Roark’s Formulas for Stress and Strain WARREN C. YOUNG RICHARD G. BUDYNAS Seventh Edition McGraw-HillMcGraw-Hill Aion her Copa oa’ Formal Sr Sri -7eton [rcnaonl bana! stuns sgt t) McGraw) Edun (AS), fr mice fy Tak sot eeprom nat 9 way Siete ional een et ae Not Ann. © N19 Mop Cong, eA ir ‘Sores Except pane we ed Sts Cop Ato 76, pet ira my berg eb mo [of celine obs ral spam wel eer Sen fn patie Sara ing a et nas mat Tae hoe deta! Ws weak ie Fas Sia Te | Coane ten a mcs le fe Tele Homer acter AGE ces was pee ‘Riuny or complemen of uy vores pied bes. a ihe | Bei ass gon i ent a om ‘lomge ana oof eo hs Ts ca ad Wh ecg Ny i aor ae apg ee, ‘Shyer gel essen gine eee as feta J Accson dee 0995" 20.09 8 OF 06 05 04 03 etnging i Pabion Dats on fle withthe Layo Compe sun oaranasenx Frtin See Contents eI Part 1) Introduction (Chapter 1 Introduction emia Sie Pope, Ui and Carin Cotes Part 2. Facts; Principles; Methods CChoptor 2. Stress and Strain: Important Relationships Shae Son ade Se Sig Be Sr Dorin CChaptor 3. The Behavior of Bodies under Stress aie rece is aera ara, elt stra cat See ete ter Rat ne Etc CChaptor 4 Principles and Analytical Methods Baan of Matin od of Bin, Price pp. ‘ac cg eectne of Cmte germans {Gui Compo! Pret ond eas ing Sn Exo. {Mien dea Remarie oe Cnet Foran ranPetru Ne 0222 se Comente (Chapter 5 Numerical Methods (Chapter 6 Experimental Methods ‘Pst idng Anoka Tie Refeeecs we DON Part 3 Formulas and Examples ‘chapter 7 Tension, Compression, Shear, and Combined Stress eer in Timi Corio), Come Gate Ba ane ‘nor Companan, Spe ey Compe Mem ae Baivunde Pe Sr Se Coe De Sr Lng Cand (Chapter 6 Beams; Flesure of Stolght Bars et ams Comme Ca tly Soe Comp Beams Bitte Sr Tchomet Banton ig Prom Baro ‘is Fanatonematon dae ne arty Ped Spat ‘eon der Smuts Acland Irma ond Beane inabeatn Sed fome Prof Reconea et Beome f a es a ee lt eB Tet Wr Rous A Een Poa Sty Pee Ce [Beugu Unf Boe ates Cah ie Soca Poe ‘itm Saag a Ror Chapter 9 Bending of Curved Beams eter Rice (Chapter 10. Torsion Tec oe tm ree Sasa ee eget Chapter 11 Fat Plates ‘amon Cr ding of ner Te auth Gea ‘Bondar Galan He aco duro Sha mre Hae ‘omni lating of CarPC Pat Ee ‘RaconeDased rg aba fa Bing ae ‘hse Poe mth Straus Bedi Aer of Large Dea Pept is Ps hao Par nt re in 109) 15 20 Chapter 12. Colum ‘ocean aang nts Sis on Pas nde ‘Bie Sade Tn! Rerne, Chapter 13. Shells of Revolution; Pressure Vessels; Pipes Grcemaoarand Grey Ste Stee Thi Sele Puc ad ‘iced Ente rie Marrone Som Onn Sra evn linia Sac Pin tect Seve ron ‘hn Self Rego ner Buonal Parr Dh Slee Fett Thera ‘Chapter 14. Bodies in Contact Undergeing Diet ‘and Shear Stress ing GEST Erk oe ee ‘Chapter 15. Elastic Stebity nr Comins, Duca ncng of Fat and Cat ‘ie nn of Shi ans ree (Chapter 16 Dynamic and Temperature Stresses yan Lig Gara Cnt in Keo tn er ape ope soeben he Reon en (Chapter 17 Stress Concentration Factors ‘Appendix B. Glossar: Detlations ‘Appendix © Composite Materials inte Matra. amined Compt Moir Loninated Index 33 9List of Tables 15 teppei ‘ ES x BS eee Fygeagezase 2 2 8 Bese: Preface to the Seventh Edition format used in the th and sith editions is ontinsed in ‘This format ha boon particulary succeseul when pe ‘menting problem solutions om a programmable eleulstor, or wpe aly, 8 persnal compucer In addition, though not required in Sling this back useeiendly computer setware designed, to ‘napa tho format ofthe tabulations contained herein are avaiable "Phe veventh edition intrmines International Sytem f Unit (SD) sd United States Cortemary Units (USCU) in presenting example Problems Tubulaed concent are in demensinlese form fr cane lone in using ether syeean of units, Desig formals daw fem storks published in the past tpn in the sytem of write ole Dubliehed or quoted ‘Much ofthe changes f the seventh edition ate organizational, such 1 Numbering of equations ures and tables ls nked to the pari ful shapter where uhey appear. In the case of equations, the ction nurber is aso ndiented, making i convenient to leate ‘he euuation, ince action nunbers ar indicted atthe top of exc ‘ld-numbered page In rir eitans, tables were intrsport within the teat of cach ‘lapter. Thit made i difiule to leate « particular tebe and ‘isturied the flow of the txt presentation. In thie citon, all Inumbeced tables aoe listed tthe end of each chapter bebe the ‘lorences (Other changes/adiions included in the eoventh addition are as follows: 1 Pare 1 is an introductian, where Chaptor {provides erminalogy ‘ich a tale properties, nis and conversions anda description of the conten ofthe remaining chapters and appendices, The deintions inconporated in Part 1 of the previous ditions ae retained in the seventh eetion, ani re fond in Appenaix Bae a gloss. 1 Propertos of plane arsine azeleated in Appendix A 1 Composite matrial coverage is expanded, whore an introductory ‘teruesion ie provided in Append C. which presents the nomen- ature susocited with composite materials and. how available ompitersotvare cane employed in conjunction withthe tables ‘ontrned within this book. 1 Sere concentrations ae prosented in Chapter 17 1 Part 2, Chapter 2, i completely revised, providing & more compre hensive and modern presentation of ste ae een transform 1 Experimental Methods. Chapter 6, is expended, presenting more onerageon electra stain gages and providing tables of equations fer commonly used strain gage ests. = Correction terms for mmuieleeat. shall of revolution were presented in the tnt edion. Additional information is provided Br'Chapter 13 of this edition to asset users in tho application of these cormetions ‘The authors wish to acknowledge and canvey their appreciation to thove individuals, plishrs,Sasbtutions, and corporations who have fsverounly given permission eine material tn this an previous ‘Sitione Special ecoaiton goort Beery J. Beonberg and Universal “Techaeal Systems, Ine. who provided the prerenation on composite taterials in Appendin Cy and Dr. Marat Sean for her review of hie work ‘Finally, th authore would especialy hike to thank the many dd cated renders and art of Roars Farmar Stress & Strain, Tis [Sh hone and quite gratifying to corrospond withthe many individuals ‘oho call tention to errors andor convey useful and pratital [ugestons to inconporete fn future iio. Warren C. Young Richard G Buys Preface to the First Edition ‘This hook was written forthe purpose of making aeilable a compa, ‘Heguate sumnary ofthe formulan fa, and principles pertaining) Strength of material Ite atended primarily ase rference bok and ‘eprosnss an atzempt to roet wha is bloved to be a prosent need of the designing enginoce "Tin need rete from the necessity for more accurate methods of strose annipae imposed by the tend of engineering practice, That {ical is toward grester peo! and conplenty of atkins, grenter ‘Spo and diversity of structures and greater seenomy and refinement ‘design, In consequence of surh developments, familiar probleme, fr ‘which appronimate solutions were formerly considered adoquate, Are how fequenty found to require more precise treatment, and any {ons farmiar problem, once of scademi interest onl, have Boome | {reat practical importance, The slvions and data desired are often to fe found only inadvanowd tretins or eatored thrush an extensive Tterature, andthe results are not always presnted In euch frm a0 be mlted tothe requirements of tho engineer T bring together a6 ‘Buch of che material ne is likly to prove generally useful and to Dosen i eavenient form has boun the author's am, "The scope and. management of Use book are indicated by the Contents in Part Tare deine all trms whose exact meaning nigh viherroe notte clear I Part 2 certain snnal general prise Pes ae stata analytical and experimental methods of trece analysis fre brisfy deserved end information concotning the behavior of ‘noterial under stress given, In Part 3 the Behavior of structural ‘ements undet varius candione of lading is Gseussed, and exten ‘See table of formulae for the coleulston of seem, ral, abd Strength are given ‘Boon they are nt believed to serve the parpore of this bok, ecivetons of formulas and dened explanation, sue 42 47e pro prints in textboor, are omitted, but asufelent nur of examplesare ineudad wo tustrate the appleation of the various formal and methods Numerous references to more detailed dimascons ate ven, but for the most part then ar Hated to sources that are generally valabo and no alton hae been made to compile an exhaustive biblioerapy: “That auch a book at this derives almost why from the work of ‘others i eleven, and i isthe authors hope that due acknowl flgment hos buon made af the immediate sources ofall materi here Deesontd. To the publishers and others who. have’ generously Permitted the ws of materia, he wishes to express his thanks, The Helpful ericieme and supgetions of is clleages, Professors E, NatrerM.O. With. 3B. Kommens and K.F Wendt. are gat scknowiedged. A considerable numberof Use table of formulas have bron published from timo to time in Product Engineering andthe opportunity thus aleded for eetcnm and eed of aranement bas ‘oon of ron evancage shouldbe sid tha although every care hes ben taken to r,t woul be overeanguite to hope tat ne bad es Akstction: for any suggestions that readors may make concerning tewded corrections the author wll be raf Raymond J. Roark Part Introduction‘Chapter Introduction “The widespread use of personal computers, which have the poster ts ‘sale problems ata in the past ony on mainframe computer, has {fluenced the tabulated format ofthis book. Computer progracts fr stucrural analysis, employing techniques such asthe fie element rethod, are also svalable for general ure. Thase programs are try power however, ia many caste, ements of sutra systome an feranalyzed quite effectively iniependently withot the need fr aa Saborate Gnite element rode In rome laranoes, Gite element Inds or progam ate veried by comparing thet woltione mith theremulta given in atook such ase Contained within thi bod are Simple, accurate, apd thorough tabulated formulations that can be Sspplind ts tho otras analie of «comprehensive range of sractral Componente “This chapier serves to intro the reader tthe teminoogy ate property unite und conterios, and contents Ue bok 14 Terminology Definitions of terme und throughout the ook cam be funds the sloary in Appendis 8 12 State Properties, Units and Conversions ‘The basic state properties ssacsted with stosesnalis nce the falowing: geometrical properues auch as length, area, volume contol, contr of gravity, abd sooondarea moment fatea moment of ior); material prepertis suchas mace denis, module of lat lily, Ponsa, and thera expansion conical lading proper tie uch a force, moment, and foes distributions. ore per Unit Tenash, fore per unt area, nnd foe per uni lum other peer4 Femur See and Sin towns S11 Uns appropiate me cee 9 rt se Sent ties asccited with lading inchuding eneray, wor, and power: and ‘Gress analjls properties such a defermation, stain. and sess "Too base ystems of unite see amploed in the eld of stress soln Sl unite ond USCU unite? St ents are mosebaged unite ‘hing the Kilogesce (kg), metor (second Grand Kelvin CR) oF {degree Celsius (C) as tho fendamentel units of ass, length Sine, Sind temperature, respectively: Osher Si units, such ax chat used for Inve, the Newson (kpan/=t are denved quantities. USCU units are fore bavad unite ssing the pound free CD, inch Gn) or fat cond (oy end degree Fubronheit CF) su the fundamental units of fore length sini, and eomperatre, respectively. Other USCU site, uch as that sed for sags, Ube ehig bts) or the nameless It ‘Shin. are dvived quantities Table 1 g5tes asting ofthe primary SI ed USGL unite wed for structural sali Certan proixos may be “povoprate depending on th son of Ube quantity. Common prefixes [Rogiven inTuble 1.2 Foresample the modulus of elasily of exrbon Seis apyvonimately 207 a= 207 10! Pe= 201 » 10 Ni. Pre Fixe are normaly with SI units, However, there ane cases were Drees are alto vend with USCU units, Some examples ae the Kp Er 10% pet 10" tin), ip (Lp = 1 Sapoune = 1000 Bt). (Mp (1 Mpa = 10s. ‘Bepending onthe application, diffront unite may be specified Tis important thatthe saat be aware ofall the ipliontions ofthe units tnd mae concston wee of ese, Por example, if you are building = ‘hole! fem a CAD fein whieh the design dimensional units are given “nm, ti unnecessary to change the system of units a to ele the ‘Boel ia unite of. However this example the input force re wet ntrsuction 5 taser? Connon pact From Melita ee See sta ie ‘Newtons, then the output sree wil bein N/mm, which corey [prsuied ar Mba, i inthis example applet moments re to be SpEcied the unite should be Nomon For dlectons inthis example {he modulus of elasticity B should also be specified in MPa and the ‘utp defections wl be in nt “Tone 1.3 presents the conversions fiom USCU units tS units for some commen state propery units For example, 204) = {Giese 10). 10 109) — Gui x 10" Fa = 6895 thx Obviously. the taultiicatio factors fr conversions fom SI to USCU ar simpy the Focipocals ofthe given malpication factors ARE 1, utpeton eters cone rm Teen fom t860 wala inet) a ie n toe Pom enon Bas© om fe Sse and Sn ow 13 Contents ‘The remaining parts ofthe book are a follons, Pan 2: Fats; Prclpes: Methods. "This port desniber important Teltoonshipa aauoisted, with stves and strain, basic, material behavior prneples end analytical methods of the mechanice of ‘teuctural elements and sumerical and wxpainenta tchnigues i ‘hres analy, Pant 2: Formulas and Exampes. This pat contains the many applica {hong aevorated wth the sreat analyse of struotal component ‘opis inetd the following: direct tension, comprenon,ehean, and ‘ombined stress, ending of stright and surved bean tron, Tending fiat place: colunn and snr compression members sells cTrevoluton, pressure vessla, ad pipes dret bearing snd shea Seas elt stag” steeca coneontratsns snd dyoamvc and ‘egpertuve zens, Each chapter contains many tables newciated ‘th most onions f geomet. oading. and boundary conditions for {Taken element type: The dedntion of each term und in table i ‘ompetls described inthe introduction ofthe table Appengices, ‘The fect appendix dele with the propectis ofa iten, The second. appendix provides a glosary of the terminsony ‘rplajed inthe eld of res anaes ‘he references given ins partsular chapter ao always referred to ‘bya, and ee listed nthe end ofeach chapter. Part Facts; Principles; MethodsChapter Stress and Strain: Important Relationships Understanding the physical properties of stress and stein ie proroquisite touting the many’ mcthods and senna structural Inalyis in design. Thi chapter provides the definitions nd ino {et Felationsips of sree and strain 24 Suess Stresis simply dsteited fo onan external or internal surface ‘ot 8 body. To obtain a physical fesling of this idea, consider being fubmergod in water atx particular depth. The Tore” af te water one fecisat his depth isa prssure, whic ea compressive sree aad ot ‘finite umber a “concentrated forces, Other types force distri tions eres) em osurin a liguid or soli. Tensile (pulling vather than Pushing) and ehear (rubbing o aiding) free tibations ca also ‘Consider general sold body Toad as shown n Fig, 2100) Pn _, reapplied concenteated frees and applied surface force dati fons reeporivel: and Rand r are poenble support reaction face fd surtace fore distebutions, eepectivey. To determine the eat of Streee t point @ in the body itis newest to expose w surface ontaningthe point This a dane by making apa slice, of brea, rout the boy intersecting the pone @, Theoret ovis los is arbtrary but iis generally mad ina sonvoniet lane where the state of stress can be detormined easly or where cereain geomet ‘elatons can be uted, Tae fat see strated in Fig. 210) fcbtrarily oriented by tho surface normal «This establishes the 32 plane The external ores onthe remaining body are shown, as well the internal fone (ete) dstcbution aeront he exposed ners)oma ‘Surface containing Q Inthe general ease this istibution wil ot be Uniform along the surface, ahd wil be neither normal nor tangent fo the surface at @, However, tho force distribusion at @ will have feomponents in the normal and tangential directions These compo nea wll be toni orcompressivo and shear sireses, respectively Following aright handed rectangular coordinate syst, the y and = ayes are dafined perpendicular to ad tangential to the orl ‘Examine an infinitesimal aoa OA, = dyAz surrounding Qe shown In Fig. 22(0) The equivalent concentrated force dur 10 the foree Aisteipution noes (his area is AF, whick in general i either formal nor tangential to the surface (Uhe subwerpt © i ned 0 esignate the normal tothe area). The face AF. has components thes, and 2 dretions, which ee labeled AF. OF and AF ‘respectively, at shown tn’ Fg. 2210. Note that the hive sabe wean) Shee ard Sale: np Rttonstips 1 t (aes one tee Panes ene note the dts nor the race an! the tea se the Sehuldrsn of the fre cnipenent. The erage dstbted force fer uni aren verge sre) nthe = rection ah ou ad calling that tes actully» point function, wo ean the act ‘om nth dvetnn at pis @ by sowing, approach m. Tan en Stresses art from the tangential forces AF, and AF, as wel, td sine theee forces are tangeotal, the stresses are scar sirese, Similar f Ba 21-0, oF, aa 12) 2 ex) Tigran hy afr ae12 Forlorn na Stain foun J ve ems Sie comin Since, by definition, «repeesnts a normal stress acting inthe same lzsction asthe corresponding surface normal, debe subscripts are foshndant, nd siandard peace io drop one ofthe subaeipts ad Vwete asa The chee stones existing on the exposed surface at fhe pit ny uetatod together using a single aero vet far each eves ar shown in Fg. 28, However, tia portant to raze tat tho “Srvee arsow repreente sore ditebutan (tress, Lrce por Uni frou and ota cmconteated forse, The best stresees fy 44 ty 906 hectenponent of tho net shear treating onthe arta, where he fet shear sera ie get BS" fon en (oan ‘T deseibe the complete stee of sreas at point @ completly, it would be necessary to examine other surfacee by making ilerent planar alice Since diferent planar shots would neceetate differnt feordinates and diffrent fre-body diagrams, the sreses on each planar surface would be, im general, quite dilfrent Ae a matter of fact, in genera, an infin variety of condition of aormel and shoar ‘Srven exit at a given pint within a stented body. Sl would take a Infaitesimal spherical surface surrounding the point Qo understand fd escrito the complete sate of etreco at the point. Fortunately. {Rtouh the use ofthe meth of sordinat transformation i only Decosnry to know the state of eteor on thre different surface to eerie the state of treason any surfaces method ie doweribed seea "Te thee eurficee are generally select to be mutually perpond ‘olan and ae ilketetd in Fig 2.4 using the ros aubserpt notation TT yb ad at thy to samen ea vee 22) ‘Sees and Senn: mgetanRttonanns 13 ene 24, Sema onthe than sates lor define, This state of stress can be written in mates for, Shah Boz amtnolineen b wae [Se 4 3] a Except for extremely ate oases, cam he shown that adjacent shear steeson ate equ, Tht $5 Sy f= Gye BM Tg Fay TE Stross mate ymmetee and writen x oe [é a 3] 219 Pane tres, There are many practic! problome where the stresses nove direction are seo. Ts etscion eafreed to az care of plane se Arata selecting the 7 diresion fo be atrese‘roe wth sre, aes, th an fow ta eoum ofthe sere marten Se UlRinatt and testes mates writen ee = les s] arn and Ua corrponding stress lament, viewed threedimensonely and down the 2 wx is shown in ig 25 22 Straln andthe Siress-Strain Relations [As with stcees wo eyes of strains exit: normal and bear strains ‘which are denoted by cand ,rnpectively- Normal stein isthe rate of ‘Change ofthe length ofthe sean sloment in a particular directo,14 Forme for Sree Sean town Paomnt Pane ste ‘Sho strain iu measure he distortion of the sree element, nd hus too dofinitions: the engineering hea strain and the lati shear strain. Here, we wll une the former, more papular, dein, Fowever x diecueson of the telaton of the two debtens wil be Dprotided in Se 24.'The engineering thos stain it defined tthe ‘hangein tho ener angle af the stves cube in adene Nomalstrnin._ itll consider only ene normal stress e, applied to fcleent ae shows st Fig 2.6, Wevwe that te alomont inereages in length'in'the x teetion and deranses in lent ip the y and > ‘Giections. The dimenstnler rate of erence in ength ie dined the normal sain, where rst, and ,repecen the normal tains it e231 ‘ess an Sra: important Reotonsps 15 ‘the x 3, and s diretions respneivly Thus, the new lngt in ans ‘retide equal to te crapinal lenge pls the Tate of ineresse {normal strin) times ts rina length, That i, Avadrtnde AY =Ay tty, APA Artes B24) “Thor ie eet relationship otwoen strain and srw. Hooke ow forn linea, homogenen,intopi material Isp thatthe noemal ‘Mos is diectly propntonal ta Use moval stress, and i given by 2229) e220) = Hee—wet oy) e225 whore the material constants, F and , are the modulus of elasticity [alsoveerred tome Youns's meus and Poisson’ ratio, respectively. ‘Type values ef ands fr some materials are given ih Table 21 the end ofthis chapter. the tains in ge (22-2) are know, the steeses camo solv for sSmultancoualy to obtain z w= qeR Mette) ante “= Tema a 229%) smaacmlimeweted e280 E “ ne Hes 280 ATER tte B80) For plane ates, with ¢, ~0, Bae. 2.22} and (2.23) become (2248) ena) e240)16 Formals tor Sess and Svan town snd 2s e289 ‘Sher rain. The change in shape ofthe element caused bythe she [Snveco can be fit ilustated by examining he eflee uf alone Shown n Fg. 2.7. The engineering hear strain 7 6a meats oth Slewing of he treseed cement fom a tetanglae pavalllemped. Fig 2.10) the sheer ctain ie defined ae the change fn the ange BAD. ty = BAD ~ LBA’ whore oi dimensionless radians For «linear. homogeneous, botropie material the shear atrina in| shes on nde pan ae tryst the abr snes od eats) meg 226%) a e269 where the material cnstant, G, i called the shear modulus se23) ‘San an Sin: portant Relonsips 17 I can be shown that for linear, homogeneous, stropic material ‘the shear module related to Punson’s ratio y Me. 1) & aH ean 120. Stress Traneformations ‘As wae stated in Sec. 21, knowing the state of stro on throe ‘mutually orthogonal sdaccx at » pnt ina strctare se sult © Itonrate the sate of sets for gnysurtaco at the pont. This i complished cough the ite of coordinate transformations The ‘evelopment ofthe transformation equations ix quite lengthy and i fot provided here (ee Ret 1). Cansider the clement shown in Pi ‘2NG). where the strestn om surfacoe with normals in the =» apd = irctions are know and ave represented by the sires matrix win | 2 3] ey Now snsider the element, sho in Fig 2.8) 0 cetespond othe NiedFleeseerbacsane inrbu lobed ele oe arnt scat ‘Nite sorms he, sand dation Teen te ‘Strconting to tis ment even by Vee [% fe #] esa ‘deerme (ea certinte wsomsin, woe odgStoaa stone eosin Teme atte ah Sturm dete tncon ees Pest ‘ire lt seta tear aed th ce Grune cron es tntan Sse y Sng Pe teh dashcon ne 29am eee te Fem eattee — me eles. coil, (28-0) Similarly the ¥ and axes cam be define by the angles ye. yy bed Dey am Fospecively, ith corresponding directional caine Hy, 284) 08s My = OEDzy. Me EOHy (28S)12 Forma or Sos nd Sao foun a ‘ +, eh a e vre28 The eer a po gern codon, ean be shown that the transformation state ee te m-[f & 5] aso seam ‘See and Sua: Inport Rltonips 8 ee 8 Coane ean transform a vctor given in x2 coordinates, [Vin 08 vector in x2 ‘Shurdinacee, (Vlore the matrix mulation Mieye = MV ine es Furthermore, it ean be shown eat th sanaformaticn equation frche ‘ross mati given by (ee Ret 1) (ese = Me esa ‘where [Tie the tramspote of the transformation mate), which i ‘Snply a interchange of rower and alums. That i bob ok ow [fe my me} aso ‘ie see ensbmaton by £5, (239) ca be pent ey ein ting eum preter must tare Des ferthe Ana snes wate mn One ete ete SEU/E Senecio iy ee af twine ators Iie ial conte com able 2 teem oe ‘Sipe cvs nto as i‘81 Format or Sues and Sin owe AMPLE, ‘Theme of stg at point elatve to an corintesetem eee by toee=[ 08 4 MPa Dvtrmine the ate of ceo a sleet eters by fst retin Toigs sue 4 aout thr uc apd hen mtatig the reting exer 90 Solutlon. The rurace normals can te fund by a sre of cordate ‘Stnsbtmatnes for sch ation. Fram B 1), he vor components {ert ain erste by BSH show in Be 2300), an8 "To lat ratio naan the coornt {Ea are lated ote syn ooaigts by (SNe) ° HE sal o gk | ste cate = | © Savane —exdsing ce ” ¥ * y ° 0 4 * we (0 Pin 0) Seat rewenie 0.23) ‘Sats nd Sta: poral Rtenhpe 2 uation (in of the of 23-7, Th, the ransom nari i m=[-sine tite wee] ™ ‘he anepne of (Tie 2 8 mai|ana ve va o 2 Os. From Be 298, wees iiss 2ftlas ve -v ve -anallea sJ"Lo 2 Saar ye tg ‘Tic matic metipcaon cane peroemedsmps wng eter «compe ‘pease cr athematal sare, see meee HE de] ‘Sressns ona Single Sure. If one was concerned about the state of eee on one pavticnar sure a complete sees transformation ‘would be sinnacestry. Let the Sivestona cosines for the normal ‘he surface be piven hy Um, ad'm It canbe shown thatthe nore freer onthe sirface is gives by emo bog sagt? 25m 3h Pinal (2-10) and the not shear stress on the surface ie ods ngm-t ean + alter ba = es12 Foote for Svea an Sate foun “The direction of: ie entablsed by the drwetinaleoines Nope sgn ttl ade +6, —em4 eH} aay mee Heate sum tle) EXAMPLE ‘Theat stress a pte pit relate toto cnn estan x [ 1 J vos Demi these nd sea seo x uc a he pit wee te Desa GST ate dey natn ewe t line aad ves the ttn fx, ad’ ferme ‘Roto feb planes tbe istonl meg are, nl Toe ‘Spc une fe rales re ye ried by (Ca 4m = VTL Te feaVH, m=-INT, a= 3VTE From th tose mate 2,= 18, 0 and a, ypet Subavatng ihe scebes'and senna ene ind Ba: 3105 = a/Y TI 610-1070 + SVT aN 404/90 9) + 20-149) = 182 ‘shear trons teenie rom Ba 2330 andi clue TO +14 -naNTaE 4 14)V TH+ 10-1) OKSV TOE (Byes OKT yang = reas ape e235) ‘sues and Sine port Rettonanipe 23 From Hy (2:12, the ietional ois e the dri af ae gay T+ T/T +748) = 087 smn agOleN + 0— EIT ONO * +085 19201074 = dag NANT +0K-1N1 meno sero 20 the treat tate an be weiten a8 won=[% 5] ann . se (oi et (Tord et(24 Formutes tor Stress and Strain towne snd ele] ane Singo the plane stress matrices are 22, dhe transformation matic ‘nd its anspose azo written a5 m= [ tio Stak m= [So Se] est Equione (22-1312 8-5) can then be subatitted into By, (23.8 t0| perfurm the desied transformation The resis, writen in lag had form, woul be 5, =6,0088 4, sin8O+ 26 e008 sin ay = o8in80 4,00 Dog consin toy Sle, een dens8 + safes ain) the state of sree ig desired on single surface with normal rotated # counterclockwise from the ain the fist nd thin! aus fons of Bq. (216) can be used ae given. However, ating trgyn0- Incr identities, the equations san be writin lightly different five. Lating oan epneset the desired normal shen stecsos on the surface, dhe equations are ean auntns (23:7 ene wat of prune auton sie in senerllydiseused in standard mechanics of materials textbook, ‘Ths wares primarily esa teaching ol and ads ite applications, 1 wll not be represented here (ve Rel. fre Sean, tn general maxims and mim vale ofthe ‘hese strates, ‘whith are eetlly the egenvaluer af thr erent rat are called the principal siessee Three principal stenses [nist Ftp and, where they ace commonly odere sy > oy wea ‘Stree an Sin: rts Reltonsbios 25 Considering the etoss state given by the mates of Bq. (28-1) 0 bo ‘own, the principal stress are related tothe given sree by (6.~ 0p to + tay aly + ey Om hy aly ey Hee ey 2808) ect Ie my and ny are the dretionleasnes of th normals to the surfaced coaining the prinepal streses, One ponble soltion to Bas. 28-18) inf, =m my =O However thi cannot oecu,snce Boman esi) ‘To ava tho zor solution ofthe directional cosines of Bs. (2-18) he determinant of the cootlentsf lm, and ny nthe equation ie! to sr. This mals the sation tthe dinetonal comune adetorminate fom Hage (23:18) Thun, 99) Expanding the dterninan yells Bolo te, anh ~te.0e + Bhan Ghat ~ et) Howe, +056,4 69%. ea Hy vo aaa0, where Bq, (2:20) is ¢ cubic equation yieking the three principal Bremen 2 fad o ‘To determine the ditetional cosines fr specie principal stress. the sre ie subsite into Bye (2-1. Tho tvs realty sun tions in the unknowns fm, and my sll not be indepen ence ‘hey ware used to obtain the principal srs Thus, ony two of Ege (2.818) can bo used. However the secondarder fy (2°19) ean be ‘aud asthe thd equation forthe tare derionl coats, Ineea of solving one second-order and two linear equations mately, ‘Simplified method is demonstrated inthe fllaving example Sig emhrcots sas See a“28 Foemutas for Sess and Strain ome, 2 AMPLE, For the flowing cross mati, dotermine the peinipalstencue sa the Sn ie tal ih te smi ie rs wh elution, Subtiuing = 2.ty eE-19+04 01} +1840) + (0) HOV) 2" 18-8 p 040 + BRIANNE" (O14 = (O12 =B ih singin ‘Pe slips wo ee cabieeqton aro, = 4 and PMP Fawn the ‘Severna rdrne tpl ins aed wih wach pinpal esa daturmined inp it cnr an sais) = 4M Bae 31. Aytm en ao ® atm sm © ham tno @ re estat eras wi ha of "Euan (6 ean aren ne lndpentet snc ty were edo eine te a Only to deere quate sa ney ‘eth empl, any tn othe show a be toed Canter Ee) and “hs re nopendent Ato equation comes fn bq hth Si mad Reber svig the enon sue ‘else Be (Ode Raseranging ee 23) ‘Stree a Sittin: Important Resstonanips 27 doting thee siuttancusy gt my =n = Tha vlan f hmoand Goat caer bq (239, However, iat emmy to mallet hig i ie =v Th” hxc’ mintiantve memerl = re Repeating the ame proce far y= LMP a i havi m so or oy 2MPe “Gi me vivs a2 bee mei ye ewo ofthe principal streses ar equal. thor wll ext a infinite set of trlace containing Une principal esse, where the ails of thee surfaces are perpendesla tothe direction ofthe third principal ‘tres, Ill thre pincpal seca are equa a Ayrostate state of Stroos eaats, and regardless uf erentation, all wurfaces contain the ‘nme principal ren with no shear stress Principal Srsees, Plane Stas. Considering the sros elomont shown {nFig 2.11, tho aerate om the stlace wits aroa ne > ‘ettion ase tro Tus, he novel sree y = 03a iptv stress, ‘The directions ofthe remaining two principal steno wl nth plane IT =0in Fig. 21(0 then 9, would bea prinepal treat. oy Init = ded eng inden ng Fortis cas oly ee Bret ue GTB 25-8) apply and are 2,)08 + tysind =0 wom sqe080 He, ~2p)sind = 0 ‘As befor, wo eliminate the trivial solution of Has. (23421) by setting te doterinsat of tho eouficints ofthe directional connor to tra That Le nea 1 NG, ~ 99) — nates stein —d)=0 20 eva thi oppo, emp Fepen th apron etng ie myo equ syEquation (22-22) is qundrtie equation in cp for whith the evo sakitions re YorneleraFra] — ass Since for sane stress one ofthe principal stresses) is alays seo, hhunberingf the stresses (> oy 2 4) cannot be performed untl Ea (2.3.25) tole, ach slution of Bq. (28:28) ean then be substituted into one of Eas (25521) b dering the direction of he principal stax Note that i frne, and og =, then ¢, and 9 are principal tresses and Ear. (2-21) are saluted forall values of & This means that all stresses in. the plane af analysis ae equal sd the tate a teas atthe point = [stron inte pane trae the princi rues fra cs oi lane sss given by he Mr “ vte[S af] ‘Stow the element conisining the pnp stanes properly onntd with [ape teenie conrdinte eas = Solution, Frm de strose sti es =5, 222 gine andy = tg and Ba » wafers (ean aca =a, Ses ‘Th he tre pina eso 6,6, ar (1,3, Ope comet Fen li TR te oe eh loa ent, + ryt =(8~ con A) 0 a, =taet(-S} =e ow fo he thr pri te: SX the at of Bas. (2.8.2 es te. e,)080 023) ‘sees and Sains important Reatoranps 20 [ I jini \ : ex ~exr ioe ON woe (ovat on 0 Tt st oti rte rroretst Pane se rep igre 2130 Daten the nil tse of ara when 5 Aen i ee a Maximum Shots Stessen_ Consider thatthe principal stesso for | fener sees stave tave buon deternined weng the methods ust ‘Eeribed and ave iluctvatad by fig. 213" The 138 axes represent the ‘tvs or the principal suracen with dvetonal cosine determined (yrBge ta) and (219) Vewne down = pemcipal wees nat (gu the 3 ani) and performing a plane stress transformation inthe [lave normale atx (eg, the 2 plane), ene would find thatthe [fear strens ist mmamam on susfaces nf" om the cwo principal Secon in that plane (ee yen theme surface, the maxim Shear stecs would be one-half the diference ofthe principal stresses ieescgee= toy 2,021 and wil also havea normal ters aqua othe Kfar the prinapal sresoe fogs tug (ort oa)2) Mew Slane’ the three peinsial ater would secu in Whvoe shear seat20 Formule or Sess na Stan town maxims, sometimes referred to asthe principal shear stresses, Those ess torether ith thir asampanving normal steess Plame 1,2 (raahs=(01~ 60% Plane 2, 8 (yonha = (65 ~ 60/2 Planet. 8 Granhs=(61- 60/2 Chawla +20/2 52h Since conventional practice is to order Ube principal stresses ty fy 3 2y 2, the ingest shear stose of al is given by the third of es. (5:24) and willbe repented hore for empha oa 064 ~ 0002 2325) nah pov sample principal see forthe steer matt wnie[2 Gt] os 9) = (5.3. kp The eenation of he sae ‘Soinsng the pcp tees was son fig 21200, whe ma {fess ral tse pgs Decarmpete gaat hen tee So wi a om fd he normed element containing be ermine by ray and at he nice Sa ih the aetna find trough re he 133 le eee = [pss oa It | © 023) (View A ee wodinenionl efimaton ot en Po teahon ea Se 76 ge 24 Mae er mim hse cuatro uation of 45 athe rman the’ drction shot ar? EME! SIE TERE HCE ay fe 3 SE52 Forms fr Seas od tao tenn ‘he retina coins fo Hg 124) ze there (ee eRe i 22) "The theese containing the main hear scent can tefaundsimaty ‘wt fra chee ration 15 fr he see ata, 24 Strain Transtormations ‘Toe equations (or stain transformations are Mental to howe for trees traneormations Homever the engineering srins define in "22 ul ot wansiorm, Transformations can be performed if Ue shea tain in odie All fe equations for the stron rancor $onsean be employed simply by replacing and cin the equations bye land 7/2 (sing the same subscripts). respectively. Thus or example, ‘he equacine fo pane stems, Bas, (2.316) can be written for a te eet a0 yy ons 5 ep» a, the mio shear ses 37e9| by Oe; —) (eee See 2.8, Ey 33.25. The maximum shear sree tamed when the tensile specimen yield i O15. ry. Thum the “anion or elas aur forthe taxiteshearstese thee’ ist be rs) ‘The erteri jst disewsedconcor the elas filore of material ‘Sueh ulus nay ooo locally in a member and may doo ea dang if he volume of material afctd i so ama eo losted a to ave LESS eRe tented stn rh pa (254) oa wean Tre Genre une Sessa only negligible influence on the form and stength ofthe member 36 | ‘bole: Whether nr not sich lea overstesing i ignifiat depends| ‘upon the properties of the material and the condition of eric, Fetigue propertce, rstance to impact and mania! fonction, azemuch more likely tobe affected than state steengt, ana degre Iooal overstressing that would consttite faire {na high-speed ‘machine pare might beef n consequence whatever na bridge meme "Abrite material cannot be considered to have defintely failed wa ‘thas broken, which an oour ether cough a teeie facture, wen the maximum tal stress reaches the vlimat trongth o hiroveh what appears to bea shear fracture, when the maximum compressive ‘oven reaches a ertain vale Th fractre ours on ane oblige tele maximum compressive slzces but ac, ron om the pa | ‘asim shear stress and wot cannot be considered tobe porly hear failure (so Rf 14), The results of some tests on gst end Batalite Qt. 28) indicate that for those brite material ther the maximum ste or the maximum strain theory alors a satifetry rterion of eupture whe nether the mesimum shes stoss nor the ‘constant energy af distortion theory docs, Those tats alia indeate that rrenath increases sith rate of tess apples ad that the Increase a more marked when the leation ofthe matt reat sone changes during tho loading Qeessure of sphare on «fat surface) than when tha sone e xed (aa tense “Another fure theory thats applicale to betle material the CCoulimb-Mobr theory of foslare rile matrias hacen compressive stengths oy, geater thin ther altinate tensile Steengths oy, and therefore both a ‘wo draw on a single pot bth Mehr stress cele forthe tna est at {he instant of flare and Mol tress ec for the compressive test atthe instantof allure then we complete a future envelope simply by Arawing a pai of eangent lines othe tws close shown nF 3 allure under «complex ste sivation is expected the aren of the three Mohr cirles for the given sation touches pe extands ‘aide the envelope jut described. I all ortal seas are ceil the results cvinie withthe minim stress theory For «condiion nee th then pencil sess are JZ, ya oven in Fi 32 fllre to being eppeoached It wil ot take place wnlese the ‘dashed circle passa through ey and a reaches he fale nla "The accurata prodicion of the bresking strength of a enember compose of brittle metal requires a noledge of the ella of form ‘and cal, and Use elles ae exprsaed by the rupture fctr ace See. S11), Ip addition, what has been said here concerning rile ‘tals applies slap to any essentially ieaeopc brie material. ‘Puus fay cur dacuesen of file haben limited sotropi materials. For wood, which is diatnely anisotrpi the pani offuture in each of several ways and divections mast be taken into ‘account, viz: (2) by tension parallel tO the grain, which eaves Tracure(2}by tension traverse to the grat, which cates facture: (Gi by shear parle to the grain, which ceuses fxeture: (0) by ‘ommpreesion pale to the gran, which equsee gradual buckliag of {he ers usualy accompanied Uy aber deplacement on an aiseue plane, (8) by compression traneverse to the grain, which causes Sulbelaat deformation to make the patt unfit for service. The it ‘re producing each of Weve types of falure mast be aecertaaed by tale tees 2) “Atother anlar cane of material of consequence is that of the ‘composites I ie wll Enown that composite members te Sec. 7.8, 182: und Appendix C), auch as tel retored conerete bears, ore ‘ectvely tlie the more expensive, higher strength materials highatrete areas andthe less expensive lowerstrength materials in tho low stress arets.Componice materiale nach the ane eet it mirortracturel and macrostructual levels. Composite materiale Sime in many forme, but ace geneelly fonmalaed by embedding Foinforcoment material in the form of bers, Makes. patcles, or Teminstions in randomly or orderly arentd fashion within base tats of polymeric. metallic, or cerambe material. Far mare deta] properties of composites, eo Re. 6. 38 Fatigue Practically ll materiale will break under numerous repetitions of x ‘roe that sot as great asthe strossroqulred to produce immediate zuplure. Tis phenomenon is known as ft. 038) “The Behavior of Bodies under Sirens 47 ‘Over the past 100 years the fete af eurfac condition earracin, temperature, ec on fatigue properties have been well daunted tht only in recent years a the mieoson ese of fia damage Tren attibated to cyte plate Row in theater at the source a {nlgue crack rack ntiaton) oat the pa an exeting etigue crack (Crack propagation Hel. The develorent cf extremely sonsisee fxtensometers has permitted the seperation of laste and plastic {rains when tstng lly iaded specimen over ort ge eth ‘With this instrumentation iis poosble tn determine whether exli Ioadine is accompanied by signifeanteclic pase strain and 8, ‘vhelheethe oie patie strain continues at the same eve, increaee, Ur decreases Sandor Rel. 4) discusses this instrumentation end ‘oo neta. Ts isnot fessibletorsproduee here vena smal portion ofthe Satine ata avilable for various enginwering materials Ue reader should Consult, materials handbooks, manulsetrers erature design Tana and texts on fatigue, Sea Ref 44 to 48, Some of tho more important factors gveening fatigue behavior in general will he ‘uined inthe flowing materi. ume of eyees to ature Mort data concerning the numberof eee teaie ar presated in he form of ax 8-1 curve where the elie ‘oose amplitude i plstod vers the nur of eles tale, This tenerlly leads to straight-line log-log ple if we acount for the acter in the date For ferrnas metals lower ini exitoon tho sross fmplitude and sx called the fatigue Knit, or endurance limit. This fenerallyocers ie of fom 10° to 10" evan of reversed ste, End'we tooume tht sresee below tht int wil not eaux fare eyarlons of te numer ef rpetitions, With the abbey to aeoarate ‘istic and plastic strsine accurately there are instances when tot Uf plasicadrain ampitides versus N and sasieatenn ampules ‘orate AN wil roveal more useel information (Rafe 48 and 4). Mund of loading and size of specimen. Uninial ress can be [raced by anil lowd, bending, oF » combination af oth. 19 Nat Fate bending only the upper and lowes surfaces ave eubjcted to the fall ange ofc atveas Tn rotting bonding, al surface layers ae tiularyeroeed, bot om seal loading the entire crows section = Suipected to the same average sos Since fatigue properties of | Tuaterildepond upon the sateen distsbution a defact theoughont the specimen, ie apparone thatthe theee methods of lading will ‘radi diferent rel int sina wy, the sie of « bending aperimen will alle the fatigue behavior while i wil have hte elfect an an sally Tooded6 Formal tr Se Sin tomna specimen. Several empirical formulas have been propoed a represent the ince of sie on a rsehine part or tet apecen in bending For stesl Mote (Re. 38 suggests the equation 0228 on -825 where isthe endurance limit for e specimen of ameter and ia the endurance limit for «specimen of ameter Tae formule wae base un teat resus obtained with specimens from 1.125 t0 L875 Schoen diemeter and shows good agrcrnet within that size range, Obviously it cannot be use for podieting the endurance limit of very sll specimens. The few eelotsnt tere reite availabe indent 9 Considerable decrease in endurance lit for very large ames (ea 22-20, ‘Stees concntatins. Fatigue files casur teteat loves lar than ‘hose necessary to produce the gross yielding which would bluwt the ‘Sharp rine sn rere en sees concentration, ie necesaty, hare, {apply the fougue steengthe of smooth specimen #9 the peak ‘Hrcanes expected the sewer concentrations unless the sae of he ‘Rreo-concenteting notch or filet proaches the grein si oF the five ofan antpated daft in the material ill ace Factor of ress Concentration in fatiguein Se. 10) fafereneee AD and 4 seer he sift of notches on wey fatigue Surace condions, Surface roughness constitutes a kind of stress finer: Dicussion of the efeetof santas coatings and platings i= Beyond the soope of thi hae eee Rafe. 28 and 36, Corrosion faigue. Under the simultaneous action of corasion and peatod strom the fitigue strengh of most metals Is drastically ‘lune, smetines toa emall faction of thn atrngh in ai, ws {rue entrance limit can no longer bo said wo exist Liquide and gases otordinaily thought ef ar eperally onde to corrosion sil often havo a vorydsfterou effet on fatigue properties. and resistance ta {exreson i sore cnportant than normal igus strength in deter Ing the eltive rating of diferent metals (a. 24,25, ad 3), Range of areee, Stresing s ductile material Beyond the elastic init ‘rie print in tension wal raise the elatc limit for eubeequent fel but lower the elastic im for compression. The consequence of thie Baoschinger effet on fatigue is apparent i one accepts the atoms thet fsiguo damage laa result of ejlie pasie Row i woah The Sar Bon wc Sees sat 095 (ten) rovene ia! ifthe range of plc ste i reduced acon higher peak stensee ‘cn be acceptod without efferingconcinuing damage. ‘Varsous epiricl formulas for he endrenee ini corresponding to ny given range of stron arintion have been suggested the mest enorally accepted of which expested by’ the Goodman diagram o ome modifeation thereof Figure 83 shows one method of construct ing thie Siagram, In exch eye. the strens varie fom masini ‘al tg, t 4 miims vale Gag thor of which eps oF mis "ordi whether ite tensile or compressive. The man stress es Hem ~in) {he addition and subtraction bring algebraic. With ference tn retan ular asen ys meaurod hargontally and g, vertical Obwsly tthen ay. 0 the ling ele of cy i the endurance iit for ly Teversed stron dennted hare bye When og = 0, te imting value of a ethe limite tonal strength dened hereby a Pinte A and oh tho neon ae thu ote ‘Aeneding to the Goodman theory, the ordinate to point on the straight line AB reposerte the massmum elternating stress that ‘an bo impned in conjunction with the corespondine mean ses ‘Any pant above AB represents a stress condition that would eve {val cus faues any prin lowe AB rprement sees cordon ‘vith more or lan surgi af raft A more conservative cnstrution, faggot by Soderberg (Re 15) ie to move point B hick #0 On the pield sttength. Ales conmarestive But tmsetimen preferred ‘onstetion, proposed by Gerber ont replace Ue straight line by the parabola20° Fools for Sead San tows The Goedouin diggrims described can be used for ste] and for sium and Gtaniam alos, for cast ion tay test reall Tow the atnight ine AB and the lower curved line, suggested by Smith (Ret 21) ls prefered. Tat resules for magnetar alloys aes oimetimes fl below the straight Hine Figure 82 repraenia conditions where ¢q is tensile, 1 om is omprosive, gy increased and for values of am lets Usin the fempresion sild strength, the relationship ie eprteented approx ‘nately by the straigh fine Al extended the it wth the same lope. When the mean stress and alternating stress re both torso, fis peacbclly constant unt, exerade the seldstength in thea find fr alternating bending combined vith monn torsion, the sane thing steve But when stelle and, se tarvona, diminishes ‘etm increases in mow the manner roprvented by the Goodman Tine"When stese concontratin te to be teem into accu, the atepted practice i to apply Ky (or Kf Kismat known) to 2, ly, ot € eg te Ky and Ki, nee See 3.10) Residual staas. Since residual strets, whither deliberately into ‘heed or merely lef ove rom manurring provers, wil iBuence te mun sites, ther effects can be neooented for. One sbotld be ‘atta however, otto expec he bestia llc fx endl eros if Guring the expeced life o « suture it will encounter everonde sutcont to change the revsdga-stres distebution. Sandor ka 1) iassce thie im detail nnd points aut that a cccaional gveriond Iight be boreal in some came. ‘The several mofed forms ofthe Goodman dlagram ate ane for predicting te serest levels whieh weil form cracks, Dt ether tote fxiesive plots suchas the Haigh diagram Get 48) can be used predic nadeition tho strss levels fr wich eva eee fred ml cave, fatigue lives, ee Combined stress. No one of the dhores of faire in See. 27 can be lied to ll fatigue fading conditions. Tho masimam:ditortion: ‘nergy Diary seems to be canscrvative sn most cates, howevet ference 18 gives detailed description of an ncepable procedure ‘or designing for fatigue under conitons of combined stress. The precede described also considers the elect of mean tress on the ele sre range, Three eter for fallure are dlecused grows Jining, Fak initiation, and erack propagation. An extensive discus ‘Son of fatigue under combined sre ound in Re 2, 3 and 6 ‘tess isto. A very important question andl ane that has been given such attention i the infuence of previa wiresing te fatigue stevogth, One theory that has hacer aeepeane ist linear damage tw (Miner in Rf. 27); here the vento i te ‘hatte damage produce by repented essing at way levels diets Dreporinal tthe number of eels. This the number of cele racing failure (100% damage) at acres range oy J6 thon the Proportional damage produced hy NV eydes ofthe sont N/a ‘Streoing at various tras levels for varsoos numer of eles es tumelative damage equal to the sumnation of sach factional Flues Fallre occur, therclare, when 27, = 1-Toe arma impbes hat the eet of «given number al cies the same, whether they are ‘pplnd continuity or intermitnty; al dw ne tk Sto acco the fact that for some metal snderstessing (sensing eo the fndurance limit) raises the endurance mit. "The finest damage Iss {Shot reliable forall steer conditions end various suafietione have tam proposed, rich tr replacing Tin the formu by wun» twhowe numerical vale, either more or leet than uniyy must be Metermined experimental. Attempts have bewn made fo devsp beter theory (eq, Coreen and Dolan, Freudethsl nd Gumbel Bet, 22), Though all the several cheores are of valve when viel Ienowledgeabls docs not appear that a= st any generals rafihle ‘method is available for proditing the fe ofa sees part under ‘arabe or random loading. (See Refs 18 and 88) See Rel 48 und 46 Tern more detailed dieussion “A modieation of he fl stan gage called an SN fou Life ee (ef 38 and 13) measures arcumutatd plate deformation sth form ofa permanent change in rerstano A given total chan resianee an be correlated with the damage necessary to cause fasgue Ine in piven mata 39) Brite Fracture rite fracture is «tem applied to an unexpected brite fire of | ‘material sich ae lowcntbon stel whore lange plastic strains are ‘telly noted before actual separation of the part. Mair studi of Brite tactue started when fllues sch those of welded she ‘persting in cold sons ld tn teach forthe fect of tempers OF the mode offalure, For« idle fracture to take place te materia rst be subjected to-a tele stress a loation where crack or Der very sharp notch or delet ix presenta the temperate | be ewer th the socalled tration lempertars. 