Resistors of the
Bridge.
The applications of the Wheatstone bridge include strain gauge, thermistor, potentiometer, light detector etc.
Wheatstone bridge are also used in operational amplifier as it can measure and amplify the small changes that
takes place in resistors.

Meter bridge is also known as the Slide Wire Bridge. It consists of a wire whose length is one meter and has
uniform cross sectional area. Now the wire is stretched along a meter scale. The bridge has two metallic strips
which is in reverted L shape on either side of the wire. These metallic strips act as holders for the wire. The wire is
being clamped to the strips.These two metallic strips are made up of metals like copper. The bridge consists of
another metallic strip which is placed between those two strips with a gap between them. So totally there are five
leads on the bridge.

Meter bridge
A resistance box R and an unknown resistance S is connected across the two gaps of the metallic strips as shown
in the figure. One end of the galvanometer is connected to the middle lead of the metallic strip which is placed
between the L shaped strips. The other end of the galvanometer is connected to a jockey. The jockey is used to
slide on the bridge wire. It is a metal rod with one end as knife edge.

Meter Bridge
Now adjust the value of resistance in the resistance box and slide the jockey along the wire. This process is to be
done until the galvanometer shows a zero or null deflection. Consider at point B the galvanometer showed zero
deflection. So now the jockey is connected to the point B on the wire. Thus the distance from the point A to B is
taken as L1 cm. Then the distance from point B to point C is L 2 cm that is 100 - L1 cm. Now the meter bridge
becomes similar to the Wheatstone bridge. The meter bridge now is drawn as Wheatstone bridge for more
clearance.

Meter bridge to Wheatstone bridge

We know that R = ρ L /A, where R is the resistance, ρ is the resistivity, L is the length of the wire and A is the
area of cross section of the wire. So the resistance across the portion AB of the wire is R w L1 and that the
resistance across the point BC is Rw(100 - L1). Rw is the resistance of the whole wire. That is according to
Wheatstone bridge we get
This is the equation
So to find the unknown resistance S we have S = R (100 - L1) / L1

6. Potentiometer
A potentiometer (also known as a pot or potmeter) is defined as a 3 terminal variable resistor in which
the resistance is manually varied to control the flow of electric current. A potentiometer acts as an
adjustable voltage divider.

How Does a Potentiometer Work?

A potentiometer is a passive electronic component. Potentiometers work by varying the position of a
sliding contact across a uniform resistance. In a potentiometer, the entire input voltage is applied across the
whole length of the resistor, and the output voltage is the voltage drop between the fixed and sliding
contact as shown below.

A potentiometer has the two terminals of the input source fixed to the end of the resistor. To adjust the
output voltage the sliding contact gets moved along the resistor on the output side.

This is different to a rheostat, where here one end is fixed and the sliding terminal is connected to the
circuit, as shown below.

This is a very basic instrument used for comparing the emf of two cells and for calibrating ammeter,
voltmeter, and watt-meter. The basic working principle of potentiometer is quite simple. Suppose we
have connected two batteries in parallel through a galvanometer. The negative battery terminals are
connected together and positive battery terminals are also connected together through a galvanometer as
shown in the figure below.
Here, if the electric potential of both battery cells is exactly same, there is no circulating current in the
circuit and hence the galvanometer shows null deflection. The working principle of potentiometer
depends upon this phenomenon.

Now let’s think about another circuit, where a battery is connected across a resistor via a switch and a
rheostat as shown in the figure below.
The resistor has the uniform electrical resistance per unit length throughout its length.
Hence, voltage drop per unit length of the resistor is equal throughout its length. Suppose, by adjusting the
rheostat we get v volt voltage drop appearing per unit length of the resistor.

Now, the positive terminal of a standard cell is connected to point A on the resistor and negative terminal
of the same is connected with a galvanometer. The other end of the galvanometer is in contact with the
resistor via a sliding contact as shown in the figure above. By adjusting this sliding end, a point like B is
found where there is no current through the galvanometer, hence no deflection in the galvanometer.
That means, emf of the standard cell is just balanced by the voltage appearing in the resistor across point A
and B. Now if the distance between point A and B is L, then we can write emf of standard cell E = Lv volt.

This is how a potentiometer measures the voltage between two points (here between A and B) without
taking any current component from the circuit. This is the specialty of a potentiometer, it can measure
voltage most accurately.

Potentiometer Types
There are two main types of potentiometers:

 Rotary potentiometer
 Linear potentiometer
Although the basic constructional features of these potentiometers vary, the working principle of both of
these types of potentiometers is the same.

