SKELETAL SYSTEM
 the extracellular matrix of cartilage
Components
 BONES
 CARTILAGE
 TENDONS
 LIGAMENTS
*206 bines in an adult human body*
DIVIDED INTO 2 GROUPS
1. AXIAL SKELETON
 Skull
 Ribs
 Vertebral column/ spine
2. APENDICULAR SKELETON
 Bones in the upper and lower
limbs
FUNCTIONS:
1. SUPPORT
 Bones – the “steel girders” and
“reinforced concrete” of the body,
form the internal framework that
supports and anchors all soft
organs
2. PROTECTION
 Bones protects soft body organs
3. MOVEMENT
 Skeletal muscles attach to bones
by tendons
4. STORAGE
 Fat is stored in the internal
cavities of bones
 Bone itself serves as a o a shaft with heads at both ends
storehouse for minerals (calcium
and phosphorus)
5. BLOOD CELL FORMATION
 Occurs within the marrow cavities
of certain bones
EXTRACELLULAR MATRIX
 Bone, cartilage, tendons, and
ligaments of the skeletal systems
are all connective tissue
 Their characteristics are largely
determined by composition of
their cellular matrix
 The matrix always contains
collagen, ground substance and
other organic molecules as well
as water and minerals
 Collagen tough, ropelike protein
 Proteoglycans attaching to and
encircling core proteins
 The proteoglycans form large
aggregates and attract water
 The extracellular matrix of
tendons and ligaments contains
large amounts of collagen fibers,
making the structures very rough,
like ropes of cables.
CARTILAGE EXTRACELLULAR MATRIX
collagen and proteoglycans
 collagen makes cartilage tough,
whereas the water filled proteoglycans
make it smooth and resilient
 as a result, cartilage is relatively rigid,
but it springs back to its original shape
after being bent on slightly compressed
 it is an excellent shock absorber
BONE EXTRACELLULAR MATRIX
 contains collagen and minerals,
including calcium and phosphate
 the ropelike collagen fiber lend flexible
strength to the bone
 the mineral component gives bine
compression (weight-bearing) strength
 most of the minerals in bone is in the
form of calcium phosphate crystals
called hydroxyapatite.

CLASSIFICATION OF BONES
 adult skeleton composed of 206 bones
 two basic type of osseous
a. COMPACT BONE- dense and looks
smooth and homogenous
b. SPONGY BONE – composed of
small needlelike pieces of bine and
lots of open space
SHAPE CLASSIFICATION
 Long bones
o longer than they are wide
o mostly compact bone
o ex. upper and lower limb bones
 Short bones
o approximately as wide as they
are long
o generally cube-shaped
o mostly spongy bine
o ex: bines of the wrist and ankle
 Flat bones
o thin, flattened, usually curved
o ex. skull, ribs, sternum
 irregular bones
o vertebrae, hip bones, facial bone,
which have shapes that do not fit
radically into the other categories
LONG BONE STRUCTURE
 Diaphysis
o shaft
o compact bone tissue dense type
of bine
 Epiphysis
o ends
o spongy bone tissue
 Articular cartilage
o covers epiphyses
o reduces friction
  Epiphyseal plate
 site of growth in between
diaphysis and epiphysis
 Medullary cavity
 center of diaphysis red or yellow
marrow
 Periosteum
 membrane around bone and
outer surface
 Endosteum
 membrane that lines medullary
cavity
BONE MARROW
 Bones contain cavities, such as the
large medullary cavity in the diaphysis,
as well as smaller cavities in the
epiphysis of long bones and in the
interior of other bones
 These spaces are filed with soft tissue
called MARROW
 Red marrow is the location of blood
forming cells
 Yellow marrow is mostly fat
 in new borns, most bines have blood
making red bone marrow
 in adults red marrow in the diaphysis is
replaced by yellow bone marrow
 in adults most red bone marrow is in the
flat bines and long bones of the femur
and humerus
COMPACT BONE TISSUE
 Outer part of diaphysis (long bones) and
thinner surfaces of outer bones
 osteon – structural unit if compact bone
- includes:
a. lamella- rings of bone
matrix
b. lacunae- spaces
between lamella
c. canaliculus – tiny
canals
- transport
nutrients and remove
waste
d. central canal – center
of osteon
- contains blood vessels
e. osteocytes
SPONGY BONE TISSUE (Cancelleous)
 it is located at the epiphysis of long
bones and center of other bones
 it has TRABELULAE in which are
interconnecting rods and spaces that
contain marrow
 it has no osteons
BONE CELLS
 osteoblasts
o responsible for the formation of
bine and the repair and
remodeling of bone
 osteocytes
o cells that maintain bine matrix
and from osteoblasts after bone
matrix has surrounds
 osteoclasts
o contribute to bine repair and
remodeling by removing existing
bone called bone reabsorption
BONE FORMATION
 Ossification is the formation of bine by
osteoblasts
 bone formation that occurs within