9 determine & transition temperature fora given material a series of matched spc mone js est under impact loading. each aa diferent temporatre Sod the ductility or Ue energy requzed ta cause factre t notes ‘Thore wil bea limited range of tomperatures over which the ductitsfeasted specimens wil show tht the material at the root of the notch has feed te contrac Itorally, Where the facture enoray is Tange, there or evdence of lrg lterl contraction: and where the flacoure energy ie nna the lateral contracon i eaventially aro ‘ll snaee the ler contraction i= ressed by the aebacent Tose Sirestedouleral The decper and sharper cracks have relatively ore material to reset lateral contraction, Thieker specimens have {greater dutence over which to build up the necemary tiara tensile ‘rents that lend toate fllure without peoducing enough thea Sees to cause yielding. Thus, the tam transition tomperatue is ‘somewhat relative singe it depends upon noch geometry as well aE Spurinen sae and ehape. Since yelling ‘sew plonomenta, ifs fpparent that rate of loading ip also important. State loading of {hticentintansity may atrt'a betel facto, hui ean conn Under much ower sve leels ong ta the higher rat of lading “The ensuing research inthe ldo fracture mechanics has ed tho development of tots acceptable tories and experimental techniques, the dcusson of which ie boyond the acopoo this bok. User should ‘samine Refs, 4958 for information an for extenrive bibliographies 230 Suess Concentration ‘Toe datribution olan stress areas the section ofa member mabe ‘oralnally uniform or may vaey in some regular manner aeiustated ly the linea dstsbution of stress in fenare When the vrai ie sbrupt so that within « very shore distance the intensity of str tncrease gently the condition is decribed a stress concentration. Tt fe usually te to lea repulse for such aa small Rote sre threads, seatchee, and similar sre riers, There ie obviouly no hard and fast ine ef demarcation botworn the rapid vavation of strers ‘brought shout by a ete raier and the variation thet sears in ouch ‘embers an sharply carved beams, bitin genera te ert sre ‘oncentation imple ome farm of irepularity nat inherent in he tmomber as such but acldentl tal marks} or introduced for some $ecial purpose bee thre). "The mesma intensity of elastic st2ees produeod by many of the common lind of sree raisers a be necertaned By mathemati ‘analyte. photoslstic enalvas, or drwt strain meamurement an St toually expressed ty the stress concentration factor, This torn ix fefned ia Appendix B bu ite moaning mey be made clearer by an ‘sample, Consider a straight rectangular beam, orginally of uniform breadth bd dep D which bas he cut eros the lower face ae sharp transeere Vnath of uniform dpih h, making the net depth of {he beam action at that pit Dh oe the bam bce te ‘itor bending moment Mf, the nominal Roe tress at te ot af the ee 301 ‘re Behr of Bois under Sess 53 notch maybe elle by ernary Hoare frmul = Me, which teveveducos fo 6 SME/1KD =n} But the sta tees i very much prentr thn ha because ofthe strat concentration tt ocare Bethe oot athe neh, Thera er otal treat vided nia este res conentration tor fr hs patclat fe Vloce oo number f common ster are af ¥en {fle 171, The mom complete singe ssror fr numeral sls tress concentacion Easton ePetorson Ge.) Talon coataine Sxtenee ography " nvupt variation an high Il intensity of srs proce i stress ar charactors of las behaor The pate lt Tg thaocurs on verses ety mst strescncent ation ven inflevely brite mates wed eases to ase ch se iunce on beeking tena an gh be expete rom noid tation of the slate tees ly. Phe practi agnience of sess Snourtaion therefore depend ccumancen, For dt meal Shucr sate Toadng itr tusly hough not ways of Ke oF Imporance! for ampl, the high seus tha ea the eg of ter baesn stractaral steel members ae sale more, the sess {eta tens bed bung asunder on thy nt setsn Cn the {nv ayers an cilarpn-somneted mabe however red: fi af 2% i alloate stro the tection recommended) For tue material under w loding stress concentration i often @ cis corsierntsn, but ite ofl: vance widely and cannot be reid either fom fn he bene ofthe meter eo et 35). “Wit may te termed the sess concentration fotr at rupture. 0 the sreuth reduction Jotr Topcon the apeance of ste oncttation for statis Toning Thin faeue, whieh wl be deeted Gres the ratio af the computed sore ot rueare for pin periment the computed se a uptre forthe specien conti IRpte sons use forthe ove st described, it woul tte ale tthe modulus of rapture of the pli beam to that of the meted am the latter Drag ealslted for the na acon, thereon {nso scsce, one bth of which hay be tis bt me {Etsy «measure of he mrengtredocng eet of stress cones {ion Some veloc of Kare gon in able 17 of Be 1 Tis fr condone wating ftgur that soe concentration is mast inpotants ve te tot highly sed tere sacha tse rode by mall seco src, may rol Tower the apatent Exturane Ti bot ater ary meaty sh maoh senal a> SEsepliity to thie eft sometee said Cnteery the Inight be expe, duty (asada determined hy ail etn) Shove meesure of immunity to srs cneentation in fate: ‘ample, sels much move suacepe ean cae om. hat ny DeForma fr Sess ana Sn fous termed the fatigue sree concentration factor Ky is the practical ‘measure of notch sonitvity Te athe eato ofthe endurance Lint of {plain specimen to the nominal sress atthe endurance limit of a fpecimen containing the stress riser 'S soudy of avaliable experimental data shows that Ky is almost love less and ote sgmicantly len, than Kad various ede serciting yim are ees prope. Nether et 9 propos the formule Kat BMT pinieao) 203) Inhete isthe Hank ange ofthe notch (nlled #38 Table 17.1), the Fas eurvature i incest the rot of to note called rin Table Ti). andy’ ie dimension related tthe gen size pe sige of some type of Ise ing blo, of Ube material and may be taken Dns for sta ‘AI the methods described are valusble and applicable within certain Timitations bat none can be applied with confidence to a ‘Nutone (Re 29) Probst mons of thean gives sulclent weigh thetic of sal inthe larger ste range Tere is abundant selene to'show Unt the siaifcnnee of stress concentration increases With So for bath stati and repeated lading, epecaly the late. ‘hn itmportant fet eoneerningstrae sonermtation i that a single isluted notch or hole hea worse effet an have a namber of malar steer raisrs placed loc gether: thus, single V-groove redures the ‘Srongtn fa part more than does continuous scr Ursa of amost ‘denen frm. Thr dortotious fot of un unavoidable eros riser fam theraore, be miatedsometies by justaponing adonal Foran Itrogulariies ‘of ike nature, but the actual snperpeition of tress "or such a he itroduction af small notch in lt cay rest In stress concentration factor equal tar even exceeding the product, ‘te factors forthe indvidval stress raisers Rete 30 an 4, 311 Effect o Form and Scale on Sirength; Rupture Factor Ie fe been point ot See, 3.7) that member composed of ites rater! trea n tension when the msimm tonsle rex reaches {he timate strength or in shear when the maximum compressive ‘Stowe reach cereal sl. eleuating the stress at rope it Sich s member if customary to wmploy an elarti-stees formal thus the elem Rr stress Benm 3 wally cleat by the Clin Wexure firma fe ie Keown thatthe result module of up) ino nt tres, bt can bel pei he trem ir aimilar eam Wf the same rsterial However fancier bears of san) The Behr Bain unr Sse 8 the sume material bat of deren eros eetion, span/dpth ato size frmanier of onding sndoupport istered the modulus of reptare wil Wreound tobe diferent, (The eft ofthe shape ofthe sect soften {ken into aesount y cho form foto, and tho fete ofthe span depth fatto und manner of loading ave rotognied in the testing proeedre) Similarly the clealted maxim serena upeure ina eurved bea, Dat plato torsion member rot equal t he ulsmate strong of {he meteril pd the magni fe dep wl vars erent with the material, or of the member, manner of fading, ane absolute sete te order to predier accurately tho breaking load far such Imomben ics necesary to sake thie variton ino acount. ad the Fupture/ocor (fined in Appendix B) provides a convenient means (ining co Value ofthe supers fee for « normor of materials and {per of ieinbere ar goon i Tablo18 of Ref. ‘the asis of many experimental determinations of the eupture {actor Gf, 35) the flowing generalizations may be mad: 1. The smaller the propertional prt of Use member subject to igh ‘free the lager the rupture factor. Thi exempt by thefts {hata beam eccar ston exhibit higher modulus of rupture {Han erctanguler bens ad tat fla plate under copenteatd Cntr fa leat higher computed stress Chan one unifemly Tonded, Tre extecmes in this reopect ar on the one hand, a tinfrm bre ur sual tensa for which che roptoe Cetor Unity and aa the other and. acase of severe stre concentration ch aa sharply notched br for which he eupeure factor may be Sadefiitaly lee 2 Inthe flexaro of stall indsterminate members, the redistibu tion of bending moments tht accurs when plastic yielding starts st {he most hightyeieecd section increas the rupture fctor For thie reason a fat plate ves higher vale than simple beam, nda cieularring giver higher vale than a portion of west ns ‘cates determinate curved bear. 4. The epturefesor senso vary inversely withthe absolute a Torcontions involving abrap strese variation, which a consistent tvth the face (arondy noted) that for eases of tress concentrations oth Ke andy diminish withthe abst see ‘Astral, the more tle the mata he more nosey all rupture factory approach unity, There are, however many exceptions toh fie Te hee been punted out Seo, 310) that immunity to notch (Hct even under slate lading iv not always propesinal to ‘uci, ‘The practical sgnifcane of thote fact ie that for a pn materi and given factor af soe, some toanbers may be designed with @56 Female tor Sas nd Sao foun ‘mich higher allowable ers an ters, This fai often recognized indesign for example allowable stress for wooden silane spars ‘eesti tthe rm actor ane propor hese sees ‘What hs ben sid here pertains eapecaly tial brite eral es material for which far cet n fracture eather than in he tgining of laste debrvation. The effet form onthe ultisate strength of ste members see important ltough even ‘beste the allowable uni rest i en Shonet wi seguro titcumstanees Ruch as thase dconsed previous For Insane, in fun design the maximum sten allowed to pproneh ond ven fxcced the namin! lame Tmt, the whume of lateral eed ting wry smal, and in stretural desig axtrome fer strate bening are permitted to exceed the valu allomed for axial oan. testing. acount mont be ten of the fat tat same ace ral thi ahigher timate strength when fraure our at a reduced ‘Sein such ae would be emo int one spines by oncntie imonve or notch Whatever ee of sens sotentation may tema {tving pasts deformations moe than eft bythe euportng scion Sf th sole which tv to poven the moral “hen down 212 Prestessing Parts f un ola rer, by accident o design may have ntrodced into them ateses tha nad and ae balanced by ppesng ernest ior pas coat the syst rarer eae Sar witht the Smpntan of ny exer a, Fsampl of ah sil of eked, ‘esses eth temperate reves in weld ember, seers in ‘tcl indeterminate tras deo tightening o eng same of the members y tarnbckie nl uenes the Bang soup ipl caused by srewing down the mote The este of sch revrening apo the rigity sl street ‘Dnsidered, the ssumpton being me tat pestering sot co ‘Stern to alc the propre the materi Tndiecussing ths subj ness t itingush two types of systems va one it which the companent parts can sustain era of ‘frees and one in which last some ofthe component pars cannot Sisasreverealaf tras Euampie ofthe fst aerated oy a Said bar and by a tru, all members of wheh can eustin either tension orcomprosin.Bsaipes ofthe econ frp ae fara the bolefange combination mentioned and ty a trust With wie Aiagonal that can take tention onl or the fst tye of sm, precessing his effect n initial sisi: hors plain at with eckeup tempenatie cree wll ‘it the sie mal of easy ae» salar ba fom which aoa The Bair of Bodin und Ses 57 those stressos have been removed by annealing: wo prestressed Ile! springs arranged im parallel, the tension ts ne balancing the compreseion inthe oer, will deflect neither more nor Tes ham the ‘ht owospringe similarly paced without pestering Prosresting will lower the elastic lint (or allowable load, ot ttiate strength) provided chet inthe tbsenee of presrorsing al parte of the systom reach thew eopotive elatie ats(rallowable Ines, of ultimate strengths) simuitancouls. But if this relation ‘betwen the parts dows not exis, then prestosting may vaio any oF sllofhese quantities One or twa cxarypeeestrating each condition may ako this lens ‘Conader fest plain bar thet isto be loaded in axial tonsion. If shore ar no lackedsup stresses, then (racially specking) all parte the bar roneh their allowable sires, elastic mit, and ultimate rongth simultaneously. Bu if there ee lock-up sess prevent {hon the pares which the initial tensa ie iphea each eee last lit Wefoe other ports and the casei ofthe ar asa whole i thus lowered. The loud at which the allow unit stems Bet ‘eached is similarly lowered, and the wlkimate strength ay alan be ‘reduced lsbough if the maton educa, the equataation of sess ‘hat ecurs during loogation wil largely prevent this. "Ae an example ofthe sooed contin (all parte mat simul: ‘eusly seach the elastic mt or allowable str) consider thick ‘linger under iternal pressure Ifthe lind x ot presrand the ‘Srvor at the interior surface reaches the elastic limit frat and 20 foverns the pressure that may be applied. But if the «inde is Drovtreeted by shrinking oa jacket ur wrapping With wate Unda? tension, aaa done in gun construction, thon the walle are put into an {nial sate of compression This compressive strss asa grees at the Snncenurface ted the presrore required to revere it and pede "elle stress equal to the else imi e msch prester than Beto ‘As anther example, cnader + cmpaste member cimpriing two Fada qual length, ne aluosinucn andthe other eee, that ae ple [Sie by ide to ylnyeazeylemlle lad. or spies, wil be sumed that the allowable soit strases for the materials are the thine. Because the modulus of elasticity of the ste! sx sbowt thee {ites that ofthe alumioum, i wll each the allowable aren fst and Ata total ood less than she sum of the allowable lad forthe Ber ‘acting separately. But ithe composite bars properly prestressed the ‘tel being pit nts inital compresinn and the aurinuin into stil {enon (the ends Being in same way rigidly connected to permit Chi) thon onthe apportion ofa tenee Lond the two bart wil reach the lowable stress simultaneously and the load-cursng caps of the ombinationinthus grater than Belore,Silary the east ad68 Formula for Seas nd San ean sometimes the ultimate strength of compaite member maybe raised 1 prentresing Ins stem ofthe second typ (ia which ll parts cannot sustain stroee reversal) pestressing ineeaces the rigidity for any lad lene {han that required to produce sree revere The eet of pestress Jing up to that point i to mao the rigidity ofthe sper te same as ‘hough tl parte were effective Tiss tn the aon of he ere wth nie fagenals tras though the countrwires Were taking compression: the ese the fange-bolt combination tie a though the Bangs were taking tension. (Ifthe anger are practically gid comyprison with the bats, ther is ao deformation until the applied lo exceeds the tole tension ands the system sri) When the applied load ooo mes lege enough to exuse tress reversal (Qo sake the counterwives £0 slack orto soparate the Ranges), the eft of prestresing fan the syatem is neither more or less rgd than similar one not prestroeeed provided, of baum, tne of fhe pares has been over ‘The lactic (or allowable ond or ultimate strength) ofa system lf this type isnot alec by protrensing nies he elt lnt for llowable Toad or ultimate strengt) of one or more of the parte Feachod tefre the sree reversal care In ele, a sytem of th type is exactly Ike's system of the rt type unl ves reversal ura, flee whi all flrs of prestressig vant, The eft of presteesing are ito taken advantage of notably in tod joints anges, esincer heads, ete), where high nial tension "nthe bole proves star actuation and consequent atu and Drestresed reinfotd-coerete memers where the intly imprescod concrete e enabled. in effec, t9 actin tenason widen ‘caching up to the point of siren rerenml. Tye example of the pretressed thick epinder has already ten monttned 3:13 Elastic Staitty Under certsin citeumstences the maximam toad a member will sisiain is determined not by the strength of the matecal tut hy the Sifts f the member. Tis eandiion sree when the load produtes ‘abendingor a twisting moment thet i proportional tothe coreepond ‘ng deformation. The moat faraliar example ie the Buler solemn ‘When a straight slnder column is baded nally, romaine straight sn! sffers only nial compressive deformation ter small lads I While thus loaded tealight daeeed by Straighten afer removal of that fare. Bt theres obviously some ‘sil lad that wil ost hold the column inthe detected position, aad Seo hoth the bending moment du to the load and the reristing ‘moment dae he stresses are dirty propetional to the deflection, seca ‘The Behe et Soon unde Sasso the lod required thus t bil the chime it independent of the tountof tho dfn If ths onion of balan xn tees tee than th slats Hi, the conto ale lati tay wn {Ee tht produces his sont eli! the erica! lod Any increaz oth ond yo ts vita ale is usally stended ome aiapa the member This che compresivemresos within lng thin sections of # str tare hat can ce ntalitng Tn ompaive sna can De ‘einen andthe ith ean be gb orks Glo naa hn coun catastrophe elu, wheres lon! iatblien aus permanent defrmatien tit ness aston fa Ge: Forth Bulor tlw, when inutabity astride sn the entre crow accent iveved tbe Sloat Laing Itty ofthe ef f the Ron in somone wi ne Theam in benting cts rer Likewise the cont f the wb of tronerersly load cao lt pnder bending undergoes pre ‘Tear her aloe the degnsl (45 compressive ttc re praet Sod lls buckling pombe ‘her examples of lati bility are alford by thin elinde under exarel peerur win pate under edge compression oe ‘heer ands deep thn Sootevr boas anders eanscese end a Sppied at the up surcn, Some sock element, unite the spl ‘Shun Jeeibd pwr, do ht fl drt lod tha oats Sintec ut etnies a th stn, ees, Such porbueingbehavs "ms imporsht i art Problema ofall decgn, Blac sesiy ie dhewned force t= Gap 6, and formas forthe ee! lode fr vanous members td tyes of lding are pve io Tables Ib and 162. 3:14 Rotorences: 2 ‘hn a ca PS ‘ee of Ree ia EAE Scene cp60 Forman tr Sess na Sain tomes {2 Rg Cams Marfa Bal As: Se Be So, 2 can ener ta 1 tera se ts 1 teeta tetany co 1S uta! tag natch ag Soe eg use a ‘25 ato. otig Teo arg Ale te Shae Sympmiom op Lore Fotizoe on eae acento Sec nn 1m es "Sotor scars ae Hus a Gear aa Ne Re Ser ne tag Moe EEL Shere on earn ee a9, Pogr nt Dec, Ace Rei ASTM Se ‘aS Speen Pa Sing eisai Fs sn 4 Rae tom C Paiw Lterre Sr ASTMSbe Tih tl Cpe Stem an Bin” The Ue of eran ma SEES ms ui aeaciea cee ore art Theo using Mactan, lags Cages nen pa apm eh Bric Bi: “Eaentary Engiwring Puciare Mecho i o, Mstinus Nib, ln 8, "Comper Sat inte Mecha of Frc” Nos Shee sams and W Dad eda “Aztion of Fretre Macao HESNR SIDS) Rouble taper Mectaer ruc al 2 Babes uo es Ses ale Sn. Gr See Mad” to, 3 Ha, 38,Principles and Analytical Methods fot of materials express he rath fa member, tho loads applied {hore andthe reulting stressor deformation. Any such forms ‘ald only nithia cores Hniations ands applicable ony 0 oe Dreblems. An wndestanding of thveliatations and of the ws Ihc formulas may be combined and extended forthe solution of riba to which they do not immediatly apply requires oe ‘Sige of certain principles nd moetbods th are tated eel in tbe {lowing srs, The sgneance and Use of shoe principles end ‘othods are llurtrated sn Par § by examples that accompany the Aiszusson of epee problems. 44 Equations of Movion and of Equiixium ‘The selatons that exist at any instant betwacn the mation ofa boty ‘ind the fcesneting on it may be expeeoed by these so equation (Gh the component along any Tine of all ree acting a ods) = ma, (the predact of the mas f the Bo and the x component tf the acrlertian ft mass center: (2), (he torque moat any ine ‘Pot all feces ating onthe bos) ~ ly! (he me rate at which ts {Ingultr momentum about that ne i» changing). If te bods in| {qeetion sn eqlbrum, theve equations reduce to (2) Fy = O and On, "These equations, Hooke's law, and experimentally determined values of the ease eometants BG, and + const the basis fr the mathemati analyee of mort problems af mechanics of materi. ‘The majority of the common formulae for sess are derived by nudering a portion ofthe hnaded member oa body ta equim Under the seton of foees tha inside the stveses sought and Den ivi for theesstreaes by aplving the equations of equbium,(6 Formula fr Sess and Sin fone 442. Prncipte of Superposition ‘With certain exoptions, the effect ates, strain, or deflection) Drodcod on an elastic systems by any final state of loading in he Fame whether tho frees that constituto that leading ace appli uiteneoualy of in any given tequence and is the result of the ‘ffccts tat ho svoral forse would produce i eathaeced singly. “hn exception otha pring is aflorded by ancace i whic ome ofthe ores ete a deformation that enable ther free o produce {in lee ther would not have otherwise. A beam subjected to trans ‘eres and anil loading in an example; the Seanaverse lade caus {fection that enables the Tongstudinal load to profuco a bonding fet wouldnt produce if acting ale. In no cso dows the pincple “ppiy i the deformations are ao lage aa to alr appreciably the tonerial relations of the part of the ste. “The principle of superposition Is iasporant and ae mans applica tions eoten sakes I possible to resolve or break down n complex Drcbese into number of simple ones, each of which can be slved paral for ike treaes, deformations, et, which are thon ale ‘rately added to viel the scluton of the original prose 443. Principle of Reciprocal Deletions Let A and B he any two points of an elastic rytem, Lat the dupe ent of Bin any dinection U dua ta ores P acting in aay dzection V a ‘Abu; snd let the displacement of Ain the dizection Veco fn force @ feng inthe diction U at bee, Then Pe= Qu ‘This the emoral statement of the prin of relrocal defi tions Pand @ ae equal an parliel and ane are parallel atenient ean be simplified pests Th, fora herizantal bass with ‘erica loading aa deflection understood tho prieipe expresses he {allowing rlation: load applies at any point & pradues the rare Aefoction at eny eter pat Blas would produce at Ait applied we. "The principe af eeiprorl defections isa crolary of the principle of supeepeston and so can bo applied only to cases for which tha bricinle ie valid It cen be use to advantage in many prem Snvolving deformation. Eearplec ofthe aplication of the principle ae fe in Chapa Sand 444 Mathod of Consistent Deformations {Strain Compatiiy) ‘Mang statically indetrinnate problems ae ely solved by wing ‘the cious relations amang the deformations of the soveed parts oF “mong the Jlorations produced hy the several lends The the 5045) DPrncises ard Arai! Methods 65 Aivsion of load batwaen the part of «composite male ie readily ascertained by expressing the deformation o defection of each part in term of the load i eneries and then equating thse deformations oF ‘efesions, For example, the rottion the supported end of beam ‘with one end feed sn the oer upported canbe found by regarbing ‘he beam ana cantilever acted on by the actual ede ané an upward fed Toad (the rection), and siting the resultant deletion atthe Spportond equal to ere, “The method of consistent deformations ie based on the principle of| superposition itean be applied oi ta cases for which hat pincples= 445 Principles and Methods Involving Strain Eneray Strain energy i defined a5 the mechanical energy stored up in an ‘latcally strcaed system formulas for he emoane ol sean ences ‘Seveloped in members under various conditions af lading are give In'ar & Ie the purpose of thie artile to stats enenin relations betineen strain energy and extemal Frees that are wool i the analysis of straend deformation. For convenience, eternal freos ‘rth points of spplestion that donot move wil here be called Feaetions, and external ores wich punts of application that ove frilbe called bods Eternal work equal to stain energy. When an fastc eystom is ‘Ejected to seie loading, the aetna work done by te loads the icrons rom ter other maxima valu aqua te strain ‘ergy aagured by the sate "Thin relation may bet dnetly t determine Ube deletion of soatem ‘under angle load, for such a cae, eanuming a lea? rater, shows that the daiction atthe poi of Indi in the {he wor done by the wale force: but sine the uni force is costar, thi work is equal tothe dofeton sug. Trahe direction of te defection cannot be ascrtsned in ndvance, te horizontal ad vertical components can be determined separately in the way" described aod the resultant deflection found threttom Examples of appleation of the svethod are given in Se. 7.4 Detection, te prt derivate of sain energy. When a line asic ‘Shut eatealy loaded te pataldeevaiv of the strain energy with resect ane one ofthe nplied forces i equal tothe movement ‘tthe poit of apaleation ofthat fare th dvetion of that force ‘Ths telatonship provider a menne of nding the deflection a's Beam ‘or teuns under srverel Inds (eee Rel. 35, and ‘Theorem of eas work! When an clastic system is statically onde, {he tinsshuton of street rack as to make the strain energy & Sinmun soneateat with tquilbeiumané the imposed boundary ndiiono. The principle is ued extensively in the solution of stat filly indetarmineto probleme. In he simpler typeof peobler (bas with redundant sapporte or rates with redundant members) the f= ‘hep nthe sltion consists aphitrani salctngcotain ieioers to be considered redundant, tne number and Went of ‘hove being sorh tae the remaining sytem i just determinate, The Strain energy af dhe sntre ape Ue expreccd interme of the Unlenen wodundant reactions once The paral donate of he ain cmorgy wi. rapes to cach of the redundant. Tearsions of [frown ae equal to seo and the resulting equations eave Teeth retunlantsearions or stares The tmining rections ‘te thn found bythe equations of egulurn. An example ot the apples of this method i given In Sets 7.4 “ae itt aly man wh he me chanel (Ge 1a har of mom renee bY Mare el 2 cto Principe and Analytica Mathoes 67 [As defined by this procedure, he theorem of ax work simpli in| Contihinns there: Ie furnishes a mei of auton denial wt hemethedefconsetent deflections, Use detection ued being zero and Saprcnind art partie! derivative of Ue stain energy. Jn a more encral tye f probly It in necessary 2 determine which of ant {nite number of posible strse shatsbutions or copiguratens ties the coudition of minimum trai ener. Since the develo Imont of tftyare based on the Ante-eloment method af snalysis the Gletonie computer ae ined practenble the aoltion of meny probleme ofthis kind—sholl nafs, elastic and plartic buckling (le that fron were seats foreaable |48 Dimensional Analysis Most physical quantities can be expressed in terms of mse, length fn ine conveniently represented hy the symbole M, Ly and t Feapectively, Thue velty ie Li? scasleration is L¢, foce is BML nt etree in UL", es, A forma tm which the sever) (ander are thus expressed ix a_dimensonal formula, and the ‘Tarsus appleations of this ystem of representation cette dimen ‘onal analysts ‘Dimensional ansssis may be weed to cheek formulas for homoge city, check or change anit, derive formlas, and estableh the rl ‘onshipe between slmilar piel systems that fern ale (eg Imedel and is prototype) In srength of materials, dimensions any bis especialy sell in checking formulas for homogeneity. Todo this, eno alway necuaars to express al quantities dimensionally ince it nay Ue possible to cancel ome tera. This i ie afen ‘Sonveniont expres force b some sibel as # unlit iascertined| ‘whether or not ll trme representing frce canbe canceled orexamnple, consider he forma forthe destin yt re ed of cantlaver hontn of length earring % nif Toad por ot Inge Tift Table 8.) ie att sar "To tect for honogeneity, omit the negative sign and th coffiient (hich is dimensionless) and writs the orale weit rae [tis soon that Pcanela and the equation redutes at onee to 2 = E “howing thatthe orginal equation soe homogenous.88 Formas fo Soe nd Stn foun.s Instead ofthe avibols M, ff, and F, we can us the names ofthe suits in which the quantities ae tobe expressed Ths the above ‘squation may be writen (poundsinchinces") ‘pounds incbesKinches~ ™ snches = “This practic is expeially convenient if ig deste to change wns ‘Thus it might be deste fo write the above formulas that yi ves Ininchos when fis exprored is fet Its ony necessary to write (pounda/inehot x 12¢ inches = : 8 (goundineheeinchow ond the cfcent thus found t be 2892 instead of hy whet amounte toa rverel of the checking proves describe, i ten posible fa datertnine the wain whieh @ certain frm or tr Should appear ina formula provided the other terme inveled own. For example, consider the frmula faethe eitial load of the ule eiusi, Fanarty withthe Ubary of exure suggests chat thie Tone wl be rey proprtonal to # and I. Its evident that che Tengch{ wil be involved in some way as yet unknown, 1 i als) ensonble to eeeume Ut the ln is idependone of the deflection nce both the tending moment and the resisting moment would be ‘pected to vary in direct proportion to the deflection, We ext then Sire P—AEID where k iv a dimensionless constant that must be [Dane in some ether way and the exponent a shows how {enters the fxpression, Weising the equation ditmeastnally and omiting he fave u gvating the exponents af (a requited for homogeneity) we fit Goa showing hat the original formula shouldbe P= IP. Noe that she derivation of formal n this way requires at Testa partis knowlege of the relationship tat ist be expeesod "Aimach nora dated dseuecon of simitade, ouadeling, and imonsanal says can be ound in Chaps, 18 and 8 of Rts. 0 and ‘iterpuetvey: Reference 8 includes a ection where the effet of Dolan ato on the sreses in wo nd chroe- dimensional problems {Sularused. Since Powwrts rato dimensontes i woud haves the same in medel and prototype for perfect modeling and this frnerlly is noe pow, References to work on thi problem ae ESNGe and wil be hep. wean ‘Principles end Anetytioal Methods = 68 147 Remarks on the Use of Formulas ocaleulated val of stress strength or deformation ean be regneded fe exect. The forouli used are based on certain sumptions [ropes of spark, repelartyof form, and hounéry conditions That re only appronimately tron andthe azo derived ty mathema thnl precedes that often involve further approximations. In genera therefore, greet prion im nomerical war is not Justified, Each Inaiviuel problem requires the exercise of judgment, and stipes ‘hte to lay doen gd rules of peneedare: but the following suRge ons concerning the use ef Jorma ma be of value. 1. For most ete, caluulatins giving roslts to thre signieant figures wre suieniy press, An ception ie alorded by any faltlation that involves the algebraic adltion of quantsties Ut are fargein comparaon with tho Hal raul (sme ofthe forms or Tncims under asal and tranevrseToading, some of the formulas fer [Sreulae rings and any eave of superpaition in whieh she fle of Sverat lone send eoanternet each other). For such cates more ‘Sguitcant figure shouldbe cursed! throwgheut te calculations. im view of uncertain ge t0 sclual conditions. may ofthe orton may appear fo bo umnecesarily qaborste and include fonetants given tp more sgnicane figures than is warranted. For {his reason, we may ten be inlined to simplify formcla by dropping Unibnorenne terms. crouping of” comeante, ela Te is sometimes ‘uivancageou to de thin, but Se usualy beter to use the formula ei'etands beaving in mid that the rosult s at best ony else “pmonimation, Tne only disadvantage of uring an allegedly precise” emule the posse of eng misled into thinking that te result Ityikte coresponde exactly toa ret conditin. So far as the tne equred for calelation fe concerned ile saved by smplieation When ving oa unfair formal, we my be uncertain as tthe comertnens the uerielsubeittene mad and mistrust ef the euler is aoeny always posible to effect some sort of check by ‘helogy, superposition, reiprocal defections, comparison, or meeely dy judgment and common sence, Thar the membrane analogy (See 5) showe thas the torsional sflnse of ny iregular section te fetor than that ofthe Inegestinserbed circular section and Ts fan that ofthe emllet circumscribed secon. Superpeition shows tha he defection and ending moment ache conte of beam under triangular nedng (Table 8.1, case 2e) [athe same asunder an egal Stat uniormiyditeincted. The principle of reciprocal defections howe thot the strst ad deflection st Ute eeptor ofa cular Ht Slat under ecentric concentrated ad (Table 1.2. ease 18) are the ‘hme az for on equal lvl uniformity distsbuted along a concentric ‘Gre wth radius equal to the eoventiy (eso On). Comparison70. Formula for Sree a Sain ewe hows hat the etal ale compressive strne is greater for th ate uncer ee loading than for a rp of tat plate regard wea Euler column. Common sense and judgment shold eneraly sere te prevent the acceptance of grossly errneous elelations “A dilly frequently encontored ie uncertainty ae to bundy condtionswhether «beam or dat pate shold be called ae foul ‘pported or fied, whether lad should be aasured uniformly oF teherwise distetbuted ete In ay auch oan iti oud pla to ke Sracketing assumptions, ia. tocakulate the dered quantity on the Sas of each of to asumpionstepresenting limits between whch ‘he actuel conditions must le Thur fora team with nds having Uuniown degroe of it, the bending moment atthe conta cannot be "ore than ithe onde were fel) supported and Use bending moments tthe ends canoe be more than i he ene were traly eed I lesgood ast ba aafe for aither extreme canton, the ten wil be sate fr any interest gree of fay. 5. The tress and deflections predicted By must formulas do not sccoun fr loelize effect ef te lands. Far example, the srestes ad Gefecione given for a etnight, smplysupported beam mith entered, concentrated Interal free only acount for that due to ending. Additonal compressive bearing atrenses and defections txist depending onthe exact nature of the interaction ofthe spplied “ind rouction forecs withthe beam Normally he state of ste ad deformation at distances greater than the dimensions of the loaded ‘pions only depend’ on the net effct of she Incalited applied td ‘sation forons an ate independent ofthe form of those forces Ths ie fn application of Saint nants principle (etned in Append B). ‘hie principle may not be rlable for thin-walled srateures oF OE some orthotropie materials ‘6. Formulas coperning the validity of which thers ie reason for oabt, especialy emprieal formulas shouldbe cher dimensional Touch sfrmula expreses the ressts of come intertedateconition, it should be checked for extreme or lerminal conditions the ‘xpreaion forthe defetion of «bean carrying uniform led over ‘portion ofits length should agre wi te sorresponing expression {ora fully loaded beam when the loaded porion becomes equsl fo the fal Tengeh and should vanish when the loaded portion esos ero 48. Roterences 2 Aes oar We Nie SS Se iy 8, wos ‘Principen and Anaiyen Methods 71 Mela of tana grime as” 2d Sey +1, Benue B-G."Adraned Streets sad Applied Strese AnayaChapter Numerical Methods ‘The analysis of stves and deformation of the leading of sine {eeometrc stratares ean usually be soromplished by lose arm fochnigues, Aa the suctures become more complex, the analyst Forced to approximations of lee form sltion, experimentation. oF humerical pethods: There ast 4 great many numer! techniques Used in engineering applications for whic digs omoputers are vers tcf Inthe fed of structural analysis the numerical techniques ieveraily employ a mathod which tinreties the continuum of the ‘Such apie ita a ite cllection uf plate (or nodes) whereby ‘mathematical relations fom elatity are formed, The most poplar ffehnigue weed currently ete ie element method (FEM). For hs Peanon, mos ofthis chapcrdeceatedto¢ gaveral description af the Imothod. A great abundance of papert sn textbooks have been presentad oh the fine element metal, and a complete listing E=jond the scope ofthis bok. However, ome textbooks and istrca Dapersaze included fur introductory purposes ‘Other methods, some of which FEM based upon, include cial uncions via varitional methods a wighted residuals, te finite Uiference method (RDM). structural analogues, and the boundary ‘loment method (BEND. PM and BEM wl be discussed bel. ‘51 The Fine Diference Method In the ld of structural analy, on of Une earliest prosotures forthe humeral solutions ofthe govering difrental equations 0 atessed ‘ontinuous eli bodies wae the fit dfeence metho. tn the Bite ‘Bilerence approximation of diferent equation, the derivatives in ‘the enuntions ae placed by differen quotients af the vluer of he Bopandent vassbles at @herte mech pointe of the domain, Aor imposing the appropiate boundary eowditions on the structure, the74 Formulas tor Sess and Strain four iscrateaguations are solved obtaining the vals af the variables at the mech pointe The technique hae many disadvantages, including Inaceuracis ofthe devivatives of che approximated slution diffeu! ties in impacing boundary conditions along curved boundaries, diff (tlien i acurately representing enmploxgeometese domains, and the inabliy toute nonuniform and non-rctangular meshen, ‘52 The Finite Element Method ‘The finite element method (FEM evolved from the uso of tia functions va variational methods and weighted residuals the Site ‘Aterense metho, snd structural analogues (Gee Table 3.1 of Ret 1) FEM ovexomes the difeulties encountered by the fnitedifier ‘ence method in that the alution of the diferente equations of the ‘rcturl problem are obianed by uzing an integal formulation to Senerate a nyter of algebraic equations with continuo piscewise Smooth (ra) foncions tat approximate the unknown quantities, A feomotscally complex domain ch the structural problem canbe [Sfotomatcallyveprsented by a large, but finite, alleton of simpler fubomsing, called finite eloments For sacral problems, the Asplacement fold of each clement is appeosimeted by puyomial, ‘which are intorpslatod wth respect to precolocsed point (nodes) om find powily within, the element. The polynomials are referred to ‘2 interpolation functions, whore variational or weighted esidual ‘methods (og lapleigh Bite Galerkin, ste) are spied to dstermine the unknown nodal flues, Boundary condtins ean eesily be applied long curved boundaries, complex geometric domains can bo modeled Sand nowunifnm and non rectangular meses can be employed. "The oder development of FEA Doran inthe 1840s in the fl of structural mechatiee with the work of Hrenwikat, Metlenry, and ewmatk, who used lattice of line elements (als and beans) fr the solution of sreaooe in cotinuselle ove Refs 2-2) hr 1043, from a 1941 lecture, Courant suggested piecewise pelynomial inter polation ver tnungular subregions as metiod to model taesional Droblems oc Re. 3). "With the advent of digital computers in the 1050s, it became racial for engineers io\write and solve che siess equations in "ati fem (oe Ret. 6-8). late paper by Turner, Clough, Martin, {nd Topp published in 1968 presented the matrix stifaess equation’ fr the tts, bonm, and other elements (eco Hef 3), The expression Fite element n Bret strated vo Clough (to Ref. 10). ‘Since These early Degnnings, « prost deal of elt hav been ‘expended in the development of FEM in the aren felonsent formule {no and computer implementation ofthe entre solution process. The Inajr aivances in computer technology insides the rapidly expand esa Numeral Meteds 75 ing computer hardware capable, cent and acurate ms talver routines and computer geaphies for ease inthe preprocessing Sages of model building, including automatic daptiveteeh gene tons snd inthe postprocessing tage of reviewing the roltion raul [A gosst undance of literature has bee presented on the bjt jcluding many toreboke. A partial list of some textbooks, sate tory and more comprenensve ir given a the an ofthis chapter Fora leaf introduction to FEM sed modeling techniques, sve Chapters 3 and 10, respectively, of Ret. TFEM is iealy suited to digital computers, i which s continuous laste strueture Continuum) is vided (seretivd) ino small but finite well-defined substrueteron (olements). Using. matrices, the ‘continuous elite behavior of each element it categoraed in term ‘ofthe element's material and geometric propetite, the dsttbution of Teaing etc, donamie, and thermal) within the element and the Teas and dsplaceront atthe nodes ef she clement. The element’ nodes ae he fundamental governing eatitee of the elament, site 1n'the node where the loment sonnecte Plastic properties of the element are et ‘condions are assigned, and. where frees (coneact or boty) are Uitimately applied. A node posceetos degree of freedom (ol) Drgree of feadom are the tanclational and rotational mation that exist ats node. At most, «node cen poses thre translational fad three rotational dogreer of freedom. Once each element Within Sructure [s dfind lay in matrix form, tho olomests are then lobelynasembed (attache) through thei common nodes (ts) to Se overall system matee. Applied loads and boundary conditions are then specified, and through matrix speratons the values ofall Unknown diuplacement digress of frelon are determined. Once {hs le done, it it a simple matter to ee these displacements 0 Aletermine sins and strsioe though the constiive equations of satel. ‘Many geometric shapes of elements are used in finite clement analysis for specie applications. The various elements use in 2 feneral:purpooe commercial FEM software code coosttuce what Is ‘Feturred to aa tho element library ofthe cde. lemonts can bo placed in the following canpories: line elements surface elements sald tlemente, nd special purpore elements Tele 5.1 provides some, but ‘ot all of the types of elements avaiable for finite element analy. ‘Since FEM ism numeri technique that disrties the domain of | continuous seacture, ero ae natal. These errs are 1. Computational erors. ‘Those are due to roundoff errors from the computer Rostng pint cleuatins and the formulations of the ‘ntagration schemes That are employed. Moet commie“s+ Sample tint lent ay tear Some ee ee ee mom gqutislh, Rng sade plnearabed bend ‘anlar sya ne on in ‘le ben’ on ple Ua Wade 6 Rawemwernun 4 Sec pte te ‘tere or fA yaa & a 2. os Kk iid wt Foes om frie element codes concentrate on reducing these erors and cone iuenuy the analyst generally concerned with dscratintion ftom "2 Ducretization evar. "The geometry sd the displacement ist bution ofa rao structure vary eontinveoty Using a Saite umber of lements to model the structure intoduens errors in matching Ee ‘not and the displacement dstsbuton dc to the inherent init Lions of the elements. For example, considor the thin plate structure show in Fig. 5.1), Figure 510) shows aie element modelo the structure where three noded, plane sees, twiangular elements ars fmplosed. The plane stress triangular element hae m A, which {rontes two hase problems. The element hav stright idee, which ‘ors straight affor deormation. The strains throughout the plane ‘roe inngularslement are consant The fiat problem. a geomeste ‘or, isthe modeling of curved edges. Noto tht the surlace of the Tuodel with a large curvature appears reasonably modsed, whereas the surface af the hole i very poorly modeled. The second publ, ‘which is much more sovere, shat the strains in varius opin of he ‘ctl structure ae changing rapids nd the constant stra lement ‘wll eny provide an approximation ofthe average train atthe center Ut the element So, na mutable esis predited eng thi ol sell be relatively por The rouls canbe tproved by sgniice nly Incransing tho number of elements ised (inernged mesh dena) ‘Aleenatvels, aig a boar semont, such as sight neded ed "laters, Which is more sulted to the appseton, will provide the improved results, Duo to higher-order interpolation functions the fightnoded quadrilateral element ean model curved edges" and provides fore highoreder futon for the stein distebaton. 