Note that these are types of DC potentiometers – the types of AC potentiometers are slightly different.
Applications of Potentiometer
There are many different uses of a potentiometer. The three main applications of a potentiometer are:

1. Comparing the emf of a battery cell with a standard cell

2. Measuring the internal resistance of a battery cell
3. Measuring the voltage across a branch of a circuit

Rheostat vs Potentiometer
A potentiometer gives variable voltage. A rheostat gives variable resistance. The potentiometer is a three
terminal device whereas a rheostat is a two terminal device. Construction wise both of the devices look
similar but their principle of operation is entirely different. In potentiometer two end terminals of the
uniform resistance are connected to the source circuit. In rheostat, only one terminal of the uniform
resistance is connected to the circuit and the other end of the resistance is kept open. In both potentiometer
and rheostat, there is a sliding contact on the resistance.

In potentiometer, the output voltage is taken between fixed and sliding contact. In rheostat, the variable
resistance is achieved between fixed and sliding terminal. The resistance of potentiometer gets connected
across the circuit. The resistance of rheostat is connected in series with the circuit. The rheostat is generally
used to control the current by adjusting resistance with the help of sliding contact. In potentiometer, the
voltage is controlled by adjusting the sliding contact on the resistance.

tat, the variable resistance is achieved between fixed and sliding terminal. The resistance of potentiometer
gets connected across the circuit. The resistance of rheostat is connected in series with the circuit. The
rheostat is generally used to control the current by adjusting resistance with the help of sliding contact. In
potentiometer, the voltage is controlled by adjusting the sliding contact on the resistance.

7. Resistance Box
Definition: The box which contains the resistors of different values for estimating and
comparing the resistance is known as the resistance box. The accuracy of the resistance
box is very high. The main application of the resistance box is to control the specific value of
current to flow through the circuit.

The main advantage of the resistance box is that the variable resistances are available at one
point. If any circuit requires variable resistances, then there is no need of replacing the
resistor. The circuit is directly connected to the resistance box, and by changing the rotary
switches, the variable resistances are obtained.

The resistance box is of three types. They are

 High resistance Box
 Low Resistance box
 Fractional Resistance Box

The value of the high resistance box lies from 1Ω to 5000Ω or above while the value of the
low resistance box is between 1 to 500Ω. In fractional resistance box, the value of resistance
is in the form of a fraction. The range of fractional box lies between 0.1Ω to 50Ω.

The construction of the box is simple and cheap. The resistance box is available in different
designs. It is also used for testing and designing the circuit in the laboratory.

Simple Resistance Box

The simple resistance box has two copper terminals for connecting the positive and negative
terminal of the circuit. The cover of the box on which terminals and knobs are placed is made
by ebonite material. The knob is used for adding and removing the resistance from the circuit.

On the second side of the ebonite sheet, the resistances of different value are connected in
series with each other. For connecting the resistance across the circuit, the knobs of the
particular resistance need to be removed. When all the knob is placed on the air gap then the
current pass through the copper stud, no resistance is connected to the circuit.

The process of using the resistance box.

1. The value of resistance is kept very high so that the less power dissipation occurs in the connecting
circuit.
2. Before connecting the box to the circuit, it is essential to set the value of the circuit to minimum
resistance. So the less dissipation takes place in the circuit. The resistance of the box is either equal
or greater than the resistance of the circuit.
3. The resistance box is always connected to the circuit by the help of the plug connectors

8. Galvanometer
Definition: The galvanometer is the device used for detecting the presence of small current
and voltage or for measuring their magnitude. The galvanometer is mainly used in the bridges
and potentiometer where they indicate the null deflection or zero current.

Principle of Galvanometer
The potentiometer is based on the premise that the current sustaining coil is kept between the
magnetic field experiences a torque.

Construction of the Galvanometer

The construction of the potentiometer is shown in the figure below.
 The moving coil, suspension, and permanent magnet are the main parts of the galvanometer.

Moving Coil – The moving coil is the current carrying part of the galvanometer. It is
rectangular or circular and has the number of turns of fine copper wire. The coil is freely
moved about its vertical axis of symmetry between the poles of a permanent magnet. The iron
core provides the low reluctance flux path and hence provides the strong magnetic field for
the coil to move in.

Suspension – The coil is suspended by a flat ribbon which carries the current to the coil. The
other current carrying coil is the lower suspension whose torque effect is negligible. The
upper suspension coil is made up of gold or copper wire which is made in the form of a
ribbon. The mechanical strength of the wire is not very strong, and hence the galvanometers
handle carefully without any jerks.

Mirror – The suspension carries a small mirror which casts the beam of light. The beam of
light placed on the scale on which the deflection is measured.

Torsion Head – The torsion head is used for controlling the position of the coil and for
adjusting the zero setting.

Applications of Galvanometer
The galvanometer has following applications. They are

 It is used for detecting the direction of current flows in the circuit. It also determines the null point
of the circuit. The null point means the situation in which no current flows through the circuit.
 It is used for measuring the current.
 The voltage between any two points of the circuit is also determined through galvanometer.