connective tissue membranes is called
intramembranous ossification
 bone formation that occurs inside
hyaline cartilage is called endochondral
ossification
 both types of bone formation result in
compact and spongy bone
INTRAMEMBRANEOUS OSSIFICATION
 occurs when osteoblast begin to
produce bone within connective tissue
 occurs primarily in the bones of the skull
 osteoblast line up on the surface of
connective tissue fibers and begin
depositing bone matrix to form
trabeculae
 the process begins in areas called
ossification centers and the trabeculae
radiate out from the centers
 usually, two or more ossification centers
exist in each flat skull bone and mature
skull bones result from fusion of these
centers as they enlarge
 the trabeculae are constantly remodeled
and they may enlarge or be replaced by
compact bone
ENDOCHONDRAL OSSIFICATION
 endochondral bone formation is bone
formation within a cartilage model
 the cartilage model is replaced by bone
 initially formed is a primary
ossification center which is bone
formation in the diaphysis of a long bone
 a secondary ossification center is
bone formation in the epiphysis
STEPS: ENDOCHRONDRAL OSSIFICATION
1. chrondroblasts build a cartilage model,
the chrondroblasts becomes
chrondocytes
2. cartilage model calcifies
3. osteoblasts invade calcified cartilage
and a primary ossification center forms
diaphysis
 4. secondary ossification center form 4. cancellelous bone is slowly
epiphysis remodeled to compact and
5. original cartilage model is almost cancellelous bone
completely ossified and remaining
cartilage is articular cartilage BONE AND CALCIUM HOMEOTASIS
 Bone is a major strong site for calcium
BONE GROWTH IN WIDTH  Movement of calcium in and out of bon
 bone growth occurs by the deposition of helps determine blood levels of calcium
new bone lamellae into existing bone or  Calcium moves into bone as osteoblasts
other connective tissue – build new bone
 as osteoblasts deposit new bone matrix  Calcium moves out of bone as
on the surface of bone s between the osteoclasts- break down bone
periosteum and the existing bone  Calcium homeostasis is maintained by
matrix, the bone increase in width or parathyroid hormone (PTH) and
diameter calcitonin
 this process is called APPOSITIONAL
GROWTH BONE ANATOMICAL TERMS
 Foramen
BONE GROWTH IN LENGTH o Hole (foramen magnum)
 growth in the length of a bone , which is  Fossa
the major source of increase height in o Depression (glenoid fossa)
an individual, occurs in the epiphyseal  Process
plate o Projection (mastoid process)
 this type of bone growth occurs through  Condyle
endochrondral ossification o Smooth, rounded end (occipital
 chrondrocytes increase in number on condyle)
the epiphyseal slide of the epiphyseal  Meats
plate o Canal-like passageway (external
 then the chrondrocytes enlarge and die auditory canal)
 the cartilage matrix becomes calcified  Tubercle
 much of the cartilage that forms around o Lump of bone (greater tubercle)
the enlarged cells is removed by
osteocblasts and the dying
chrondrocytes are replaced by AXIAL SKELETON
osteoblasts  The axial skeleton is compared of the
 the osteoblasts start forming bone by skull, the vertebral column, and the
depositing bone lamellae on the surface thoracic cage.
of the calcified  The skull has 22 bones divided into
 this process produces bone on the those of the braincase and those of the
diaphyseal side of the epiphyseal plate face
 The brain case, which encloses the
BONE REMODELING cranial cavity, consists of 8 bones
Bone remodeling includes:  Facial bones have 14
 removal of existing bone by osteoblasts o 13 of which are solemnly
 deposition of new bone by osteoblasts connected ; only mandible is the
 occurs in all bones movable skull
 responsible for changes in bone shape, o 13 of the facial bones are rather
bones, repairs, adjustment of bone to solidly connected to form the bulk
stress calcium ion regulation of the face
o The mandible, however, forms a
BONE REPAIR freely movable joint with the rest
Broken of the skull
1. bone causes bleeding and a blood o There are also three auditory
clot forms (hematoma formation) ossicles in each middle ear(six
2. callus form which is a fibrous total)
network between 2 fragments (callus CRANIAL BONES
formation)  Frontal bone
3. cartilage models forms first then, o Anterior part of the cranium (1)
osteoblasts enter the callus and form  Parietal bones
cancelleous bone- this continues for o Side and roof of cranium (2)
4-6 weeks after injury (callus  Occipital bones
ossification) o Posterior portion and floor of
cranium (1)
  Temporal bones VERTEBRAL COLUMN