153 The Boundary Element Method ‘The boundary clement method (BEND, developed mare recon than FEM, transforms the governing dferental equations and boundary ‘conditions into Integral equations, which are converted canta a) Sec pat 7) Pvt kena del entisurface integrals (ee Relo. 12-16). Because only surface intgral enn, surface cloments eve used to perf the required inten ‘ona. Tis the main advantage that BEM as over FEM, shiek cguires thre dinvnsinol cements Uneughout the entire wolumetic ‘domain: Boundary elements for a general trwe-imensional slid ae ‘auedelaterel or triangular surface element covering the urfce age Uf the component. For two-dimensional snd sxssymmatric problems, nl line elements racing the uutine ofthe component are neceaary “Although BEM offers sume moeling advantages over FEM, the luton can analyze more pen of enginecrng sppliations and is much ‘more Grmly entrenched i todays computer sided deep (CAD) emir. ‘onment Development of engineering applications of BEM ae proceed. ing however and more wll bo sen of the method in the tate. 54 Reterences ‘tel Wods Ana Begins oi Gm Mea, ora 8 "Fh Sli Ane Be, Nw Sat ga kara enh Lee Ne ad Sine Ani” ter hry Chugh tara © pL Sis a ett vs inp rea is Me Ae neat SOE Ed omeem” Bi Seton Ramee ag eB hearer Pps Sonor xem alli Enh oa Sn otha a 2 un 3 neem anon gp dry ue PrenttCas ver Patt cee etme! Bata Ste ‘Addtional Unched Reterences in Finite Elements 2 Boa Been ing Ss ad ls oe‘Chapter Experimental Methods ‘Acstructural momber mas eof uch form or may be load ia ach | vray thatthe direct we of forms foe the calculation of strates en Strain produced in itis inelfctive. One than inet reset eho te ‘numerical tcchniguee nich aa the finite eement metodo fo expe ‘mental methods, Experimental methods ean be appli to the ae ‘enter in sme cates or 108 model thereot Which choice e made Alponds upon the results desired tho scireey ted, the practi ity of size and the cst asuciated withthe experimental method ‘There has heen a sromondous increase in the vse of numeral methods over the Year but the uss of experimental methods sill very elective, Many investigations make ure of toth numerical snd ‘experimental sels to eres feed infortatin fom ene to the other forinereased accuracy and cox effectiveness ase Cha. 17 in Ret 21. Some ef the more important experimental methods ane described bret in Sa. 61 af Ue enaptr OF these methods the most populne sothod employe slecrtal rerstance stein gages, and is Gace it ‘more dtal in ec. 82. Only textbons, reference hooks, handboke, tnd lists of joraale are reterenced, singe thore are several ergot tions (see Refs, 1, 25, and 26) devoted wither partly tr ttally fo experimental methods, and a reasonable ating of papers would be fxceeive and sean out of dale The most stfu reference fr wots ‘wanting information on experimental methods sR. 27, the “Hang ook on Experimental Mechanics," edited by A_S. Kobayashi and Aediate tothe ate Dr M. Het, who editad Rat. Relerence 27 ‘contains 22 chapters contributed ty 97 authors under th sponsorship of the Society for Experimantal Mechanics, Experimental mothae Applied specfally te the eld of fncture methane are tented ‘extensively in Refs 18, 18,17, 1, 22, and Chaps and 20 of Ret 72 Formula or Ste and Sein ours 61, Moasuroment Techniques The dsterination of strestes proluced undor niven oadng of «| ftrachrelsysem hy eneane of experimental ecbniquee are based on tho measurement of deflections. Since strain i det elated to he fe of change of) deflection, ie i common practice to sey that the ‘measurements made aretha of aim, Steves are then determined imply wang he stress-strain relationa,Defetions ina sruetural ttcm can be negated through changes in resistance, capacitance, rinucance of electrical lrmota epic) fect af Interfere Uitencwa, oe reaction) or thermal emissions. Moasurement is Comparatively egay when the stress fey uniform over a consider tle length ofthe pat in question, but becomes ore dificult when fhe ses is loalized of varee greatly with pesition. Short gage lengths and grent precision requir stable gage elements and stable slectoni amplieation fuse. If yar rains are to be measured (i atutle Mgh-eequoney respnse x also neceecrs van iebeopic {noterinlundergringwolaxal sires, one normal strain measurement {scl that ie necusaay On foe wirface under bina tres cond tions fo messared orthogonal neemal strains wil provide theses Seo th seme dictions of te measured stains. On 8 feo surface Sinder a general cate of plane sess, three meu normal straint {morene destin wl allow the determination of tho stress ip ‘estons at that positon (ese See: 62). Ata Treo edge in a member thot is thin perpendiculae tothe fee edge, the atte of tress i Tiiasinl and trotted earlier can by determined from one normal iran tangent tothe edge. Another tecie might Be to measure the Change in thrkness or the through thickness train atthe edge. Tis ‘nish be more practical, sich a mennarog Ube stein at te bottom: ta grove ina thin plate. For ample, eesume an orthogonal 22 feordinate ster where + le parallel to the edge and ¢ is in he {Towson ofthe thickness a¢ the de. Coneidaring a linear, isstopic navel from Hooke i, «= —vey/ Toh 2, = Eu) “The flowing descriptions provide many ofthe sucoefal intr imonts and Techoiques used for stain meneorement They sre lstad inva general order of teshanieal, electra), optical, and thermal ‘ethos Optic! and chrmalfocniques have been greatly enbences [radvences in ital image proterng technology for eatputers (ae Chap. 21 af Ret 27. 1. Mechanieal messuremert. A aieet measurement of vtrin ean be trade wth wn lnvartape over a gage longth of several meters o with = ‘iro divers over areaonable faction a tee. Far shorter gage Tings, michanioal amplifeation ean ho sed, but fiction ls =| Problem and vibration can make them dificult mount and to ond, Optical nagniiation using mierore stl requires mechanic! {vers or rollers and isan improvement ut ail m stintctry ‘ost application Ina ahorstry setting horever such mechani find opis! magnienion canbe Gu ste, Sx Re for ace Setaied dmcripions. A serich gage ses seratches On 8 plishe? target to determine stnin amples, unt while the srtcken ae tenor net strily rated to ime, thy are usually related to event In such t way as to be extremely useful in measuring sme dynamic frente The sratched target i iewed with « mrierpe tO obtain peakloypesk stuns per event, and a sero atria line can also he Feratcod onthe target if dosted (Rot 3). The tse of lasers andes ‘pts tolencop with electronic detectors tn eval th motion feiary marks on ditant structures maker rmeledeplaceme ‘easaremente poesia nd when two such detectors ane vsed. eeu Gin be meauured. While the technique i valuable who nice for ‘emote metaurement, gneraly for environmental reasat, is a xponsivatoknigue for staining te sen ssn lost 2 Bite coatings, Surfece exstings formulated to cack at srs levels well mitts the elas ni uf mont structura materiale provide means of loating points of aasimurn strain and the dretions ef Principal strains Under ell controled snvionmenl conditions sn ‘th suitable calibetion such coatings can yield quantal reslt= (Gate 2,3, 7,8, 20, 2, and 27). This technique, however, me Universally applicable, snes thecoatings may not be ready wailabie fie to environmental problems withthe coeting material, 4. dtecical atin and disptacament gages. The svotion of sete! tagos eo led to a variety of cngurations where changes in tes tec, capacitance or adactance can be relate eo strin and daplace ment wth proper inetrumentation els 25,20, 2,28, 24, an 27) (o) Resistance stain gage, Vor the electical resistence stain gages, the gage lent vary rom lee than On to ‘The gage gid material can be metalic or 4 emscondcon an beobtaned in alloys that ate designed to provide nisonu op {ie totemperature strains lone and comparatively are autouts ge to atten induced trun, Metalic bonded fad pages are manutectur? hyn photoetching process that allows fora wide range of sontigure ‘bn the eri The smiconducorstesin gage provi the les resistance change fora given tain but are generally very sensitive Temperature changes. They ate used in tennstucers where prope: deago can provide leuperature compenantaon The uae of seth rerimtance strain gages for stress snulveis purpose coaeitate theFema eS an Sin ours majority of experimental applications. For this roason, Sec. 62 roves further information onthe so of theco gage. (@) Capacitance train gage. Capacitance strain gages are larger and see massive than bonded electric resist stain ages an are fhote widely word for appliatons beyond the upper tamperatare Tits ofthe bond pesitsanee strain gages (© Inductance strain goger. The change in ar gap in & magnetic citeit can ronte «lange change in inductance depending upon the ‘login of the eat of the maroetie cnet ‘The large change in “Inductance ie sesompanied by lergo change in force aerose the ea, ands the vty senate indtancn rain gages cone used only 00 ore massive structures They have been used ab overload indieators Gn preses sath no sheteonie ampligention eceseary The linear Felationehip hetwoen core mation and output volago of a linear Uiferenti transformer makes posible accurate measurement of “dsplacements over a wide range of gage Tengthe ard under s wide Srey af conditions Te us of Seplcement data as input fr work i ‘sperimental modal wnalas ix isussed in Chap 16 of Ref 27 and in ‘mang’ ofthe teshesel papers in et. 28 4. ttereromot strain gages. Wood intrferometrictachniquss ‘rill be dnewseed later but simple strain gage with short length nd high sensitivity can he crated by several methods, Tm ane. 2 {faction grating = deposited at the dose Weation and in the ‘desi direction and the chango in grating pitch under strain ix teaeured With a male gid theoe strain gagee oan bo used st ‘ovate tomperatares Another method le useable at high temper fares makes uae ofthe interference of ight reece fom the icine! fvfcen of to very clonely spaced indentations in the surface of Ietalic pecan, Both theoe methods are discussed sn referenced inkl 27 14 Photdasic anaysin. When s besm of polarized light passes through an slantally sesed transparent Scotopie materi, the tum may be tiested a having been decomposed into tne e3S Bolarand Jn the planes of the principal stresses inthe materia. Tn Erefangent miteiss the indexer af selraction of tho. material {ounuered by thee two aye wil depend upon the principal sree. ‘Therefor interference pattern wll velop which mre peoporuonel 0 {he fleancen in the pineal stress. (@) Teodinensional anatysis, Wik suitable optical elements— pongo and wave platen of opacfc relative retardation—tuth the Poca atoes differences and the diretione of principal sess ween spunea tatoos 85 may be determined at every point in a two-dimensional specimen (ete 2-8 10 14 18,27, and 28, Many suitable photosasti pasts Gre evileble, The auateralpropertio that must be considered are ransperency, tensity (relative index of retraction change with ‘Sees, optical and methanicl resp, modulus of elasticity, ase of Imechining, coe and sablity (cedar rom stress developing with time. Materials with approprstecrep properties may be used for photaplatcty studio (Ret 16). (©) Threedimensional analysis. Several photoelastic techniques are used to deermine sresses in thravdimensonal spaimens. F Inrmntion se sie! nt» single point only, the optical polis frnve lates, end phovonasticly sensitive metorial can be embedded [ea teansparent node! ef. 2) and two-dimensional echniques used. |S indifetion of tis sechniqu, stress freezing s possible in some ‘inhase materials By eating, loading, cling, and woking i is ppaibie fo lck permarenty int the specimen, on molecular lve, ‘Reine proportional to those preert under ood. Sinee equim ‘Grote at molecular level, the specimen ean be cut ino two “isensonal slice and all secondary principal tress diferences der (mined: The suondary principal sreses atu point are defined asthe Itrgestand emallest arial etertes in tbe plano of the ce; these in fevcral il ot correspond with th principal stresses ot that same [Point in the thteedimenaional strture If desired, the sperimen ean be ext into eubes and the three principal stress diferencee deter Imined. The indvidvel principal stresses wt piven pon cannot be {stermined ‘vm photolatic data taken at that pint aloe since she {ihion of « hydrostatic tras to any cube of matsrial would not be rveled by diferences in the indexes of relvcton. Mathematical [cgratontoehnigues, which start at pont where the hydrostatic rest componest te Kugwn, eam Be used with photoelastic data to ‘termine ll ndivsdesl principal stress "A third method, scttred light photoelastic, ses a laser bea of intenee monochromatic polarized ight oF similar thin sheet of ene passing thenugh photosastallysenitivotraneparent models tho have the additional property of bing able to seater unitormy | Smal portion ofthe ight frm aay point on the beam or shee. The ‘ne general rstitions sppiy to this analgeie av applied to the Slesefrosen three-dimensonal analysis except that the specimen {oes wot have to be cut Homeve, the amount of light weilable fr “telpes is uch less the specimen mst be immersed in a uid with [nindex ef uracion tha very looely matches that ofthe species, idm general the dats are mich more efit to analyz. (© Photoeastic coating. Potzelosiccotings have been spray ‘bonded inthe form of thi shows, oF cam dreiy in place otheForma or Sees nd Stain lows surfeoe of mole or structures to determine the two-dimensional Surfer rains The surface in made TeBeetive before bonding the [late in plac othe effective thickness of he photoelasi plastic ie oubied ‘ant ail two dimensooal techiques can be appted wit Stable instrumentation, 6. Mowe tecnnques. Al mole techniques can be explained by opi Intrlrence, but the curse ged tehniques can also be evaluated on the bak of obstructive or mechanical inteefrence (2) Geometric moiré. Geometric moire techniques use gris of alternate oqally wideband relatively tunsparane oe ight colored Inateia and opaque oe darkcclored materia order to observe the lasve motion ato sich guide, The mot common toch (Re 204, 8, and 1) asus am alternate teneparent and opaque sido Device photographically matching rion the at turface of che peta Then tho fled relative mation i observed between the Seproduction snd the original when the specie loaded, Silay {he criginal may be wed wth a projector to preduce che photographic Jimage om the specimen and hen produce interference with the raetod) nage alter Tonding. These mathode can use ordinary ‘Ste lights andthe interference in due merely to geometric blocking fhe ight af psu through o is reflected fram te grid ‘Anuther similar technique, shadow mire, produces interference permed to muon the pecimen ae right sages #0 ts auraee ‘meen aa alternately transparent nnd opaque gig and the shaw the gid on the specimen. (8) Moiré interferometry. aterferorstey provides mean of producing both specimen ratings and referone gratings Viewal Feforence gratings of more than’ 100000 lines per inch have been Utd. Moiré intererometey provider contour maps of in-plane lisplecement, a vith the Baw pitches ateanable, ilerentaton {chain sisine fom thir expermental proses is comparable to thot soed inthe nue elemea method of numerical nals where ‘lsplosement fields are genera the Sota outpot. See Chap. 7 a Ret 2 7. Wolographic and laser peck interme. The rapid evuution of Trlogsaphic sa laser specie interferometry in related to Ube devel Gomes of high ower Ines and to the deveaproet of digital eamou terenboncement of the resulting images. Various techniques ae wot tormanaute the several diplacement componente a dffse reflecting Srfres, Dela are beyurd the scope of thin book and are bot revswed in Chap, 8 of Rel. 27 wea, permet tage 7 1. Shodow opical matod of causes, The very staple images erated by the refecbm or reraction of light from the suplace contours of ‘igh gradient trea coecentratons such as howe athe ie of cracks make the use of th shadow opticl method of caustics very useful for namie aes of crack growth ar arrest Chapter 9 of Rel 27 rivera ‘letaied dscusion of thi techie ad a comparzon to photelatie ‘dee forthe sta loadings. 8.Xyairacon. X-ray difacion makes possible the determination ff changer in intertamie sistance and thes the massurement of laste strain The method has the particular advantages that st can bo used at puts of high stress concentration and to determine ‘esidoalstettewithost cutting the act of investigation, 1. suese-paten anaysis by thermal emission. This technique use| fomputer enhancement of infrared detection of very small tempers ture changes in ardor fo produce digltl eutput related to see sta Print onthe surface af structs, a stress graph along line on the fitface, ort fale eopachie stress mep of the rorface, Under eyelie leading, ata frequency high enough to atsure that any eat tranaer thug 29 star gradients ix signee, the thermoelastic eet produves a temperature change proportional to the change in che lium ofthe principal stresses, although calibration corrections ust be made for use at widely difering ambient temporatoras, the toch nigue worke over a wide range of temperature an on 8 varity of structiral materials including motls, wood, conret, and plain end ‘enforced plastics. Tents eve been ene on ome metal ¢ eampera tutes above 10°C, Chapt 14 of Ref 27 deserbes and survey work on this technique 162 Electrical Resistance Strain Gages ‘Genera. ‘The uso of letricl resistance stain gages is probably the bow common method af measurement in experimental rst analy Sls Tnaddtin strain gnge technology is quite important nthe des of eraser instrumentation for the rnmessement of fore, ares, prataure, ee "lectrcal resistance strain gags ro based on the principal eat the resistance Rf a conductor changes ne 2 fnetion of nor stain» ‘The reitanes of conductor canbe expressed e ’a where pi he eeitvity of the conductor chins length, and Land A sre thelength and crore-sectonal aren ofthe conductor respective I oz(22 Femur Svea Sn fours can be shown that a change in due to changes inp, Land Ais given by Sens ane 622) whores Poissons atin, and esoung smal train onthe condustn, EC wehich is given by Z/f Ifthe change in the reistance af the Conductor ie considered ta be only de to the applied strain, then Tq 2-2 can be welten a8 Mase 29 te scien tte ooo S, Is the senetoty of the conductor to stein! The ist two terme ‘somo drcetl fom changes in dimension ofthe condictor where for ‘ont metals the quantity 1+ 2y varie from Lf to? The last term Eq. (62) ieealed the change in spe rita relative to stain, and fr some motals ean account far mich af the ssnaitvty to ain ‘The moat commonly used mater f opper-nikel alloy called Constantan, which bas a sersin sensitivity of 1. Other Slog uted for strain gage apleations ar modified Karin, Nicheome ¥, and ooelastie, whch have sensitivities of 20,29. and 36, rapes tively The peiany advantages f Constantan are 1. The strain sensitivity, linear over a wide range of stein and oes not change signicanty ae the material gros pas ‘Tho thorml stability ofthe material is excellont and ie ot greatly Inlluenced by temperatare changas when eed on common srw tural ators 3. Tho metallurgical properties of Constanta ate such hat they ean ue procesel to mihmiz tho eer induced duet the memo in the thermal expansion coefficients ofthe gage and the vrata fo Which tis adhered orora wide range of temperature Beamer Tas oat rsa cg frat oee Te ‘OR rey un Sand nb Son wea) sprint atone 62 Tnonlastic, with a higher seastvity, ie used for dynamie appli tions, Semiconductor ges are also avalable, and can veach sensi [toe ap high ar 175. However, ute must be exercised with respec: to ‘the poor thermal sabity ofthese pisnevstive gages ‘Most gages have 2 nominal reastance of 1200hm or 3600hm, CConssering 8 1200hm Constantan gage, to obtain a measurement ofstrain within an acuracy uf 4. would bo norssay to measure {fchenge in resistance within 21 mah. To measure these sll ‘hanger in erste accurately commercial versions of the Wheat ‘Soe bridge nled stain gage indicators, avaiable ‘Mesa alley electrical resistance strsn gages sedi experimental stress analyeia come in two basic expos bonded-wire und bonded all {Gee Fiz. 61). Today, bonded fal gages are by far the more prevaln, ‘The resistvity of Constontan i proximately 40 pa cm Thus i rain gage is tobe fabricated using a wire 0.0281 in diameter and {nto nave a reaitance of 1200hm, the gage would ruiro a wire “ppreaimataly 120mm long. To make the gage more compact over shorter active length the gogo le constructed with many loops a8 ‘hows in Hg. 61. Typical commercially available bonded fo ga6e Ieagthe vary trom 0 90mm (0.008in) t0 101.8mum (4000in). For rormal applications, Bonded fll gagee either come mounted on a wer hin polyimide film cari (being or are eneapeuated between tivo tin dine of polyimide. ter carrie materials are avalible for “seca eaes such as hightemperature apications "The most widely ueod ndhesve for bonding train gage ta est surucare is the premurecuring methyl 2yunoactyate cement Other adhesives Include epoxy peljesor, and ceramic comentsBxteeme care must bo exercised when installing a gage, singe a Eood fond and an electrically inealated gage are aecasary, The netallation procedures ean be abtained. from technialinsruction Bulletins Sinplied by the masufactoren, Once a gage ie corse mounted wired, resistance tested for sontnwity and insulnon fromthe test rproled Gf appropriate) i ready fr instrumen ‘rusture and w ‘Suain Cage Goniguatins._ In both wire or fil gages, many sons trations and sve are evel, Sala gages come many forms fo transdacor of stress analysis applications. Tho fundamental cong {rations for streseanelosie work are shown i Fi. 2 "Aotrangage i mourted oa few aurface, which in general, isin 2 seatecf plane stress mers the sate of evs with rpntdn to pecBe fy rectangular cordinate system can he unknown up to the three Unknown on free sult, ie necessary to ue a thee-lemont ‘ectangular or dele ronnie since ench page clement provide only one ies of information, the indicated normal stain a the pot in Use AUrecion ef the eng, “understand how the eee reused consider the three element rectangular route shown in Fig. 6 (0), which proves normal sean Comporeats in thre directions spaced st anges of $8 i'an sy coordinate system iv assumed to coinelde with gages & and © hens, ey and = tr Gage Bin conjunction with gages find Cproviden infomation eseseary fo determine py Healing tie Ha) Het eoad Solving fry vieds nee fn a are known, Hoxke's aw (Eas, (2) and 22-60) tbe ud ta ddermine the Beets ty 25 96% ‘The rolasionship between sq eq and fo can be sea from Mois cine af stein corresprnding to the strain state a the point unde Savetigntion fess Fig 6.0) "Th flowing exampiashers how tows the above equations fran tanalyis ob well az how to oe the equations provided ta Table 61ue \ (Rectangular onete —se (6) Mohr cil for sin sea Enwrmens ietode 9 ecemineth vss retains the rail tener tthe pin Eee t00cPnand 03, Solution, From shore, y= Bey cate = BD) ~ 290-1000 = 60 40: ‘Th sete can be determined ating a (228 and eae = SBA «2x09 = 5550 i = 0s é naptar za =(2897 1000+ 02554200150" cee, = 0000 "0" ary 9 = BI Oa Figure 6.440) shows the stone determined inthe andy dvction® as elt othe eng seta sw ip 8) or the piel sear ace wee Ba (299 en be asses iam am09F sar] 230004 008 Pa ng) = 46.930" Nm? = gE MP Por he rena ofthe ecg tron ans, ig te fret as 220 or the pincipal otras, e| = DEG a (vee gener (SEB) yy tant (MMR) te Recalling tatty dood postive in he seunarhekite dection.the ‘rnc stent the ft eave othe) sero the sn ee ‘aut correspond te tat sin 840),8 Formte fr Sues and Sin foun » fF foo re a y jm Par Sonia he ay Siti) cpa ree \Usiog the equation gv in Table 6 tthe no the hep, ata VOTO = Ta an on 200 gers ¢ Tes 2860 nono, 100" eres 7742) 90018 “Te ping ane ie apn far (2005 20-200) isIsee unter fa the xa Ag) 9 gx = 21865 MP. Note ht thie ‘ees wah Pi a) ase ett He Sf ah en Bi a Serta 6a Experimenta etocs 85 ‘Stain Gage Corections. ‘Ther ar many types ocoreectons that may be necessary to obtain accurate stain gage resulta (ave Re, 27 nnd 28), Two fundamental corrections that are nosey correct the indicated strain errors due to rein onthe specimen pespendiculae (Geanaverse) to tho longitudinal axis uf the ge and changes 19 temperature of the gago instalation. With each strsin gage, the manufacturer provides much information on the performance of the tage, such ns it sensitivity to Tlangtadsnal and tranevreseesin snd Tow the sensitivity of the gage Dehavee felatve ta temperature change. (©) Transverse senltity corrections. The stain wanstvity of «| Single stenight waif length of conductor sn naira una firain field inthe longtudinal direction ofthe conductor ie ven by Ea. 62-9, which i2.9, = (AA/Rje Ina general rin eld there il Be strain perpendiziler othe fogitdinal asi ofthe conductor (eranserse strana) Due to the width ofthe conductor elements sd the gesmetrie canguration of the condctor in the guge patente ‘wanaverse steine will also fice t change in tenance i he ‘ductor. This I not desirable since only the fet ofthe {the direction of th peg length ie bing sought, "Tp further complicate things. the sonitvity of the sruin gnge provided hy the gage manufacturer iano based on a anil strain eld but tha ee onieral tres field in a onl ost specimen, Fora ‘inva stress led let the ail and transverse strat be and ‘epectvaly The aensiiity provided by the gage mafaciureealed the woe factor 8, isdefined ne 5, (ARR, where uncer a vax sare Hold = "vg: The an. BBs with = mts 25) ‘The term iy is Poisson's rato ofthe material on hich the manuf turer's gage fir was moasured andi memaly talento be 0.285 IF the gage is used under conditions where the transverse eta is fo Sey, then the equation AA /R— Sye, would sild enact raul 14, 2 “via thon somo eror will occur This error depend on the sonstvity of the gage to traneverse strain and the deviation of the Fitio of t/t, from yp. The strain. gage taulictarer generals Supplies a tfanwverse snaiivity caefeset. K, dofined as S/S ‘where; othe transverse tensity str: One canact corvette Indicated strain fom a single strain reasing, Ths i is nacerary to iv multiple atasn readings from tat ofa rin gage rosie Table 182 a tho and ofthe chapter gives mquntons forthe correted stain values f the tree most widely used strain gage tonetes, Corrected(96 Fontes tor Stress and Stein Tom train readings are given by , wharensuneorrecte strains from the Sivan gage indicator are given by EXAMPLE, (= ila Kile _b-nsseasnieen- oom easgnengeen aa saint ett Kad ca —o = (1-asnesi90 team ora (0226:005m1 80520 +11—(o2sya05y—005(090)) (l= 0057* e699 ona c 1 Kale 110285) 0105} 1000 —wo5y4~22854005):200) 05RD From Table 64 ph vane = pt VO Ra awe ie eer a in fom = 06 wu ead we. 0) Experimental Mtyods 97 oy, en 1515.62+ 802.410") 21.810) Nj = 207 MP a= 22807 gansan— son 0%) = 0010) Nnt 291M “si ‘principles element ig sown in Pi 5 rltiv to he cordate ‘tim of oe gage nee a sow ip 8) (Corrections duet temperature change, Temperature changeson san netaled strain gage enue hang in reietance, which ie due fo mismatch inthe thermal expansion cocifients of tho gege and the Sposimen, a change inthe Feitvty af he gage matersl, ands change inthe gage fair, Sy. This effect can Bo compensated for by two different methoda, The frat method of temperature compensation ig achieved using en adtionel compensating gage on a adjacent aro tt the Whestatane bridge ceca. This samponsating gage, must be ‘dental to the active pees, mounted on the sane material athe ‘active gage, and undergoing an identical temperate change hat tthe ese ee ‘The second method involves calibration ofthe gage relative to omperature changes, The gage ean be mansfactred and caibrated forthe application on a specif specimen mates. The motalurgiel propertir of alloys such ae Constantan and molied Kast cam he processed to minimino the eat of temperature change ovr limited Funge of temperatures, somewhat centered abaut room tenperatre. (Gageeprontaed in this manner are called. sufétomperature ‘compensated strain gages, An example of the sheraiets of Pane =. fmm(88 Females or S1e08 an Sn fom BL cat-somperature compensated gage specially processed for use (ova low-earim steal is shown in Hg. G5. Note What the apperent Stain ie zeo at 22 and 45°C and approximately 2er inthe wsnty tf theoe temperatures: For trnperatires hand this FOB, omen ation ean be achieved by muniioring the temperatore atthe strain tage rite Then, using either the curve from he den sheet rte sed paloma equation, the srtn readings ean be corrected rsmeicly Kote. howover. that the curve and the polynomial equation given on the data short are based on wage factor of 20, Tf eorections are tntcipated. the gage factor adjustmont ofthe strain indicator should Ie set 020 An example that demonseraes this corset given a the ent ofthe tection. "The gage factor variation with temperature eal presented in the dats sheet of Fig 88. If Use strain png inion iiliy se at (Spy, the actual gngo faci at temperature Tis (Sip. and the Indhator vegies a stin measureten! of cpaeeg, tho corrected Se, ‘om Pht 26 ‘un encvones Sensor Quy Conte Tempura ned Ase San pee ae = es = cokes |“ Towen ee —— cme aa wea omens 9 sen oe (82) ean and 89,09 being te percent varition in gage factor given in Fig. 6 1's timultaneous torreon or apparent strain aid ya factor aration ls necessary, the covrected strain given by ws Sak, n= neta) EXAMPLE, “Tig i ected tie the en when ee tompeatne 1", Der ini the ae a cual ncn (oe ge ian al dpe iat witha dammy trpeatre compen Ing andr tig, Sw sir sere wi ts cot © So tiaiors sre si eens near seo. * Solution, From, Fig 66, the gaze tar variant 160°C ie SS{C0) L198 Thue em Ba 7h the age Sr tthe tent temper (© Sloe i he par, dy ea ‘neon from Ea (638), i ron hat castle the apace msatyin due che cng in est 1800) = 1780 hich we eo na mine cretion, 1 Int par mun Bg, 28) igh ening in Fig 8, sou 1885 + (3.85050) —(7.85E-02)280)° + (4a5R-00)250" = 62a8-O7,050"109 Fomor Sac ed Se owe ‘Siting this inte (62-8, wih) =20, es cons = (2)e00 Cpe (63. Detection of PrasicVilsing In parts made of ductile metal, emetimess rest deal can be learned loncerning the leaton of the most highly stresed eon and the lad {hat produces eaati fare by ming the Brat signs of plate yield fing Sich vielding may be detected inthe folowing ways CObsernton of sp tines. If yoling oocurs fst at sone point on the ‘Stslace secon be detacte bythe appearance of ip lineitthe wurfice iS cunabiy plished Brite coming, If « member i cnted with some aerial that wil fa off eau tis aking will ndieate loca yeing ofthe member ‘Atuating of rosin ora wach of line or white pordand cement, apie fan ellen dye best fr thie purpose bt chal or mails wil ‘item safes. By this mathod samen of high sees such a those that fccur in prestore veses around openings and projections can be located aid the load nenhired to produce lca yeling canbe deter ‘mined epproxinntely. Photocase costings. Thin photslstecontngs show very charecter ‘se patterns anuogost lip nes hen the material beneath the esting yield 64 Analogies Certain problems in elasticity invave squations that cannot be salve ‘bur thas happen to be mathematically oneal widh the equations ‘hat describe sone other phyieal phenamenon which can be inves {ted experimentally Among the more useful of such analogies are the Iotlowing Membrane analogy. ‘This ia eepecilly useful ix determining the terse property of ars having noncbealarseetions 1 in a hin fae pate aes are et ving the outline of various sections and over ch ofthese holes as ft or aehor membrane) i stretched eh seta) Expetimanta Methods 101 aightty dlatended by pressure from one ide, tho volumes of the ‘bes thus formed are proportional tothe torsion igs of the corresponding sections and the slope of a bubble surface at any SBA proportional tte stress ean at tht pont of the core Povming sation bya even tr pr it length of bar. By ting in {Ee plate one hele the shape ofthe section to be suied and another Fle that ical, Ue torsional properties ofthe Sewgula weton| eet ba deermined by eomparing the bubble formed on the hole of chat ‘ape withthe bubble formed an the eitealae hole since the torsional Sroperis ofthe crule seton are know. iectieaandogy fr opchi tines. opacic fn are lines lng Shen the ims ot the prepa stesee are equal a9 Iwo Tet glne sueee probim, The voltage any pln on inc ewodimcosinnal ondacting mura. is governed By the SENT ef equim ase the principal rest sum Teeelon TANS ( Ghitem Layer of rape partis ono paper backing oRiakean exelent ater om hich east he etre “eli he pape isu to geometric oulie corronpending Safe toe dimensonel stereo par, and teundary pete SRS appt by an adjustable omer supp Te rogue ound aetna ae ahtaine fom 4 photons study ofthe par where i fetpa ses ame cam be fond from the principal ses Ween on the boundases Rafe 2 and). A winulir mean anSigy a the beight of nompresturized membrane proportional to fhe plncpel ween um Ot 2 andTAREE constant eaniene sna fac esitance atc sien aa FEHR Ko ete) Tie eR eK Bn Key wont Kae = Ke “Ru Rey 2g = kt ie Sewn) eX) Ke~ Ke Kubek Kal ott 7 Kae Rats Kae Kale Kig— BeBe 3"* 65 References ‘rs So ip. Sout al 98-00 Be Mh Su Bp Str Aras ome Hii i'n Je i ap es Si. cs serge vt ie "nto germ Ses aan si Sn BA Wa 8 “gerne Sra Ade, Mri 8 Helis 68a St Ais Prcpe and Met Catie oa oT en 8 ar A A lig nC Ti the Mee ont Dies Lalas Uno 1. vi SB er Seti105 Formula or Seas and Stain fount oz 8 fe erie ton Pr Manson a fag Ste Age Pn ae sin tn Med he Mah of tn” Nth 2 Bakr WOW Fs nd 6. Mcinet"seunntin gin 2p A al Rn, aol a, Sur ote Sut of Experi Muchas Retr Tien Som Tacha Pad, act fr 2 Biba Ara Senn pl si nel Meio Part Formulas and Examples Bach of the fllsing chapters deals with wertin typeof iucturel member or certain condition of sess. What may icalled the rom, of fypicl, case fe usually discussed [rat special cave, repreenting peculiarities of frm proportions er circumatanees of lang, are considered itorquenty nthe darussion ofeach cose the wndeiying ‘Snurpttons ee tte the gonerl behavior ofthe lad member i described and formulae for the sess and ‘Tormation are gen. The mre portant ofthe enero) ‘uatlons ore numbered consecutively throughout ech section to facitare reference, but wherever possible, formulas ppiving to ape eases are tabulated for conenience and ‘sonomy of space Teall formulas which contin numerical enssants having iensina, the unite are specie. ‘Mou fomutas contain oni dimensionless constonts ond cam be evaluated in ony consistent ayer of wt7 Tension, Compression, Shear, and Combined Stress 74. Bar under Axil Common Case ‘The bar ie stzaight, of any uniform cross rection, of homogeneous material, and Gf under omprosson) shore ar constrained aginst Tetra! buckling. The loads are applied st the end, centally and in Sich'a manner as to avoid nonuniform steer dstcbution at any ction ofthe past under consideration The strest does aot exceed the proporinal Tit nsion (oF Compression); enevor, Parallel tothe lod the bar elongates ander tension) or Shorzens (under compression), the unt lngitudinal strain being e and ‘the ota lonsecdineldolection in the length xing 3 At ight eos {othe bed the bar corsets (onder tension) oP expands (ander ‘Sompreston), the nit lteral stain isthe same inal ransverse SFrectona and the tlal Tatra! deiction in any retin ts proportional ta the lateral dimension d messured in that dresin, Bork longitudinal od iterl stains are propartiona to the applied ead. On any right eevtsn there is a vaiform tena (or compresie) ‘on any obi suction thre sr uniform tensile or compres ‘Sve ermal atest ty and 2 ualorm shear stress The deformed far under tension is epreneted in Fig) 71(}, and the stroses in Fig 110)“H10_ Formulas for Stress and Sern tow. ort ox Sa osttctionl aren (before lang) 1 length (befrelonding) = modulus of elasticity "= Poisson's ratio coc, max ay e(hon 0= 0°) wt = tn, marry Sotwhen = 4B or 185) ef oa a1) ane a4 Saed a8) 19) aan sh unit en of rt stion chang by (20 ‘ner in A sch unit ef wl Change yh ee sine dsssione its convenient flr te fea of sorter nich bm manure eto Pane Hate hog a7, “ese, Congress hey oné Combes Sess deformed The lines of « uniform bar under axial lod is shown by ‘By, (71-3) to be proprtiona to -and diet and ta avons, proportional ABV EXAMPLE ‘ina ral ste ting ann ameter al ome ‘3.000.000 yin Determine fa) the nit compressive otess 0 ¢) the taal Ineteina ecrmaton, 9 (tm total rancreree dtormton 6 he {Ring stuns AV aod) the tal energy ce wook done naps Solution 9 Rn ae aa 5S Seeh= CATHNIIM NH = £50900" 9 wenn sharing smuy) (oy = -re= -a288-9710°8 = nsa0 e407 5(10°K0,5) = 6100-9 8 means egsinl se 200° 1 20.2894-sT7110-4 w@avv=a-m sv =-s62 20097 1109) ea deren) exo feh- (o trereae in sin the bar ema straight it i eabjec to Bending formulas for this ase are given in See 124 Tithe load is applied econtialy the bar ie aubjet to bending formulas for this eave ace give In Sect, 87 and 12-4 If te lad possve and the bar slang and not laterally consteaine, it must borenayand ar colon by the methods of Capers 12 sn 16, ifthe strensexcode the proportional ni, the formas fr steess aiven in Soe 71 sill old but the deformation and work done in| Dproduing sean be determined nly frm experimental data relating12 Fool oS and Sala een ee section is not uniform but changes gradually the sess atany sect ean be found by dividing the lana by the area ofthat exon, het oa dba ern n by ffa tnd th mrain eee en by de whe dean ae Smal length in che longitudinal eet, If the change in section is ‘rapt stess concentration may have tbe ake into secon, Yale ‘CK, bring used to find elastic tenses und valuteofK, being uted fo preiet the bretking load, Stross coneentration muy sls have tobe ‘onsiered if the end atackosente fr loading involve ples ser Threads, or other stress risers (ne Se. 2.10 and Chap, nated of being applied at the end of «aloe br the lod i applied stan intermedints pont, both end being held he method of ‘onastntdeformatione shows thatthe lous apportioned to Ue ft Pars ofthe bar in inverae proportion t thei rupee length 1 uniform bar is wupported at one end in a verialfoution end loaded only ty its own Weight the maximum streas oeure at he ‘ppatted end and sequal ote weight vide by the roe ionl free, The total elongation ie half a great andthe tral stein energy ‘ne third as grat as if Toad eal to tha weight were api a he "unsupported end, bar supporied at ane end and loaded by ite om ‘weight and an axial downward load P totes) applied at the unsep Dorced ent will have che name wat tres (oroe per amit are) ata sctins iit sapere so cat al setons seta in fee ul Pay ‘neal nocd tothe fra ng, 42 aan = Lone az where the distance from the ree end of he bar to any secon, Ais the area of that soetion, and wi the density af she mateval Wore pet ‘nse whom), Watbar is atresed by having both ende rigidly held while a change in temperatures imposed, the resting sees found by exlelatng the longitudinal expansion or contraction) thatthe. change Te temperature would produce dhe bar were not hel an then cae. ing the lond necessary to shorten Yor lengthen) iby that emoune (orinciple of superposition). Ifthe hase uniform. the ent ras produced is independent of the length ofthe bar Hf restraint saint bekling is provided. Ifs bari stressed by being suck an axel Blow stone end, the cas is ne of impact Toading.dicaseed in See, 18.3 XAMPLES Pave 72 repent nur bar sgly tld a the ee A apd D "Sul ote othe intermediate pes Ban Ci sneqaee rene we “Tasioncanprain, Set, nd Combines Suess 118 ewer the bar AR, BC CD ad arin tans sin the length i enter Tice pred hy the ned Kade (perpen, Of te 90008 fad {Br 000 reamed nnn cep An team eet ade one Staal Sleoreon by spment AC; apt or 10000. se eared {tty sng CD Deming eso by the li sgh nd vests br ‘Dinu sg nd addngalgcbscly he sual sso: in each get Slander AB 700 S000 ~ 100088 ‘Be. 200 —sba0 = 10.000 (¢B, ~Dn0 +10 090~= +5000 pent yi rte Syotaeay are a a fais sea tae ne mn mcd ee Sere ge eee name eet ciijntes iat eee atramtiacria Savor eek rere oe Eee artery See mane ens toon "ho en he bo ie peso by wedi cafe ane i ee a thls FS ar yw a Peano gece oee enpeietod asad ‘Sing tne ar ea sontc ( e r r : ‘Sng ots ete ie fbi oy ‘ited: @) the tsa tems stress pofacedy thir fce Pi ‘aatd (85040 0000065} = 00070. men (6) Loud dence the set A the area of ny att dst16 Fomor See nd San ‘oun? from the sal end ofthe br: Then (P gaft_ yg eae laf ayaear moana Sat, SIO uatng thi tothe thermal conten of 060780 in ls P2290 (e) The maim sve cre att mallet cin ais 4p _wsas7, a = 282000 ‘Besta te cn crn ny ifthe propria ino a iia tbe agra a2 reer han he festa red te Serge oar apne sta apd (snes Ba 0 ae 13 Composite Members ‘A tension oe compression mamber may be made up of parallel siemens or parts which jantlyetery the applied load ‘he otal problem eo determine how the lad apportioned among the several part, and thisis only done by the mothod a casstentdeformtons [the parts ares erage that al under the same ol elongation ‘orshortening, then ach will cary portion af the laud proportional ite stiffness, Le, proportional to AB/1 i ach is « uniorm bar at Proportional co AB if al teas uniform bars ave of equal length Ie flows that if there are m burs, with section areas ayy A Enel BR ik Smit Tan me = Ppg apt asa SEBS e735) ‘ensue Conprssin, eur and Combines Suess 18 ‘composite mamber ofthis kind can I presresed. Pye, en Feprsent the increments offers in etch member du w the spied Toad and canbe found by Bqs (7:1) and (73.2), provided al bars es ‘inten reversal of stress, or provided the applied loa is not gre? hough ta cause sch overs in ny bar which canoe wartain 3 Ae ‘plained in Se, 2.12 by proper prestzersing al pare uf «compute member ean be made te reach ther allowable los, east Tits oF Ulimate strengths simultaneously @xarpl 2). {EA cing ramped bytes wre barsA Band Cogan ‘Toe appr dof the bs re bd ion ea tate panera BIST Ge suf Saban 8 Whine od oti ce ot Beaton ad epee ie wes = 17. bm,008 ie CSR hae 1 ohn aren fet and fa amiaum bo whisk boo. 080 Bla ‘Aided fotos isbuagon ten Tex tequned to ctemine ow mache {ai ond oat se Solution, Deting by PP and Pe the as carn by A.B dC) Fvpetvey ad euresng eh oll ety i mons of pouty er ‘re ath ingen toe esate a Ba (701) a Bd onan: Siniley Pe=210018 and. Pp—¥20 2: A composite membre raed by using tela hugh aluminum | fsboste me longth an fase the opt oor bth The {Ecinae ie colo by alae nua which ake Roa SDI atta itl compreran forthe he acon are ie {at ate aan of etsy 30.0000 in a ello tent ce the lpn tb the oon re nthe model af ha htm ante ane gol ied ‘Syenarae he compute mtn 2 ou naar enna bt pst wal ‘ute allowate sree sme Salon. hn te lor isn an mah thin a trues * Bast ocr tho atin abe be Eutoo0 sofabed thy clad an the member” wil te soo anon 4208, Lae Perse to wan cmt, iS ibe acer and ty ie tana oe onsdered postive at ‘Srapresoe gi. Tha. Es ghee the tern i fe,116 Formas or sirat and Sia ow? ‘ne have forthe alsinum tbe Pesengon ONO ‘arms sea 7000" Fm 4602015 Gilt Fer he sli we have ion) 712.800, 1819) 3599 a) +3 ~ 000 hel egreetn) 1 the member were oot prested,the mays byuntre tet tga, fhe aluigun Seas toad ‘sri nn on nag gu pcs ald Thais, when he tea ached te lonablereaof [sie aluminum woul'be sued oop 8000Ivi ond he timate no the comport mener wou Se oy 2600 end st 74 Trusses ht na na compen whee hu se ROB Sethe tia peace Seo ibaa trait patel tig in the seorl iomhcrsty the actual apple aie Mhechenn in the direction x of the joint in question is given by saaleston Qenitebeniewn$es an ‘The defection nthe detonated wo Similars by assuming th unit nd to act in te 9 directo she ‘slat din is ten eterna ty nbn te ond lesions. Attention must be given ta the sans of p and &r 9 ie Dose le momter in hate to ncn and vege i er ‘Sesion tad i patent tect an Sagan ee Degatine if ie represeta a abstoning” Apne ele et on sonnet the dectn iti te deta of the anand oe wen) “Tenson,Coneresmon, Shan, and Combine Sess 117 load, and a negative value means that it ein the opposite direction (is procedure strated in Beale 1 belo) "A sicaly indeterminate true ca be solved b tho method of leas wank oe. 45) Too thi is wocessary to write down the expression {br the tual iran energy inthe stevctre, which, being simply the Uhm of the strin enargie of te constituent bars is ven by ves atnaad ste 240) a Inoreteirieaeene Brae S2(8) can Hore Py, Py et donot the fore in the indvidust momers de bo {Be ayia beds and Shas the care meaning a above Tes nessa tovaptcas enc fone a the out of tbe wo forces one of ewe = he force the applied loade mould produce withthe redundant membar Femoved, andthe others the free due othe unknown fre (sy. FY nerd by this redundant member on the rest ofthe structure, The {eal stra energy ie thus expressed as a fonction ofthe knows {ppl foros and F, the free he redundant member The pari enwntive wit reapect to F ef this xpresnon fr srain energy is then el nqual ey teroand solved for [ether ao two oF more redundant embers the eepresion for stain enorgy with all she redundant [nso Fs Pa ete reprevented sr differentatod once with fespet 10 tach The equabons thus abtained are then solved sirultanesly fr {he unknown frees, (The precede is iustestd in Example 2) RRUUPLES ecm fina Fig 2.8 ie sompod f bulr ta members. wih ET aibuninoliat theca ancora the meer an ten twee ‘inh med Sr ean sal oh el ‘Sotation. ‘Themen of uit a od-The fre Pincach mb ete sel ero loti sorter PEG Natea, each mesic toa nea io eng te he Se inal ete pace teat fueron ae eee pene es tens » he i [ | E eo i118 Formulas for Stress and Strain tow. onsted by +, comareming feces and shonines by. The mark ie veniay ita llows a eh eee ‘yan ae hh ond o be pontine, which mean thet th placomens ‘ln he rts of he snare wit ns the gt sn ge Had ‘Shar br tno be nea wn have an ee te octet ‘iene dnetoeeppatet th of te otesmnding i an, 2: ci dpm ones sng to Ae Dan ving a eg yee 23S ant agth atti ibe sd wee te ef eae ‘Seaver ow ray daria Ti oe deere te ine sch mer ot ce on dos the has sto 6 Woe theethad of east work Th tree has ane rdundane Maren Sy member xc BE may be oped welt: ay ne wee reed, the rng Hraane woud be table tnd steal ‘trate We nt AD toe rgd redundant, pate te ko fies AD by Fcoduonme tomar Woden cash nee "tit AD te omoved ter od teen ne nebo tap {rene 34 ny Allan hen add ches vos tu etn ee expen {here eah mom of he actual uae ein ike exes ot ‘he aha snery en hare writen vt ered wih tapes ‘hustler tel near beg Kaw te fe nc es {ets yd Te computations reconvene tabled a Mente et o o oom 0751 ‘erion, Comoro, Shea, and Combined Sess 119 (2000.58 a agmacr nd 0) — wT a) a(S Seting the partial deivatin of U lative wo Fe, a p[fite=nerncocmy nom oemincossxen | seagate tic Rees P10, sale oF wold have indented tnaon. Subang te vata ef # the {ome flu (ele mea etal res nce taba ‘chan 175 Body under Pure Shear Stress condition of pure shoar may be produced by anyone f the moths ff lding shown in Pg. 14. In Fig. 74(a, a rectangular block of length a height 5, and uniform thicken x sown ld by forces , end P, unermly ditt over te surtacee ta which they ore poled snd sting the eqlivinm equation Pb =Pya There are ‘sal shear stresses on all vertical und haraantl planes, tht any Contained cab oriented like ABCD hn om each if four face she shen Stross ¢= Pyfat= a/0t and no other sre. Ta Fig. 74() a rectangular bec i shown under ual and opposite bial stroses , and 9 There are equal heat stesses all panes ‘nclned at 45° to the tp and batiom Tacs, 30 Usa a contined cube29 Forme or Sue an ain own st i BC me a, and no other wee te ear a ii Senn cn Eee eae ht ge eet sg some ne eka et gata ‘equilibrium condition 7, = 0 (See. 4.1). te ci ttl me ce raglan tm st chREN SSeS heme eqn tin 2, eae eae 2° as) whge ene Aca ty pure ae hows Fg 7.0shere oe aneg tll nurs Tpoatndon AC. the ve a A ning a en aS Cen a ee ra ead aor net dean ae mo strain is related to the shear stress a5 " a =o 52) ‘Assuming linear materia: th strain enery pt uit wolume fr pare ‘fear uy within she late rage even y " sa) wom unin, Caprio, shnr ana Combines sess 17 -thetnation betwee 4,408 se ssn reprmened nF T20) at ein gran Cin eros of ad Par sau amaks roam: woop materia The relatonshi o asa 7A ined by a tensile tus) ant O eto enlelate rom haown saluce of F (eter Freeney a orion test iis hus po 116 Gases of Dect Shear Loading sy ect whan meat acs wn mene By re a nd oppose fee owen wine a on by eau Pam chem in sete primarily 0 sear ere, rata Ng, amples of hae provide Te ne a aye, cr reads or es ce Te si, al i ure ea he nt erese tition MGS tony ts cine ecase othe nen of BL and NS and ural ing auch part, ower, ie cll pasumel Tet face 1 ee ly ierbated an se cc! enton, 2m4 n the shear UO ceed with de awanc the APPT worn ete Spo, she practice = usally permis le pasar of he rnsver aber, is asumpton cannot We ae teavale 57 egher tests in vt pns, bev te ave Maree as tnd yas ahea resem beams in ep. & an8 sar ReSaee torsion morabers in Chap. 10 77 Combined Sess cadet evtain circumstances of loning, « ody ie elec’ Unde cen ae and sompreeaive scans stall esate combination enor am cabin of en COMBE a te tare decgnaed a combined, ee), Tas snd shear efor tener surface of hick a Tn addition 0 th sual concentrated verbal Jou, concentrated aun Sgr — a WRT 25) = 0pm 1400-2 ASAIO 5.010" -oma9 —4p:.0" 8 1940-40 + 100% vpn rns pani Dyess mean egs ‘tbc and siting the slope nul fo er, . 0 = ona 4240" +1010", tino selon far 807 186m he ae af 2.7m vl Shelton than toc Sautting® "ion tenth dees gute RSihe eos dfn “01 cn irs Maca 3 ara"‘796 Formulas for Stross and Stain four. hich he win ntatve al where xine miriam, i, thet a Mor = 6068100) 52 400-407 Me_ 9.4203) ue 10.480 Nem 4 Th carn beam in ample 9 to simply supported at then and ‘aor aconentnta lon of 1 DN sex pint emt fon she ght ee RISES eS acer fcr wo te od ope tno, ‘> aE ora" Be nOON My =o {200 79930070) = Ones? rad, 94 =0 one 00! 0) ~ 000826 Ten BF an + nosso = 30.200 ue aoe & sioner = -Do06s2 + 2080-4 —69K10-)x— 708 “Te shortening fhe aut we face of the beam it enn Bg, H()« ~al 1 ficoow seme semw een (000m + 20810" le a tn to he serene ost earache me eof it {ides ely a Sour gor 8B "0 abSen Sn {Se oe ce of he ht wanes he gh ya ten Bo Ot © Baia Brie mtn he oer ayn Bint eu toting in inal rain he we "gle vee meting of the lower et of the ad at cea) (Boomer Pease of Straight Gare 637 182. Composite Beams and Bimetalic Strips ‘uns that ate constrected of mare than one material can erate hy, fsingan equivalent wit techy i tho maxim stresses in each of {he several materiale rain wth the proportional lini An og Tene eros scion is developed in which the with of each component parallel to the principal mais af ending ie ineresed in the sme ropetion chat the mmadulus of eltety of that component makes Shih the modulus of he astmed mater ofthe equivalent bear EXAMPLE, {un wi and gepth Tne top poi i de of sum fy whi ee pitt ase coner nade of baa or wc By 5-108 Seale ose el eh = 3 li ar {optbis equivalent crows seton the centroid must be eat aed the maens {Choa tern for te ont as Solution po MM e902 ane ‘The equiv tions AI of he team io thertne 10-1085) or et "Snare sien corm by € = MS, mal ive tre in thw quiver cam wh ay tery be end in te sre he sel sare Siem ne mousey pn ae 0 Rorize Ps Squle team would too = 900006~ 207905, oF ‘2D Sg te materi at the ep ox he nae the nal ed’cleient ume ths nso mre sz the tum ‘Sirus th acta! Co Th sont tthe to of Ge etalon bar, ‘edhe suntan yas Se yan Malling uss byte boatoedule ai, the atl a te atm he teal portion of the eas ‘sid be a= 783000) 10)= 29900 yn imenli tips ar widely wed in instromente to sonse or costa temperatures The lowing frm pves the equivalent propetin of the strip or which the ers socuon esha In Fg. 8 Bevin B= pie x, ean Reser) sB(Q) Be aaa All the fren i Table 6.1, easee 116, can be applied tothe metalic beam by esing this equivalent valoe oF Since bimetallic ‘rip designed to deform when is temporatre difers fra 7, the {eingerature we which the stip iv eenghs, Table 5.1 cae 8, a be {ied to slve fr euetion fore ad thoments a wel Se deformations tafe bimetallic strip under @ uniform tompereture 7. Todo this, he term (fy -Tyit i replaced bythe torm Sty, —72A7— Tel 4137 (Gay and Ble replaced bythe equivalent BY given by E82). ‘Aer the moments and deformations nave been determined, the fox stresses cam he computed. The streasee due to the bending ‘omens caused by the vesteints and any applied Toads are given by the flowing expressions Ta the tp aurface of material a 629) 626 Is there are no setraints imposed, the diortion of a bimetallic tp due soa temperate changes ecompanied by Soxuresreses i the tio materiale Tht differs fom a bear made of «single material ‘hl Storia few of stress when subected to « Enea temperature 1, 1 anes 6d the Ten eneaser the let end, this the ase etna (Re, 58) diccortes this problem of beam supported on an asic foundation extensively and shows how the sottione ean be ‘iapted ta other elements roch ae bllow esindor. Hetényi (Re. 51) Has alo develped x series solution for beams supported on elastic foundations in which the eifpess parameters of the beam and foundation ate not sneoporated inthe arguments of trigonometic fr hypentoie Rneions. He givs tabos ef coefficients derived for Specie brundary conditions ftom whieh defermatin, moments or hearscan be found a any specie pint slong the beam. Any deroeof ‘eure can be obtained by using enoup terms in tho series "Tables of rthericl vies Tables 8.3 and 8-4 ae provided to assist in the nition of ho formas Table Interpolation e posse or Values tht ae included hit ehould he used with eation ts noted {at deenoos of Inrge and nearly equal mmbers are being encoun faved, A far Setter method of inezpoltion for a beara with a sinale lead eto save the probiem tie, For the st slution move the lad tthe aft ntl fl) Sea value found in Table Bnd forse econd olution move the ld similarly to the right. Tinea incerpalation ‘Bom heat soto auld be vor? accurate ‘resenting the forinules for end reactions and displacements in ‘Tele 4 in trma of the constants C, and Cy is advantageous sinc {permite one to eve deety fo lode anywhere om the span, I the Toa are at the left euch tat C, = Cy, thon the formas canbe Preceeed in s simpler form seis done'in Ret. 6 of Chap. 13 for (linda! abel To fclitate the use ef Table 8.5 when a concen {fated fond, ament, angular settion, of Tatars dsplaement i at the let end Ghat in = 0) the fllowingequatins are presoned fo inp the msmeraeae: C+ OC =Cn ACEC, C465 C.0,= Cy Ch =26,0 = CAG A1+Cy. 2§-C.C,= 0, EG ary, 2+ AC seas eos Fee ot Sigh ars 160 EAE en race ceta oi io Fe iat leeds inact ‘ElLeRimue undone agin ms oes fant, tae ert beams whan mad of con's supported atone nd of he Won, The aring oogan fr cach poring beam i EL nro a Soe tdi tn ued cai Mea tal che squent aco iie S137 = 222 240) =2.70 coon asin non csi fndain sn a secrete it hese acon of i Aba-naeone Seca mi ara ges fens bh athe Sa en aan, eae there ne ae ie Gabi Foe, Te la niche seo ies Or REE fc nex Se a Tl el ad Ree cae 1 werk caret ee a Ranta ape are eae ele pig el ea ohh leone Era Detlaay ad seicbabira eh nie 20.4 Se a oat Me uits te € erm aoe far et i aC ua peng = 7A(-09001= £76 = espana leo Sinasiy G,=12, C= 989, and Cy = 647, Goo Tales 82 and 4) ‘Three “ feo 850) NITED _yoprt6 ro t= THAT RROOTIER) or (28-870 8501-850 sain150 Female Sat nt Sa fous {With the drmason othe fond own, the expres fr tho hendng ares a8ten,-0,80 Mg ona2¥90-1"y2s ay00132%, ~p9s28690. 021 s00182NP, soma 11,4007, ~ 52.000, 88,700F ‘ow scitting tho express fr Fy Fy al Fy ve ‘Mw 18 400sn ear $9 60cm sin sind dnb) “AA TOot fi ih seo) 8 ~181400soh en gr~ 178, s00coh en f+ snk Boe ‘Te usin value of A can be tat br eying aloe of «in he sahbrhind of xmas e/401197}" fin teh eld bt one poainam moment i th ae were nok ne ee eS Bicone ee the anima monsters AS Coa ed fore the mesma bn ONG rg 700 onan he asl ae 2 Mehe bin bem in Example ed been much ge but support inthe we ance Tee ould have bye seed Gea Crees a sea tein Wikibase se jgazsaaooira sitet = si 300 mie st tain tom the hase We ‘Boul not cstv fo this example tat meeting Soe eng a sas itt ren i ee din plod ero o th pa nam 9 wide, 2n dp, nin hing ie mate anethhis ntal spe shown Fag A ae, ee ‘hse oan sia foundation bch devaope SOT e* weal ek repre loreey Sin ti depesud Thu bse nad ye ene iced of sinh each and a uniemly ducted bad of SI oe [esti baoen the concent ade Tha ods ieaownin Fs 1 moe Solution. rt determine the bap apd Sundasin paruetars bjt, Te AON =2ie', y= 6ODIFNtin, he a ee Hiss, Cre —8880, C= -2068 = 289, tn et ans ‘Worm ene = in a Hy = OY and gS in ‘twice with wy = 80 yin and ay = 19, and wy = —* Peet eo cou e vans fe ae nda re eae tio ptcs mur be Seared for ech abe Po" An rain i : — ec 69 — 191 10688-099) = 8907 noth, Cg =1983 Por ate lo a= 840% or 2, a Ga =0.9815 Format lr See ene Sn ‘Theor gO and af, = y= 0 (98504-8497) —o4-2065)-2907) Ere Te 7 1 0 85040, 999 2-20 651080 a Ted = (88501110 “oan48y-8407 ae 7 4.8 (ssn 09) (209542. are Tit . pv S804429 «(24-20 6848385) 05 99, © ae cons 2-010 = ria.0125)-a0a-wora1) Simin, t ont bointby'y = CPU/AD) where Ky and Ky are dimensionless col172 Fomor Sao and Soin foun £1 gett -Gonts that depend upon the cation ofthe lad and te pont and Dit ‘i detined in Tublo 1.2 Por the load at se, 2= 0, the seas at any it om the fined edge # =O. == snd the dflction st any pint om fetioe edger = ay eam be found by using the following values of Ky and ‘Those values are based onthe snalsi of Jaramillo Bel. £7, who ssnumes an inf length for he plate, and aren good agreeanent 0 [rat comparae, with eeefltsencs given by MacGregor et, 29, ‘Toop afer only slightly fora resus eenined by Holl el. 27) fr a Tength span sate of al by Lele Ret. <2) for a length span ratio of ‘land are in god ronment sith avilable tst ds ‘Weaver end Sire Ret 18) discuss the results of toss om beams of sarious popertion and explain an letra a9 emptial method by Thich the Ky valor obtained by Jaramillo (et. 47) for che site Plat under concentrated loading can be sed to determine approx se 8 ams Peco Sigh Bors 973 rats the stress in a Brite plate under an arbicray transverse Tonding "The stresses corresponding tothe tabulated valu of My, ame soa swe direction) stereos: the maxsmum cassette (erection sires ‘ones under the load wien the load ie applied at the midpoint o he {ow edge nd ie appreaimatel equal tothe maximum spanwica srose fe that lading ‘skhough the previous formulas are besed on the assumption of infite wih ofa snb torts la. 26) an plate with a width of 8) an {and span aot Ii showed close agreement between caleuletod tod raeasured defections, end Holls analysis (Ref. 27), based on the “ssumption of place width four tes the apan, gives result chat {ifr only aghtly fom MacGregors (Ref 20). The formulas given Should thoreore be applicabls to slabs of brendeh az small a0 four ‘nes the span 1812. Beame with Wide Flanges; Shear Lag In thin metal construction, bon, oF bea with very wide thin ‘over plates cr anges are soeiaes se and when thi pti ‘Safin hy am attacked sumer portion of the plate maybe Considered uo a ange, acting invogrally withthe ezached member rich forme the we example are to Be fund sn sip lly for, tanks, and sirrahs In either typo af constrtion the question arias ‘5 to what width of flange or plate woul be considered elective i ret width stormy sree to Ue maxi stews Ut actus ‘eran, would provide a realsting moment equal t that ofthe etal ross which ae grostse near he web and amin a the distance ftom i ners ‘This problem has been considered by severe investigators: the results fainted on page 174 are due to Hilesbrand and Retsanee (ct. 38, Wiwer lat 0), and Miler Ret 28, Tat b= acual net width of tho flange (or cle distance between swe in eonsinsoue plate ad aller ronstrseion let = =pan. and Tee h'effeive with of the tangs the srtion of mamas tending moment. Then the proximate value of Bb which varie tvith the loung an mith the rato 1, ean be found fr bean of {hile section nthe table om p. 174 ly thie eable the ease numbers fefer to the manner of fading and ssppore represented sn Tbe 1) See also Ret 37 ‘Some ofthe ‘mare important conclusions stated fn Ref. can be summariead as follows “The amount of shear lag depend at only on the method of loading spd muppor andthe ratio! span lage width but alo an the ato GEG to Bandon tho ato m = (Bh, + y= 1h where fy anal,14 Formas See and San fous 28) sams; ato Sala re 8 ‘he moments of inertia about the neutral exis of the eum of the side plates and covr plates, rnpectively. (The wales tabsated fon Red ‘Slave for G/R = 0.375 and m =2) The value of 8/6 inerenane with increasing m, Bt for vals af m betwen 1.3 and 26 the variation is smal enough tobe disregarded. Shear lag at th eit scion dove not seam tobe affected appreishlyby the taper the boam in width bt cheaper cover plate thickest have an port eet In beams with ited ends the eet of shear lag at the end stones the same as fora cantilever ef pan equal nthe distance from te pon oF Infleeien to tho adacene end Tn Ret 99 ie tated that fora givon 1 ratio the effect of shear lag ‘is practically the same fr baa. Ty, and Usheams [ ange in compression, ‘The preceding dicussion and tabulated fete apply to any eae in with the flange isso fo tension ort compression ls thas that required to produce eastie inetd (eee Chap. 15). When a thin flange a ahect x onthe compress id however, it may be stressed hevond the stability Ut. For this condition, the elfective width decreases withthe actual stress A ‘mil for tsi width used in ninrat desi oT z wonle hese he maximum compressive strees adjnont tn the suppor ing web or webs) and K isa coffin which may be conservatively taken a¢ 085 for box beame and 0.60 for 8 or att Fea having anges with enmspported miter aces ‘A theoretical analysis that takes into account bth compressive Iouckling and shear log ie described in Ref. 40. Probleme tvalving ‘hearing nd bung ar not fequenty encountered in design with thin-gege metal: good guides to uch derign are the tonke “Cole Formed Stool Design Monual" in 8 pares including commentary Dublished in 1962 by the Amvrieen Tron and Stel fatitte, and ‘Aluminum Constrution Mena.” ed published in 181 by the ‘Alumina Association, Sepals Raf 68, 1819, Beams with Very Thin Webs Im beams with extremely thin webs, sch at are used in stplene onstruction, bucking due to shear wil aur at tetses wll bow the elastic limit. This ean bo pretonted ifthe we te made shetr reiiant by the addition uf wilfeners such ee thos weed on plate fiers, but the number of thse required ry be excessive nated of fmabing the Wed shesereitant it may be permited to buckle Reon | table176 Formdas or Sues an Sain town clastically without damage, the shear being carried wholly in diagonal lenson. This tension tends to pull the upper and lower flanges together, snd to proven! the, vertical struts aro proved which any the versal component ofthe diagonal web tension. A girder desig iin fot, 9 Prat truss, the web replacing the diagonal {eosin members end the vertical strats conetitating the compression Inombess, In nppearants, these snuts resemble ee otifeners of te Crdinry plete gid, bat thee function i obviously quite diferent. ath of thie kind te called a diogonal-enson feld beam, ot agnor beam, afer Profane Herbert Wagner of Danzig, who is largely respite for developing the theory Because of is rather Timid ld of application only one sxample of the Wager bear mill be consiered her, sr canslever under en lad et Por Lad = depth of the bese, = thickness ofthe wey «4~spucing of the vrsicl tute, = dstence fom the leaded end to fhe section mn question, Hand H, = tal rzeses inthe tension and ompression fangss, respcsively, at the given section, Cm total ompreccion on a vertial eeu, tnd f—snit Siaganal ns etrest inthe web Then Ps Pa 2 = bP, 4 ‘The vertical component of the web tension constitutes @ beam loading on each individual Aange betweoo tute; the maximum ‘value of the twang bending moment tecurs at the strut and ix ltven by My gPA#f, The flonurl stron due to, must be added {othe eterses due 9 Hy r wich mabe found simply by ivan [or H by the area af the eeresponding Range ‘the horiontal component ofthe web tension causes « bonding moment Mla |Ph inthe vertical strut atthe end of Ube bear unless Trending theres prevented by some sytem of tracing. Thie ond gtr ‘hut algo distie th load to the web, and should be designed to ors the load as a pivendel coluin af length [se well to eet the monn impoced by the web tension "The imtermedae struts are designed ax pin-ended columns with lengihe somembat Ise than AT adjacent portion of the web Included inthe area ofthe coun che width ofthe stip consderod ‘STetive being 01m the cas of shina an 604m the case of stl ‘Obviously the povesding rans wl apply ala toa Beam with end supports and enter load f Ps replaced byt reaction 4P. Bees “hvlows simplifying wssumyions made in the analyte thes formulas {re eonsevatve a partiulor the formula fr stress in the vertical “iru or stoners pies rules much anger than actual stresses ‘hat have’ toon dachoeed experimentally: More securate analyses seca) ears Flee of Sein Sa 77 together with experimental data frm varios aurees, wil found in| Rte, 90,3, 8,62, and 69-7, 8:14 Beams Not Loaded in Pane of Symmetry: Flexural Center ‘The formulas for ste and defection given in Sc. aru vali if the team is loaded ins plane of syemmetey they are also vali if the ‘pplied loads are parallel to either principal rentra ait ofthe bear Stein, but unlear the loads also passthrough the elastic ait, the ‘eum wil be subjctd t tenon at wel to bending. For the general case of eam of any section Inded by a transverse load P in any’ plane, therefore, she elution comprises the follwing ‘eps: (The lad P is rsved into an equal and parallel fore P parng through tho Bexural center Q ofthe section ad twisting Eouple equa tothe moment of P about Q;(2) Persad at Qin feelangulat components P, and each parallel oa principal central ns ofthe eetsny (te exuralsteeres and deflection due To Py tind Pyare ealelated indopendenay bythe formulas of Se. 8.1 aoa pected to find the effet uf P and cf) Une strosses due to Tare Computed indeyendenty aid superispossd on the ntrenean due wo P. flving the stresses duo tothe actual loading. (ts tobe noted that 7 fay cruse Iongtadinal fiber stesoe wil sear seeaes. Seo Sex 103 and the example atthe end ofthis section ) Uf chere ato Several loads, the eflect of each is calelated soparately snd. these ‘fects added For dntrioted Ina the rae procedure llowed ss {rg concentrated load “Phe shove procedure cequires the detormination ofthe position of ‘the flearol center @. For any setion having Uo oF more axes of [Shmmetey (rte eam, ete) endfor any setion hing a pon Gtaymmtry (equilateral angle Z:bae te), @ isnt the entroid. For {hy coston having ony ne anno yanmar. Qi on that axis ut a feveral not at the conoid. For nich sections and fr wnnymmetricl ‘Scins in general. the potion of @ met be detersned by calcul than direct experiment the soaps method (Se. 03). "Table B12 gives the position of the Resa center foreach of «| umber of sections Nauta axs, When x beam i beat by one or more la that ein ‘lane ot parallel to either pina central ie of the aston, the eutral eae pases tough the cenbotd but ia not perpendicular 0 he pane ofthe lute Lt anced and 2 Ue princpal ental sxe ot the cetion, and lat ya, represent the corresponding omens of {ert Thon, ifthe plane othe lands maker with asin 1 am angle 3the neutral axis rakes with ae 2 am angle auch that tan dzi,yans Te ean be seen frm this equation that the evtra iis ten o approach the principal cent aus aout which the moment Figure 610) eeprom» canner beam of chal aeton ‘vader 2 oS t aa pie e"tnesrnes red Ww erm te Solution. or she scion (iy A8y f= 561iat, = 190%n4 peeiSin k= 8 tein and t= a fy the Smale tom Tale st ‘hile Bi thee he deol cet ot @, own Wh he Toe role to etal pd eee component se und tous the fs a hoy a ie 301) Nese bret emmponets are ‘Sad enue oe pit coal omy and vary seria nd oral “Th maximum fw srs wil ec ae evn where ae sttwes to seria and aerueaal being omens te ie seme isthe Upesatt umer th sree a an se fre Rene 12 nts eer chr ghee th nt nome ‘et the versed snd Beebe componente of he lado x69) "B ‘Thocet of he couple depenon te wa in whish he po ond oth ben Eeppere e aytraed ei o th ge ‘res th cms act, ah hee sees ante nd Te apie {een oma of Tat 10 t howrse the bea lesa te {fingered in ha ran pan thom arf the erg a rene Py fhe ending raf the dnaee and te easeonging net tas Fare eres Ts can te Found by ug the ras oS. roms we Seams; Fence Sah Bre 178 For he chanel ect, Ke ian ith uci sonny bythe fra Aa(ehiye ty Cpe 92 cane whieh pee KUT it Taine (62 Slama yin and B= aonb inks the oma Gr Cx 8 hvu for cn fund. Prom abe 403, the formal re ae (&)"= [as] ph seas thang ho mETH OE 1410-0 ‘Thaefpe the Spun) comprenioe sree of can be fend fue he ‘oreson er yi abe 10 coe ape MAM py OE 8, ERT =a gaa ‘host a tesa f 1,200 1610 ~ 9800 By 8 anaot7 40120") = 160? [245- Staight Uniform Beams (Common Case); timate Strength When beam is stressed teyond tho elastic limit plane sections | remain pane or nearly 20 but unit streaee reno longer propersonal tovntraine and Hence no longer proprtional to distance from the tute viface I he material as smiley sttesstesin curves in tension and compresion, the stress dstrtion above ad Bel the Seutralsustace willbe ina and the neutral exe of any extion ‘eich esymmoeticsbowt a horianntal sui wil ti pas throug the Gentoid; ifthe material bas diferent properties in tension and ‘Sempresson, then the neutral axis wll ait sn fom the side on Gri tbe bers yield the meets this shit cauwee ap btn ‘deparure fom theses derbation aasutned Bs th theory tine’ infec, 81 Feature tn bending. The strength of «boar of rainary proportion | Getermined by the maximum bending moment it an sustain. Per beams of andvetle material (cst ibm, conerete, oF seasoned W008) {hs moment may be eaeultod by th formula My = ol) ithe Imo of rupture, is sown. The modulus of raplar depends othe ‘eterinl and other factre (ace See 3.11), ad attempts have een ‘mde co caleulate efor agin material an veton from the frm of1) Formos tor Seese an rn owns se complete streuatrsin diagram, Thus for cast iron an approximate Salus of @ may be fond bythe formula o'= K-ye]=2q where cis the rt he exten fle, ithe datane rom the neutral exis to {heceneod of he tensile part ofthe section, and is an experimental eficient equa of for setions that ro fat atthe tap and boom [festngle, ee) and sections that are pointed or convex a the {Gpand betom ence atsiond, ee) Get. 4 Some teste india that tthe method of clelating the breaking stength of east ron sme times inecurnte but generally ora onthe side of safety ef 8) Ta ena, the breaking strength of beam ean bo predicted best fiom experimentally dteroined values of the rupture factor and {ikimace stength ae the form factor and modulas of reptre. The fupture favors ace booed on the ultimate tensile strength for alt Tnuteiss except wood fr which te based on compresuive strength Form factors ate based op a roctangolneeetion, For structural te frrought lass, and other doeile mcals, where bears €o not ovlly beak, te waduve of rupture means the computed Aber ‘oso at the maaimuan bending moment (hes © 20, ‘When the meximumn beading moment outs at but one scion, for a nngie concentrated oad the motulus of rapture ie higher than Shon the masini momeat extends over «connierable part ofthe Shans Fur stance he oodule of rupture of short beums of brite ‘ateral is about 20 pereont higher when determined by center Trading than wien detareine by third pint lading. The diypany ‘decreas ae the span depth enti increas "Brame of ductile material (troctaral steel or skin) do not ordinarily fenctare under sate Tonding But fa trough excesive {eflecttan, For such beams, they ae of relatively tick section 90 a th posiude Toe buclinge the taxiosum bending toment ie thet trhlcr sorreaponds tn pluie siding throughout the sation, This Tmo momento past moment, ts usualy denoted hy M and {an be enleulaed by the formula My = 2,2, where the lower vel pat ofthe materia and Z, called the plastic scion modulus, i the [rmiea! cum of he ite! omente about the neutral exo the forts of the eres section above and flow that axie. Thus, for ectangular section of depth dnd width 5, = banger + Goan) = joe? ‘Tals method of eleulating the maximum resisting moment o 3 “aveulecmetrial bone ie wiely Ged in "plastic design” and Claruned further in See, 816 Te important to aoe that whe the baste moment has been developed, che neutral axis divides the rose [retina ara into halves an a snot always a centroids ox 1 is flssImporeat to aot tae the plate moment is always zener than wos ‘Boars; Fexue of Soeight Bare 381 the moment required to just strse the extreme fiber to Ue ower yield ‘Mine this moment whieh may be depoted by Af, is equal tof; tnd 20 My. 2 nie ‘This rato ZT) celled the shape factor depen on the form of the Tee elon Tor asold esangle ie would be 6#/Lbe, or 1 5;f0r an tecon ff unully about 136, Tuble A ves formals or numer [ii"vatues forthe plate sedi modutus Zand for the shape factor foes of the cre section listed taker and beats of fn open rection, lea! buckling xing il eee stes oxcur before the fll paste resisting moment f= JESS'ind the length ofthe member wil hace an infuses. Tubes ‘Uiatecl or aluminum alley generally wll dvelop 2 modulus af ruptare| reeeuing the utimese tensile stength whon the ratio of diameter to aTkikncas in lees than 60 fr sce o7 95 for aluminum. Wide Janged steel Deane will devel the fll plate resting moment ‘The the outatanding with/dsiceness ratio je lee than 8.7 for ee sR bjt or 82 fir = 38.000ib/in= Charts giving the hective modulus of rupture of steel, aluminum, and magnesium {ae of verioue proportions may be found in Re. 88 ature in shear, Failure by an actual shes facture is nly sn wood beats, where the shear strength Bs of course, mal {e'bekon ana sinilarthin.webbed sections the diagonal compres ion de acompenies shear (Se. 7-5) may lead toa bueling fue (Gav the aicuostn of eb buckling tht follows, and in Beams of cast (fea a conrete the diagonal tension that ciminely aceompanion ‘hens may cause ropture The formula for shear tess (Ba. 1-2] {ay be considered valid ne long asthe fiber streries do ot exceed she Be ool tut and therefore Se may be used so cazuate the Perpeth Uhear necewury fo produce falure in any case were the idmate cheng strong of the beanie reaghod while the Aber atte atthe section af maximum shear, are ail within the propor Sona out. key wo occur eo Use grain i Web bua: ocl ature, An eam or snr thinned member Mey ry bucting of the web owing to diagonal compression when ‘he star stves aches a certain Valu. Ketehom and Draffin Re 1) and Wend and Withey el. 12) fund that i light beams this spear buckling oveurs when the shear tres, ealulated byM2 Formutes for Sess and Strain four. £125 Veh aren (tof 1 or ¢= V/Wab ares Rat, 1, reaches a alue equal otho unit oa thatean becarried bya wert stapcavae bonm as. oundended column, For the thin maby the tease act fvch a thin strip would be computed asa Exle columay for besser beams an appropriate perabebe or ther formal shal Be nocd (Chap. 1, Plate ives, web buckling may be prevented by vertical or logon aifeners usualy consisting of Coulle angles that are eicd or woided neon each side ofthe mab. Steeheunatruton epee tions (Ret 19) require that auch stifners be provided ‘whee ti sgxceeds 70 and © exces 64,000,000//9. Such itfoners shod ‘havea moment of inertia (gured for an nist the center Ine ee ee vee equal to atleast .00000016H* and ghoul be spaced vo ches te ‘lear distance between sucessve tillers is not tmase then 2,0004//6 or 8sin, whichever leas. Hore his thu cles dope at ‘he web beeen flanges, i the web thithnese. «isthe shear cect Vk, one fs the total depth af the web, In lightmet! ueplane snstructon, che ailfenrs are somites designed a havea mene of inetin about an axis parallel to the web given by T= Geos (W038), where V'= the atl vertial shear and = the ties spacing contr tn center Rel 1) Bacbing Eine may occur aso es 9 rel of vertialcomprerson| 64 support or contentented nad, which p caused by either ok "ype buckling of the web (taf 11 and 18) or erpping ofthe web ok the too ofthe Allee et. 15.70 guard agninat this Leton ee of faire, preset specications provide that fr intenor fea, BUA 2h) < 24.000 and for end reactions RAN + h)e 24000, here Ris the concentrated land a end rection the web thicenen, X the length of bearing, and the decane from the outer fee oh flange tothe web tor ofthe list Here fi n pound snd al eee dimension arin inches Wood beats wil crush leally if the support ae to narrow or ‘lod is applied wer too snl bering area, The unit beating sses, {n ither cue is calculated by dividing the force bythe sowie bearing are, no allowance being made forthe nonuniors darn, on of pressure consequent upon bending (Ref. 9) Metal beams alo ‘may be subjected to high local pressure sree; tear are dscaveed Chap. Lateral bucking, The compression fangs of an Ebeam of similar ‘momber may il as a column aa s result of lateral burking i ntupported, Such buckling may be elastic or post, thal i hay ‘reur ata maximum fiber strensbelw or above te lass Hn lee frst cave the buckling is an example of elatic natalie hy hoes as, ‘Beams; Flrure ot Straight Bars 185 relevant formolas are given in Table 15.2. For bocling above the ‘SELL caprmant oe ed fon il be shown ob eve Sloped the columns discussed in Chap. 12. won mt = 4,000 60% the etrome Ser feomputed by here i th compressive ses in fer compa y ra Ph bam cea ua itr separ he we ‘id eis totic wtih doendh om the manner a lading and pport and haa the following values ESE eee ne Sern For very light beams, Ketchum and Drain (Ref 11) und eat Tower lini of test resale ls given by ml =24.000— 40% where the terms have the same manning and the sme values a6 risa bua tested hy Mooce generally fled at stresses Blow tut serine tbe ell pan anda pote cl be rudd ‘Coreserting pace buckling "Te hhter ane tested by Retchon Suu Druin lowever failed a stcnes lw the it of proportion: nd are exxmplog of lati uckling . TPE Re dates are given for besos in allowable comrossivg se % ing tthe unrated length he compression Honge ec te iterate om tie subject ofthe interel bucling of ‘ctu embess anda ogapy hough 1959 ar to be ound inet 38.194 Formula tor Sess ad Stn foun arrow rectangular Beams ay fi lb as ren of bk th compresinn ee, When tn bk ar bw he ease st the strength i determined by let sai fmale fr thie ‘ase ar given in Table 151. Far bklng a sree Def oe ts iit no imple orm for he etic stress ean be ce dpthads for cll this eta sess ne even reve beams by Dumont end Hl (Ref. 1) my Du I\Ref. 17) and for wend bea by Trevor ad 16 Plastic, oF Utimate Strength, Design Fig deans De eareueneetae ‘constitute the basis of elastic analysis and design. An alteraal ania iat ti Ses ve gan ree gers es Nir ate ennai inecias ‘ruts erase ington tha te mania bendg moments rat en od SS im, =u Bears Px of Staight Bre 185 ment toch ote pints eco sie. Tas hen caret atm ele sdcny minnie he eae er the'brer oye roped In Fg 900) he 9 aoe ta en ue yen of i ntl cto ng eal deat. Forum lhe at BU ty sod Ve and rogram ote le hal Te yaaa ap ara =, a Wah ia denature cle ind onthe a felsic ae es Wal in beer o quate te maxima cae Dat eal fale 81) 0p has Sing sf en Tah eros pose fh th mona the sel mene tnd dng commen and rr oe Let aces ab monet ee meme the cee en a i a he sent the lal eames reba at dlaty ech moment Suconee cae toy An se an Aur a hogy te ene moments ae saat xt ey ie tapas tom te sane od ae ey amet ted spr ste orth Sean at ue acc oon ae coms we ed cae cece sc Ming te, he ete ed Se reheat cat cb Tee aM aloha lea recon acon edie rs tage a oe fot oer than hone tse Seen thet ten Se a ie tetrad aan nae wih ccltbund amee nce ages ae ete Sete rend seed A vic wok spmouch to Pi Sate ares "mee rp sb haste to of a ens Ret Co Vercaton coe ne the seer tte Ctanstuea moment dgrn tnd dtr Fee cme an eal orden oy Sakae cn a pe arma ton det prt remot fest ce enn Mil wich are acing ats gen ine any ot a rca nc esc mesa a ee os Ct caer he rar ni te ade see ee snr a the ravily Tedd ba hae to ‘mpl Ate eds teeter spin clean ite ht etn eresiono mame value ee ites nas Zand orth the acor SF~ Zt] See tn Gy pare con ale nd si i soup th ater ah te a a ae tet coms epson te sine aa ames neo theo rte nbn TTA Se eae106 Formulns for Stress and Strain ewe ‘The following example probleme trate (1) the det wae of th tabulated material and (2) the use of the werk appronch to "rua work apr Dbiom whore we lous ate apie simltnenaly and hee oe plastic hinge location is not obvious, minis EXAMPLES 1, Aba Munioun fide we av tanec nded beam 6 ae er dash ad a inner dot His edt Poh wa ind wut 4 dosed loedng whic incense ho Ildepan'o« motion ale a atthe rch end The wed seep a ‘tater i 2.00 pa the vale of We a lu calape eeed Solution. From Tale cag 1, the epson forthe pate ae edule givon an 2" C5508 hai ge me " : 234008 45050! M, = 4302.00 = 17,000 ie leans of the fly dovtoped patie Hinge ate Col tsa yg om he et wae “ee seve (tat fg)” Site 72 in and a= 3. he tid hing is onda sy = 50.20 ‘tren forthe alipe fond we gene nt M2 = S270 in The amo) TR = Song ag Fa 4 tsetse sera tn 4 Secreta rene Asanonrize pty eat ay ota Pl a ee, sae ie aes roan Solution, Fist valust M.A examination of Tas. shows that th sti bon mals or herons cin st given. The eld arent fensno and compression Iv the ste, av half te cease oe it e019) ‘Beams; Fenure of Sigh Bore 187 2100 mp wil bein esin nd fn compensa under aly dered Fisssl Rage Cantons show thu shoal set 12066 ove Se ‘Etc dee he eon ese! parte Th cnt ofthe upper prs ‘otn hye the x apd th cots the wee potion Som ‘om Terre By 2008947 120-4 7814) = 233K Ne seal te a ‘Ginping the work dane by the owing The anger mn Fig. eae not Srispesieee aly eeecen sna @ Thue Mp0 9-49) P00 + 00509 sama mina ge, era pagan sa deaer trai al ieee ee hia aaa deal ei raced em ne ge mre ectceea marstcmctess mamas priate Michi kena Ua sk dene byte eaten wl fe ‘ergy soil ey he two pls nes or yest rate tt «wna 00 Note shat a =P./1008 and fre geomtery (15000) = co the Pe plac ayes "0 7th) Amina lve Pe"88 Forman for Se and tan fone Because ofthe simplicity, these examples may give an exaggerated Lanpression of the engo of plastic analysis, but they do inde tat fon any indetorminate structure with strength that a determined brimariy by eesstance to bending, the method a wellasited othe determination af ultimate I ears; Pure of Sigh Bars 108182 Formas far Stross and Stun~ emana)59 wl ne "oa pw eee aseens Fue Sgn ars 307 seamBeams Fn of Sei Ba seanbeams Fesue Sih ae 205i i i “pong ao a Bape SHR nea VoRNNE Hee FOEears: Fee Stig ara 200 wean 18 Formas or Seas and ran‘beams; erue of Siagnt Bars 213Beams Feun of Sah Bors 22) seom 220° Formula or Sree and Sin (Pena) Curae oe wae GB 3 a UOTE Pe Wl Ha Wo SEAM ellwom‘Beams; Flonure of Straignt Bars 225 sear| a | Si a oo pun sue Suen osEaEP pe LeINN"BIEE eT nem | Ho oe uxt sna pu ag Sues HORNE Fw IAL TNTeas; Feo Sean Drs 220 228 Femme a Sie Sinbeams; Penaeus 234 scaneons; eae Seg Bas a7 veobeams: Fer ot Seon Bae 288sane ing (Conta seam rome: Perot Sig e285 eames aan horton diplcynet at ee MEBS Sher monet pean efecto ls fr bum un snneous son n26 Former Sess nd an lowe scam nara Feet Sih are 247 ates “ASLEUS | Reon nd tect const tpered ean (Conn “ea ramet see enilea) * [ee [eat igs) sat es Jaze = Eales pam a coos br [os a FE248 Forme or See an Sa town TMs) Raacon a etc cutie apr bear (Cntninh scam ym. entn eta atten n= 2o eas; Fart Sraigh Bus 288 Jot tor twp tes Foe | a [| Fe aa Toss “ ow | | us| ia fons “ea ow |e | Bl1 roman tre bo wn rattan 8 dime rt snc |—“RERID nt eee oe re a nid ae ~ ee [ee ia mS i ra: a [|e on |B iss [is sa = a SHEE a aa ae * | igen | eae | 03 s_[es oo Lo [it [et = Vow | aaa252 Ferma or ew na Stn eT am | aa | a(S | YB [Te Be LB |S SR ee eae ae 3 [S| aa (8 | SS “eT | rac vs {see | tse : ge [ons a i | an “Tam | 2 | as sa [ose Toast | is ee (adh | eat288 Ferme or Ses dao few sean ean Fem of Seip Bess 257 topo) ames) Mastin andtactncos mT SN” | ln | I [a ETRE IES . ee oe [= I “|eans Fee Sri arn 259 tor tent xn Can)262 Formule Son ae Sn fount 0 8) tame FeneoSaig ore 263 ‘ape 2 cole on wth pase neg leone foe eight Beane ‘ate 432 collapse wih plate nige leon fr staph ears (Sneed cae a eat c i34 Formuts for Strees and Strain, tome 8 6 Meet Oi ee ch nk EES steers tng ans Pea eee ieee etien 1S SST eter tir Ue dames v Ether S05 oan sumenecagt nn tn hey Th Sng f igh Bd Bg. B.S, ‘ga Eon of Src Se ripe tg Ow he De Fab 18 [eas Seacy Pivencpaery: Mees 095 10 Me i the Set i Rr, Bp Sa, ni I al Nace ra eam M n t 2 eee etn Dal Sar tag7eton Orv Ee ave 2 mor emp aA, Ral hte ts rs bce: Doi gH Ger Rh, Mech Bg 2. 