o Inferior to parietal bones on each  The vertebral column, or spine, is the
side of the cranium central axis of the skeleton, extending
o Temporomandibular joint (2) from the base of the skull to slightly past
 Sphenoid bone the end of the pelvis
o Forms part of cranium floor,  In adults, it usually consists of 26
lateral posterior portions of eye individual bones grouped into 5 regions
orbits, lateral portions of cranium  The adult vertebral has four major
anterior to temporal bones (1) curvatures: cervical, thoracic, lumbar,
 Ethmoid bone and sacrococcygeal
o Anterior portion of cranium,  The central region curves anteriorly
including medical surface of eye  The thoracic region curves posteriorly
orbital and roof of nasal cavity  The lumbar region curves anteriorly
o Nasal conchae (1)  The sacral and coccygeal regions
together curves posteriorly
FACIAL BONES
 Maxillae  7 cervical vertebra
o Forms the upper jaw, anterior  12 thoracic vertebra
portion of hand plate, part of  5 lumbar vertebra
lateral walls of nasal cavity, floors  1 sacrum
of eye orbits
 1 coccyx
o Maxillary sinus
 Atlas:
 Palatine bones
o 1st vertebra
o Form posterior portion of hard
o Holds head
palate, lateral wall of nasal cavity
 Axis:
 Zygomatic bones
o 2nd vertebra
o Cheekbones
o Rotator head
o Also form floor and lateral wall of
each eye orbit
FUNCTIONS OF VERTEBRAL COLUMN
 Lacrimal bones
 Supports body weight
o Medial surfaces of eye orbits
 Protects the spinal cord
 Nasal bones
 Allows spinal nerves to exit the spinal
o Form bridge of nose
cord
 Vomer
 Provides a site for muscle attachment
o In midline of nasal cavity
o Forms nasal septum with the  Provides movement of the head and
ethmoid bone trunk
 Inferior nasal conchae
THORACIC CAGE
o Attached to lateral walls of nasal
cavity  Protects vital organs
 Mandible  12 pairs of ribs
o Cover jawbone  Sternum:
o Only movable skull bone o breastbone
 True ribs
o Attach directly to sternum by
PARANASAL SINUSES cartilage
 Several of the bones associate with the  False ribs
nasal cavity have large cavities with o Attach indirectly to sternum by
them, called the Paranasal sinuses cartilage
which open into the nasal cavity  Floating ribs
 The paranasal sinuses are: o Not attach to the sternum
o Frontal
o Ethmoid
o Sphenoid BONES OF THE PECTORAL GIRDLE
o Maxillary  Scapula
o Shoulder blade
HYOID BONE  Clavicle
 The hyoid bone is an unpaired, u- o collarbone
shaped bone that is not part of the skull
and has no direct bony attachment to UPPER LIMB BONES
the skull or any other bones.  Humerus:
 The hyoid bone has the unique o Upper limb
distinction of being this only bone in the  Ulna:
body that does not articulate with o Forearm
another bone
  Radius: FAMILIARIZE SYNOVIAL JOINTS PAGE 140
o forearm FIG 6.41
 Carpals:
o wrist FUNCTIONAL CLASSIFICATION OF JOINTS
 Metacarpals:  Synarthrosis:
o Hand o Non-movable joints
o Examples- skull bone articulation
PELVIC GRIDLE  Amphiarthrosis:
 Where lower limbs attach to the body o Slightly movable joints
 Pelvis: o Examples- between vertebral
o Includes pelvic girdle and coccyx  Diarthrosis:
 Ischium: o Freely movable joint
o Inferior and posterior region o Examples- knee cap, elbow, and
 Ilium: wrist articulation
o Most superior region
 Acetabulum: TYPES OF MOVEMENT
o Hip rocket (joint)  Flexion- bending
 Extension- straightening
LOWER LIMB BONES  Abduction- movement away from
 Femur: midline
o Thigh  Adduction- movement towards the
 Patella: midline
o Knee cap  Pronation-rotation of the forearm with
 Tibia: palms down
o Large lower leg  Supination- rotation of the forearm with
 Fibula: palms up
o Small lower leg  Rotation- movement of a structure
 Tarsal: about the long axis
o Ankle
 Metatarsals: REFER TO P 99 LAB MANUAL FOR MORE
o Foot TYPES OF MOVEMENT
 Phalanges:
o Toes and fingers EFFECTS OF AGING OF THE SKELETAL
SYSTEM AND JOINTS
ARTICULATIONS 1. Decreased collagen production
 Articulations (joints) are where two 2. Loss of bone density
bones come together 3. Degenerative changes
 Joints can be classifies structurally as
fibrous, cartilaginous, or synovial,
according to the major connective tissue
type that binds the bones, together and
whether a fluid-filled joint capsule is
present
 Joints are also be classified in functional
categories according to their degree of
motion as synarthroses,
amphiarthroses, or diarthroses

STRUCTURAL CLASSIFICATION OF
JOINTS
 Fibrous joint:
o United by fibrous connective
tissue
o Subclasses are sutures,
syridesmosis, and gomphoses
 Cartilaginous joint:
o United means of cartilage
o Subclasses are synchondorses
and symphysis
 Synovial:
o Joined by fluid cavity
o Most joints of the appendicular
skeleton