8, HED 1: Cm Hein Bie Ln ASME AA ibe XB amen rit, on hr ned rae Lar Site Tan on fine ACE Re mie nae 2p HGR gle inc noe eta Sto ay So eons; ler of Seg Bars 268 28, Sr Fan. C.D “Agana Asien ey rt GS rade Who Pagel Waa Thin ES ee on Igoe ono bod Rag Sn a one, 1 Hs Eien nen Sel en te iri Pn Seb spans Sve Meine tah ee Sele Senge a a Reape aa eres aN tae on eek tr tense 4. Gp Te Anal atti la Cons Dstt Ent fe 3 a il ve Romain Foe Ug 158 2 fsion 0,2. ir bbe Repentzee aga i EGE Se See a ee eM ‘Chapter, Curved Beams 9.4 Bending inthe Plane ofthe Curve Ima sirnight berm having siher a constant cots sation oa er sition which changes gradually along the length of the beam, he viral surface ie defined athe lomatainal sriace of aero Aber ‘tress when the member ss rubeted to pure bending, I contains he eutrl aa of every sertion, apd thee neutral axes pas rough the ‘ontoide of the especie reson. Tn thir section om bending in the plane dhe euve, the ue of the many Zamulos io reatricted to thse Ieinber for which thet exe passing through the ceteod of given ‘tion and dicted normal tote plane a bending ofthe member ‘elnipal axl The one exception ta thie rquirement efor a condition ‘quivalent to the beam being constrained to remain in ite ovginal se of curvature nach ar by ftionless externa! guides “To determine the steane ind deformtion in curve team ae: fying the restritons given above, on fist identifies several cross sti and then loetes the centre ofeach. From thee cenizial locations the curved centroid] urine can be defines. For bending the ple ofthe curve there wil beat each section (1) ore V ore tothe cross section and taken tact shrough the centoid. (2) ash ffewe V parallel tothe cone suction i a radial dcetin, and Ga bending coupe Min the plane ofthe curve, Tn addition thore wil be adil stress o, inthe curved beam to eatablch equiibium. Those fntornal loadings aro thon in ig. 6a), and the stesso nd ‘eformacions due to each wil be evalustd, cuntereml normal stresses due to pure bending. When a curved teams bent in the plane of inal curetare, plate sections remain plane, but because of the diferent lengths of fers onthe inner nd futer persons of the beam, the distribution of unit strain, and here five stray not Kinear, The neutral aie does not pass tough the288 Formule for Sess and Sen fous contol th cotion and Bge. (1-1) and (81-2) da net apy, The “rrorinvolved in their use is clght a longa the ale of eurvatire ‘mors than abou eight times tho depth of the beam. At shat curvature Ue errors in tho maximum strescr are inthe range of to 5, The ferrrs created by using the enight det lormalas bocome lage fot sharp curvature as shown in Table 8, wich gives formulas and ‘laced qumerieal data for caved bain of weveral cows actions on for varying degroes of curvature In art the frmslae and tabulated ‘ooffcionte are taken from the University of nis Cirewae by ‘Wilken and Queveau Ret 1) with motitcaions suggested by Neuse bauer Mf. 28 For cose sectons net intided in Table 9 endfor Setermining cicumferentil stresses at lations other than the extreme fibers one ean nd formulae in texte on advanced mechasies of material, for example, Hof 29 pn 98 ‘The cecumforental normal sees vem as oy er os en “where Mf isthe applied bonding moment, A i the are ofthe cose ction, es the distance thom the contol axis to the neutral asi fd y'and r leat the radial position af the desired tres from the heute ax und the center ofthe curvature, rnpectively. See Pig 516), A tees (9.12) ook sen) cored beams 250 Bquations (9.11) and (9.1.2) are based on derestions tha mele the fontebation of radial normal tress othe erewmferetal tain Tas "ssumption des net cause appraciable eror ht curved beam of ‘compact ere section fr which the ral normal wreces ae sal, ‘and it leads to aceptable answers fr bears having in webs where though the eal siestes are higher thos otvur in eqions of the {ross section where the ireomferental fending stresses are smal ‘The wt ofthe equations in Tale 81 a of Ege (@ 1-1) ad 2.226 limited o values of Rd > 06 where ora rectangular noes ection, ‘comparison of this mechanics of atesal olin [Bq (81-0 tthe olution using te teary af elasticity shows the mechanic of tar ‘action to iniatestwases approimately 0 ton lars, ‘While in theory the curved beat formals for cinuocerentil end Ing steer, Eq (1-1) could be aed for bene of ery lage Fa of curvature, ont should wot use the expression fre fom Ey (2-2) fr ‘aaes whore Rd the ratio of there of ho cursture Rf the depth ‘ofthe eos section, exceeds. The cleuaton fore woul have tobe ‘done with cael aiention to pesesson on commuter relat fet an acurate answer, Instead one should use the following appro ltsate expression fre which Becomes very accurate fr largo velar of id See Ret 29. we te B es nk mE, era) srhere fis the aren moment of inertia ofthe ess section about the ‘entridal axis Unig thie expression fer¢ and eine 1 apptoar, infinity lends to tho usual stesightar formula for bonding srr, For complex tectons where the table or Et. (02-3) ast nape: priate, « numerical technique that proves wxellentaccurcy et be employed. Ths technique duetratad on pp 81-921 of el Taummary: use Eq. (1-1) wih etram by (1-2 for ME Hid = Use Eq, GL) with fhom Eq (913) Kr these curved beame lr which Rd» and where certs of less than 4 to Se are dese, fon use stright‘beam fermi larger exrere ate aceptatiot f fds rcunterenial normal atestes due to hoop tension MW=0}. The ‘normal foree N'was chosen to at through tho centro the eros fection, £0 constant normal sires N/A woul stity equiv Solution earced out for retangular cos sections using the theory at lastcty show escent const nral stress with higher sales ‘m- thin layer chmaterial onthe nde of the carved sation a lower ‘values ona thin ayer of material on che ots tho setion Tn mot engineering aplieatione the stresses duet the marment Bf ast onal170 Fema lor Seat od Sean ews larger tha those duo 0 the sssmpton of uniform sree due to Nis reasonable ‘Sear stra duet the ral shar force V. though Ba. (8.1.2) does etsy ta curved bear, Eq (LTS, sod ae for w straight beam, (ver the masimum shear stest with slfcient aosracy in most Instances. Again am analysis for» rectangular eros secton cad ‘ut using the theory af elateity ave thatthe po shear tose 8 ‘curved beam oosure not a the entoidl axis eit doe fora straight Isom but toward the inside surface ofthe Hoar. Por a very sharply curved test, Ryd 0.7, the peak shear stress was 204V/A at a Prwiton ne third ofthe way frm the inner surface tothe ent For a sharply curved beam, Rjd'= 15, the poak shear sizes was [L800 /a at postion 8 of the way thor the inner surfec to the centroid. These valuto can be compared to @ peak chear sess of T'5V/A tthe contoid fora sralght boar of rctangular ros section a mechan of materials ation forthe shear tre In acatved beam deste the element in Fig 9200) con be sed and moments taken aot the center of curate. Using the normal strest dsteibu thom ey NVA My/AeR, one can Sd the bear sess expression to on ‘where 4; ie the thiskneat of the action normal to the plane of Curvature atthe radial position» and Aa [en mm enfnay ens wslttnyy Equation (2.14) gies conservation answons forthe peak values of shear trea in pctangular muons whem cumpared Wo elatcty ‘sluians The lations of pose shear ze are the stone in oth ‘alyssa the error magnitude about 1c Radia stresses due to arent Mand normal oes N._ Owing tthe radial ‘Simponente of the Sber sree, radi ree are pees in a ‘Srved bon; hove are tale when the bending moment tends 10 enighten the bam and compressive under te reverse condition: A ‘Rochanicr-of materiale elution maybe Secloped by urnmng radial forces and summing frees perpedicalar to the radius wig the element in Pig. 82 iar -ae([ 4982) Meese] ne ota Baton (10) east a al wen is By 1-9 fo shone ates when ured fore rectengulr cass seston and amp INE diecay colton Heweren be comple ofa. ceed seth the fact thatthe atrener due to 1V age generally smaller than ‘hose due to M leads to the seual practice of omiting We eras Involving 8. This leads t the equation for tadel stress fund in ‘mang tots auch a8 Refs 29 and 96. Fae) oan Again cave cust Be talon when sing Bos (2.11), (21-6), and (2.7) ‘ovaso nn accurate value fr ¢u8 explained above in tho dseusion| Solowing Ba. 1-9, Radial store i uaually not a major consideration in compact ssctions fries amallor than the cnwunferental sre an slot ‘where the circumferential streaes are large. However, ia Hanged ‘Testis with thin webs the tna stress maybe large at the junction ‘tthe ange and we end the csuaerentil tren i ls large a ‘hie positon, This can Ina to excnsve shear stress and the possible ‘elding the radial and cieenferenta! stresses are of oppont ig. [large compeeasve radial stress a thi wel soay ala Trad 2 Shelling of the wah, Corrections er carved beam formblas fr sections having thin flanges are dncussed inthe next paragraph but correc tone trv alsa needed sx section haw a thin web and tery Uhh anges, Unie thee conditions the Individual flanges tend to rotate about ‘scr own meuteal axes and lave Taal ad shear stesees are ‘kvuloped Broughton sta. dss thi configuration is 31few 3. These uve bam with ax lil rg weton own nF. 8.) fasten se aac cad bar aed wecsys io Nm inmnetsn onthe gee sadn heer oe Elite A resend tt protien meh pe ee Yr ek ‘cho has Gcn mae aban exaing tke are paca ‘im tom tein. auch btn aed ts Schemes Ie emai pat ery wih ceding he poker he Solution, Pet eompute he maximum seni ib rg section sng See tk tale Bi ea tobes wh Aer a= aye sn” Beet TM etn, ential HOO aay che wales te aes cn bw undue ge Ble 200808 — 29 fee Seana nati ne cain = ly where tod ob L616 the table of values from case 6 es 2242060) nc Next mer the sae ation with 10m chines fem the inner edge ae snout ig'8 40) Uae cae Sol Table 0 wh tne atl elealtns ted (he egtealnt malied car gov sem ang BE Far ts snag me ae oT erat {Bi ron Hy > a ty ute te apropae expen toca 9 oe thease" D1Gh ade h Runde hate the me aks fr te cnc lipt, Pi 9.10, and tum faxe1Se Tale ow aren fod som sere 208 Node ruin res th ae My _ Moa 2 = 5648-9) Res=sT AMOI, M 22100 Nmm f2aNjmnt = e28Niain! oe Ope ih et x hrm in eae osiratin een ths secon cures Boone 73 ‘kbnugh removing th teri ec th pea resin ths oe theyre ‘neers ttn wdc eae mom tae owes 2 Acted toa wit «cess shown nF. 94 in suit | ning momento 16 Nn nh Fae fe cure nal t srl d £0,000 een. The centr ofthe pono crest a fae of carat of ibm dmestns are given sed tad he [rau i'itcor, ‘The csr tase in heer ones ‘her are dese elution, Thi ston a eae nn nmi tire ation ‘nd wood recangular action Tho setonprperes relied she rere ahve andthe reir samme for ie componie ton Fania oot ie “Et date and dewey an foe Wm one # Ee 8 go, = sie 1 ait Wb SNe Re aS fase 3 a so of Table Al, A = 905.9. a Section 2 Use cae 1 of Table 91. = 160+ 100ce90- 495 = 2718, weet A 8500 Juale= I tt 866880) he compute sin, A= 31.16 6059+ 5000=25 510, (at tie) tease 4 Somarayas sto tas ve tis fae riste aon Hes sr, “Ai uae) = ab oloiaas f= Ta Bons anes ‘Wag thee ata he wee othe nse and out ore oun a be 38048 — 60), 0.400 STO} 5, IBN AO s08s 2966 , 7000 55 SOE 310 Curved beams with wide anges. In reinforcing rings for lye pipes, alrplanefeselage, and ship halls the combination ofa curved sce. ‘od attached web ratiffoner form a curved bent with wide lange.{24 Fomle or Sse od San fous ormvilas forthe sffective width of lange in such a curved beam are piven sn Ret and areas follows "When th lange ix indefinitely wide eg, the inner Range oa pipe: rifles rng), the elective with = = 150K vhere is the tal width asumed affctive, J the pean rade of urease of the age, and ¢ the thickness ofthe flange ‘When the fange hae a defnite neupporeed width 0 gross width Joos web thickness), the ratio of flective to actual width 8/6 Is a neti of gb, where real oR Cortespening values af g and #/b area flows: For the curved beam each fange should be consdored as replaced by ‘ne of eorespondingesctive wid and al alulations fr direct, nding, and shear stresses including cozections for eurvature Should be bed on this trmstormed ection ‘lsch (Ref 10) har sbown that under a stroightening moment these the curvature is deceased, the redial compancnts of tho fiber TReeses inthe fges bend bots anges racially awa trom the we, thus producing tenon in the filet betwsen fisnge and web Ia a Uhveeion normal fo both the ctcumferentol and rae! normal tes feo iscened i the provioos seston. Silly. a moment whieh {Rerenses the cuvature eaves bots anges to bend eadally toward the eb and produce compressive stvsees inte file Between Bango tind web. "The nominal valor of Uses traneterve bending sreses © the fle, without any eorection for the stess concentration at the filler ave given by ol = en mere ng isthe circumferential bending ress atthe maith Of the lange. Tis ts leo than tho max unt vale found in Table 9.1 and cam be calculated by using Ea G@ii1, Se the feet example prams. The vale of the coefcent Alpers upon the ratio /Re, where ce the actual unsupporta Projeting ath af te Range to ether sige af the we end Hand hve these meaning they did in tho expresions fo and, Values ‘tjanay be found fom the following tables Shey were taken fom Ref, to, where values of Pare also ebulated Derivations of expretcions for B® and for xe aso found in Raf. 28 ‘Sill diferences in Use value giver in varius references seed | ‘compensations for secondary fects, The values given here are anise” To sinilar way, the radial components of the crcamferentia sera) stronsesdiatrt thin tubular cross section of curved beans ‘Thi distortion flees both the strsees and formations snd _LFy = 10100648-+0 648 ~ 069840. 26 Perce 1m Ly ~ 3-00-0608» Por cose 12 25m ‘Thrdre, the ztson athe eis os 119.4 218-726) -caonsend mI Le mould not pet the retain te in the oposite i appl mtr, bas eh aan the Bn ape ae fount an the arch where the bar i fstened moves tothe Fight OI2Sin. ‘Freres the ht potton ate tim the O00 ba one ce Scar mi nds the a Ie os nde to te wor 6c. 93) Curved Seame 290 oth 2h orp ule ach anim sy Ba rangle roe ton and ae Seow eae EA ray dec ta ‘Brreme cede are voquire. All dimenosone ge a vod in the foreman are Seton, Thea tel dation olen the formation cbs ime ny la erotocn: Supra oe {Sit noe inp iil Beta ert a pug Ci {no A hair the arch and isin all nee deformations. Perorming th ME el eri tte ha deco enn cies ieee id pens atc nn tein elo fe ee than tae iG ee a a1, oad, Hey Reed Ee SSghUS tabi th pe snc 81906 wed a FE ct ane tecay otha TOON Pes Maveenr GS a Sar foal tomer oso ae Coe Tr Sian o's sn sn en of gw thecal mit Soom nil vehi o tc 068 amanet O6TNg ae nats eden ace Bot Wovoneysi 260 amet Soeur ase caned nm, He ae ‘Suhel ile ttan od 286M es ot hoe ete ceca ue oer inthe cxpmeloe feyjft= 1 F1/AR@, where? inthe aren et of ner Tee cele teagan == {RHEE STIS Ande the hry Seon nara SANT n arse Soca) “ame BOM enna resto’ geen reat. The Hebeeet are esis eT et otto aspen cs and 2h Te cota darn 2 alton cate Re tet WE Seana S 2 ON 6 eo abr Sa ann = 100 rge-tasn[fosnos)-0+ Bos) oe sea Site Ly3tFormla tor Sra na Sian paral Ih w= 260m, 0, L086, = 8, = DE, and hy vous0-0 2965) = 286688 1 Ratan nu encase’ whet My 1004-02638) = 2078 Hn ooo tat Ve srgcing Sw ondagy Testa Sea bw sperpre cee ® "SUTRA acaoe tf Say Save Sau = ant ME 18a a 80" aOR SIT ~ HAI ay = 20 IS 278 asco rad ETO" a era rere teint nm grote in st ee Poe ny ~ 28.900 [224 fa(yoseet)- F-00590] ‘oan 88+ uff 010886] + 1.08620886(Zo985 08] = 27. 890(-0 045) = 284 smite 1) = 227810902209 = 1S10N and Ly = 22TONOOIEE)~ 1276 Por ai -26ina = -191.5Niem and ata = fy 1919090091) = 12236 1m, = 19190-05189) = 20658 iy = 19904-00869 = 2205 ‘sing cate 12 nd aupepeion af the Langs ges t= -00 EHS 40 om ig =o TOIOKS «sera =16500- rat Aho nwa of ro be slain check one are sap ie cae earl tnd esteal chen tebe ants. ee aoe ‘cues Beara 28 tas. eton thor aes ae ed at Thee, the xine ant vests te lc ee by S05) + bf 86H = 610° sgnin th horontat defection of ~Qdb02Lem fo the Lt half of he rh Ae itn jtsacin rte tire arch Wath the chs wel with oi on the tan the nen iiolcement fy dnd the paceen ony ber pst om 8 "A BETES tee ares ot pint Awe need the beng Bomeat atte consi tc ac be nd by veer = sean a» 2, c00Nem Ling he data fom ake 1, te en the ote ber at he pink Ae prea be _ogami25.000120) oye = gama Ne 9.4 Enipteat Rings For an elliptical ing of semiaxes @ nd 6, under el and opposite aoc W (Pig. 8.12) the bending moment My atch extwmitin 0 the fore ss esien by Ma = Kya andr equal and opposite outward Tinie eed at th ene of the minor sx, the momen Mf atthe ‘ee tte major ans ie given by A= “KeH¥, where Ay and Ky are celts hich depend onthe rate a/b and have the flowing Valuers eae (eee [oa |S oa oe ST puke ut @ ie chr by wih te ements and tein a Ta Co ae std crmdtadgn stn rae a eran em hs hr Toate la) gives an anal ofan elie ring or oter ine we acs of symunery) under the action of 8 wriform‘outward presure, which would apply to tubo of eiptca ection ‘der internal pressure. Fr thin cave M= pat, where Mi the ‘ending moment ata section «distance x along the rng from the end the minor aus, ps the wutward nora pressure per linear anch, fand Kip a cofficint that depends on the ratios ba and x/S, where 8 {ono-quartor ofthe perimotr af the ving. Value of Kare given in the {Slowing table Ye positive when ie producer tension atthe nner surface of the ing Values of M cleats bythe proseding coofcents ae correct only fora ing of uniform moment of erin iT se not anor, then | rection AM must be added. Tie cometion ie given by 15 ts aut [ ‘Th integrals com be evtanted graphically, Reference 12 ives chart forthe celeution of moments eliptel rings under uniform radial leading: the preceding vas f K wer tale fron these chara TEM wees, conedaeame 27 195 Curved Beams Loaded Normal to Plane of curvature “This type of beam usually presents statilly indeterminate proble, the dagree of indeterminacy depending upun the manner of lading ‘nd support Doth hending and twisting our and i in nece2ary€0| iatnguiah between an aoalyia Ut ia applicable to compact or Hlangelesssectons (crear. rectangular, ete) in which torsion dove ot predce condary bending and one that i appcabe to Manged ‘ction (Usenms, channels, et) sn which torsion ay be accompated iy auch secondary bending (ae Sec. 103). eis al neceesory 10 Alatingviah aniong three types of consents that ray oF may not ‘ccuta the supports namely (1) Une been prevented fam sloping ‘fe horzoatal ate held horizontal bya bending couple: (2) he bear prevented from roling, is vercal aun held vertical by 0 twieting Eouple, and) su the case of a flonged section, the Banger are prevented fom turing abo ir vertial weer by horizontal second fry bending couples. These types of constants wil bo designated here ‘= (fixed nao slope, (2) Raed a to roland (3) Ranges xe. ‘Compact sections, Table 9. teste th curved war of wif ers ‘ectin under eneonteated and distebuted loads normal the plane Ufcurvatur, out of plane concentrated banding mamente sn concen tated and dintribsted tarques. Expressions aro given. for transverse hear beading torment, isting moment, defection, bending slope, Sind roll slope fr 10 sombinatione of tnd conditions. To keep the Dretestatian to a reasonable siz, use is tmade of the singulacty [ince discared in detail previously and. an extensive list of ‘onetans and fanesiona i given. Ta previous bles ho representative ‘netnal valver have boen given, bot in Tele 9 the value 0? legen pon both bosding and torsional properties, and soo use ‘st of abula luce would be wo large prosent. The carved bear: of i of stout croaa scion azo comma, however, that numeral ffiente are given i the able for = 1.3 which wil apply toa so rhullow cular coer scion of material for which Peas ati os Levy (Ref, 14) has treated the closed circular ring af arbitrary cermpact eros section for si alng eases. These eases have bee ‘haven to permit apropiate superposition in order to solve a large Sumber of problems, and both wold nad eitebuted out of lene Toads are dscused Hogan (Be 18) prevents nila longs and ‘ports. Ina similar way the information in Table 8.4 canbe sed by Srproprate naperporiton to solve inst outo-pane loading probleme tn cloned rings of compact ers setion i trie tent i ven 1‘280 Fomor Sas nd San towne the symmetry and boundary conditions involved. Several. simple ‘ample of thi reasoning are deserted in tho following thre cae 1 If closed circular ving i supported om any numberof eaually| “paced simple support (x6 oF mae) and if Wentea loading on ‘ich span is symmetrically placed lative othe centr of the spam, thn each span canbe treated by boundary sondton fof Tble ‘This boundney condition has oth snd with no deflection a slop, slehough they are feet ol as ned, 2. a close circular ing x support on any ven number equally spaced simple supports andif the lnedng on any spa ie sey retvcaly pleted veatve to the centerline of each tpan and fymmetsiclly paced relative to each spport, then Boundary onan T can br applied to each fall span. ‘Tis problem can iso be saved by applying boundary santong 9 eath half span Boundary condition ¢ has one end simply supported and slope fied and the other end simply supportd end ol-uded. {Ifa closed circular ings supported on any even number of equally ‘spaced simple supports (our or more) and if each span is syne Teel leaded relative to the canter of he span with ducal spas “Silay Tosded in opposite diretions, thon boundary condition | am be apple to eeeh span. This boundary condition ha th nde teply storied and rell-euded ‘Once any indeterminate reaction feress and moments have bee found and the indeterminate internal reactions fund mt at last one Jooaion i the ring ll desired interna bending omen trgues, hd ‘aneveran sheers can be found by equim equations. I irge ‘numberof such eaculnsions ned be made one should conde wing {heorem published in 1022 by Biezenn For den ofthis chore se [Ref s2. Abi lusteation of thie work for lad normal to the plane of the ing is given in He. 28 ‘A weatment of curved beams on elatie foundations is bayond the ope of thi oak Sen Hal 20 “The folowing examples ilutrte the aplications of he formulas in ‘Tale 8.4 to both carved beams and doved ring with owt pane Tends EXAMPLES wal normal othe ras te ea) iG down the yapnpeay atthe soe ‘con war mae tn band te pipe ns two esta ge of 9 rei th talaga 4" ech I ‘StSne at nh endeared hold by te walle efron he maxim ‘eymbine zesin the pipe do os wn wiht andthe weight of al pipe Solution, An Sin stand pin as the fone ropes: = 8. cat we aaaivin, ee aiieinym emo J = teh Sotto he in nd im btn Th ii rina ak pin 1 Owing to ae syne nai apart [ibe csr a he spun whut ha eva arr wt are ele soe oe Sal Astuamidoniale9tzeete nat ycurdtnan date edie [Heh cod ao land spe quded te le at led ea he Tettce Rdre tsouhes ill care out ty cnsderiegs beam ett fae te dade ko wn era te a ngue on thee Tec conditions acoered acannon dn) "Minch ngs ictoonds rand ses "B00 3h 33 A oe Tall ae cues = 4 ag 00 Fo thee tac ofthe coon oe cblted ante alle xpreons for the TeeTaatets Std mente ca be wen dey om sperpenton ef the Mo gsap 7 -ongnn S84 LAU ar 908g m 2 porea TE soormt!® 0, = oso Mlt_oorso i sooren 3H ore sear oom tit +0 419R0.7858) fg = 077M, 070717, 200.109" ‘ry =07011M, 4070717, —O0TRA 19. ‘Sin tet Ox and 9 are sro ond # = 28.2808) ~ 899.4 = -0s080, -D07G0r, + 96.700 = porsox, + 09787, + 12888 Selig bes wo Theres 4 tions ives M, = 9001858 and 7, = —16.700850, Ye=-a0in, My = 871000 therm oar 49n4 a8) 725 eit om [EZ sor = enon 2 Aol sn camel an in wi, i ee, ud with On wall SAAMISEGL Serine Ua Rete seca eonswares wal ton nd and imply uppried oa pont athe ether, Toe ‘Se icrved ns hoon! pene wth aus of 1 ean covery aaa ‘eeue en ef 6, Calas Ue ronal an being ncoer tho all SESTAZESC Sonia va a the wall Nolo te wea ft nam Solution. The besin he the fawing propane ix iin: Srlafaaay bas bdo arteeaay f= ENG) bats] ~ an eine, Hey pasta cA) "B01 Hemi ee ee fae iy aor G2 and = 9onr2n.ay TanATE) = Side Ehuncuesfr's cwed tna Sat Seed ot one eh and Sinn ‘ort eater with sonuntated lad re un Tbe 8.4 cn0e Sabin be nog and sing moment the wal rogues it he (alates a the end tection. bes, en gues the low C=C nomen Ga Cu 008s C= O,=H071%8 Cab =-00919 “hens, ve snp 20018 x) OCIS nF ONE ayy, iy =26.930ysi009 ~ HON NIG) = 128,700 in 17). 850.043 on JADA, =n Me IRI sgt x5 = SHH) —99990.91 enya a ame ‘ r 200, Bae yo ~ ATT URE,” 1 sold round alunite iti he fr bisa ltd car fagef fondue rringon thre equal pace spe upc: Aad [bib oe pas idway Sewn ero apprt, a shown Fig, 91). ‘Stas dh Stace unr hn ad ie ta mach dare a Ske the nna msl sre to cnbined tnading anders equ {o'n cODIn Lat BNO ad = 08 Solution, The racuos fe, nd Hy are sata ecenminate 0 Shino tana a6) Re yeas The eral bende ole nd eieting moments ay tc ndterlnate an an ner wl swig Sora: lcvur there asus! aye that Toscan ‘ed by vaprmponing arcu ndings Th method tobe deeb hate rahe seiporwerd ‘Coser the oqunanat ade chown a. Fig. 0150). whore Bg ~ S553 aed Ree oie Te oly diene pte pat ol we ‘dccton "Owing inthe eymanty 8 lado: oneal ol the ring ean be ‘Shtiered spiel ated pint ad Cases asad Siler f ie aceon aces for = 10 and "80 Wen now ve rhe following aoe == 88-10005-05775) = 98 4500 in pw 28880 g aro = USI) ET =r 20 yO Gad fy = -066.T300(-D288) ~ 1925018 My =~ 730040 3608) = 24.0501 in “The lations for Mand Ten now be sxapine te determine he ein of ‘he mamas combined tv M,= so.popsns + 48De08 65.65 = 8,004 ~ oes) +9848 + BST cox = 8" ‘A camfsl examin ofthe extesviog fr Mahon no masa vl ‘LS uns and She pesto of he Toe torque weve oe | ‘sted Wlle'oSai00n¢ie ars 3904 and = aim wlue of "Plant sits 10 Ae the tame leans te bering moment re ‘ene A ihe puso of ea eh trgoe P= oo Nowhere the ‘ined tts arer oun the boning sean at pot A Thelre tge_saanay2 _ 22000 Teor ic ives 42270 and 120008202 Formule or See nd San fens “Tyohain th esson under th 1000 oad nthe oii! role. fest _xe mu ind te ton othe poten ote ed ef 0 bia 9130) seer pepe BETO gy 4 S108 2044 oma 88°) Hao soe =sin000" murRzoa" tere 5-328 Lena 1.90 -omen)=03009 and F-01588 yay 2478-46796 2088 — 6240 Inver grins € und By" CSc pe'A wold oe leeeed ws Sets dt) =A Rbin isteach aii 1 "ho use of fetus apport nwa done thi rblen tpt A ie generalizes ot symm anne th gla a pay Baker Sirs Flanged sections. ‘The formula in Table 9.4 for fangelots o compact i also to flanged sections when the ens aro fixed me to sehen fsed as to elope and rol but nt na fo ange ifthe load are ditribted ur applied only a the end It ‘the Danges are xed ors eoncentrated leads ae applied within he spin, the addiconal torsional atiffvens contetuted by the bending sistance of the flanges [warping restrain (see See. 103) may Spprecably alflet the value and ditribation of twining and beading ‘moments. Te flange sresos caused by the seondary bending ot ‘warping may exceed the primary bending etesus References 13 0 17 tind 22 Show methods of solution and give some moma cousins for Snple eancntrated loads on curved Lame with both end Heed ‘omplotely: Brookhart ef 22) aan inchades results for aditon ‘outasy conditions abd uniformly dstebuted loads. Relta are ‘Sorpared with cases where the warping restrain was mt coneheed Dihowski (ta. 29) gives a thorough presentation ofthe theory of curved thin-vallet beams and works out many examples Inching tulispan ‘eems and beam with open cross sections, closed cree Sections, and cross soctions which eantain beth open and closed ements: an extensive bibligraphy ie inchided. Vat (ef 23) ale ves @ very thorugh deriemtion and discuss, among tany ether topic vibrations, sobs, laterally traced beam. 9f open rose 88 ction, and thermal stresses, He leo examin ovesary to account fe shear deformation J Manges bein warped YVerden 34 ie primarily concerned with mullepan cured beams td works eat many examples, Saeko and Cope (Re. 25) and Never (et 26 apply fnitnshoment nana to curved ox girder bridge.‘boos wa ua a Bapan RESG aiG Pt vr208 Formulas tor Sas and Stan ‘Gensou wad au apo Pane Hane OAD ROTwe09)we8) (Po) ba aD oj seRe Fe(Pering)ebar ens mr sepog Fe!‘Goag) ion ero ereemaeg FORM rill‘Genaica) ston once ereenaey Gea‘povuog) ean ang mr ene EHHa t a ¥ a "(wonog eae ese ean ae po UEINNE CSHE: a(ona) ea ry SN aR Pu TLa i iste te356 Forme or Stees and Stain ‘mo onesie aa wae eau pop Sosa 1 Ne ra FD BN) FBR“ors wis undo Ppa vojnes 59 mas 0 Fan FD eamcon 2362 Formins or Sees ane Sin (Garson wnt ao pape oqier 1 das a Banna Epaog270 Female ts ana San “Goruiao) amino o snd wo uns pore egies sem Sezai Reese FHMme 8)(Garso) ens own ao uu ppb von nls sane BI ON300 Fonmainfor Stress and Sin fo © Riis mena ard oe Bane ak es Bic Doar of Engine Mecha, Ustrty af Wats 1 Whats pe oe Arlyn Tr ASME Ar Mich oh ‘Chapter 10 Torsion 10:1 Straight Bars of Uniform Cireular Section under Pure Torsion "The formulas inthis ection are base on the flowing assumption: (0) The bar ie strap, of wniform circular section (old oF cone ‘seals hollow, and of homogeneous iestopie materia; the bar Tended only by eq and opposite twitng couples, wich ae applied vite onde in planes normal tots ais at) he bat isa strated pond Ube elastin Behavior, ‘The hor tat, sch srtion rotating out the longitudinal "si Plane sections romain plane, and ead vroain stright Thee is [Stary point n abou sean the plane of he section; he magnitude of ths ares it proportional to the distance fem the center of ths itetion is perpendicular to the adn dave Caro the plat, Ascomanging thie thonrstrene Chere ie an equal loa titel shear stesr on mrad plane and equal tnsla av compres: ‘ive slaves gy and, a 48" (e0e See 78) The deformstion and Stress described are represented in Pa 10. “in addition to these deformations and stresses, ther is some lon tudloal strain and sree. A wld ezeular eylnder wants to lengthen tinder twisty shown experimentally by Posncing Ret 20) Im any ‘rent for east loading of metalic citer bare, neither longitudinal ‘Seforation nor seen ikele tbe lage enough to have engineering ‘Sunifesnce Fommlas, Lee Ttwiating moment. 1=Jongth of the member, Fouter radius ofthe ection, = polar snment of inertia of the ‘cin, p rial tae trom the eter a the section o any Pot Grothe ahear rrean, @ angle of Swine radians, G =soodulie of282 Fema Se an Sin tow. 19 ity ofthe material, and U strain ergy Then ot 2 034) ef TP cat point) 012) t non =F at outer surface) cor) ea i dio.) By ebesiuting fo Jn Bay (101-0 snd (10.23 a 2 fm Ta A the fra for eae ta 10 in Tee Ot ae ren shied is slid or halo Grr sh height apt te {rmtlas above fr shear car wre oueny etre thd he tsoreons fr 0 and O can be sind io apy to dered tens by replacing by fee change in sent ie eorapea ‘iterates al the ima stn sul eed the ut of utube factor stne cncntration Re Valu Reet ‘given in Table 17.2, ane 102 Bars of Noncicular Uniform Section under Pure Torsion “Tho formas of thi snetion se ase on the on the sme stsumptions a8 the ae except ero on tipo ir tis important o note thatthe svaton af loading plc thatthe tnd seston ofthe be aw fee warp, there rng no casein fore ob hem i tee seapectve panes Behavior The bar twists, each each section rotating about it torsional enter Sections do not romain plane, bt wep, and wine radial ines ‘through the torsional enter do nt retin stright, The ditebton of shear stress on the section not necessary linear and the Aietion of the shear trea nat necessarily normal oa edu soma rev ae Fomulss. ‘The torsional siffaes ofthe bor can be expressed by the eeneralequstions rafee « on via) ‘where Kina fator dependent on the fran and dimensions of thw cross (tion For a eicudar section Ks tue polar moment of ertn J [Eq (Glo. for ether sectinne As less than J and may be only avery Sal action of The maxioum sree isa fonction of the twisting Inoment and of te form and dimensions af the cross section. In Table [oct formulae ae given fr Kad fr max & fra variety of eectons "The formulas far easer 1 to 3,5, 10, and 12 are based on rigrons Tmathematial analysis, The equations for sare dare joven In a implied form invdlving an approximation. with a resulting err fot renter than 4 The K formula fr eacee 13-21 and the stress brmaas for eares 19-18 are basnd on mathematicl analysis hut 7 Spproximate (fel 2 ther aecurney depends upon rw nearly the eeu section conforms to te assuenptions indicated as to frm. The rmulns for eases 22-28 and the ster ormulas fo casos 18-26 ane ‘ved on the senbrane anaboay and are toe rgarded as reasonably ‘hse appeeximations ving resulte Ua are envely as much 98 10% | Cero Rete 2-4 and 1D Te willbe noted that forms or Kin esses 22-26 are bse onthe schumpton of unsors ange thickness For ighly tapering anges, D should be takun aa the diomeer of the Target cise tat can be inscribed inthe acl ssi an os the averegs ange ticks. For sharply tapering anges the method leserbed by Grits Ref.) tay be uoed. Charts relating especially to structural He and Tstctions| seinRet 1 ‘Gane, and 27-85 protent the results of curve Sting to data oom Tnkowor, Ref. 32 and 18. These data were obtained fom ‘unio a computer cade CLYDE (Ref. 18 based on finitediference ‘lution using central ditfeencee with a constant-size square meh. [Relrence If leo suggeste an extension of this work to include ‘etionscontining hollows, For some simple concntric hollaws the ‘eos of solutions in Table 20.1 canbe superpoed to obtain easly pproninete solutions if coain Tintatone are observed, Soo the ‘amploe atthe end ofthis secton, "The formulas of Table 10. make possible tho calculation of the strength and atfhese of bar uf alist any form, but an under ‘anding ofthe memirane analogy (Se. 64) make it possboto dase Certain conclusions as 10 the comparative Torsional properties of fiflrene scion by simply viualising the bubbles Ube would De384 Formula fr Sess and Sein (ow. 10 formed ove hoes of correaponding size and shape. Prom the volume relationship, tcan be sein tht oft setinna having the sane ste, {he ane mote measly ciclar is the fer and that although any fxtenaion whatever ofthe eetin increas is terion siffnes from outstanding Manges and simi. pretusions have ite feet Tes alo apparent that sny member having nar eaten, fvch as a thin plete, has practically the same torsional stifles when fat as when bent ino the form ofan ope tube o ito chanel or angle From tho clove relatonship it canbe seen that the greatest tresses (elope it ven secon otur et the boundary ndjcent 6 te {hiekor portions, and thatthe erwscs ate very low atthe ends of outstanding Ranges or protruding eornors and very high we point ‘there the boundary Se sharply caneave. Therefore a longitednal se br groee that is chaep atthe bottom or narrow will ase high local frases, nd it i deep wil greatly reduce the torsional tiffs of the member. The dretion ofthe shnar stresars at anv point i lone the contour ofthe bubble surface a the coresponding pant, and pints corresponding to local maximum and minimum elevations af the bubble having seo slopes ll directions the shea srs er ‘Thoretor shove may bo sveral points of ato abou sree ina section ‘Thus for an Faction, there are igh posts of reo aloe the center ofthe largest inseribad cela (tthe junetin of web ad Banges) and {ow pot of aor slope atthe renter ofthe wer and sie pints of {ero slope at the external corners At thece points the section the ar acess lev, "The preceding generalizations apply to solid sections, but i is possbie to make somowbot similar generalizations concering Follow or tubular sections from the formals given fr cages 10-16 ‘Those formulas show that the strength snd enees of 2 hollow ‘ction depend largely upon the area nelosd by the mein ay For this reason aeeula tube i ifr and stonger than one af an otter frm, and the mare mene tho form of any hollow section fpproaches the crear the preter wil be ite stzength and sins Wie also apparent (rom the formulas fr strength that even a lc reduction ithe thickness of the wall of tub, sich as would be ‘caused hy longitudinal geo, may grealyserease the maximum ‘Shoat stron though i the gronve ie narzow the elt on tills wl beam “Tho torsional strengths and aifhetes of thin-walled mucllet structures nich as stplane wing ad bat hulls an be cleat by fhe sume proedures ae tbr angle celled sections. The added relation “hipe nwt are developed fom the fact that ll cll Cwatt the Samo angular rate ata given section (Ref. 2) sxc, 103) ‘Torsion 388 EXAMPLES 1 Teteroguted io compare tbe seat and stffwacf a cicla tcl ae, {inate stars th tek wth th seen td an ft fame abe for tebe opt by cating ul ng ng an omen. ‘Seine estat povided Solution. The stregthe will be compared by comparing ho twisting fnemants equate proche same vr te aimee mi te cpl (a) or the tbe Cie 103, cae 10, Knit) = Jett 0B = (eH he mt tube abe 103, case 19, A= Jar — Gait ea r wee errs ‘he oad tion ethane me than 00 ime at athe pen section| {in han bes ae ee 97a 2 Ie oie determine the anal through which ay alne-wng spr estos Sit nga ning he ton ten nF 10, weal red ‘tnd wrquce of Sb ahd nd he musi renling res. Per the ‘tesa nto, @ 00.000 and = 130,00 Solution, relnantditosions a shows in Fig. 102. wih notation foernponding ws tated nthe elas Te Ge apc ompate Ky ‘So formas eva force 26 ate i.) ao we have Ka 2k,4 B62" ed ere Here) Reshaanase oso! uo. pm. -onn =a 10786) 401064 0.159)1500 4 28550 ‘Therefore m1 ___s0996) RO Tea. 057) ‘The muimury som wil proably be at the print whee dhe Ieee Insel Cle tone thes uray a2 ite or iae CTE Peal josie st 9 Subvetting the vlus oC, it Kite ound shat rue = $22 070) soit 3 ibn cpr th tos wih th toe @ ther ‘Srmols tn apie i nag [eR 182)) vaste epi li ee trie’ tin sear en on Solution. Tollusrate the mtd of sltioneuperpxiton willed fr hak tog and anal trite rele nee sme way thats soup Sim ‘tie cer the i lta nthe earthen Frome the seme erase eve rear Soe the deuscon ofthe ‘Rembagecnaloey in Seb One caw ate then ap lm ows oer ‘Stular tole af sue and hen tmapna te roma ef ape ef he 01041 Torsion 387 oats gern we 03 tolame enendng shove th vel he wa i fr whi he radia i ‘une ite eutalen operant st sores tha the rate a a ie tat nie cota the saat ven st tra Re and oe ‘Matra served with tata Ry "The cui tarque Ty then he ‘Eierene oft we trgses or tym, = Bib KD net we att pati ae 10 fo hn low rand sein ee hi cae ton-ip. Bengt {he ap of te sp fen woul or chen he manne oo bub ‘Binet deg tran Te ot heat 0 sia ound sect byte ton From ate | 2m, 20), 2 RL BIB Ty ERE = which agen checks te eprsi o shea seein ke 2. Erin the ‘seca valss oe aed eee Tax EE oa x -orsety Ieisimgrtantoncte thatthe eae anewer wale ou hee wa «inane cela ogame a the sop now oe hw le a inSain the abt boe shy ef ay none ow evan Stour ne Sh uy wal ban suey aa ote "ow afi hs se chngue othe lo a with ain having 2 pln erly cae seat ne wold tec to Bed {otba lo th velo sop Si wove te car lee [HESuthesontne drs not xige tran Decree ns oar See {glne «rns ne wie bet ft te soap of te tera sli | EEA aw tn wie st ot constant lortab map le18 Fomulater Ses nd Sah foun sm es ist ie SNUG numer qin ewe he ssn othe te othe ihre ee siloer otras thes bent eet Secon nonin mra gee abnrarnia erties Ea aaa Ga aren sent od ran areca caper gioensuaceersoas ensures So aeh tne coanrimainmacan ces See Nea ta attach tes Seer Se abt ‘Soar te ins mt be snare. 103 Etfect of End Constraint Ie was pote out in See 102 that when nonirula Dar ave twisted, the seeone dot remain plane but warp. and thatthe formulas of Tout yon are based on the ausmpton that thi warping is not sear ated: Trane or toh enda ofa bar arco fixed that warping | Preveted, ce torques applied to section oer than a the ends Breanne setae and the ange of twist producd by the geen teeta ave aiced. In compact rections the effec x slight, ut the (ere Sen thin-walled sacioa th eflet moy beconeicerable enovior. ‘Ty visualio the additonal support crested by warping Pendein, colder very thin rectangular eros ection and aa TEETRRAg the seme thickness and the same total erossecional rau az the rectangle, With ao warping restraint the two section will Meee Lseheay the same stn factor Kee Table 10.1 cases 4 PN With warping restraint provided stone end of the Ba. the Poche wil be auened very tle But the bult-n anges ofthe 1 ESEPEG "ts canter beams. The shoar forces developed in the Meee Menult ofthe bending of thwe cantilevers wil orn the etlinal shear strstr in carrying the applied torque and greatly {Rereno che sist of tho ber less the ent is very rot. omulas, Table 10.2 sive forme forthe warping tithes factor tne torronal tiffs factor K, the location ofthe hear conte the icietace and locations within the rose setion of the maxim [hak ctcrnes ue to simple torsion, Use mau shear steses be SEuipiog ead the maaimum bending stresses due 6 warping. All Fae tina sted re acutned 2 have thin walls te sme {hckness throughout theses unless others nated590 Female to Ses and Silo lew ‘Table 103 provides the expressions nessa to waluat the ale of rotation @ und the fet theee derivatives of sng the span fr 8 ‘aiety of losdings and boundary restraint. The foals thistle fare based on deformations ftom bending sreses in the thin-walled open cross sections due to warping restraint cod consequent sie the transverse shear deformations of the beam action are neplota, rene appliab o case where the tron member is hort o where the torsional loading applied lowe to a support which proves ‘warping restraint Tis sty ofthe eect on soven cross sectons, al of which were approximately din deep and had walle approsizntely tin tick, Schwabenlender Ref. 2) tested chem with one end fxd an the othe ‘end ee to twist but not warp with che arsonl loading pple 9 te Tater end. He found thatthe eet of the tranavere thea stress Potieably reduced the torcional siltnese of cross nections suchas {hose shown in able 102, can and 6-8, when the tenga was lone ‘han six times the depth fr ection uch a howe in eas 3-8 Tabi 102), the effet tueame appreciable at even grist lengths. To ‘stash an absolute maximum torsional stifles constant we note that for any crows sation. when the length approuces tre, the sffecive torsional stifhensconetant K’ cannot exceed the pola ‘morent of inertia, where J = 1. +1, for anos theough the centrad of "he crows section, (Example 1 iastrates thn last condition) Reference 1 gives formulas and grap forthe ange of eatin ad the iret thre derivatives fr 12 ease oreional ange open erat sctions, Payne Re, 15) gives the sli fran nde that Sued tone end and fis a torque applied tothe other. (Phi lution was eo protuntd in detail in the ure eit of this book) Chis 28) and Vlasov Ref 90) dicuss solutions fr crore eetons with bath open and closed parts. Kollounner snd Basler (Ret 81) disuse the Warping of contiouovs beame and sonakier tye muller bo fectinn, among other eves sections pxaPLEs el min mom hs gee tinh i in ad ‘Rely welled fo mapive el Docks provide fall wagping setenet S {eenieal ad tbe ppd tone en Nock whe Ue see eee he af eet atthe laded efor an apie cae toiplban fer ings of VOD, 80,28, snd ola" Acoume B= ahi Solution. Fr dtrmiow coueecioal constant nating that OPEB mtn OOS Sin hae bh kala aad tosh tn +e Fre Tale 102, cae 4 Gane ay=22 ea aro} omni! 8 86-a< arowivanons ones oj = ML aTUO tint Cm aay ~ B+ 07 7 ay" OULD oan! = e#) ae) j mga ation a thon aki 5) tree wate dete hota ane of witb aged etn cert cet ies sane Ke teen om Table 109, 14, when = 0.1 (0-20 ‘Th owing tbl gies bath Kan orth evr lene202 Formulas or Sas ad Sa a ‘he steno ft sho fed ends ofthe Ganges i vous even a & Lo oS er oan ont ie a he ‘cra Kae the shorter lengths 35 ad in mu be ‘rey Por‘ cree fh 88 df 390 a The eat sfonar = Ab = tan ep ong ae 784 and na 8 known to in rae tune cher drt es at Incietscowive we woud sap te ae fe Wel ade, Sawabunener at 26) und tha os sit ose tion the altel osha darmation nthe Bangor reduced toe eee ‘epotmotty aa nathan ot Oa gh 2 Amal cantleer rane oll lng rch wld fo three pie of ‘hick at ashoya in Fig 10. 40g eae tab lea oh "pe und Ate aged end singly nuported¢om eeh ca sihsin tee Th sinpterupor ano pres etn te ean abs, {oun iru ener rt ane win w enon ea) Tier ey 0 ad ae eter fealty which i 20mm fromthe wb. I i dated to detersins the sasimum fesure ste and the ‘abe tea pte teak an alo ae ap of lesen fe ‘Tune when let Sot the wold end ee ack The lating wll be ented in two tagen, Fst sonar Wado soi sting 4 om the Sue eo a eA nhac see nan sy suppres the oho, Te ong costa ae sec p20 + 9210945) erat 03) B= a0004 bint 1 = 492), 4a3(10— 4007 +2287), 9 n0.a08- 400% Fron Thble 81, cae 1s, a= SR, 1= 160 We SONI, Bi = ROC pogeneelse BH oA 1562% Nom sas’ th seas and| sade discrene ve ae 5 sy, set nt ny 1 it suis both relation ad warpne ad fre the lf en, I Todd at See earth ee Sa ks tbe nine Cn Sw ee Bee lence = [648410102) = 01080! Table 102. case oo 448 CT a)" peamani onan tunis! Tate 102. cave #-(c%) ~ [reson hen f= 9oRaRBON) = 5 a) = DOH 1240) = IeneIaA aera nse“ =e othe ‘cain. case hone wo a de stor urn rite tala egw Taare ata 2h Tae lone Betcced uh fea 54 (Cyn fl sinh abt = 881480 Peon ae, a = osh Mla) =o 652-1 = #4804 Chaska) Ata) =n ga02 45302 = 61-0 Fore 12h a =com 228i ~(284 Formulas or Ses and Strain owe Atte i oad 7, =D and f=. t, fae asnv4n aso) =o.tess 614800"), Simbu -ognmna —tazra0~)p “eth te an ftom w= 4M is et equal ore em Aas where nh 0%3648) = ah 1.188 1.981 an 040065 earenn0-h7, OOOOH) Lara.) : 00 aE eee, Ths ves, = ~T18Ib in yw ~0.4817 rn ad = 008221 ra To locate Psion af mavintum tree it in dona to sketch cures of \rtnd venue orice So 208k alia ont cosh 1.000 + amas eae lowhee 149 he" ‘hie er 4 =e 000821 oe be 000826 ke —48)— I-48 +0000; kine 148 = e144 Sins 001i pe 200070 ps9) ++ 000001788 sa pe — 14) 10-486 12 ps8) 6" + ze f= 140} —1409) Maximum boing rete are produc bythe bam eng meets of pepe and So Rewes SSK dy moc o ~Homhoté ae sta id rooms we BE Se te sue 103) Teen 985 sccones 22809 2. egooer loreseo" 10386 a 2M otoe omen aoe ofboth M, a oa = 208th masimum bending toe ‘nila che wall rcs, oth eal, OHIO 6084038) 104) 0388 gyno To728 AP TRE) CEH HOON) 70 45,200 —4e.0 min? = 970+ 45.30 = 46.300150* HBon408 +019, 19) 0 aya chyo.on08 50 ORE 2 OR oH MMI NO MNS) Maximum shar azeze are produced by "an beam sear V. The stag tee do is sim sete tp fe wo hat Suet is ‘Roum onthe sue sry, aod tha duet Ye mama at tbe SEI erent cs te pie we ‘Enunin give car outon ort und aethetop athe web ani ‘Sm otha solute alee of he tree componente sf ove 9 ow pnb ltetnos tthe tp of heme. Ts ee t= B082HH sas woasanetv 15403100408), 107340, = 9.004e"| + Besoty + ox0R "Te long miu vs f° 4. Vd a Fond at he ven = 7 et wes ities tao} “7k08 Ferm for Sat na Stan oe "obra the tation fh cae a the ed ube sasng _ 728A THB 2.2650 TE aOR TOOOR 104 Effect of Longitudinal tessos 1 was pointed out in Sec. 10.1 that ee wongation of the outer bers Constant upon bat caused lnptialstreses, but Satin bar [termtin vecton thoes tresses were nape tn a esble ba, the fection of which conprises one or more narrow rectangles the stress {n't tneiuinal titers nay become large ad since aftr swan theor fees are inclined, the strases in thew have components ermal tothe axis ftw, whi contribute oh sonal es stance “Te tree inthe longitude] fibers of «thin twisted strip and the eff thee scons on torn slnens have bee considered DY Timethenko (Ret), Green Ret. 6) Cook snd Young (el. 1), and there‘ flowing formulae apply to thie case: Let a= with of Sie Bb-thickness of steps op. and 4.=maximam shea, maxi ‘hun tense, and maximum compresivo stress due to twisting, Feepectiveys T-—applied twisting moment and O/I=anglo of tie, per unit fngth, Then Be (et oo aaa) 04 Hes 042) anos 5e(f) be oD ‘ee vermont ish sid of a. 004, GONE report the parte hae pnd tee Ft ied by taro sea Theron tem represents th port se ented the ene sicar'n eo nial eb oe a ‘ron ashlee fb intense re ft increases = ‘tind he stone prod by agen rms 7 et he vt We Be 2), thi Ko ee “Teton hy he ea ra nse iw of ble 101. eve 4 ing KOU fr the e081 orion 387 witing moment. Finally 9, and ean be found by Baa (20.41) (ana Tae stoning and strengthening effect of inducod longudina one aie feat tel in any ar having a eeton compose of ees casa uch as aT or earinel provided thatthe pots aa gata permit longe unk twst without overstreasing. A the sre the secompanyinglontadinal compression (a (1042) SRE fur through elastic intability ae Table 18. Heep of width ad mann thickness 0 = itil coffe by cl working) toa lea gle then there isan mi ‘Sutthing ete in torsion that can be expressed by the ratio of Edie to notinal (as given i Table 103 sive Neminalk ‘where C is @ sumercl coc that dopends ov she shape of the dee de and ter a retangle, ifr a elise, jor a entodlar fbn, nad fora double wedge (Ref, 2) Tha bar any ereus ction is independently oaded in tension, then the acopending lontinal tani sires 6, simian will provide ee rrearorque that again depends on the ange of owist and she {ur apalied torque sorexponding to any angle of ewit xT ta ei boee oy the cenrostal polar moment of inet of ee Se Mtcion I he logitedinalTouling eases compressive tres oth equation becomes ea son sat Bending sin influences the torsional stifiess of ro unless the cco somone (0) wo axes of symmetry, 2) point symmetry, oF (8) Seo cee myers thar moral cote plane of bending The Srhuences of longitudinal losing and bending ate cscusoed = Ref 23) 405 Uitimate Stength of Bars in Torsion When twisted faa, bart of ductile material weully break in REE eturtace of fracture beng normal tothe ax and practically Freer sPidte erie usually break in tension, the suriace of facture being Rei Ccreulor sections, The formulas of See. 10.1 apply only when che creel osrtrens does sot exced tho elastic Bat. 1 a. (101-3) 3 meni J nqual tothe twang moment at faire, fttious vase88 Forma tr Sees nd Stn few of +s obtained, whic call the mada of rapture in torsion and “Shih forconcensence wil be denoted hore by For sll bats of steel Tidigtly exceeds the ultimate tensile strong when the length i nly abut wee the ameter but drops to about 80% ofthe teil Mreugth when the length bezames 25 times the diameter. Fr solé furs of minum, i about 90% of the tna erent For tubes, the anadls of rupture decreases with the ri of Aiameter D ta wal thicknesg ¢ Nounger (te. 7) gives the allowing topronmate formula apples to taboo tel ad suri: 1600 Opa" = Te ‘where ¢ the modulus of rapture i torsion ofthe tube and i the Tnoiutus of rupture in torsion of sold cular bar of the ame racer (Curves giving? ae a function of Dy! fr varios lees and Hist alloys ny ba fund in Re. 18) 4106 Torsion of Curved Bars; Helical Springs "Tye formulas of Sect 10.1 and 102 ean be applied osightly curved bore avithot sgoifeant error, but for sharply curved bars, such a hela springs acevane must be eaken of the infuence of eurvatu infiope Among ofers, Wat (Rel) and Ancker and Gonder Ree iyo eacuccod this peablesn, and the frees presents charts which {ret focitate the ealelntion af sts and delction for springs of onviretarsetion Of the following formulas ete, those for round rise were taken frm Raf 4, ad thoce for square and recang¥lae Uhre fom Kel B (ith some changes of notation Tet ft eadiag of coil measure from sprang aaa to canter of con (Pig 106), d= camer of exelar vection, 25 — thickness of aaa Section, Plea (either tna ox compressive), number of tive rms in apeing, 9=pitch angle of spring, f = tal stretch or shor hing of pring and "tus shear waren produced. Then fr = ring of eeular Wie, carn 2.(2)', 34 weal ag) vahteasaney] oem wn], ,o4, 7(2)) wrth a$4 +E (8) | 0062) or a spring of square wite (ARIES es anes ceMMPR( DEA ME8) ane tee eo SG reat tin 2h haw o> 8 anPR a 1 oes, f= Sage 57e= OAR RAT +O.) oe fore> 8 ifthe long dimension 2a is parallel to the spring axis a for Siete lg dimension 28 prpendicalas tothe eprng a8, ‘maser 180), 12, 288,08 . eS) ee [Kshould he noted that in each of hee casos she maximum tess svn ty the ordinary forma forthe section in question (rom The ToT} latpiog bye corrctive fartr tha takes nssount of earvacre, i ehone orrective factors ean be sod for any curved bor of the 2 conng eros section. Also, for compression springs with the ‘aE ndeus round down for even bearing. n.chould be taken a the SBkal number of tne Giching the tapered end vrs) less 2, Por Tait springs n should be taken se che actual number of tarbs or sigtly mare ‘Cette lnterally supporied, compression springs that are relatively tong wil bus whe Eomprereed beyond a certain ceil deiection "PRE Tea deci dopends on Ue ato of te fee length, to D. Re ncan diameter, and i niented approximately bythe flowing ‘Malton, boned om Ref. 25. Consideration of cil ehsing bere Tenchung the vical dation is neces. no el(SM Pores tor Stress and Strain, ows. 10 Precise tori For very accurate calculation ofthe extension of ‘ring, ae Ie necenany (0G GEC) ~~ torsional sess fctr for the wire section, ae ves in Tab Tee (S =ier! foe w crcl, A = 2200 for a square wee {actor for shea deformation Ea. 10-05 F 107 Tables tesa detain. SLE 103. Fomorvein (Gensoaa) an pos uowurone ORNL FORCE FoH RMxc. 1071 ng founevanwen ‘proao] som pr volo ORE FaRNR FON HHwes0n town0.1071sewn one‘peo om mp gum us far won ostomy omy ar a Ua gem nage Pa Sade ORL RAIDY FOLe107 few. (Goma) Bap en pan GR alo pape aj ORES Sans SSEses 10.7 oan 10 420 Formals tr srs an Sinwon (Ponsa) Bape moa in Sn at pA AI oR RIN wa RG FON NE“26 Formate tr Sas nd ray couse 108 Reterences : # Hl i Fi 7 i Armee inc emerson Eee kevin eee inh 8 "Srengh of ante an id 190 ELEN eget tn na oe ‘Seetetinecca at Pag S «Boe Bn eect ntsc oa Ngo 6 dos Srl Rann Mi tan ake Son Oe a Ss eet ora Soe dela muito aon atari one 16 sire a dBase Bla Ras oliow Rectaater ec ar % Beownaig sowgn of Metal Aiea esate” Amit Rees Sopis SER bE haope aan ee eit ih ate gene ot te shan pace athens Be ferent a, ou Ranaut aca eta ean eye 11 Flat Plates 11 Common cose "The formulas ofthis section sre hosed on the following assumplane:| ) Tho plate is Hat of unform thickness, and of omogenents Isotopic material: 2) the thickness ie nat mare than above one ‘qurter of the last transverse dimensien, and the mexiown dle ‘ons not mor than about oneal the tickness,@) al fres loads snd reetone~aro normal tothe plane ofthe plate; and (2) he pte nowhere strewed beyond the elastic imi. For conveniae in dsc fon, it will be assumed further that the plane af the plate horton enavoe, The pate deca, The middle surficeainay between op ‘and bottom surfaces) remains unsteesd at other pinta there are axial ress in the pla othe plate. Straight Hee in the plate that were originally vertical femsin straight but become inclined therfore the intensity of either priestess at points on. ny such line je proportional tothe distance frm the middle surface, tnd the maximum steases cur atthe outer surfaces ofthe plate Formulae. Unless otherwise indicated the formulas given in Tables 1121-114 are based on very eoely approximate mathematical ancl sis and may be accopted as sulfiienly accurate 20 long ae the ‘scumptions sated eld trae. Certain aiiona facts of prance fn relation to thse formulas ae a2 fallows428 Formas or Strat wa Sin eon Concentrated iading. I wil be noted thet al formulas for maximum stoss due toa Toad applied over msl ares give very high valen shen the radius ofthe loaded area approscher vero. Analyis by ‘more proces method (Rel 12) shows Unt he tual maximum sees routed by «lad concentrated on vy small wee of radi cos be faund by replacing the actual» by a so-called euitalet rast hich depends largely upon the ticknes ofthe plate and toa sect degree om it leat trancvera dimension Holl (lel. 1) shows bow F ‘ates with the width ofa fat pate, Westerganrd (Rel 14) giver uh ‘ppreaimate expression for this equivalent red VTRETE -a67s0 ay ‘This formula, which applies oa plat of any farm, may be used forall "aus of, less Une 0.5; for lagor values the actual nay be used Use of the equivalent radius makes posible the calculation of the finite maximum stresses produced by 2 (oominal) poont fading 8 the ordinary formula would indies that dheoe ates Were init, ge condtions. The formulas of Tables 112-214 are given for atious combinations of ee support ise, guided eer slope but fre fo move vertically), and simply supported or ned. No exact ode fonuiion is Tiely tbe reand in ordinary construction, ad's condition of true tage fixity is expecially dificult to obtain, Even smal harzontlferce at the linea contact may appecibly reduce te stress and defection in asimyly supported pts. however a Yer ‘ight yelding at nomial fied edges wil realy releve be streecy, there while inerensing the defection and centr seas For this ‘atom it is usualy adistbe to design faed-edged plate that ie to ¢arry uniform load for somewhat higher conter tees than are indicaved by thers 112 Bending of Uniform-Thickness Plates with Ctreuiar Boundaries In Tube 11.2 cates 1-5 consider annular and eid eirclarpleton of Eonstan thickness under aeymmetric loading for several combine ‘ons of boundary conditions, fm addition ta the formula, saulaed values of deformation and moment cocicints are giveh fF many mmo lading eases. The remaining cams include conentratd loading endplates with some cealar sad straight bounatiee, Only the deletions due to bending stains are inlaid: in See U1. the tonal deflctione due o shear striae are consiered wee na Faipiaee 8 Fanmdes. For cases 1-36 (Table 11.2, expressions are given fr deformations and eactions tthe ees ofthe pats wel general uae which low th evaleton of dens pen moments Sahara at any point the plate. The several sxiymmetac inadings clude nlm, soifrmly iron, and parcolcaly Iperensing normal reste over a portion af he pies. hi porte the approcmton of any resonable syst trbuted ending by ting an approximate seemdordor uve tthe aristion Jnung nnd slving the proba by superoton See to Examples tthe end ofthe sstion) Tn addition tothe sual loadings, Table 12 ls ineides odin caace that tony be dextbed es ae eternally appiedconons ‘thick fre each of ots inthe pla Pr expe, in cnes 8 tnd 8expreina are gen fr manutsrated once hane in slope in pte whieh could lb and laste ings were 1 develop ina ite and the changin spe nthe pai hinge ic known azn cn tts int nih al ane frend into tho otherwise iat trfaceatd vee the reacts wh develop when this pat fred to conor tthe speed today onaitos, Thee cans are lao nt when coneideting known Sundery rotations or neal dapacentetelsences a £7.37 fd 58 present tables and pra for man ofthe ang sve i “Re ofthe cna to Gy and he fac FoF v2 Ig, ad Go Gyn able 1-2 appears tae modal a tie. weve, when cnr the ge nur cnet ipso to presen inated son the rene for tie method of presentaten, Socom ls. With ere iapetion, we Rnd tat th contents ad Inetons with ike sabcrpe re the rm except fr he change ia ‘ataias Wo alo note these f the singularity funtion ty Which given el of0forrr,andavshie dt forr > Lo Tbe vais arent fral the prseding factions for sovcal vel af th variables br b/s nt ae Bee te most Sted’ denominsor forthe veal value of er (Soe tat hace ‘aloe ae fr 0.20) RXAMPLES 1. A sth lecular steal lt, 02 thik and 20 ip dasate, esily ‘hipped slong theses Ioeded th» nly ded nao SIP ie tite ee he msi Solution. This pice an loading ar owed in Tale ‘wing sountant are sate128 Foon oS and Sin fount aotier__-s086.20) 2 SAD T+ Ba so 2) “OO ot ee 8019) sepia Tate tag =H Ls ‘The eel detonate wre gt gout, pee aay ere ct 1 = Cg Oy Por Gy = te at r> ‘Neha in ead olka r= toe sue 250859 + TRO)” FT ROTT 0883+ 0001087 — neem et ‘Anes the detonate ota en ea orluta 88 17 = 1088 + 0.96860) — oem") 2 fn ma shina le wih am ue nie 299 aa ne Tin inh ioc der cdg ay ogy spat and eed Pinte tknere Ge: = 100i aod © 030, Solution, The ssoton this ding and suport condition i found in Tobie eee where a= 08 nfo 50,0 im and wabibn Nemo lo rere geminata ‘ner thos utente nda Table 11 Bg he vale of ‘fe fund fr the vane bom Table 1-1 unde the umn heeded ‘athe along coetient ae determined cj somnsts, ¢,=o0sse6s, C= 17005 c= onus, 6,~G.6,-017e0 ‘he vale Lae fan far he varie rand {Be Sms ended 030, the toning ela Ty =0018654 and Ly =0.200808 Whether the number Tele cn etre td ued nasal ‘pens upon bend pobie fp some nutans does ‘Poor are rege ttrylton can be woe iether aston Sn Tab 3. andr oor] ut Piaes 30 etn arnt dees fr wold bt sue ep SRUREETE SAE ATRL Tete tin bacon se Siete etn or ren So enn teenth rain Ces and tp cn te an 2 Penna ean aoc auton develope te Ray oan t,o o-pdeaee x21! onsuasto nen 02662840 014850 on bok ,oezanney scr = "EGCG, OFA For the oustanding Mange of «clan, the edge condition intermedine, th foie of soraint doping wpe the arsenal ‘eldy ofthe main member anton che tay in wich the fangs ‘ached Phe conlusnn othe ASCE Clurn Reseach Comet {Bal 8) on tia pont sng be sunmed up as flows Por cons ot Seracurl seat having’ proportional hit of 3000b/ne an Outstanding fee Feed betwen bo angle, each have hick. equal otha ofthe ange, wl not ly lane cling {Sethu 1, bing meesed om the Seeder of the ange ta he fit tom of iets wir ange, he om buckling ie en (Pf for ites uot tetas a o=nan(’) ae ay If the thickness of each supporting angle is twice that of the flange, + lat basing wl torus see han 2b hs abe bg‘22 Ferma for Sas en an fount measured from the fre edge ofthe ange tothe te ofthe angle; for trier Burges the formula for Bucking ste vnose(!) ny The ultimate strength of an outatending ange is practically egual fo the area tines the yield point up to B/t ratio of 15; for wider Aungesthe ultimate load isnot appreciably greater and 2 here 0 ‘substantial gain in loed-carying capacity when the with of Bange {Sineresed to more than 15 Gmee the thsknecs. In Ref. are given ‘recommended initng values of width thickness ratios in terme of 6, {or webs, anges, and other parte subject 0 buckl inthe caus ef aluminum, the allowable unit stress on an outstand ing lange may be found bythe formulas ssor0- 24 wien dt 622 son. (ey Here kita be aken a8 4 when the oustanding lange ie one lg on stale Tor other section having estoy isle sorsonal iii. a fey be taken when the ange is part of or rly attached to Fon weather pat hat offer relatively great edge content, ‘formula Pt, 10) for th timate strength of short compression merbertcoussting of singe angles, which tes Into account ook Teel and gonerel buckling 2 owe] easy ‘the following values: en (Allowable fa!) wena set aa) wee = © “ams om 059 18000 ‘This formula is for an alloy 4ST) having a yield strength, of {3000 ly/int and a modus of elasticity of 10,501,000%H/in, andi for yound-ended eslumne (e— 1) A mare general frmela fe thin ectona other tha eng Is ett ass) rea cous and ter Camprssion Members 3 Hore o=e(+ Bylt4 B22, where B= e(Liihict6). and Bee Tht ener Ky aa shape fcr the ole of which Aertel ga a8) BIA beng experimentally deterined ar otumes ofthe sete fm questo that have senderest weiens Shut 0, Fore cowed ton or wha” tection, K = 15.6 for raat at anges with wh eat eyo more thas 25 nes Seale oi tn ol oe hale siiyceredfosge yrange fom 12 to 1 an Paras ducunon of doignpcmdure ae! busking fru fr seen uaa another rocural dementia n Re 8) retrace and ther wood fsa properties, Traver ad March (Chap Ua Ho 3) ive the formula fr Dokling eres ne) 0229 nen the edge constraint is as erent e¢ normally can be expected i {weed constracton and ¢ oun(s) xem ‘when contions are such as to make the edge costeant segligble ‘tin wets, For long thin web that i fixed along onc edge, the Theoretical formula for bucking ses BEC) azzay is simply supported along ach eage,the core and for web th ‘sponding formal 2208, ay (12242) (eq Table 16.2) Sir trata ste clumps, the consusion of the ASCE Column Reseach Commitee (te. 8) hat elastic Batling wil ot occur at paren oe than BD Tete ade by she Bureau of Standards Re 14) on steel members sonesting of wide webs riveted batween ee 1 22 Sicate that this-eondusion i eonsoretive and that bit sr, ately na great as D8 iC bs taken asthe with between rivet tine.{94 Form for Sess nd San oon For aluminum eslums, the sume formulae for allownble stress on thin web are suggested sare given previously forthe outstanding flange (Eqs. 122-8) and 022-6) but with f= 12 (Por discussion of ‘he tkimate strength dovelpod bya thin web, ae See. 12.6) ‘Thin ylides! tubes. For a thin lini tabs, the theoreti Tova fr the ental sess a which bling 005s Et WAS 2219) when J denotes the mean radius ofthe tube (ge Table 16.2). ests indicate thas tho eitieal sre atusly developed is snl ony 40 {60% of this theortieal vl ‘Much recent work hot been concerned with measuring inital Imperfections in manufactured eyindrieal tubes and. correlating those imperfections with messured crite! loan. For mors detailed AUseuseons and recommendations rotor to Ref 1-5 inthis shaper tnd to Ref. 101-109 in Chap 1, “ ‘Atached plates When the Banges or web of = column are formed hy ‘veting a umber of plate pnend fat aginst one anthes, there et Docaity thatthe outer plate or plates wil hackle between pnts of ‘teachment i she unsupported length i oo great compared with the Thickness. 1 tho full kd strength, of ater pte 3s to be developed, the eato of unsupparted length a to helene ¢ should ‘ot exteed the value Indicated bythe formate café ae ‘Ret 17). Some specications (Ref. 10) guard against the poets of ‘such buckling by ming the masimum dictenee botween Five Gn the direction ofthe stest) to 16 tmos the thicknear ofthe thinnest utede plate sed to 20 ims the thief the thinevt nae plate: the ratio 16 sin agreomen with Eq (12214) ocatbuciing etatcedeolumne. To guard agains the posiility that the onaituina lements fs itil luna wil buckle ndvigually between ints of support, some spociations (ef. 10) limit the slenderness rato of such parts between points of attachment of Tusing bret 10 orto swa thirds che slandernees ratio ef the clus ava whole, whichever i las. Lacing bars. In a column composed of channels or other structurat shes connected by lacing bare the Funston of the lacing bas i to wes. cola and Ot Camron Members 58 ‘Texture the ey ceteris, seers tc ceptor Lm ‘160 (Ein + 10 100} ve. ‘were P is the allowable eal loud end isthe radius fey Re ekinn section with serpet tothe central me perpendicular 10 the plane of the lacing Re. 10. “fhe trench of individual lacing bars a columns has bee inv sigutad experimentlly Fora ber of recangular section with © snale ‘Rett each end the utimaee strength (in pi even Dy Fn25,000- 00% ef. 8) Fanaoe! cate For bars of angle or channel ection, these formulas ae conservative For fat bara sod at double lning, the crossed bars being riveted egothar, testa show that the ffetive Lis about ball the actual (Gance between ond rivets. Some specifications Wels 2 and 10) Ieqace lacing bars of any action to be designed by the regul ‘{Slumn frmela, being taken ea tho distance between end svete Taal cing und mo 0% of that Aatance for double lasing, There atonal lmitaions att slope of acing, minimom sexton, and method of riveting 129 Stengih of Lattced Columns though i is comomary to amume that tied column att TRI ‘tnd develope the fll tenet of the nominal sin, ser thn when bending ocur nthe plane othe lacing he itm er sith woul be the ate Hf hs assumption were coud ach designed at basing ors ple oror Sues and Sin townie to that ofthe cng. ninpors hats unimportant; atin lon open ok Ween al de sch ar fon tel ode bom oer i soa, maybe mary tt it ea “Story Sid ver bh ny toc at pt a ‘etectan of «latticed member which is due to streine in the cng hrs tod th oder aoe fer nat may te eae he Ted modal of tatty Sion reco tel tee fn oe Ba bt aa, th "ature thease ranver lang th te fo ‘ede rn whch sus com tine. For rformly dissibsted loading and end suppor, aid forthe type Incing town n Fig 121K gon yn Me kar on Aros vere f= length of the ean 1 of wm moment of nia ofthe eon YORE: 1. Cancnteie ond land plas Lateral fonds, 2, Brcentric end load, 126 fe Bone 8, centric end ond plus Jer! fads, fut l2he be gy Bak TR so dma of th sion nh ne of nln ‘ped Sang wen ete bd fm a a Sato12 Forms tor Sse and San era 126 Thin Plates with Stiteners Compression members and compression anges of Hexural members fare sometines made ofa very thin sheet reinforced with tached fillers; ths construction is especially conn inaiplanes, where ugh wings and fussage ave oon of the Pstresed-slan™ type ‘When a load is applied to such «combination, the portions o the place not very cose to the atifenets burke lasiealy at wey Lo “sit stress, but those portions immediatly adjnent tothe stfeners ‘evel the same sree as Use lati and portions «shar distance fiom the sifeners develop an inermesieesteas In saluting the past of ony applied load that vil be carr by the plate oe tm ¢aleulting the strength of de combination ts convenien to male se af the concep of efective or “apparent wid ve the Wideh of Sha prin he set whch i veloped these tear othe stiller, woul carey the same load ass actually earied bythe eine sei ry ly aera by th Fora lt rstangular pate that is supported but nit fixed alone ach of two opposito egos and mujactel to a unioem shortening Baral thee edges, the thectialexpresion Re) for the a Jaa wher «=the efcsive width slong ench supported eg, the {hice ofthe pate endo the ant ates atthe appara cdge the man und at aa ere ee a ee ‘wine pat whieh mounts othe sme thing) PTY VE 026 (264) pe at Tar ‘This formula canbe written B Bo, (263) Tey gen irl an une ef ep He ra Creetie ho ioe 188 ane en te "Sear tat} eset Cana faction = (b/s ebro is the panel width, and. gives a curve showing eaperinientally foteninel tise € poked apa 1 Boe se eee se tee ‘Columns and Omer Compression Members $43 coreeponding value i taken fom Sechler's correct grap “The elective width at fire can be clelated by the relation fe wonton pom In the cave of « xlindrieal panel Joaded parallel to the ans, che HHteive width at fare can be takon ag approximately equal | {hat for a'Mat sheet, but the increase inthe buckling sre nthe tral grt of the panel dog to curvature must be taken to Steount Sechler shows thatthe conibution of thie conta portion in'he sirength ofthe panel may be allowed for by wing fr © the feemnla P= C/E, value giver by C= 6, 03Cyin +03 where A= W/bh/EFa = (bE, and Cy isthe vale of C for a fat sheet, 35 aie hy the abow tbl. “hun shove formulas and experiontal data refor 10 single wets supported slong cath age In caleulating the load caered by » Bot ‘hese with fometudinal stiffens av any given stiffener sires othe ‘Stvcive wid coreoponding to th stress i found by wo 025408134) sxheso 7 = (t/)\/BTA; and b= distance betweon the stiffeners Ret oy The vtal nd erred bm alfeners andthe supported plate i= then Pant, +202, sere dhe sso re fe tine: When the ximn Wat the sener can eary aa colina, P becomes te tate Ded for ih cnr shes ie Saco he alte ladon creed sent with sioner, anette o panel may nd yg he veshng sng of tect prnn Othe pune oe tenth of {ola ae upelte sine the effective mh of tho aah Show hs tose width being foun by Ve where; in he fat sheet ooicintcorespnding to = (1b) ETE: SEES, WaheUntlcad tat the sltenecand abet clu weary w=lOhS64 Formules for Stross and Strain. own tz afore itr, datrmined by an appropriate column farm. For the ‘ypeet thin scion en wed frees in splat ‘ny be found by Bas. (1227 or (1229) Since teak ead ge the steve width w re inardependot tess of eatin {hetolunn rade a gyration), in aeaesuy oasmines ahha alte the corresponding wand hen snore the leg Consent (esedng tothe un formula ae wie a a he array hae bop erertinsb eet Feached) Then, and w being kaon, ie sensi of de ees and-sheet combination ia calculated * PemodA, +24) +(b— Beye) where n isthe numbor of sliffeern A isthe section area of one ‘sillnes, bio the distance botween stlehers rive ins to teet an Ando’ is the exitieal bucking sees forthe central portion teehee ‘ken aso = O.8'/r (being the radius of curvature ofthe chen Mothods of calulsing the strength of aufoned puncte aed tain ‘rhumns subjet to local and torsional backing ave being contacts ‘modified inthe light of current study and experimentation, A anes "extensive discussion than is epproprate ere con be fai in beds ope stress analysis, at well an Refs dnd S 127. Short Prisms under Eecentric Loading ‘When a coprosiveor tonsil fd is applied eceentricaly oa shore bse (evo shart thatthe ef of deleeans fe caplaen resulingsrees are realy tnd by euprpenion Tee eae tea Ps replaced by an gual oval ad Pd role ya ge rons and denote the ecoitcn of Peak easter ae Drinial aren Tand 2. rnp Te ses tay ee ‘Eira oy suprcing l a k te the xia nd andthe boning ste don tos cea and ey then ing fund bythe ndinay Hoare orale ee 1, homove, the pris comps ofa atrial tate cond compression aly nen) oF tension iy (ery tha det seethed cannot be'empoyed when the lac Sc cand it Secnuse the reversal of eres implied bythe Besse away eee seer By eating linear sens debut snd ee a fore thatthe ame th stron sod must sal he spe fee Ad thatthe ester of gravity ofthe ston sd mt aot nt ation oP. rmuineean be derived or the positon ot tara ine of sr sr) andor maximum Mer aoe eae ven crs tion, Anuumber ash emul are sien le together with the dimensions of the barn for ao he es wo. 127) ‘cota and ner Compression Members S45 SEIS he meu sess AU eo rer ch tty tase, boomy herein) RTS tha npc cree np mao ‘ican be ont ce an ol il ruck et ten Samrat ews stant Mg owas ens, Potente thw nee ose hee ay Meet pine eneloop SSTtnl ite be he ements ery by he oe rAd cha dtc ge mult ee fappltation of the fad asumed to be onthe eter principal en) a estan manasa SaeTH SN fart acto eng ren The pst oe ‘ete a fray ge etc in," Tecan tend the stn f= Pr oe enone Sethe sino seek ccm ern ihe recon he ie tno, me he Shiite hc meni el nee er ua tees wen pte tw yer he pln Se Mee ine il and! ay hav to be Seteine ewe ‘md of aon ant al he rm 9 ae acl ets bea apne een ed etter pil arent dba ne he ‘position nor the direction of the nevtral axis corresponding fo. gin postion of tie lad is Known, Lolo rapa eto wh oven cton 2) bed any oat Pee ‘hte th ppd og Tipe the cacti in nd i BRS Unde tones anny ore ve: ny sn terse Die the eel engi ee ‘sleet ranting rie Tc anna ara cnt tea operon te sen Sapte abn mtr tom AN Bw he bn cers Scent aegis ek SasutEch nen hewn owed at ee Soci apy i sie lint Sine tele tin‘546 Formulas for Stuns and Strain om, 12 Porton ofthe sri. The effective portions of al steps combin to form $h ffective ace, sown asthe shaded portion of Pig 12.3 Now itis sacumed positon of AN is correct, the centrid of thie effete ts wil eoinede with the point P and the rmvimtum wees © wl tee oe ual to th lad P divided hy the etre neces ‘ascertain whether ar not the centre ofthe efletive area doos ‘vind with P tac ite outline on att candbosds then et oa oe Diece sp outlined and balance it on pin thrunt through at I the oe balances in any postn, Pi, of erure, the conte Oba {he chance a guessing the positon of NN corel tthe Het tom Se remote, anda suber af trials are key tbe necessary. Buch ry however, enables the pstin of WN to be eatmated mors cose oad the method is less tedious than ight be suppsed For a solid rectangular section, Fling (Re 15) explins a special method of analysis and gives tabulated tonstance which gress ead ato solution for this particular case. The soften by whi he average ctous P/A ls multiple! ta pve the nee vena a function of the eccentrs tion ey/ an rb, where ie ferme have th meaning shown by Fg-124\"The vaes of cakes Kom Bsling’s paper, are ax shown in the aecompansine tase wr a #098 89005 0800 926m oat 09m wat oam Bawa es suring at the Sis Sages pectin ase ‘nou spree ves whan fhe ps, es sein convene n numerical wrk, he tn wil been othe Sneed the aa he wo diane d= tok at oar cn on 208 a - BOISE" Get ae te cn man Ufn a= ‘tron ta Sensis fa = S80 Th a SSB ARIE RC ead sey cea ‘opted mene ro “ ste unin: Ton had en the acter ie tel Date kya) om han ested st i geey aor solide 267 tom nt Tron phi comecomns Mar sone heer component lo gh cet ‘Soetric rote arw ,/d = 018 and e,/ ao Rr he ‘Slee einai ete Sh Siler ineraton yh Eipltion tewoon thse lees gies K=468 nthe roe ele at cube Oger The masinun are tourer p—f se of ot tM. il(oma) sie seis pp sd 5 nay$92 Female tor Seas na San row 129 References 2 fect he Do, ain rte tal i or Dull ain fr the Dag oC Frm Stel Serta Mambers, Astra se Se a Ser an [Svea na Pet Spc Pa Country Pat tae heros ren end ta sina Revere 18 Tl Rep fhe Bp ii Stl Research, Trans Am. So gaue ee Sila eeuermenn on 1p ene ae ee en Rc Aa ed ela ‘Thory avd Practice IUAM. Cambren Univer Prev 880 nn vo Rape ttt oman sag ve Re eee Se Bom a ae wn + ie ansehen th vi RG warren ate ve Root eetintlnl wren nernnne, eon ‘Blam Dean mS ed Eag p20, 908 (An le AE Bg Fay 2 aie espe ta teat 2 rep See rena ig’ A te he 2 SESE ARGS Sea Shes ema trogen 2 Soir rc cena Saree Chapter 13 Shells of Revolution; Pressure Vessels; Pipes 12:1. Circumstances and General State of tess ‘The siscussion and formulas in this section apply to an veel that ie figure of revautien, For convenience of reference, m line tat Tepeesete the intersnction of the wall and a plase cotaining the tas ofthe veel is salad a meridian, and line representing the {erection ofthe wall anda lane nor tothe sx of tho eal i fallndm circumferene. Obennay the meridian through Ans poate 3 Derpeoticularto dhe cruaarence through that point. "Wen vss of the Kin under consideration is subjected :0 = istrbuted loading, auch at internal or external pressure, the pr ominaotsreaes‘ ate. membrane stresses, ie, srseer constant ‘through the thisknese of the wall There ira mcrdnal membrane ‘tress o; sting parallel tothe meridian, a ecueferntial of boo, Tmembrane secs tireamference, ad 2 {eneraly eral radial stent oy warping Uoroogh the thicknsts of the fra In addition, there may be baring andor shea stresors caused Dy leadings or physical cheretritce of the hell and its supporting structure These include (1) concentrated loads, (2) ine nada along ‘Rovian or drcunlaence, (2) sudden changes in wal hikes or on sbrupt change ia the slope ofthe meridian 3) regions inthe vest ‘where @ meridian becomes noenal to oF approaches being normal to he axa ofthe voseel, an (3) wall thickness preter than those fansieted thin-walled, resting in variations of, ed 9 throu the wal Tn eondequence of these stress, there will ba meridional, cum foveal, and rade] trsns lending to exal and redial detersions nd ‘Stange In meridional slope. eee I> axial syenmetry of bath the{55¢ Foun for Sess aed Sain toon Joading and te vss) ther will no tendency forany reurforence te depart from the cinculat form unless Dueling eceurs 182 Thin Shels of Revolution under Distributed Loadings Producing Membrane Stresses Only he walla of the vensl ape relatively thn ess han abot one-tenth the smaller prinipel radia of curvature) and have no abrapt chan im thieknes, slope. or curvature and f the loading i niformlt Alsteuted or smoothly verying and axisymmetric, the esses e lands; are practically uniform throughout the thins of the wall “and are the only important ones prasen; Uh radial steer and sch bending srossos et onc aro nogligihly aml. Table 13-1 giver formulas for the streets and deformations under loadings sch ‘hove just described for clindviesl. ania, spheric, and toroidal ‘vessels as ell ae for gonoralsmonth fguree of revelution ae sed two thin. walled sells are joined to rode a vossel, nd st in osted to have no bonding tress at the joint under eiformls atrbuted or emcothy varying bad, then i in neccesary to soe ‘hells Yor which the radial deformations andthe rotations of the ‘meridians ara the same foreach shell atthe point of sonnection. Her ‘ample lindrieal abel under uniform internal presse wl have ‘radial deformation of gf ~1/2/Bt whe a hemtapherical nord of ‘gual thickens ender the stipe pressure wll havea radial deforma tion of gC ~ 0/22 the meridian rotation i ro Sn oth case ‘This mismatch in radial denmaton wil produce bening ed shea steosses in the nour vicinity of the jolt. An exnmination of ease (able 13.1) shows tae oinfnite a 8 = 00" lara smoot Bgure of evolution, the radial deformation sn the rotation of the meridian vl nich those of the extinder Flogye(Ref.) points ou thatthe amily of cassinian curv an the property just decribed. He aleo discusses in some det the ogi! Sells, whch have e constant radius of curvature forthe meridian Tht fr which is warn TER i everyone Io tha Fe the gia shell has pointed top, a shown n Pig 3.140) IE is indie, 6 in at point in Fig. 18.105, the center ofthe abel mat be ‘supported 10 avoid lunge bending stresses although some bending Slsesses aro sil present in the vicinity of point For more detalt of thee deviations fom membrane ston see Redt 66 and "4-76 For vary thin abla where bending strestes are nogtble, © sonlinear membrane theory can provide more realistic vases est {he row, point A. Rorettos and Sanders have eared out such solution Get. 62, Chow and dakinson (a 87) have examined lage wera ‘stat Revlon PemeVsee pes 18 ufections of slat toroidal membranes of type used sn some ‘sensitive pressure messurng devices ‘alloy in Ref 67 shows that sanple membrane theory i not adequate or the strase analysisof most torephercal pressure vss [Ranjen and Stal nef 68 have worked with asymptotic expansions fand ive a simple design formule Tor the maximum trees in the {Groial segment which ein gond ngreemene wath experimental sed ‘numerical studiees They present a simple conicion tht gives che ‘otimusn Knuckle radivs Tor preserved epsrien cap and exlnder [tomstriee and also ve expressions leading lower limit fr (iia! interelpresoure at whic wines are formed dust ieum {erential compression in the eae ‘Baker, Kovnlevaky, ane Rien (fle. 6 pve formulas for torial sapmenta,egival shes elliptical cells, and Casein sbels under ‘Various Toedings all these caste can be evaluated from case 4 of ‘able 19.1 once Ry andy are called. Tn aio to Ue axis ‘etre tll considered inthis chapter Ree. 6,6, 45,38 68. 74,81, find 62 dicaey in sme deal the membrane sleebace In nonaxist ‘Retrc shells, suchas bareel vaults, elliptic eyinders, and hyparblc paraelods, fee eton othe margin woth endo She oral ee ‘Boal psa ng otha ee B= AGO eel fv Pow 4,156 Fomlan or Seas an ran own ts ‘Sine thin particular ens foe Sshded Table 12.5 he age tavcam beweed"Atthe upper ead O30, y= 10m and 102005) (5 20 4) goon in t= ao} 19-83) =A Sine He constant, dR = Otheshout he dl cement ertars oe ee 2000 + - ARNE TROT ‘i the oer end, 90, = 10a, and = In thee, sO) fy 28 Sao? 30-9) =D ‘Shae ta = nity and a 1 thi prio By ie vl oft nee sme Sot seage re Oust ‘Shock the pty of Soeumfeesti boing 2. “Th tunetn thinwlledse shown Fg, 18. i upped at tp ‘ty the ncaa sn ir ete cane weigh ota PaBbin B= 100" foe, ahd Paton ati Find te se ob thetaoe the changein resus a he nc nd tee cha hehe cope {Pope ones sbjced oan scan paral et ua of Solution. Sine the fra fr «coe dey own woah te een Solr comple tone, euperperie il ae tb God Tas 131 Sr aeagt tan fr ake cp ela age (Be epi ep ered af crn teste vse can bese or ‘rato, a aioe (Gaga A 1) =o so 83) hat Merle Posie Vossen 557 Nest ne find the Fert and ttve wt Bee Sbin oar ana ‘The oho th mena sone i an ie tine eight ae mer on paisa, Re otin,r= Uh bean he Soin and 8 = UIT “3901 38) = seoyoryo as] eoaT be 2.801N20/919) oops "Theft eae, = 9000691 900032 = OHNOISE In ‘ah 00H + Dara + 2.002388 = 0001689 123 Thin Shells of Revolution under Concentrated ‘Discontinuous Loadings Producing Bending and Membrane Stresses Cylingtca shale. Table 18.2 gives formulas fr frees, moments, and ‘Replacements for several axieymmetri ludings on buch Fang an ‘hort thin-walled eyindrical sll having free ens, Those expres ‘Sons ace based on differenti! equations similar in form to those Used {develop the formula for beams on elas foundations in Chap. 8. ltvoid excessive redundancy in the presentation, only the freeond Shans are given im ths chapter, ut all of te lndings ad ou onditon sted in Tables & and 8 wel asthe tabulate data ‘Table 82 and 84 are dreclly appable to clindvial shells by Ghbotcating to shell parameters t and D forthe beam parameters Brand EX, respectively (he wll be demonstrated inthe examples Which flow) Since many loadings on cylindrical shells cecur at the ‘nda note carefully on page 148 the modified numerator tobe used it the squations in Table 85 fur tho condiuon when a= 0. A special88 Forms or Sess and Sin foun ‘pption ofthis would be the situation whero one end o «eid ‘eal sell is lred to ierense known aoa radon whl ‘ining vero lps a that same end This ede ta an apie Shon ofan externally rein conentatd Tatereldsplacemott at 9.0 lable 86, cae with th lof nd fed. See Example 4) Pao (ef, 60) has tabulated intumee eins for aor ei ‘a lls under edge ada wth wa thkkneses uring tsordag {91 Ge fr van of = 12) and for vale 7 of, end Vavioas degrees of tap dev consider by ropeseing dave A= 0203410) where A= 307 Phy RM Seach Get) Bee ‘shuld sia cotisens fr canna theknes pha sb Aword action iin order a this pine nga ferent xuations aed to develp the formlas presented in Table 13.2 were ‘adn he maumpton that eda Skrmaton ofa fe Shagetd othe aia defeion appronches the wall Wickon the sccttay of she equations seclnes In aon if tte lon se invalved ona rately short shel he mnment of tore aay ght have an aprecible lef lange delectons oe eeourerel ‘The tects of these moments are not asl Inthe exes Bren AMPLES 1. Aste be wt a 418m ute dame an 0.0 wal thine ‘eos beth ands ands Bin lone At diese a Sn oe te ea "elie with sca cae ron esha nt these afta ‘ich an comps the fe rly srr distance a 00198, Th ‘osm tes str nth abe dened, Chane B= BAAD BYR! oe reo. Solutlon, We cakalute the flowing costunt - [reich] = 00 Sica 6 = 0/40= 1 in and the clot nd of the ub i Zin rom he {hseea be cntidre terrae ann Frame seas best {otk the matin dec ee main mma ae ade ho apy PTB e133 Slot Rovio; Pessics Vetoes 858 A the cree ston dar te aad onthe ede vrs, the lowing 328,400) = 720 yt "The rst streta on the nid race are 28,400 and 8580. 2, ike the sae ae ad ding an aml 1 opt te icy taining od en sow lato om hee ea he lation. Sige oth ode are chase han 6 nine teatro eee une hob rte coe ‘pin tapes etc re hd ee WOES TA, Tae 18 and'at a) 400d Oa eh Sin fem te an the fine eee pantie Yeas, sab Gta, = oP ha pe G, “9 la = ~061800 om Table 3, under Fy fr (Geom Tele 82, unde Ff TS 1zaese9 120068 ‘Me F(t =0)= 007526 and Fat x 2.80700 hereto, 2) manasa =015410-% Sp 8524-1204) 2008241227) = aE ET nd LT = since re ot rattan Subang ino the exgeoso fy 9000-% so1to-yezs p= 10810, = 0.01259, ad y= -00008 2001 = 015440-Fy-00T526 -{80 Farmon for Sasa Sin ent Although tha pation ofthe xian manta pen hepsi te ede minum martin thane ube pc oe ht Iebdstnes the ei sre anc nn hes nd at =a, B= 297456 F~ 264872 and LT y 0 nce xi ot ener Moy = ~{ 0000259(218464608)2 75) (-.00910/34014.042866) = 1092 iain | he coe tn der the od oon ie rte the laine age BOONE 0:01.20 = 780 By at 14.200 a xo) ‘ $2982 «9 00 ‘The al change a the maxim strc roe in thi sorter take poste (a hw nia en odo sl carb. Hd iat $B se we edt inn» tir tres 4 Aerlnden alumina hel 10m ong and Sine dinate and mst i dtc cary an ner preesure af SI whet encedng ¢ posing of git ie nah tw coed aman ‘ES and Fre slutlon, Case Lehn Table 11 and cate ado ete and 10 from Tui ean be speripmed to Eat al end iad th end ‘Ronen hien will mate te slopes an daft a am ne sro. Pure [tthe the Yntngs ape ote sll Fit we ean tbe nectar roomy sts too Da y= mame 2-Pageey 2a, ate Sine th theknes in known athe sep i he cleat, we cn ots fete whether el man conser a tre” whecher he fend acne es wl hav shy Infucne nthe lost a Ge ater To ‘ake arene of tu effet we cael the wall tenes seen {Ej tha tera prearare Pom ens Te of Te 131, he aoe Be Siete fc eid t1200Iyin ad sh sprenon ee soc) Using he vl # gives A= 1084, which wou be very lng abl sens otc Realtor Pes Vs: Paes ott ype . TTA” (jee ors itn th wrt lb ade hh nd a ing omc ei nth ems ek BE eta ic oad epee ral mtn a he ‘SMharoiae Geet equ wie tcp ero Tate seme 26 ap eT wo BETTE vata", Yeager From Table 182 cae 10, ara, amo" cous _27610- ,24T010-48, a552 Fomulas or Sasa tan omnst ‘Sing these emo equations gee 80 andy 2 careful examination ofthe probes zeeae thatthe marin binding sss eatur abcd, andthe iawn seas tet be ound an ina a ora Halt e180 40040217) | 108 rom Tals 183 10 LAMAR ronan?) sd the oid safe ‘ere od af he lider he Siaay sate" soant mer ihe mama ever ton Soi neath a 505g obtain F083, Thi alls to be eal oe 175 nkcn vers the asp thatthe Sl ean be cnadered oO ‘hal th ding and suport Second solution. ‘This lode el rppeens cae here buh pds ase xed und unfrmrhalpreeuo apie verte ene opt Since Fel eccoidved ng, eo an fn thy nprerint for and My Tle Te cic der epon af that acd un there th tance monn ane re Bye ay mk aya may 1 esata ey fe Ma a and Dor Be ston sould ‘epinephrine ‘formation AF = gi hie the eco the anal proware on he nde Yoltce tls te A= gf 9/2/80 Then for we muse abate sen) ha ot Rvoln; Prater Vass; ies 58 0911/2} = 285). Aso nae that for 2 Ay Fee aE eo temetoe ai cree aera RS aS tt condition ofthese me Sustating fr he eral cnsant nd zedacing the cxresson ope Tit we ctein 4-3 Euan ‘he hype cine 67.50 in 68, and wo rl pnts purge aaa eich four, he jain fr he fru in ble AS fs daha ea tat Sicha tarilnewoenae nthe reek Fore dbcnvanens area ganas ween oni sig na, anes ERS yguGeaienm seat secretin ee 8 Eeoirg faa fin te ere wre Binmpte He 2attin = 400, and O28 A= 405). was eas it ah ei spoieasggaseehe penaame SZ oe sagan!554 Foto for Sas ad Sn fone apn ih Dan wih 8, 000d tom gs 18 Gy EE nach and GC, Gy From Table Rr t= 200 SMEG To oO ot abe, SLT Rn onraxsrana 202 ap apn nating fl i othe cena paeucen toca miata 5608) —20, Nice hat ng =O betas the deflocton of 800m wm aces into the ee st goad fhe end in the sluaon bang coder, ee {Ge Sed he ston beng onedered. Bore ape ap bre rom Table 83 r= 20 Fj=8008 Ra AG60, Ry ae 1500sicoa 0 nas = 1 galt 49+ 9001-1560) = 000208 or a patl cook onthe sation we ean clelte thes Fer pin eco he clate te ope a milena, geet june + gail 5.208 osoxt.044. 950 = 000000 ow fe Tab 13, oI 8282 65a a? AH «82327 0 i yo MUCHO 0958.80 dtl cin’ Beso a and tne arta we A Be sata ee ‘ely ota tbe aa : ever went wie bt leper {ica ig nce ie hl re ke pe wal sr ese tire, maximum pore valane and woud bsonsevauees a9 seats of Revolstin; Pas Vemals pee S65 ‘Serica sts. The format used to present the formulas for the Ferenc esindncel sels could be adapted fr fine portions of eee fried ond conical sulla with both ee Toads and Toads Pehla withun the shell we were to acon te approximate sol (Pes ban on equivlentelindecs. Bake, Kovalev, sd Rash ket {5 present formulas best on this epproximation for open sobericel SASS shells under ge loads and olge displacements, For rat spheieal shells under axaymotie lang, Reto i an (enter work et 18), dnsser the errors introduced by this same seoeetorion and compares i with s beter approximate solution {SPERRY Goren Tablo 12 cone 1 tes frnuas based ot Hetiny Soh and although tis entiated tat the alevlational efor is twice TERSf Limpter approsimaton, the errors in mesimutysreses a0 ested absent, especialy whon the opening angle ois much {kferent from 80" Teer oj eformations due to wig loss decroase exponentially anny rom the load edges of xtaymmictric bells, wil coneaents TDEUPcanaitons or ober nertaits are ot imprcant i they are far onough from the ld edge, Fur example, the exponential term ‘ctecnst approximately 18s when the product ofthe pera hell aaeretter ove Table 13.3 case) and tho angle c(i radians i pera tan #5 similarly it reduces to appronmatly Ya f= 8 ‘Fis moans that aspherical shell wth a rdius/shiekness rato of 30, Tonsilenp 8 cnn have am opening angle @ ae small ux ja of 18 (Rad ule solved mith forma fr cases 2 with very litle eroe Telus 133 shows three shell for which R/t is approximately 6, ‘TEER outa respond emilasly to the eae loads, and QE fact ‘Re cunea portion ofthe shila Fig. 13.8) ould He extended much ‘over than’ 20" tothe loaded elge ince the corsa portion near tbe ‘aeSlom af Ue ese and spre would respond in a silae way to the ‘pire, Gletengt discusten this im Ro 18) salar bounds on nonspheria! but axepmmetic sell can be ‘approximated by weng closely smatching equivalent spherical shells TRE Gas stoald note thatthe angle 6 in Table 12.8, ee 1. not ‘sic tye mexmam af 9 wl bo austratd in she example the ond ef this sation)86 Ferme Sec an San el Fur shalow spheric shel where ¢ sama, Gerdoen and Nielen {utr a 46 have developed infoececouticents ft uatons ee furan forego lads und moments: Sols wires eee she cide we ae ad mone on te eof te cr any graphs aswel a tabulated data a proven, whieh Sts the solution of wide variety f problems by superpositicm, Cheng and Anesirikal te 0) prsen the eat oft elasty seluion fr eleanor are with “ik wa wih kal hte fant los othe sere sno fe beh Lng and sh thine teted se Soa ae Ea, 30 dh and a eros oftc le,n n Seri n i yan ppnow east aed SRC eit ina eet rng one whe eee {i nv inden th piconets ate oer ee eee shen dur by a a Binoche ee Fs ind dra we eae yaa se Bora pera the cn all parame kone ae ‘modified form): (prone Those seynptatis formulae wil give the pce scutey forthe Kelvin fntions for all values of f8 Te aypeite ths fey oe ‘aus derstand tata eranentd walled cone ton ae of Wat the all ed, a emiapex angio ana Poison east 0.3. have a alu of} = 496 For prbleme hese ee oe, than, fewer erm an be an the era, ut ea ee salelations wil oon ent the umber af eras i's recat 82% If only displacements and rnc we the ended eine ec esd the simpler forms ofthe exesion canbe unc eee ee ‘ample att sad of See 13.) Balicukonis (et. 68) obtains approximations for the inuene coelicits whch give the adgr placements fisher ered Sonica shes ner aioymmetic eg eds ad most rhe done br uti oer tap aprons for the ein one ons. Appling the mutters septate napessone een ‘Tayle to short reece eon sl esd oars ete mle to present ¢ reamoale form: Intend i Tae Voy 25 8 ubulates mere! oct bed upon this more eevee formulation but evaluated by a compute forthe ease whers Posen eo 1a) ‘eli Revlon: Psu Vessel Pipes <7 nied space, only five vlues of k and ci fyi are presented. Ly erect appreciably and the rio 08. Recto {thse ih both preter ipsa dan the nd eae do fla nyDt To et dace pets fo dormant fn shal tor rib thickness topos Inch wih tance ng the ‘ca tenn cnn oe ibaa or iad rags o Shalpertmetre Byte and Keer el 0 gen fr Jonata rae {aly easctary to rer to numeral altos: Onpov ted Seen Seaton cee ee arate arenes Sole cet tame ne ede ceenoanniaie aac ana ease rte oe ret eet cnet aera me oe cre eare aE erg Soe ee oc non on me aaa eee ome eee Se hr tan Sineuunnesatecancupane ice Diiea oman irate mats68 Formulae Shas rd Sin eons rotnad an exellent sunnary ond Basel (Re. 69) decries ‘work on shells in great detail ‘ 9 Seer euunss ER ot stan we big. ut Tad ooh phere e 2a the wal tees {olucon, ‘The og bang wil be conaiered in three par, shown i Fig 13, The tangenial ig ore T mil np banc the tea ime ater wh thy rie le ny mean ns find the ssrapanying change arcmin rier A ts dg ‘rote ao reson of he mersan Owing tthe comes efter cele ‘re to eta rain den Sed Ss ‘is nly the tae em able 3 eet EM sing 002441 09090 190 SS aoa ote in ‘Neat ep ence i om Table 13.8 = Paar = 210905 2 ef] fess oe ‘sin 8 a to ear; Pesue Vests Pons Ae thoedge where =, =m, 12058) ane aos LP oug = 108d a ot 0" = 1.01 % Lisp 8g rg « BIOMED I. son 50) an BABE gy = OO ORT oor Ta. ind _1202H8S6H 129909 ad . a FOCLORNO.SKEOL) Qt DAL p it op Set DEE ann ar 120048. 86 sin 120" . op MBE (2 4) = BEE son 105) sznomn! gsond _ 1088381015". oa? “KR” Toney ow ac 1 ee 188 sa M2008 peacoat, tsi AB889" goa, 9 Bek, WoROHOEOT OT Sieh combi ee ttn 9 mi 4 00Ra8 + poooezasH8, or ML sot | = on656 + 0.72 +B 4o002680(-1408) = 004509 in 261-140 5550 tnt 2 = 8M as. Map —H0HRNE FES 5299 int oo ar METRO) Bes en 4 89)~ 2K) Me oO + 0.557(0.011 + 1.054) ~ 211.0849 = ~984 Inn = guanaomy +o" oS sap wnt(57 Formetes tor Stress and Strain few ‘he superposed ares at the un ary, y= $800 = 120040 00 yi 51= 0404400 8.00 yet 5 = 400+, 200~ 18,200 = 2880 nt =O 1840+ 2200» 1,260 rosin stew tensile mero tee f 37401? on he ‘ht rien th a. Afar comers so ‘sree concntratons i the shape othe meld crs 2 ‘rntrcing ing e Solution. If the rine cold te Soletlon. If the rng could be deine a expand in sircamrence by the fang aneen sh he pet dene necro one ot cfinineted. Therefore, x a ring be outed rota TR tg cl 29, std bee the ran Tareas oF ema may sets a aarp te pope ooh jit iam baving a ernst ee Clean = 2G B:200.26 0 6 “Bar ~ “Trofeo ~ 1850 Wink hi an an ars regi the spew nse on a thin ring snot adequate; furthermore there nat Seo ee plac ich ein heal be shell Anite eee esto fs Suc Senta ite br passage he aie ‘Sinan thetaces tok deo up 187 The hang the ater From'tabs ia Snr ha 2008 salar the et wha 2008 etal presarcan be ton Z 200% 200, 20.7518) Te ao =~ 6000017 a won hee Rev: Pete Vssel: pee = the enc of he load Gn bo denned oe rom Table 185, ae th tin of th lade Gan te deers sang (Gith-») = RIED (IME oan) Duns “The nition pressure of 207? wil case al lotrel expanson in 0403912078 _ ego in aay om Smming the changes in he ter radi to he desired val ges ness = 0.000177 +aon0197 +2085 oy, erected an he eas of weing te Je by varying te tikes seas neu ote inter al) 1A runcated cne of shumioum with «wor wall hikes of 05010 cee tReet al aking teal od ‘2 Roeser by lf the mal trons. Given: B= 1000 Pobet Solution, Evaluate the stances ro the apex alone «meridian othe mo SCUGre ROIS sin he bel praetor eatin boa Ls Ae tiat ost 527 rom abe 18 cam, ulated costana fr sel fies, mein and ‘Estrin an Sound hun rd a and ote soul Foe ‘seers cil nanos rath salong Orage mina sere eae inetiaien tom he ll das BsThawte, y= FRABO HRI 2.15 anaay 'e—qotnmabay yg" "127) = -Denoa2s¢, ‘Sine Ay = 9950/2 hal the hicks), Qy = ~4024/in outward. 184 Thin Multielomant Shels of Revoktion ‘The continuity steses atthe junetions of shells or aell lemnents {Bus chants in thickness or shape are not sets anda ee loading of duce materials: however, they are seriue aie cea Lone of exci or fatigue loading, Ta af, 9, dicontinuity reese iscssed with a suimerica example ano, allowable iors at he membrane stresses du to intemal presse are elabished a allowable levels of membrane and bendig genres doo decoy ‘uitos under both stale and esi loadings anger (te. 10) discusses four moder of failure of « pressure Wessel bursting due to poneral yielding duce tenrng ata Sree ‘uly brite fracture, an reep rupture the way i which ene molar affected by the choie of material and Well ickowss hese, {pares prosutevesse code of sveral countries Zane iet und doting and Orage Re 48) describe tn deta the chains ee accurate deformation matching at the intersections of alert, ‘hall: Seo al Ree 74 and 15 The following example ilustenan the ue ofthe frtlas in Tables 12.-13.8 to detrmine cacontinuty strom PxaMPLe ‘i esl shown quarter lng! section in Fis, 2.80) canto indncal ats tin anf btiny wah ama ae ee GTS "The part ae welod ost tea or th ane, 2 in Table 13.) and cases 4 a4 on abe Bisconke us Stine to" anit Tobia Te a ee Tie 8 scan arte a ned Sr ‘hati of Revo; Pressure Veneto: Pipes mae (* amon), 9 FiO OT FT 8c free lesa saint ~0ash* ase Sass ae oder ghee Mee tm me a Fy=C.= 00005, Fan Bue By a Dar Fa =F Fas om0, RaeFa~ oe se AOIUTNEASS [a smm 192% sar] ~ 1250100. shee sain ae ear agg (tO — 44770, #4 S9KTSROADTI NuABMNQ. Mand N= SEIEREEEB arn WEP] = 20880, £@,0 701111 = 02510785) 547-1090 Ma SSE rom Tele 192, cath fr tho we ome My ‘cams elicont shown fr bf te oan age 407007, tie ms ‘as would be expected from Maxwells 3/880) Oppo, 94> STR UO. TES NRA OND OTT) 8005 Man RSMO ou, Niue Na = Megrgsiaaina) ' wo, sgn PORTO ocea ibe ean othe ne ae Li Te anos fd Tle 12a eed umn te cl ne feishin: 4 08sbin, = [90 —0995/26/0 680" 05029, and soytsiyiga “0255 aay The falling oo a a pec othe esi: Pom Tel 3, tw re cal oad a sro oy = HOES — S00 yin’, a = P0685 = 960 Bn ay Mase’, eh =0. hed 7 ane) f, “aa saayanan(?~"s") 20006» From Tele 132 cae fr the sil end lod wen LaToya say ~ 868 AY, Monnens = amiacoty Tm aan y= 1800, sone gga tF AEOIRGO-Y COI 7 pO aon, 4-0, = cant = aoa —MRIOOM, Sta mares =O, aa cian = aM, ara, ame, Summing he adil elec for he nd th cone ed equating ath the inder ges nen etbnend “amogtenene 00788 20 3640-V, -eesHc0°5a%, noe + THONG, 85950" ¥4, 0-4 B6H6K0-417, = 44s310°% nally gating th aa faces ves G+ sm 48 5, aoa nai of Revolution; Pressure Vesela pes 515 Saving th hrs eguatins smulanesy ye Ge 210i, Vee MOOIVin, Myx 2AK8 Minn 1 te einer, 5880 +0:.0 = 64010 . tpn Tt = 25201480) 4 8379880) = si no+0-2497245)= 2657010" n= 3 742445) = 8140 ie essen Combined hang tes on uae = 5112 ~910-= ayia? Combine metal wre on ose = 980 96070 Cumin meron eso ine = 5 2670 Sirs a the coe, oy 4100 SME 9 ron nn? 1-21) | 44022459) sepa int ex 480 !200KBU) 60024 0-0-2800) risina! 70+ 0 rape QLUBHE ENON) O8STEDEEONO goee yank 0 gr OT ao + 5502 Cabin ronal ees on nde = 754 28.7 ‘Town stro vals ace ia ular agree wih ee computed ond ‘hres aes las Sete a and Sore ht the de aoe timate ie he wal thickness See he dscusoon the Wed avegraph ofS 13. he problem just solved by the meted of deformation mating cok ttl et athe comman deumfreee, Te etd ene ate tl oan hers ora tan wo sles pee tee The amar unicef ely enone wen in es eNO gue teeny aut se asl the Fae SE SE Sy he sever ee anand ne etchant of Combine By en on insite ‘Combined rial tren an cutee576 Formas or Seat ad Sin oun the prove signs forthe radial and rotations deformations, An ade ‘ontl problem arses when the reveral slic inorect nots tale ‘Sreuftence but at Owo or more sioealy paced cicuinferences, ‘Figure 13.9 llustater two cone sheleand a sphere shel ned together by a length of exlindrieal abel Tho lent of te central ‘lindo ie aera! dimension in determining hew the cylinder ‘weated. Ifthe length is small enough fr a ive radius and wll thickness, it may be sucient to teat ita «narrow Fing Woe cost section delcte radially and rotates with feopect tothe eriinal Imeviian but whose crass section does not change shape. For an ‘example as to how these narrow rings are treated see Sees 119. Far ‘longer ytindes the cross sectan does change tape aii rested fea tort esinde, wing expressions fem Table 122. Heze there are {so cicumlerences whore slopes and defects ret be mated at the lds on each end of the cylinder inuenee the defermatons a the ‘ther end, Finally if tho cylinder i lng enough, Hf» 6 for exampie {he ends are far enough apart so that ten separate problems may be saleed ‘Table 18. presonts formulas and taulted data or soveral comb nations of thin hells of evolution and thin cvelae plates jae eo CG time at @ common sreumferenct. All shells fe asumed Tong ‘cu so thatthe ond iteractns canbe neglected Lodingsinelue tial lead, Toading de to rotation a constant arlag vlocty lout the central axis, and internal ot external pressure where te Dresaure is either constant oF varying linearly along the wx of the ‘el Fer th posure loading che equitinns represent the cas where the juncson a the shell case no nual leading such ge when 8 «linda! shell arries a retionles piston which i suppored ally luystractares other than thecslinder walls, The decision to present te pressure loadings in this form cas based primarily. on the sist. of resentation. When used for elsedpresture vessels, the deformation “a street for the axial loud must be superposed on those for the preeeure loading ‘uli af Revolution: Prossure Vessels; pes 577 woe sx emir unt i seri Inman istanes oe eri neds a how whethe the san ce ges eta gat arc ie ce seer al rs ey io nora rom {oe an tho may athe hypothe ar hal ‘hen euatonsn Te 2 mace nob he ns, Bete Cons the ath oon of thi Dock ted eaten upon the sins of, a Ce Bresture aa eg he tare coments aut pat 4 of tl cl change in ading, The ‘rps af theo erections tay ae ot af report the aa ede tam in thr cautions. sat Ree ih making tis Secon. the following expe wll compare1578 Ferme or Sas deo few ‘fot of using only the radial component ofthe change in the lsat ‘bressure long atthe junction af cone and esinder, XAMPLE, Fr ths ramp the preserin shel itt he pov example show In'rig" 148 Me ellos fr that otample See ose a ‘Suttins tom Talon 2 and 12. The ote ee a Jeon ae gin atthe endo he soln nthe eal econ sh Serena iti tb ld om he pie at sad defections in calumn fi Ax at nove the equations eed nhc rot Ein re bel ro tree were st es 18 ‘nat Using ene dn and from Table 1a give the reat shoes long he ae a, htt oe fo a net > at —b 000) ™ SR AGN Al the sree nthe sea ele ‘ar hoe ud i the clin a ow neti, Cal eves date ‘Berges ning mal. fcoar tae [h e {Besnard ane cored ine the hae erdng eae ant Cue Uf te iftrence nthe mare uf cbr td Th fl yon ‘Singer ut he crerton fares a Ne Ta ‘en stows chan he al enn ha sorte tn the ins eading wb ar cine ws Blows ge oN bene ‘bring conser wah te dinenstnn The vseeat SoA abeae cal ‘tie tes indy he intra prose a 0 in ne ae 0) er nthe ada inward oad ded fo empeoni te ‘a Campane of te nal reno aes ae ee sso ltl preci fm the reins se lon ‘hese aR, = —12560°59, + cermH0-4m, Yan Hor, -830500-%0 aR, ve he ae 89 202610" + Ge0810-%N, HRT AG, 445200°%M, o wen Shale Revlon Pest Vessels Poet 578 vith + Qs 8007Ibin ls guning the autos fo Ay a bn Gre tahatin’ ge 314, By =S87 bin, Ry ~ MMi epetad th rial cexnponent a aaj contr fr he juin Wn cata td wou be fmt pee vse Most sel intersections havea commen circumference, entifed by the radius fy and defined asthe interoaction of the midsutfaces athe halle Ifthe io alle eve meridional slopes which dlfer substan ily at this intersection, the hap ofthe ont ites described. See Fig 1312) I however eae shops are very neary the sae and the shell thckneares differ appreciably. the intersection af the two Inidoufacre could be far arn fom an ae jint, and the miebik ‘hom radiue muct be defined for ones sbell Seo Mig 13120) “For this waren ther ars two aot of crvcton terms Based on these vo int contour. All corecson terns are treated ag externa neds ‘nthe righthand member The appropsate portion of ths online ix {fansforod back tothe lef-hard member by small changes in the ial ood Vy and the moment Mf which are found by eguating che {leformetions in the two sells at the junction, Tn eath cage the formulas forthe stosses atthe junction are given only fr the ee20 Forms or Stress ad Sn a hand member, Streses are computed oa the assumption that each ‘menier ends abruptly at the june with ch and crows section nora > the meridian, No sires conenteations are consider, and fo rede, lon instr dye to any added weld material o ont reteset hs ben made, The examples show ow auch entetonscan be mene forthe stesoes While the discussion above hae conceitratod primatly on the Sresces ator ery nea the jucton of the memset, there are coe Uwete stresses a wm distance fom the junction een bet sotiee of concern Although «torial shall x not inched in Tee 12d, te presence of large etcumfrental compresive sivas in the toridat sion ofa torispherie! head on preswure eesti kno ta cree Duckling insabiities when such m vessl is aubjectod te intense Dressure. Section 154 deocibes tis proleah and eters of sslar fnture such as «truncated spherical hell under axe! tension PeAMPLEs E,The shel contigo cone and prt phere shown in Fig. 13.19 i ‘abjced tan tural petra oN eat Pence bre ed the cicumseal and endealetme omnes the eet ie hincon are euined Une = HE Nemt aod oe eee eth oro ti hell. Alte near ners wit be St a Selon The meta spe in con an pera the a tthe {nt etna = G's Gang ce Phe ee ‘isha anit aul wh pea “Ste cone ng ie 8.9, cae Where fine pe e088 0189 nd fy 22 Sie wong Sha ot Revlon: Presse Ves gee $81 tbe scp ry woe (0200426, the cone paramere ane with wih’ the sauaage an 200 1 Bom an “Ban oe Fer he spare ing Tale 188, ca sue [pu-0s9(88)] aa bew-B-wm gaan snd at thee, where Se rota wl tlh tesa aaa Ast as and asd Rom nyo eed awit Tae cear Fan) ars a 1972, Cope Nts ay = ~ 0.6786. gy, = 54 796.” Ce = 54.485, ap ln {for interna 4 ‘the spocific landings needed, one usee ense 6a for int dee ee a ae fv Ag he be of mer a y= ‘eval ch dat ae give Th lod term te Lg 216870, Ty yon meine are tangent andthe ne ute ‘ethno here renga rs cae Toth al Se Reet and ihe er oeeore a gat tg a Be psd yh prs ers ms at nscan ew smyth an neem = 1 —fa = Uy SBEOE a y= 88 482 Form Sat San ewes 19, 4 = 88100". ry = GOK 8, tte Ly 255m Mad Ee =0. Ly =eIK5, Ty a8 [Azin combine tb shell and ond ere Ky 04600, iy = 0.0546, vSSmaha taae ys ales ay 2-082 yy = ER os Mootey” “agra ot ea rand 68 "fh Gal sey th vu the Aorbatons and stresses AR = O08, gern 2, = alo Won a maton na A ek a ‘ie wae ipa he beled cnatants sow tt resonable values Waid fave a shes by aterpiien AU the ution he sll eres ‘turd distanee of 9.08%tem tad the upp meraan a sawn in Pe {BiSmeta Oed ern Ompe in oe etin e ‘sat Nem A shel oy bn oputed y he smooth raps rm conical oa pel sl hese kn the boning secsee ever eal I ‘Rescate sa setae wi rene ste coe a Sc bATTT ute ia tchnee sd cereal pemure wil be pied ‘Enna tine fsb err eet rb panto he 2, Th cn changs rm Examp wil Tagghicn” anda increase the ome thei {hitnues io oma seth ad urface wl be eae. the corto ‘ene age not unde entrap eer presse wl be esse 2 STR aa ee nn nto eer “heal wre of te sphere There wl be no ceri give fr te ‘teal restore sesng pan tbe mie enteral slr a he jure $Ftcrttion tr atte seater ail apd fail ang: a toe ‘Mk suse eo thas prot bding eth shoulder el SECURE tb unto, the sed posure odin weal be ‘Recaro tear ll plate but mo cman ome ae [ied iles dey te exts atarala te weld ie Oe mein er Teen EST ke aioe uae sar sigle mare than stout {Uber cree erated hs sane eaten or anemon hat nb cine sep oss mete ha nna orth ater snare See the Ges, {nsee [st etl to Pg 13a Seloton. Fur the coe ving Tble 13. L=18, Re= R= SE oS Se PE a sa hanged to the valuta showy in Pg) 10.24. Where p=, th vale of OSES aa Sei tr tam si) Po re ‘epublt ranger tse with the equatenn To emilar atau the par ‘stellen re ony iin ng wh ca ‘Savin within corrcton tama ooe Bade the lowing eves seme ‘ato evan: Posie Yes: Pes 0 re = Steno “The eft ofthe ert tans ie apparent be doe ct cause lage inf ne ger remo f deans Sammi he lr ‘Fhe rol deincon athe jnctin 0.0808em tomar Upper rei Tikes bose a odie eee ose jets the emo Dee oS Neat aoe mention sone “BAN Nem" 1 ‘The vem! shown nF 128 i pil nth 0 Sat pat base apne Ey ananenir lin and ms asian of Sn The funtion deformations oe Pepin and coeurderentl roan on toute ata a the tn pepe ate 2 ite tebe ed. Te oi long tobe conser te iiatestte Dade dee to she water csi a dep 9 Soi Use ESTato ln tad 03 rte tural inthe shal ono pte ‘Atwarsnensone wil been sd se niche.{04 Forms for Stress ond Strsin fon Sa ete cunt Sa tyarenrar tata as ‘rg thi tabulated informatinn mes “ " a is nr ea pe tre Es tree : Bice ered lalla dah ane hee da ede as Fear acacia: = aoa x8 3949 = 6128 2, = 19602066) = 39 L080), 8 = EOE rp a0 ow) : 4 HEE ta» ear000-4 2.272004) !200 0393.08) = 18678 6 = sa. 2-288 (Note The eatnsive elena nt shown) In the stove cleutions no correction terms mes uine When the rrection ‘en reeled he many isonet ine sce hy = 80191009, 94 = -sa8100-% O08, «= 1600 wi =-S0585, «= 2518 "yptots psn an ty ones peasant daceemakeecaemeaa Pe nrte Boe ip erase tine SVR Aaa be alata a ae Sanaa sy = 962500", eos 0-4 se 8 ‘Sat of avin: Paste Vasa: Pipe 88 Summing he rerum ene Te with criton tar an ro ease 7 profes hfe 16200) p= O14 10" 9 5549 =O Seiad y= juni iy cata ice of 000, ad he ‘Ge°the esa the sunt tthe Santon the, cereal rae San an the meson srs 78 185 Thin Shes of Revolution under External Pressure [A formulas given tn Tables 18.1 and 13. for thin oases under ‘tebuted peesure ate for internal peessurc, be they vel apply ‘equally to cata of external presaroifq is given a negative sign The Formulas in Table 132 for distrbuted. premure are for esternel presse in order t correspond to similar laings far beams on ic foundations in Chap. 8 should noted with ease thatthe ‘pplication of extra prosture may eause nn nsabity tlre deo ‘Shesees lower tian the eka linity ann nich a eas the formulae this chapter donot apps This condition ix darured a Chap. 15. nd Formilae forthe crits! premures or ates potucing insta) are fea in Table 162 ‘vesel of mederst thickness may claps under estrnal pressure se rrestes jn below the led point ts Behavior being comparable © {hat of short colume. The prblem of ascereining the pressure that Doce fine of thie kind sv of special interest in connection with ‘plindeeal ensls and pipe. For external lauding sich we hatin Table TELL cage te the external collapsing pressure cam be given by Tracie | eH Tams wR In fs Band 8 charts are given fr designing veesls under external ‘sci instability peoblmy shoul he considered when designing Jong elndrieal vases or even elativey shar corragted tubes wot Snternal promure. Harings (ef 54 and 35) and Pggo (Ret. 5) have ‘Shown that voasla ofthis type wil buckle Its f the ends are entrained against langstedinalrplacement snd fo pact o the {Sterna peesure andthe cosesectional roa ranches the Euler load for the column e+ 4 whole. For cylindrical sells this Is seldom 8 ‘real factor hat for cormgated tubes o bellows Uns recognized ST uocalled squirming instabili To determine the Ruler Ind tr a tellows, an equivalent thin-walled circiar eros serio canbe estab hed which will hae a radive equal the man eas ofthe below’ fda product for which the equivalent hinder wil have the sme586 Forma or Seas ad Sin fons xia deflection under end load ax would the bellows. The overall bending moment of inertia J af the very thin equivalent cinder ran thon bo uso in the exprossion P, = KELP or the Bact und Ta similar way Soido Ge 56) discusses the effet of pressure an the Tatra bending of «bellows, PxAMPL ‘Ararat ite han rad fn awa ces of 9019 $5060 smicale eruption nee dng Tse are he eral pre nceeryto rues sing ta tobe aed Grae Sasa ass Selutlon. Refer co Table 133, cae: = Sin, length = 40m, b= OStimandt = bolgie ene = 40in, 8 8 © fare) = 22 =H = 080 “DST PATE _ ost aassx60}/OBT = “aGFOOIS {ea on with x radio Sin and pau, wer dein compre sion With atid Poe tech wea Pf me ano -Puo, on, 1284 teem eterno Ppa SEB EAH MIO 55 oF coast Fo Tle 18.2 cae 6, the masimum sree cused ly thi eae are (oan =osssv051 [283807 emt (he 08600 1 [ 2088. agony? leh yl tren grote th oe tray En ei a 36000 oe coma ab hols a0 sat of evn: Pou Yesai: pee 87 136 Thick Shes of Revolution 1 cho wall thickness of veal is more than about one-tenth the radius the merdioel and heop stresee cannot be considered irr throughout the thscners ofthe wal andthe rail sees ance be famsidered egigible. Those strenet in thick veel led al Ssreser, mise bo found by formulae thet see quite diferent fem those used in finding membrane stress in thin vessel "Hea be seen rom the formulas for enees La and Ib of Table 13.5 that the strato a the inner surface fa thick cinder approaches fs tho ratioof outer to ianer radius approsches fat. Te apparent, therefore that ifthe stro sto be nitd to some spied value te preasure must never eaceadg'= 2. matt Row tie the wl | tae. To overcame thi imitation, the matorilst sd tes the ne striae mut be put into a state of intial compression, This an be done by abvinking an one or more jackets (as explained in See 3.12 fad in the example which follows) or by subjecting tho vessel to high Internal pressure Cat tveasea the inner art inl the pati a fd, when removed, eves reciul cmmpression there ad red tonsion in the outer part This procedure is alld autorettage ol Deaping If many succescive jckets are superimposed on the ori tube by shrinking or wrapping. tho reciting structure is called « Imultiayer rere. Such a constracton has certain avantages ut ‘Should be aed chat the formas for hoop stressor are hae on the Seeomption that am atopic material ued Tn ltlavered vse! the efetive radial edulis of el taodulus, and in consequence the hoop siseas at and neat Uh eer wal ie leet tan Ue formula would indicate; therefire, the outer [ayers of material contrib let to the strengus ofthe vessel tha might be suppose ‘Cacee Ye and Iii Tabo 12.5 roprsant radia body fre looting which exn be superiepoted to give results for eentefuglleding te (Gce See 182). Cos is drety applicable to thick-walled disks with ‘bedded slctrial conductors word in generste magnetic Glas In ‘any such canes the magnetic eld votes Heatly through tho wal to ero atthe outside, I chore ina eld atthe ater tara eases Le and IC ‘an be superimposed in Une necesary proportions. "The tabulated formulas fo elastic wal reson ar acura for both thin end tk vosels, but formulas for predicted fad pressures do hot always agree easly with experimental results Rel 21, 84-3, “ind 39) The exprsslon Yor qeiven in Table 13.5 ia based om the fmm sin-enengy theory of elastic fire. The expresion for Durating pressare wat os6)S80 Fomor Son nt Sa lows commonly known asthe mean diameter formula, ie eentiali empiri ‘al but areesresonably wll with experinent for bot thin sd hick {indicl vessels and is convenient t te. For ver thick essa the ‘ermal em lng 362) ‘is preferable. Greater nosurecy can be obtained by using with this flomals a uliiying fcr that takes into acount the sinha foning propertis ofthe matril (Refs 10,20, and 1) With the seme Dinecive, Faupel (et. 99) proposce (with different notation) the ‘ormula sea, -Arather oxtnsvo discussion of bursting presure ie given in Ref 38 which presente a tabulated comparinon between hureng pres a Gaieulated by e number of diferent formas and ax determined by Setual experitent, [tthe powder cher the ines rd ofa 3.n gun tbe 1.605n andthe ‘ter ues 2a eu deiodt sh nae i pace ‘adil pressure bntvecs tn ube ander ff by The eta rao ct ‘his slr en Te raged to detemine the erence benean the [Se vada othe achat athe outer rio of he abe moder redone {he deiedprantr, ate ton trate mech pt when teem op ‘cle besten incu pst sete pan eh Tarn Polat premute 38,500 in Slugs eo rae 12, i nd ht atthe sgn ty atthe ner race “HT A60T8/ in and tho age if ato radian So" “0001085 im rtm ince pranare of yn, the een ya the lee ofthe cet i LEO tue vant 8D the Shane ane ‘Sabuctsn. dn mang theless foe ro Haske ie aimed fe Sn) The nl rece lyons tae favor rutue ‘tho asker andthe ter radius if tbe teat EeNcgel ‘ou umf the rata oon they si ot ofS Goot6hs “wonsiny these the ia Paine wt Se Toke ‘uid hp ai The sec plied by the per prot ar lela at be ine surfs ft im the et tac tbe an ke r= 228 Scat theowtersrace the jk. hse sae then cupeinpana wenn Sha ef avin Prone Ves: Pipes 9 shore Gund previa The ceca ae as tls: For the tobe a he Ene sora, y= 132000 2S, str os! aaa +28 ra Sas +2950 ie! a= 30000! y= 12,000), 508 2858-2428 so 200 By othe jacket hy outer sane, y= N00 ase 18.3019 ‘serbian per ey Spiny eens ‘tan ure ae y= 27.080 = 45.450 = 18500 y= 022000 = 12,000? tov ura tbe, = 184904 28,500~ +070 ye A inert of tet, ean 300 = F760 2 100904 19,40 = $23.50 jin? 137 Pipe on Supports at Interats or ip renee a sported titra on seo sett end fied or pty ld mah lige the sirens analses= eat andthe rent are rndere uovereain by douifl boundary ‘Smitone, Crain conciinearived at from 2 study of teste fs. {Tend 13) ay be ell in poking design: Selo Ret 7,89 Formi or Ste and Sean fons {Benure in applicable ithe pipe i completly led. ithe pine ie oy partially filled the eons section a point beteon supports becomes out of round and tue dation o longline Eber stees ie neither linear nor aymmetree!aevess the ston. ‘The highest steesen czar forthe halill condition then the hnaximum longitudinal compressive stress and the maximum ‘Greumferental banding sresoe goo atthe ends othe horizontal Giamesor te rai longitudinal tans stro orars at the tom, tad the lonptadinal reas atthe top tx practically 250 ‘Acsirding to theory Re), the greatest ofthese srecos isthe Tongitudinal compression, which w equal ‘9 the maximum loog {tudinal stress fr the fall condition divided by span The asia ete sbout one third of hi Tota (Ret 11) ona K =1.98 showed « logitudnel strvs thet is same: ‘sd a crcunfeental eres that i consiorably greater than indicated by this theory For an unetilfenod pipe resting in sade supports, thee a high loeal stresses, both longitudinal ‘he tps of the sedis, Those seses are Tos for © “ale f otal ange subtended by ere of contact between pipe ad Sle) thon for'a small angle, and for the ordinary range of {Tmensions they are practically independent of the thickness of ies ity dimension pacalel to fhe pipe axe. Por pipe ‘hat fits the saddle well the maximum value of there lealzed “roses wll probably not exceed that ndioated by the formula 2 R cone = En srhure P= tata saddle rescton, B= pipe radius, = pipe thick tess and = soe ivan Dy = 0.02 eoop1248 90) inn degrees Thin stra is almost whally due to circum ding and outs at point about 18° above the saddle vena Sat ot vlan Paiute: pte S81 4, The maximum value of the pipe can sustain i about 2.20 times the vue that wil produce n'masseum stress equal to the yd point of the pp material, scerding to the formila given alow. 6. The comments in conclusion & above are based onthe results of toss perfrted on very thin walled pipe. Bvees and OBrien in Rf 1p describe snilar tests on tickerwalled duchile-izon pipe for Wthich Mt des ot normally exoned 50. They found tht optimum Teal angles lien the range 90" = > 120" and that for je 28 the formals fr on, ean be aoe ifthe value of ke given by = 002 -0.000171¢- 90) ‘The maximum stress wil be loested within 16° of tho tip i the Die te the sade wll 6. For a pine sported in feible slings istoud of on rigid sues, the maximus local sresie accu a the points of angency of sling ind pips ection in general they are [es than the corresponding fRreses inthe suddosupporced pipe but sre of the same order of aitade A front bt closely elated suppor estem for horizontal ei Areal take insets of «pair of longitudinal ine loads running the {all ngth of the veel I the taal wal eth accounting for she {formations which are normally oredr standaed see formals it shows thatthe stesso are signfcantly lower. Coak in Rf, 79 uses it nonlinear anne to acount for deformations and reports results for watious posions ef the supports, raius/thickness ation, and depths of ln tho tank34 Ferman or Seat Sin‘Sata of Revolution; Presse Vesna Pipes 601 wo oun (8 Femets for Se and Sain‘Save of Reon; Preset ns; Ppas 602 emo) spn sakes an em epoxy Ue hy} onsmae pw edo Wn ES ves sre‘hots of Revolon: rare Vesa Poet 605 Supt uma gun sie us paemne oe wr pu 616) se ote pu elmo eetsa ot vaso; rns Vous: Pt ingot maz pen em, oun sas ents Pema Loy pe Bu 0 ean epeap pie edo mou NE eh Hane 0b Femuln or Sous and Sein‘shat ot Avoaton;Prassure Vossen: Pipes 61 wen owns ($10 Foreulas tor Steas and StrainSf Rovuton: Presse Veta: pes 19 fons ($12 Formultne for Stress and Strainow. 19 oma osSo evn: Pasion Pipes 87 owns (618 Formulas for Stross and Strain‘hata Reon Pees Vest: oes #21 wo 108) ent (620 Fermutas for Stress and Strainsha ert Pose Vessel: Pet wo 138 oun (24 Forma tr Season in ‘panaco) wm ed aie sajna pus Haan Suma Fa pen Sean) FELTShae ot Rovettan PeureVnsl Ppse 627 aon Bde B oa esa nas Rao soabunape po see sen ps apg 8 RIS) SORTiT‘sata Revoir; PesereVesss Pes 631 (90 Female for Sas nd San‘sa tevin; Paseo: Pes 63 fou ht 622 Formie or Shets Sinhat ot vlan: Praveure Vesa; Pes 9 £94 Formule or Stat San eau) aoe en a unas Sam om aS POT‘as ot ero: Psave Vos: Pot 67sta ot ivolaon Prose Vets: Pes 9 sen four (59 Forma fr Sat ad ran(62 Foi fr Sas and Stan (jens) sd pv er na a ORISSA Ereg FEOShells of Revolution; Pressure Vessel; Pipes 645, (enn) sed Pa wre soul aa santana por SaE Kaien emg‘Sale ot Revlon; Posse Vesasa: pes 4 ms remit for Streas and Strainfount (689 Formas or Ses and Stain‘area oie pu sf BUN a Reo REE Ry ION FA i i Jj i | a‘a of Rolin; Preaaue Vee Pot 66 worm) fom tt 20 Forman er Ses ad tn p sian a ORR pur sais MCRD 8 Ae FLW; i I i i a (cme) ee Px re il oa HokRam Po een on Soho“nog snd pores some oa seRUIORN NSE GASES WLWdg 2003 P5003 [82028 23053 ‘bet of Revlon; Pressure Vessel Pipes 667 134 founsa (696 Formulas tor Stress and Strain (oma) ee tl a ORD Po LISA Ho 1 nae meaning Fes ee{570 Formule tor Soees and Stain le baldle “eu se or Bf Lar aH emp pl Fare voy somes FEL Fe‘Shata of Revolution; Presnure Vessels; Pipes 672 “pono a or oun a SORA iN Bamana RPsen Shen ot evn: Press ease Pps 67S (cana) som a a 0 sm a sarap pos Bett cco a Feng” vex Fe‘134 Fomue Scotty sates tn teats fenton fs nd ples (Cand {576 Formate tr Stress an Sain [> geepe ee auagenlas i ‘Shela of Revolution: Prassure Vessei; Pipes 677 eaqea paued ueaaa iter fay peaga uvsgayezati uaa ps i HERE Hae feaneg 3‘Shae of Revlon: Pst Yess: Pp «8 (676 Formulas for Stress and Stra ot vt; rns ena Ps we 138 toons 20 Foals for Suess na tin‘Sets ot Revlon; Peeue Vase Pont 603 (perso) wd poe eee eosin er SoRDpeFaAS GNSS 1 SHEA FEN FN‘het of Revolution Pressure Vessels; Plows 585 sc 138 town.505 Femur Seat nd Stn owns 198 References 1 Saute ¥ Ont Capt bey Batali Pil Ma, i ak Sel Ane Shale We 7. Sie H.R, an. F. debi Seng o Tin yin hate ner ial Peni ara aS fp | Juspes TM, ane 3 WW. Selva: Oe Cen Strong Stee Tubes, Pane SSSI putnam 1 RO er ater ot cee epee aaree 2 Raia manag npmnmetonmmonrnns (ie SE wom cmt wr cre ree a eee ee ee ae ee een SE oe neeepeeconateanceinntnen con nS ie A Sn ne ot iF: Sec om nal Lanting Shia Pre Weel, Tan ‘ASN oe Sa Net 2 Bl Se Reta tnt Pm a, et 1. Han § Wad 0 fad enn : sips RC ca er tt tot Kobiioeare scene ggome an = nl Ac Bhs manne SR ASRSRa eas ieaseccnece at e139) ha ot Rvotin: rare Veen: Ppes 7 aunts oan 2 ER te cis ert a = Red ea leit aise OE Cee ogee ia bata ce ee ee et eget Regi Reet nr a I atc nec amen comers cea ene ee mmnnsaee Ca cyt Peso 8 fobs Veal Meu Spt sy 166 Se ee Ee na carne Ce mrt in = Tet 7H Hel and pine Cheri Hay ml an ‘Trane 2 RRS Oe meena ant aa cae eee venga tetart het stain etude diac he 1 ne ee ‘Sh RNC Titles Sentce of Shan” So a, Bev, 186: Eni reer CE cue yma mum ge ean ete tants 0 eee ein fan Anombty a Aerie cee ean ee eer be elon ‘Joho nuns and Bape Lane mn Several Selly Sruturen, NASA Tech eye eee tmammanasc ims sty of Tiel Clines Sate fra Pree, Hone 9 ayo Betws Sod entero Pree Pa Bs aeraFormas or Seas an Sin owns oo ae aoa Seehof sae CE a ee ee oman wt is aa eT en Corgi atare deme oe to cee eee nm va ce, Finer ree tal net ch Srl te Sed emer na 3 Al a nea a WS Page NTO © ee Soe at tc re met fe Beit XSi pt co Sm at AM! Sess Pe Con See ee cn anne Slots emma tera bi Dre FLY gee mn nce 70. ede 6a, Sind i Ita Soutn! Atak ts BSc gegen os Semerpt orton 2 RE ia pee Bs em can See Ee eos ‘8 Bader Hi "Pere Vol Deg Hanon dd Yn Noe Ral, 9 Silos Gh pra crepe "REE i ge gta Fo ag fees me mm pe on Be po pacer aeigggs mmr een a Tra eye tts HOT a oe peices teeee o REEIAE SaanaPRRToma an ‘chapter 14 Bodies under Direct Bearing and Shear Stress 14.1_Stress due to Pressure between Elatie Bodies ‘The tresses caused by the pressure between elastic toes are af Importance in conection withthe dergn or investigation of ball snd feller benrings, gear tanrions, expan ers tack stresses, ot Forte tet 1) developed the mathematical theory for the surface nd deformations produced by pressure between curved the results of hie analysia are supported by experiment Formulas based om tit theory give the maximum compressive reosea, which ost at the center afte surfaces of contac, but ot {Be maximum shear stressen which geear ip the interiors of the ‘impressed pats, nor the ‘Sess, which ours at fhe boundary of ths contact area and is nortan there, Bath surface wad subsurface stresen were ued by Bae (Refs as and 29) and some of bis torte ave ced in Rot 8. A tabulated furnmary of surface and suberface stesees, grey facie {heulation is given in Ref. 3 Fors finder on a plane and fo ‘Sona eyindere Thomas sid Hersch (Rel 2) Investigated mathe faatally surface compression and internal shear and checked the Cnulated vl of he ator experienencalls The etrosses do to the fressure of sper on a plate (Ref 3) and of cylinder on a plate Ret [hve alo been investigated by photoelastic, The deformation and Contact sea for a bal i 4 race were measured by Whiteners and ‘Peteenko Ret 8) and compared with the theoretica} vals. Addon fly, vestigations have considered the influence of engential lading Gumbined with normal adng els. 95. 47-18, and 88, Tn Table 14, fraulae are given for the late stress and deform: tion produced by presnureHetwoen bodies of arious forms al forthe(0 Forel tr Sues and Sain town ‘imensions of the circular, eliptical, or rectangular area of contact ferme by de sompresaed surfaces Except where otherwise ndinted, thes equations are bared on Herts chars which wasumes te length cf the cylinder sod dimensions of the plate ta be inate. For very short ender and fora pace having a width es than five o ix ies fata the contact aren or a dickecs less than five osx times the fp othe pont of maximum shear tress, she nual stresses may ‘ty eonsidesnbly fom the values indicated by the theory (ae Refs 4, deformations fr & oval id is applied to the plate Geaph ofthe contact rad ze Srovented for a concentrated lad and two distributed loadings om ‘Srelar area ‘Herts (Raf. I) based his work on the ascumption thatthe contact aren was small compared with the radi af he ball oF elinder, {Goodman and oer (Ret 52) compare the work of Herez with asoution ‘which permite the contact arent be larger, such a the ease when the esate mdive of ne runface ix only very alight lrgar 2.01 to 0) than the postive radius of tho other. Cooper (Ref. Sf) presents we teformulated herian coeficients in more easly interpolated form "also pointe ot some numeral eror in the coefficients originals ‘pobidhed by Hore, Dundrs and Sippes el 58) cuss the ofc of Poisons rato on contact stress problems, "Thee ofthe formas of Table 14.13 asteatd in tho example at thw end ofthis sectson. The genera formal for case oan be wae 02 Inthe example, fr any contact-troge problems involving any ge0- ‘etially regular bodice excop! parallel cylinders, but fr bearing fnleultins use shold he rade of charts suchas have given in Ros [Band 14, which not ony greatly fecitate calculations bat provide for {fluences not tan ino senna the formal ‘Bacouse of the very small area savolved in what initially approx Septes point of line contact, contact stress fr even ight las are ‘ory high; but asthe formulas show, the rretsr 8o not inerese in proportion tothe loading urthermore, beaute ofthe fcte that the ‘igs is ighly lneeliaed sed tras the actual sees intnsity eam be ‘ory high without producing apparent damage, To make uae of the bere formals for purposes of design or sled determination it is rovessery to know the relaionship butween theotticalstesoes ad Lelia of ete, whather from excesive deformation or facture. In discussing thie relaonship, fix convenient to ref to the opted stose a the Horts stress, whether the clastic range has fee exceeded oe ft, Sot of the avallable information showing the ort stems corresponding t loadings found tobe safe and to loadings wien ‘ose nce Det Sing and Sa Sess OF hat produced excessive deformations or fracture may be summarized sfallows ‘tate or nearstaie condtons Syandes "The American Railway Engineering Association ives 08 See Mowabie londingfor-a steel cinder on flat steel plate the formulae 15,000 00 413,000 sosin EN sod fo 28 <4 < 125 600d ford <25in ° Hare (end in subsequent equation) p is te load per Tinea inch in founds dis the daar ofthe cylinder in inehes, and, the tel Jeld pico the ats nthe roller or plate, whichever slower. fi [Eke a 32,0001b/in', the Herr stress corresponding to this loading {Stonstan a 76200 int for any diameter upto 25in and derenser Seat ty $0,900 at d= 195in. See Rat. 10. ‘ison Refs 7, 12 nd 22) carried out never cvs of state and scowling tests on large rollers. Prom stabic test on rollers of frotiumegrade cast steel having diameters of 120 to 72Din, he nnchded thet the load per Hines inch required to produce apes Shs permanent oe sould be Tepresnted by the empirical formula 800 +1104, provided the bearing plates were Sin thik ar moro Fie found that pinereaed with Une otal length of the roler up 0 8 Itngth af Gin, cher which i remntined pratally constant Ret 32) ‘Sowrsoling fest Ref. 11) usdertaken to devrmine the lod required {2 produce'a permanent slngation or spresd of 0.001 in/in in the ‘earing plete led tothe empirial rela p= (18.000 + 1204 for roller with d= 120in, Wilsons tests indicated thatthe averege Sretaure on the are of contact required to prdoce wet was grater fr ‘Phu rotlers than for lagge elles nod Ut ther was isle eiferenee {bearing capacty unde static and slow-rlling conditions, though the inter showed more tendency to produce surface deterioration, “Jensen (el), making use of Wilsons test results and taking into cont the tree-dntensional spect o the problem, proposed or the Ton progicing st the formal te site “Trae /e0008) “E(622 Formulas tor Stress and Strain tows a Whore Lie the langth of the esinder in inches and Bis the modus of slastcty in pounds por square inch. For vale ofthe rato dL fom 0.14010, the eonrespring Hertz stress ranges fon 80 so 72, ‘Whittemore (Ref. 8) found that the elastic limit load for 4 exible roller of hardened stool (ens strength abot 363,00015in?) tested 'newean slightly hardened races corresponded to Herts stress of about #36,0001hn* ‘The rll filed before the races Sonar, ‘Tet repre is Witonoe an Pen 8) gee Bais: and finn dames tent twee eg ac Here Sreoaf 2590, ao and SiBoOet copes woe Docs «permanent saint OO. Teal nese net hai ‘lercpe Hare of 0 ed th eee ree ppanotn {Een hard he ct ai wal seed te rom the nls of crhing ttf apere betwen no simile spheres SKF dred theemptiea frm P= 150460} wee i thc erng din pnts ds the Smet ofthe pee Inches, The tent mere were def ste teleed obo affrdnes {to Rackell Cathe fare cmeagen os Hert eee about 4,000,000 xd", Hew “ lees nn enn en Sra coe eee reseceeaineee Tusnogetaiiertnmeer ucureno Syne mere rarea mae gees Sa nee aan oe Sentai mceceteac nial ir dais raceme Se eden yt a Sreenivasan ear see. 14.3) ‘Bodies under Direct Besring and Shear Stress 634 srviatins in hardness of 45-60 on the Rockwell C scale, Soecessive {pplication of load legs than the erie! foad will ese so plastic ows the edge of pivot eriginallycharp will increase ip wt with the lon but ho further paste deformation is prodioed by euewsive {pplicatons ofthe same or salle Ios The appieation of lox (renter tan the eitical Ind wil widn the edge a the Gest spp Fon but additional appeatons of the same Toed will mot ease 1:Sdkiona Mow. the averuge wut pressure on 80- pivots having = faniaesy represented by Hocksell C numbers of 50-60 is shout ‘00,000-500-0001in? atthe etn! loud. Tis erica unit pressure Sppoer tobe indopendnt ofthe width ofthe edge but inresses with the pivot ange andthe hardness af the material Ref. 8. "These tests and the quvted recommendations relate to aplications involving heyy lads (Mhourands of pounds) and resonable accuracy For light londs und enteme nocurae, asin analytical bales, the pressures are bmited to mich smaller values. Thus in Ret 30 onthe Tonumptons that an originally harp edge indents the bearing and that the common surface becomee eylnareal, i i sated that the adivr of the loedodeige tort not exceod 0.254m (approximately ‘nooo: in) if eatifactory accurecy is to be stained, an that the Corresponding ung would be about 35,0001b/in® of contact ace, Dynamic conditons. Ifthe rmotion involved is» tr rling motion ang tip, then oder sonditions of slow motion (expansion cules ete) the res conditions are comparable With those Dradced by static loading, This ie indicated by a comparison of the Emclsione reached in Bf, 7, where the conitions are tay static ‘ih thos reached in Re 1, where there ia elow-rlling action. 1 Therein even a slight amount of slip, However, the conditions agp vers fuch moe severe aod faire is Iikely to aur through mechanical ‘tone Th only gid to proper design ayainet wear real or simulated Service isting ete 24,41 and 40) "When the motion invelved isnt high epeed and produces cycle Toning, av in ball and rollor Seaeingo, fatigue is an important Consideration. A great many testa havo been made co determine the Tatigue properties of hearings, eapocinly bal earings, ad such tests The teen caried out to ag many as 1 biln cyles and with Herts ‘ervsees up to 750, 000%b/ine (Re. 7), The numberof eyles o damage (cher speling or excesive deformation) has been found wn be vee ‘ety proportional fo the ce of he load for point contact halls) and {he fourth power for line contacts this would be inversely prypartion {othe ninth end eighth powets, respective, ofthe ler stress. Sar {ot 0) foun dhe eyes to faire to vary asthe minth power of the forte stees and war unable oexablsh a trve endurance ims, Soe ‘flies teste show hat all Bearings can Pun for a great number of(654 Forman for Strees and Sirain fous les a very high stresses; for example in balls of SAE 52.100 ste! (HC 69-66) withstood 17,500,000 exces a x stro of 174000 Lin? bore 10% falures ocurred, and withstoed 700,000.00 yet at Chat stress bare 80% Eluresooerret ‘One dlificulty in coreclating sifferent tests on bearings is the Ailference in enterin for judging damage, sme experimenters have ‘defined fluro ata certain permanent deformation, others as vs surface damage though spalling. Palmgron (et. 36) states that Permanent deformation at any onecuntac point of alli eloment and bearing ring combined equal 0.001 times the dinero ho rolling semen has no significant inuence onthe fscionng ofthe Searing In the test of Ref 87, spalling of she surface was taken athe sign of sue this palling generally originated on plates of maximum thea ses blow the suriice Uargediameter bearings, usually incorporating integral gearing, are heatrested to produce a hardened case to resist wen a fap and tough machinable core. Sague in Rel. 8 dessribes how high subsurtace shear stestes have produccd yielding inthe core with Subsequent failure of the nee dust lack of support. is apparent from che forgoing dacusain thatthe practical design f part that sustain diet bearing mit be based largely exes. ete sine cis sloe affords a guide as tn whether, at ny given fad and number of srs eyes, thee a enough defcation or surface 1 interfere with proper functioning ‘The rated espace of brains anf gears are fursished ly the manufacturers, wh proper allowance indicated for the condition of serie and recramrendetiont as to proper lubrication (Ret, 93), Vaid and helpful concasione, however, can aften be drawn frm » comparison of service ecards ‘US ealuintad stresen BeorLe ‘Abul 50a inmate ns nc whieh be a dinmater of 1m and prone faalus of 030i, i meted ta and of 2500 Tg teueed tA ‘Swen he conic aes, the ebied fora eel wo ae at {Eo onact and he mann campronise see Solution, ‘The forma ap table oe 4 Tae £4.) re ue The rae «ahem bay at the al say heey = “kn = ond Heo R sin Toki = £,~ A00O0D0Dn® sad oy ee 2-099) = 00 870-9 in Sao he cont = BE Clas yoanF sora 0mm sea odes nde Det Bening and Sea rom the al, by interpolation m0, p=0405, =H 2710 AT ESREDSTIIO = 01448 4 0.499 YES0RE TRINGOETHIO™) = 002639 satan = 252.0001 (ou = Sea aaTe” 520018 fof 0.2889 aot a “Toes the contact are igus wt omar a ‘Miran of sabi oo in 142. Rivets and Alveted Joints nba th ca se of en ind Ant he a ene poms neh seer Sn canon th ee a, Se onan aon Seta igen cue ies he brine es SES snc"Slng sump ae mode Eh Deco ee en lS ait aw arama Seaman yt mote ln ttc he eed rami eth eh ne seta ete ew on 2 Ps en hc th ms te ae ope foi of en pa coe 2 ee ne in we re Fa a seed ob anieeny ered sae em eta ater tone pe wd Sor twcs os dd sear aa et ete chckose (ihe sense ‘here any ted ee te aeecnca ee neater enum ob onary Det Ge pica ° “ ‘The design of riveted joints on the basis of these sssumetions is e aon er than ay Cec nd ere! or, tsar nny oa Na Eitien popes 1 ett fds nd tao ‘The pay af scondany 26 Snot SSEGMY, Mam ouh whe searing or ero of «ate tetas teen spa wen at eth SENGIURE STistitcen apeatng of ang nt tee fa85 Forma oe Sead in fou slong # sgzag line when rvots are staggered, is guarded agsint in ‘andard specications (Ret, 13) by detailed rales forsdge clearance maximum gep of vet, maaimm pitch, and computing the et with of riveted parts, Provision e made or these of high-strength bola lace of rivets under certain ercamstances (Ref. 2). Joints may be ‘made by welding instead of riveting, bt the uae of welding io ‘onjunction with riveting is not approved en new wort the svn ofthe load at betwoon the welds and the rivets would be indesren ‘osts on riveted Joints, Tn general, ttt on riveted juts show that although under working lade the stress conditions tay he conser, ably at variance with the usual assumptions theultimate stents aay be closely prodicted by ealeulations based thereon Some of te Der conclusions drawn from such texte may be summarized a8 Fetows In either tap or doublestrap buts joints in very wide plates, the unit tensile srength developed by the net seston i greater than that developed by the plate tof when tested in full width and io prots tally equal to that developed by narrow tension specimens eat fom the plate, The sivets in lp joints areas strong relative to undiven "ives tose in shear as are the rivet i but ents, Lap eins bend sufeenly at stresses below the nisl eign stcsnea tes ope Sng of auld joints (te. 19). Although it i fequently apeced that rivets shall not be used in tension, tests show that hatdrven butthead velo develop a strenath indirect tension greater than the strength of the red fom which they are made, and that they may be relied upon to develop this stron in every instance. Although the inital ncn i such vets «due to cooling usually amounts to 10% or more of the yield atten "his inal tension doc ao rede the ability of the eet to tesa applied ens load (08 slo Se. 3.12), Uslese a joint subjected to ‘overelsof primary loud the Use of vets in tenon appears to be dusted but wen the primary load pratucing ser inthe vote "revered, the reduction in fieton de to simultaneous rivet tension "ay pert slip to ora, with posible dseterousefete Re. 15) ‘With respect tothe frm of tbe rivet hen, the rounded or ton: head ie standard but esuntrsin rivets are cten used an tts show that these develop che same ultimate strength, although they permit much mor slip ant deformation at working Inads than do the battonbead rivets ef 10). In signing riveted joints in very thn metals, especially the light allot ay be mecestnry to take into nec Tactors that ate Sesally considered in ordinary strctutalteel work, suchas the wea ‘cies wet Dc Baring and Shen Sees" resure and the radial stresses caused at the hole edges by losing p Trekling othe plates andor rivet pressure (Rf, 19, sen snc omrnad song ra tere itd Soesecgind altace cca banca PESTLE Oa ae ae Re ce seein eee eee me Rat tthe et pocdare, a ouhnedproviuy,siasated constraint afr ‘riveted joints of different. types, based on an Smt carn of tse hen en prod by aon el. 20 Si fae i cae Thad sequencing os the steses near fstener oles re lap joint in which threo 1-in vets are weed to connect iba eee pe ae ac an east pened nef eat aa rs ‘Sflisecating the caicuatin of rivet strous dus 89 8 moment) Soletion, ‘The cent of he ret arene found oe at. The apie Selnlet rl ym nual nd hong @ ant couple eal ad ry ofits 1 2a ie awe in Bg. 16100. Mh dans spect oma Gane a ho te al 1 She dsm te‘vets de to he soup of 76,001 are therfore == PE seo (100018 5 y= EO 3510 ‘These ln acto the ret nthe eto shown, oan cah ete iced ton Pfam bh he ated ‘ich sive i then fund by gregcaly fr algal) wenger rhe {onutantof and Pinna shown The rcaltant ae ee fy Ree et ES Man eee soci har san acy te att 143 Miscallancous Cases In most instances, the stress in bois subjected to direct shear oF culated on the base of simplifying assumptions sth se ring riveted joint. Design is based on rues jusified by experience rathor than exact theory and fll dseeson dvs net propery come within the scope of this book. However, «bre consid: ‘ration ofa number af cases te given hete mare complet teatnent ‘ofthese eases may be foundin books om meine and structural design And isthe reerences et Pins and bots. Thete are designe on the basis of shear and besting stress calculated in the some way as for sive Inthe cave of Pins tearing on word, the allowable bearing stoss mist be reduced to rovide for nonuniformity of preseure when the lng f bil mor fv or six times ite dameter When the pscure is incined to te trai, the eof load found by the forma, yas, Fe Paiste Goat whore .V isthe safe load fr the © in question, Pig tho safe load safe load aprlied travers to and 8 the angle N mekes with the diction af the grain wou ‘Bodies under Dect Bening and Shear Stene S52 sy pms an lec are thick ald bt ea be naz cia ny te SSF rms ble 92 The rela a it shown in ig. 142 and the eet cic edge een trata ,may bo found y the ‘mle 2» D aire p «dant eth ofthe pin and the numeri petit Tee cree ayant pete flowing aes [pls se or tee ae ww and mina gn compressive tes el Sai —————————— * rieontaldamters se case ‘For changes inthe mesa vertical and ho 4 fnutle 3 Dave a Lin in ef, 69 have made extensive ne of elem equations for dlaietreally loaded hollow circular cline Thom Te 09 aod proven, graphical fr wress actors and radial ‘Haplcements at all sngular postions along both inner a teeleeee Heels ve potted for tho ragiue ratio / fom nee ze fou seth uy be investigated by considering the Kath cone cata he erin svn being the tna ending aan ee ha Thin srw can be celta by the modied Fee a ner wry thon canner beam ee. 830) oF 72 se re mode Levi orm and eres cooenrain Fae Gor ten 21 le I (ee alto Rls, 22-20. The ee Beans a edured acraing to teed of eerton My ono700 Formulas for Stress and Stain ow several empiri! formulas Wet, 26) Under certain eontions, the Dearing stress between teeth may bettme impure specaly eine tress llets wear), and this test may be calla bythe orm for caso 2, Table 14.1. Tho total dermation oft ants the ree at slitect compression atthe point af eonact and of beam eer nt hon; may be calculated by the fermala of cave 2b ad the methodol Bec: 81 Get. total shaving force F = Tr Fig, 49), rave transinited. The teat sean i assumed to bo uniformly distributed over the horizontal neti AB, and the bearing stress assuned tobe uniformly sitributed over ball the fan, These assumptions fad othe falling rules fe Fiat 25 BE th on the siden aa ¢, ~ 28/6 ontop ad ottam, Hose & tho length of the key: in conventional deign ib fe 166, Ac Usvally made, b> t hence the bearing streae onthe side i greater "ga that onthe top ad Hoon Photolastic annlysis ofthe stresses in square eys shows that the shear stress is aot tnifrm across the breath b bai pater ard and B, where ic may svach value of fom the four nee hc average value Ref 28) Undoubtedly the hear steal vores sa Sntonaiy along the length of the hey. The bearing strases a the surfacos of the key are also nonuniform, that on che aides being sreatest oar the common surface ofthat and hub, snd thet on te ‘op and bottom being greatest near the corners Cand D. Whee ‘onsorvative working stress are used, however, athe proportions of the hey are such as have been found saistustery in Pract tee spproximato methods of sess clcultion that have beet indicated osu in satisfactory design {tet welds. These are sicily designed on the basis of uniform Aistribution of shear stress on the Tongteinal section af ene eoce slthough shaysis and tes show that there i considerable natn in the intensity of shear steas along the length ofthe flo: (ele, Ds and 27) Detailed recommendations forthe design uf welled tone {url joints aro given in Re, 18) a Boss unde Dat Seng a reyes Th senha est inane a Sram heh ile earecra tery TAA e aor consideration te the load ditebutioa, The load is ot ‘Toate nly a he eogge sea ents bh maths. eet an slit te nm ale Hs inch of sure near the loaded face of the nut, is sev ens the anager the ene nea ‘in the ied oad cnerrtion fat and denote by Hen sent the mactn a ear ho crewthiread is therefore the total load divided by co ena Tro tapaned cetewthrend mes H. Vhe maxima stress due t this sar Se ya wot ely Been Br ttt renin ne mpi neth aac ACU ee tect {rsugh emt apd ine Hy while the aes {eSefhdtsnntrn ane cu bcm ton wan ee nde oe ee een re Sisal 153. Buckling of Flat and Curved Plates In Table 152, formulae are given forthe ela Youde and etc reaper on pater and thin-walled members: Bee of the grester [iklihod of werious geometrical rrgulnrtes and thelr greater ela five effect. the eitieal stresses aceally developed by such meters {ually fall short ofthe theoretical values by « wider mang tan the case of bors The diarepancy is generally greater for pare Compression (hin tubes under longitdinal sompressin or external prestre) than for tension snd. compretion comboned (hin Tubes Inder torsion or Sat plates under edge shea), and increases with the thinness of the material. The cite stesso lad indicated by [ty one of the theoretical formal sould therefore be regarded a3 {oper lit, approached more or ea clowly according to the closeness Wwith which the actual shape of the member approximates the geo Tretia form summed. In Table 162, ths approximate dsrepaney 0 Ipeeapected berween theory and experzment ts indeated wheeevee he {ata ailahla ve mde tis possible ost of the shorsticl analjoes of the bility of pltee and ehells raulte a numercal evaluation of the roulng equations, Considering the variety of shapes and combinations of shapes az well as the Iuliplety of bosndsry eondions and loading combinations. i is ot posit in the ied apace avast present anthing hike 8 ‘ompichensive coverage of pate and sell bling. Aa an externatve ‘Table 18:2 contains many of the szsplet loadings and apes. The folowing paragraphe and the Reference contin some. but by 90 ean al ofthe more easily aequivedsourees giving fess in tabularPeas 106 Stress and Strain tou. 18 or grape om tat can be appind rey to specie peas. ee ‘also Refs, 101-104, and 109-111. Hepetleme. 8 Fecal plies, Stability coeficiots for orthropiceestangular lates with tveralcombanetina of boutdarycondians sod ae ao ofthe bending steers Paral toto ees ote lee ‘thle n Shlehto Ce.) thve mations wer ciel reducing the prolem of pate bekling fo tha fw ooo bee ee isin state of vibration and under tation, Siivas and Res (co) valuta the fo of shear formation onthe: nabaie ores, tue tng pe nde el parle ffs becomes aticeabe or h/8 = O06 andi greatest hee te loading is parallel to the short side. estes when ti Shipman (lt 2) and Durval Bt cer he sock shew clog) i der Some resin, eae tenn nd egy shea: Sce te tacos Se iis ed ww weitere me represen ie ables of coder te goal end sae hepa, aaa gn Rao to 56) dese a tec ive svg fr he rail ig lady or here naar plate Tiny ge grab of sahiiy ethene a ‘ge tyro and orb srr sonbnaton te sie ‘Soporte and diner and ce gs ee ee intone £:1Twolbdings ae pee ue ge ny een ‘em omen In an er eg ke al uns ‘Aon an Wier te 6) present saps showing the tf sige beats on the suby a8 crear nat ofan Be Sxnaen ten. Teri rat aout of Herta on the bet nw cnstracn, Referens 98 and 100 and eben listed in Ref, 39 provide initial sources of information, ‘a 154 Buckling of Shells Baker, Kovalev, and Rish (Ref. 97) date the stability of unt {ened orthotropic composite, stiffened, and sandwich shelle, ‘They ‘present datn used om heey and enperinent whic pei tg designer to cose anadingorpresice wih a We pbaeele stability failure; the work ie extensively referenced, For similar tallcted data see Ref and 42 ‘Stein Ret 98) diseussce some comparisons af dhcry with exper: ‘mentation in shell Duckling. Rabinovich (Re. 96) dscebes in some ltl the work in stractaral mechanes, including sbell stability, in the USSR. from 1917 t 1897, Tn secet yrs, there have hoon inressng development and appli ‘ation ofthe Enitestement method for the numerical sltion of hel probloms. Navarataa, Pin, and Witmer (Rel 0) deserbe 8 Site mont method of saving axisymmetric shell probleme where the ‘lement considered i ethers sonic rastom ora rast mith & curved meridian; examples are presenta of ylindere with uniform ot tapered walls under axial load.» trunexted hemisphere und ia {ecnon, ad «conical sbell unde torsion, Bushell el 99) pees ‘very general ite-element program for shell analysis and Peerone {et 96) gvee« compendium of euch programs, See also Rel. 10: to 108. Cxlntcal and conta! shel: In gonersl, experiment to determine ‘he axial loc required to bul eylindial abel yea rents that ‘te beaveen one-half and three fourths ofthe clasical busking loads predict by theory. The primary causes ofthese dicrepancew are Use Aleviations rom a rao eyindeel fey in most mnnctred vesila land the inability to securately define the boundary contins. Holt (ets 67 and 68) showe that eeoving the in-plane shen stress atthe boundary of simply supported eslindrcal shell under axial compres sion can reduc the hentia! backing loud by a factor of 2 rom tht Dredited by the more usual boundary conditions sawoeited with 2 Simply supported edge. Baruch, Haran, and Singer (Rel 8) find Simalarlowbuckling lads for simply supported conic! shells unter {nil Toad but fora diffrent cmadificaton of the boundary tuppor ‘Teni and Yamaki (Ref. £8) cary out further wore on thin problem, including the effet of clamped edges "The random nature of manufacturing deviations leads tothe use of the statistical approach, aw mentioned previously (Ref 97) and ae iwarath and Distoe have done fr conial shells (Ref, 7). Weiner ten, Morgan, and Sede (Re. 80) have develope empirical exprerioas for lower bounds of stability cooficionts for cylindrical end canal hell under asl compression with reference for he my dats they ‘McComb, Zonder, and Mikulas (Ref. 4) discuss the effets of {intemal preseure on tho banding stability of very thin-walled eid: ‘eal shells. Internal pressure has a stabilizing effect on anally and/or ‘orsionally Wouded cylindrical and conieal shells "This sheet is16 Faruleor Seas and rat oo Aiscussod in several rferncen: Sede (Raf 75), Weingarten (Ref. 76), ‘and Weingarten, Morgan, and Seide (ef. 82 for cental ad elind. ‘eal shells Ret 87 eomtsins much information om thi subjoct ae well ‘Avisymmetrie saap-budkling of conical. tells i discseed by Newman and Reiss (et. 73), which londs to the concept of the Belleville epring for che cas f hallow shells (See also See. 1.8). sternal preaure on acne of buckling ie sxamined by Singor le 172 for cones and ty Newman and Reise (Re 73) and Yao and Jenkins (fe. 69) for eliptic liners. External pressure caused by preter ‘soned Slameat winding oncslindets x anagaed by Milas and Stn (Get 66: cheypoine out tat enteral compat in the thikese ‘Azetion is important in this problem “The combination of external pressure snd axial loos on elindrical and conical shes ix wey thoroughly examined aod referenced by Redkowski (Ret 7) sae Weingarten and. Seide (Rel. 81. The combined loading on orthotropic nnd stilned conical shelley ‘Bevunsed by Singer (ef. 4. ‘Attempts to manufacture nearly perfect shells inorder to test the theoretical orulte have led to the eoneruction of hitwaled sell by wlectroformine: Sendelbeck and Singer (ket #5) and Arts and Babcock (Hel 81) corte he results of wich tet, “Avors thorough survey af bucking theory sid eapeslmentation for conical shell of constant thickness recanted by See el. 79), Sohercal sets. Experimontal work is desrbnd by Loo and He ITeanowski on the elect of a conooitrated load al the apex of @ spherical cap let. 90) aad the effect of molile concenteated los (et. 89). Carson, Sendelbock, and Hof (Ret. 10) report on the experimental study of buckling of eleetroformed complete spherical hells thes report experimental rteal presses of up to Seat hose predicted by theory and the correlation of flaws with lower tert, pressures ‘Burne Re. 02) eseribes ets of sate and dynamic buckling of thin sphevial cape due to external proarure, both elastic and plastic Duckling are considered end evaluated in these teste Wa nod Cheng (le, 71) fiscuss in detail she buckling due eeamferential hoop ‘compression Which is developed win a stuneated shen shell ‘ubjected to an axoytmeteetenile load ‘orodal shai. Sten and McElman (tf, 86 drive noalinear equa: ions of equihiam and buckting uations for sgrment of tarda shell: seyments that are syrametee withthe equntor are considered for both inner sed outar ametora, as wall su sgmente centered at the crown. Sobol and Fligge (Rel. 8) tabulate snd graph the mint, ease tbily 717 wots, mum buckling external pressures on fall trol sills. Alot, Sobel and Hunter (Raf 88) compare favorably the theory sn Ref 87 ‘vith experiments they performed sel when corr Ccorugated tubes orbatows. A instability ean devon {fara tbe or bellows fe subjected to an internal pressure with the {Ente partly or totally restrained ayainctoxnt daplarement, (Ths {Rotallity eam also osu in vory angelica esse under siror fateaints) For a discussion and an example of 136. ie fet. se See718 Formulas fr Stoess and Strain‘Baste tiny 729 728 Farms (or Stes and Strain (Garon) como ue an aaa oan yy FL‘Basi syas Sty 727 so meant (Xpavo(jutme- a mame? 796 Formule fr Stress and Straine881 te Saily 728 156 Roerences 1 Tint. 8 Pan MG ey of Bs Sub 2, Metre ate 2 EE mii sunnier a 1 ROE Rat BW ln Hae Ibo Membr Haro Section ‘BE ©, Mitt Gonna Come A a 2 a RUN eth ge 5 Re ett ef atin, on AS ‘Ra hw etn ci Ci cs Sag 1 SE i eer a i a Bh rein Carved Soa Nott A Comm, 1 ERAS mega nnn anc EEE eS Be re tm nm Se Bootie roe wt REPRE nt omaane tn sea armen hs om tn oon SEE es sermege to Bot 8 2 et selina Cinders 1, Bunt Bra Sein ero Creal et Tawa Coen ilies a a en en Bk ae as, ede Bi Sin ist Tn BeeTal tr irnct nd Hr Oom780 Forms for Sess and Sain town 18 Osetia ia ie Pas wih Tere Cara, et Ae a eSB Bae a a iad Se Sof Card * Reset Sine aay Se eh era Her ers Cer ae ener et SS cla Sacer on re Sree ag a Blu rar: Benue ct ree Bote AME Cold es so PRESSE Ratnam Ack ie Bebe sek 1 Sit al bl Sc Sa Ae Su Adin. Th es RES sea tg ear ne Gee sh 0 ills Wr no, oe 0 Gg SAD et St sty oP aS Me 1h Baca te at Dade tl ov GSR St aes SMA eal EDD Bap gar tetanic ind acne Pun at Ae A, eh Ne e186 ‘asc Stabiey 747 oa Oo a Lia RR TE ol 2 MRE Sev spt neatorama ae al pr ny ati a Pt ‘i, Som Be Stabs of Clamped Sow Plates Under Combisal Lads, ASME’ oA ERE ene prnem att tank 3 mea a ato ev se Fos fd Hvac Pater, Proc. Am te Hace al Sehgal ond ae Beg roel Cee Ft Sepa eh FS 1 RR anaes ta Toe Ree ct ya ve gem PSR tt te ta Si 1 Hh A Fad ts Dept of Dn Seta at ee een eat gaa ace hn742 Fama tr Sra and Stain leans lcoebene cl ncn Aaa mca ite ue Dong eee ght O° 1 Bote ad A ioe: An greta ttn Serre lc gop salCaen ha elon ee go reer at EEN a pn teperar ernst ‘Capa, Proc: Am. Soc. Ciel Bra, vol. 30 on. EBA 1904, Yen Sete BRET BCs Rs Same pear oe Rants ea al ah ce Sees ieee aie Sa es ss Rage Zethtuieinoet na ecan become cs 2th Pies ecg, AF ak ee eee ei a eee = Eista seruniesgmogsn wrsonem ‘gz, Mam Prese 1900 Beals trans. diced by ©. Herrmatn). " ee BY ateciG, at Sateen ae at ae ae ee cress Ee Hora he ng oS son Raja, ed"Atnny Compt Soctree Mt, and Seat eng ar Pat nd Si” Mra 1s AOL ou i i of Se gor Boh van, St te lief Oneal ha aver ene 65 ‘Stren PraureWc aed Boon Age 2s Sat: Cr SelB ee ag vo. Sea Sy emu Cae ke Wes eng eK Word moe in) Bon Sco Bes Hd 1, meet el aaron: “Mana Sel Cnn nda ‘ites Far ds ws Dynamic and Temperature Stresses 16:1. _Dynamic Losdings; General Conditions Dynamic loading was defined in Chap. x9 any loading during which the pare of the body cannot be considered ta bein sate equiv, Kwas further pointed eat that two kinds of dynamic loading ean be {itingsiahed 1) thst in which the body has imposed upon i pparucular kind ef muton invaving Known accelerations, and’) Impact, of which sudden loading may be considered a special case. Inthe allowing stone specie canes of ach kindof drmame losing ‘wl be onal dard 162. Body in e Known State of Motion ‘Tho acceleration «ofeach particle of mass dm being knwn. the sffectine lore en cach particle i dm = oy directed like If to each particle a fore equal a oppsito tothe ofective force were applied ribrim would enuf then such reversed effective frees are [Ssumed to be applied to all the constituent parties ofthe body the body may be regarded as being in equllrium under ches ores and the setual lores (oeds and renetlns) Uhat ect upon i, and the renulting stresies can be found exactly aa for a dy at rest. The ‘oversed effective fares are imaginary forces exerted on the pails but eve equal to and divectod like the actual reactons the particles sort on water give them thet acceleration, general on the Fest ofthe body. Since thane roartions ave due tothe inertia of the Darl, they aro called inertia oeee, andthe badly may be thought at 2 loadod those inertia frees. Similar, any attached mace wil ‘ert on a ody ines ores equal and apponite to the forces which ‘the body ha wo exert on the atached mans to acecerate744 Formule or Senn and Sirs tow t6 ‘The reelte of applying thle mathal of analysis toa numberof more or los typical probleme are given below In al aot, in ning the fcclerations ofthe paces it Bas boen assumed that te effet of Aeformation could be ignore, Use asaclrnton af each pari hat bean found ae shough the body were rigid, For convenient, sireare, ending moments, and shears due to inertia fovea only are called Inertia stresses, moments snd shears they ae cleuated though the boty were outa the field of gravitation Stesoee, tment, ed shears dueto balanoed forces (including gravity) may be superinspsed thereon. The graveaonal acseration constant g depends up the Unite ued forthe inpovedsezaleration, 1. A slender unifores rod af weight length L section sees A, and ‘modulus of elasticity i given a motion of tanalaton with an ‘celeration of parallel totais bya pull sh) applied ae one fend, The maximum tonile (Compressive) stress cecurs at the Toaded end and iso = WajgA. The elongation (hortesing) due to ‘he inertia sree 1 ab 2gAE ‘The rd deserted in problem 1 is given motion of tanaltion with an aeeloration ofa normal t ita asie by frees applied at ‘ach end. The maslesum inertia bending moment agers at the middle of the bar and i A'=Wab/g. The maximum inertia vertical (ransvers) shear ours atthe ends and is V =] Woe ‘Tho rod described in problem 1 is made to tate about an axis ‘through one ond normal tis length at uniform angular woes of omd/s The maximim tons Pinned end and ie 4 The rod descrbod in problom 1 ig pinned atthe lower end and sllowed o swing doen under the ation of gravity ram a ailly ‘ertial position. When the rod teaches postion where makes ‘wit the veri che angle is sect to a postive bending ‘moment (wing ties weight ad the inertia free) whieh ae es 10a ‘2ymamc ane Temperate Siesser 745 maximum value ata section distance §L from the pinned end. ‘This maxis value iv Mf = WLsinds The maxim postive inertia shear ozure atthe pinned end and is V-= {Wain The tmasimum negative inertia shen occurs ata scetionm ditance Irom the pinned end andis V= 1 sin0, The aia force at any section in from the pioned ond i even by F(R)“ (-47-92) and becomes tensile near the fee end when ® exceeds 414" (This face represents approximately the conditions existing when ‘shiney a other slender stucture topples aver. and th bending ‘moment Af expains tho tendency of sucha structure so break near the one-third point white falling) ‘The rod described in problem 1 ie pinned at the lower ond and sre inthe versa! pontion, hs imponed pom ite lower end Forizoetalsucleratisn of @. The maximum inertie bending tmowent ooture at section ® datance jl fom the bwer end {indi M= Moja, The maxim inertia shear in he dire ton ofthe aatlersion, tet the wer end, and ie Vaya. The Imaximum inertia thear in the upposte diction oeeurs at & ‘reton a ditance fC from the Jower end and in V = Maja bie easy represents appronimately the conditions. sisting ‘hon a chimney or ther slender strucize with anchorage it [bjected to an sarbgoake shock) ‘A saiform sfcular ring of sean radius and weight per unie ‘volume having athicess in the plo of curvature thats vor hall compared with , tortes about te own suis ith «frm angular velocity of oad Tho ring i oubjected to 2 walle tannin neti stone aH sR ‘sold homogensous isla disk of uniform thickness for sold ‘indes of adiue R, Polsaocs rai, and weight per uni volun ‘Srotatee bout ite en axis ith a uniform sogular velocity of toads AL say point a distance from the center there Ws radial eel inertial steat Lit aR = as2n746 Formate for Ses nd Stain snd a tangential tensile inertia eteese sso asan4 aan ‘The maximum radil stress and maximum tangential sree sual, our atthe center and are (ae = Coane i SE me a629 Foss 162-9 8. Ahomogencous annular dak of uniform thickness outer radia R tnd woighe per unit volume 9, wth a central ele of radius Ry. fotatos about its oj axe with a uniform angular velocity of Grads. 'At any point a distance y fm the center thee is ‘adil toast inertia srwen etme EBA) usny and a tangontia tonsil inertia strene on Betfasa(mtom28)-osay] anon Tom min rail i ot hm owen and the maximum tangential stress ocure at the priser ofthe Isle wn = re 18+ +a) 082) (a hn ith ter ai es sneha oe sare soe sv agate er aii vi) 62-9) va sr eore sa Ie thoroare radial pressures or pull distributed uniforly along sither the inner or outer porimetor of the dak, such ae 8 real wea ypac ad Tempera Sess 767 sur fom the shaf ora contra pl om pre atcha {ett th ewsere du thereto con br fund bythe formal or {hick eine Cable 18) snd superemponed pon the neta ‘Brees en by the proutingfrmal 2 homogenenae crelar dik of conic! sation (ig. 161) of ‘ent Ufa rtatee about i vata with oar ange eaealy ot Nm Ae any pin tans fom tbe center, he UEnal inertia ween oy ade ate ees, by t= TK, + Ao + Bos cs210) + Aa, + Bas sepFoxman for Sess and Strain four. ‘where 7 = 00000282RN'5 (or for stl, 7 ~ 0000008821"), Ky puoPe gv and ae are van by the prateding tale and A aud B sonaants which yb ound by cing og os Kova sr assumed nen athe outer porte an cing the eae uation smeleaoomnly fo and By sn he example om pages 1 and 763 See papers by HodKiuoe and Rushing tle. tnd 2 rom which Ege (182.8) and (629) sod to tabulated cll Since ae ken 4 fomogenenn circular ds of hypeintc sation (Fi. 182) of dent 6h rotates shot its ow ai wh unr anlar telat rd The aguation f= ee debines the seoton, whee Shines aan nd ty tra “ala 0) snd inewing, ~alnr, =Ing,~atnry (Por taper toward the rim, ai negative; an for uniforn fa = 0) At any’ point distance rin from the canter the tensile inertia Sewsies'o, and im Ibi, nee E = EH HO tn, Oke mg $B 6212) £ (1-290 bmp A Le mB 62.13) niet ABS (3+ a) shore wea ec 1621 ‘oymamic and Temperature Sossee 749 A and B ore constants ound hy setting equal ois known oF {ested values a the inner and oaterpersmeters and soln the tho resulting equations simultaneously for & and guations e213) and (8219) are tae frm Stedola Mel 5) with mmse change in notation) ‘A homogentous cular disk with section bounded by curve and ewig lines (Pig. 163) eotaton about te own ase its unite fngutae volcty N sym, The ek imagined divided ito annular Tings of such width that each ring can be regarded ax having fovttm with hyperbolic auline, sin rable 10. For each rng, ‘Bealelates by the formulae of probly 10, using the inner and outer radi and the corresponding thicknesses. Then, ry an ‘epeeseat, espotivly. the ner and iter emi of any ing, he fangentaisreses oad, a Ue aera ver boundeae of the ring are related tothe Corresponding radial stresses, 00 rein Tin, a8 lows: 62.9 62.5) a, =A Bo, +00, Drie, +Fo,, 9881 /10007 Fox? 4 a2 =O ERRNO ones ac4Ktn 0 EBON 000% 7 55 gat Py 28/100 9 5 sat Fy ‘The proceding formulas, which are givon by Lonwonstin (Ret 3) sre dnsety applicable to sto, for whic the values 1 = 03 and S0.28ih/nt have ben seeumed‘Two vahis of renown or canbe ssoumed, vin the val inner and outer porimetorsof Ue dake Then, by eting the tangential ‘Meese atthe outer boundary ofeach rng eqval to the tangential tres tthe inner bounlaryof the adjacent large rng, ene equation in ‘il be obtained for each common ving boondery. Tn this cao, the ‘modular of slastety lathe same for adjacent rings and the radial frase g, at the boundary is common to both ring, and v0 the tangential streteos can fe equated instead ofthe tangential strains {a. 05.2-15) forthe emaller ring equals Bq. (162-14) forthe larger Fini). Therefore there are ax many equations az there are unknows Toundary redial sresses, and hones the eal sre at each boundary ‘an be fund, The engontial streets ca then be found by Bas. (16.2 1 and (189-19), and then the stresses at any point in aving can be found by using, By. (162-14), the known values of, ade, and fsetiewting for, the wslenown ral sees, and foe Fy the orenrinding radia "Ret of taporsnce with referonc to turbine disks or other rotating bodies is thet geometrically smiler disks of iflerent sige wil be ssqualysireased at corresponding points when running a the same peripheral velocity. Furthermore, for any givon pariphoral velo the Sia! and vadial mentions of x rotating body may be changed Independently of each other and in any rato without affecting the ‘tromce t similarly tuted pint, maar ‘The con el kG nation a i, 64s a 25000. Beet tae aaah beta whe atgag meat ome 12 Ofer oof tn tn ane sy te ore Be one Shin'gom thet ed teri sep in Seluton. From the dnesins of he scion, Ris fund tobe Bin. The ‘Sle af forthe Inorg ter perinetas a forth ceumterence aT are ala apd the comeing ute Key sty age ‘srt rom he ao age bs getpbie nerpln, he rote ‘Sr tabulated here fr comvorane: 10 Femi et inn femse | | se 83) ym and Teper Sestes 151 EE gees Saris Gt sues Gums tos ass “ose “tay ‘Tye athe nse everson the in outward ier ores whieh wil tw aed thant rte teeta ce pe neat ick p= Serr Say 20H = 3860 a “There at he over ino = 7200 iis sun os tink 3 Wat in pean th ub es Fadil’ sue at be nner rim oy=—T0ibfint, The vale, af T= fee A210) eas 100 = 92000178) + 816) + B32.) ane sim) 7160 = (8 SN040.1655 + AUAOSE) + HI-054) oer ind ‘Tre shat gives ow found by Ha (16230) an (062-1) 0 be = (99200401786 +8794, 79 +288K-95) = 620 yin? 83,20040.179 + (97.674) + (285248) = 1285 bint Bursting speed. The formulas given above for stresses in cotating ‘isk presuppoe elastic conditions; when the elastic mit is exceeded, ‘lawteyeing tends to equalize the stress intensity along a diametra plane Because oth, the average stesso, on sucha planes perhaps752 Farm tor Sasa San (oun s Yeter esterian of margin of safety against bursting than isthe ‘asimium strese computed for eletc conditions, Fora slid disk of Unulrm thiness ate, or pred disk ‘Testa Rela, 12 and 18) havo shown tat for some materials, rupture ‘occurs in both solid and piersd diske when 4, compsted or Sppinal dimension, bosom equal to the ulumate tale strength of ‘the material ax determined ty conventional eet On se other fsa. ‘some materials fal at vas of 6, as low ar 61.5% of theultimate ‘Rrongth, and the lowert values have hewn cbserved in tests of slid isa Tae ratio of, at failure to the ulsimate erength dove not fappeer to he related in aay consistont wey to the ductility of the atrial seme probele thats depends on th frm of the stra ruin diagram. In none ofthe tests repared did the weakening elect 8 cena ol rove be eary eet ah orl fr dete “Steves wold seem to indent. 163. Impact and Sudden Loading ‘When a ore is suddenly applied to an elastic body (a2 by a blow), @ ‘ase tee propa whch rel coh the ty mh 2 cas ‘where Bethe mods of elatisity of the material and ie the weight or te mater! per unt volume. wt re ends, When one end of an tnsupported uniform elastic ‘ari subjected to Longitudinal impact fom a rgd body moving with volcty «a wave of compressive stress of intensity & ope E an penne 0832) is propagated. Th intonsty of stress i sen tobe independent of the rans ofthe moving bods. bt the eng te treed sone oe lune se 131 Dynamic and Temperate Siewees 752 of material simultaneously subjected tothe stee, does depen un the Shusr of the moving body. I this mass io infinite (or very large Compared with that of Phe bar), the wave of compression i elected Sock ton the fee end ofthe bar ae a wave of onsion and returns to the srack end afer a period fy = 21/1, wbere isthe fngth of he far and the pends the duration of contaet between bar and bay ifthe impinging Yody i wey lrgecormpared withthe bar (so that ts mass may be considered infinite) the bay, after breaking contact, Inoves witha velocity 2 in the diction of tho impact and is few of [feos Irthe mas ofthe impinging body is times the mass of he bar, the avorage veloty of th bar after contacts broken is wa -ety and it lft vibrating with » stzee of intosity tet where f= ASE, A being the section area of the bar and W the Treg ofthe moving body. ar with one ond fined. If one end of a bar is feed, the wave of fompresivestrece resulting from impact on the fee end i elected nck unchanged form the fixed end and combines with advancing saves to produce n masimum stose very nearly egal 2 3.3) avait) ans ashore as before antes the ratio of the mas ofthe moving ody to he mass ofthe ber ett Uime of eneae ie pproximately [The above formulas ate tsken fom the paper by Donnel (Ref. see sso Ret 17) ‘sudden ouding._ Ifa dead lon in suddenly teansfrred to the free end he nthe end being Axed, the resulting state of stress is rm tension, a i usually aasumed, but js somewhat greater {hon tht and thorefove the axiom stress tha results fom sudden754 Forma fr Sasa She aoe loading is somewhat lass than twice that which results fom static loading. Love (Ret. 6) shows tht if» (he ato ofthe mass the load to that of the bar) is 1, sudden loading causes 1.68 times a much eves as static lading for y= 2 She ratio e168; for = ie 18 tnd it approaches 2 ae Limit as inereases. 1 can be aon that the ‘ordinary asrumption that sudden loading causes twice as much sexs {thd dllection an static loading ie alway «sae one co make. Moving load on beam. I constant force moves at unr epee crocs aba wih simply sported nts, the xin deacon ‘rodund eres the static Slerdon tht the same fee woul Produce If repotens the velosty of the fren, the span ado {he leweet natura! vbrcion egueney ofthe eroded bean en theoretically the maximum value of the rai of Sprami eae Metin io 1; Horus for = oi/L8tn and at he Inga when Sk ba ogra x ic OT ane pu ed a constant mast W moves scrote simple beam of ratively netlile mgs, then the asim rat of dynamic ta tate des tion (1+ (/8KS8/ 38) we Ret. 30). Gee hat consistent units ‘must be used in he precetng eqaont) Viraton. A very important type of dynam ledingcecute when an laste body vibvaee under the tance of a petite impulse, The ecu wh and he Intpulee synchrenizes (or ness synchronizes) with eto of vibstin, and tix of the wemos® importance 1 ‘und against this condition f rexnance (or near resonance). There it Sways some resistance to vibration, whether natural of intradced this called damping and tends ta prevent vibrations of excesive amplitude. In the absence of effective damping, the amplitude y ur oar resonance vibration wil much excued the deition yy that woud be produced by the samme force under atic conditions. The ati 9/3, calle the relatie ampiifeation factor. inthe absence of damping, C1 (f°) where i the frequen ofthe foreing impulse ad fe the natural frequency of the eles system. Obvsculy te neces to know at least spproximataly the natural period of vibration of & ‘member in onde t guaed against resonant, “Thomo and Da ing resonanefeaiences fot ‘ith single and mip. degrees‘ feedom: they also iecrihe methode and gives numeroin examples for tose ond Inter vibraont of olen beame, Heng Ge 23) has tabulated sc. 1841 Dynamic and Tampere Stresnen 785 the fiat five resonant frequencies as woll as deflections, slopes tending momenta, and shenring lores fr each frequency at intarvals 10.08 uniform beams; thee are ave fo ix combinations of foundary conditions, He her else included the fiet five resonant Etoauencies forall combinations of 7 diferent amounts of eorection for rlaryineris and 10 aillrent amounts of carection for Iterl “efection; many mode shapos for these corrections are alo tho resonant frequencne and nodal locations boundary canditims with no corrections fr fre hited for sev Fotary inertia or shear deflection. (Corrections for rotary inertia asd ‘eer defection have a telatively smal elles nthe fundamental iRequeney but a proporaoaly greater efect onthe higher modes) Teise (Ret 20) compiled, compare, andin come cases extended most of the lnown work on the vibration of plats; where posible, Inode shapes are given in addition tothe many resonant frequencies ‘Table 16.1 ets ony a very few simple cases. Smal, Lessa (Ref. 21) thee done an excellent jbo reporting the known work onthe vibration Grhels, Since, dn general thie Work must involve thre adie! ‘Variables —the thickness /radius rao, lengh/radius rai and Pos (ons ratiomno resulta are included here Blevins, in Ref. 24, gives ‘Salles coverage by Dut formulas and tables, of resonant frequen ‘Geo and mode shapes for cables, srsight and curved beams, 14s, plies, and shale ‘hstaple but close approximation forthe fundamental frequency ofa uniform thin plate of arbitrary saape having any combination of xe, partly fixed, of simply supported boundaries is given by Jones ef 28. The equation aero 2 Van is based on his work where Sug it the maximum state deflction Drouced by the weight of the plat und any uniformly distributed fs ateched to the plate and vibrating with it Its based on the aprestion fr the fendamental frequency of clapedelpial pate iit ardones ponte out with several examples of tanguay, ret ular, and ciralar plates having various comb niin, it hold hold equals well fr all uniform plates having no hee bouniariog, nthe 16 examples he prevents, tho maximum ere in equeney i about 3% 164 Impact and Sudden Loading; Approximate Formulas 1 i is assumed that the stresses due 49 impoct are distributed thoughout uny taste Body exactly in the case of stati looding,786 Farmuts tor Stress and Stain ous. 18 then ic can be shown thatthe vera deformation d and stress « prodioei in any such bed (bar. beam, rigs, ete) by the vertical impact of «ody falling ffom a bight of h ave greater then the deformation d and stroea¢ produced by the weight ofthe same boy pple nsw atti load inthe ratio Iaak nas feed a6) Ith 0, we have the cas of sudden loading, and dd = fo = 2 abi ‘srs enone. the impact is horizontal instoad of vertical, te impect deforma Son and strecs ate given by 4.4. /% 26.4.2 aoe Vad wees where, as bears, the deformation the woigh of the moving bey ‘would produce i apa as a static lead inthe dreton ofthe velit) nd sie the velaity of iempact, Energy losses. ‘The above approxinite formulas are derived on the ssoumptions that impact straior the leatie dyn the came Way (hough notin the same degre) ax static lading and thet all Ue “inti energy ofthe moving body ie expended in producing this train ‘Acsualls, on impact, some kinetic energy is deepsea: an thi love which can be found hy equating the momentum af the entire systems Ifo and aftr impact. te most conveniently taken into accu pultiplyng the avalabe energy (measured by hor by) by factor EK, the value of which ig as folows for a numer of simple cases Involving embers of unfrm sections 1. A moving body of mass strike [My theater nn of which i Be a Djs andTenpertre Sess 757 2: A moving tay of rss Bre tenveny ctr a si laf nce Then um, (a (i tr erin toi of mate M, aod he ea a tne te 2,-A moving body of mass DM strikes transversaly the end of a faves be of uae Mf, The (ery 1 these is «By of mass M attached tothe beam a the suck fd, then 4, Amoving body of maeef stikesteansversely the enter of beam sith Head ends and of mass 34, Then‘728 Formule for Sess ad Sein town tt 16.5 Remarks on Stress due to impact 1s improbable chat in any actual case of impact the stresses can be caleulated accurstely by an of th methade or formulas given above uation (10.5 9) for instance, i supposedly very nearly precise if che onditions assum are realized, but too eonditons perfect clei. tty ofthe bar, rigiity ofthe moving body, and simultaneous eanta of {he moving bay with all pnts am the ent of the ra-are evieusy ‘anataiabie. On the one han, the damping of the nial stews wave by ela ysterai in the ba and the diasnution of the intensity of ‘hat stress wave by the cushioning effect of the actualy nonried moving bods would serve to mace the actual menimom secor lee than the theo iw; on te other hand, uneven outset bemeen {he moving 1 ha would tend to make testes conditions onuniform seroes the section and would pubablyinetease the ma ‘The formulas given in Soc. 164 are based upon ah admitedly flee ‘ssumpton, vies that the Wstibation of tear nad rain Under ‘impor lading isthe same as understate loading Tt hnown, for instance, that the elastic curve ofa beam unde tupac i diferent from thac under state bang. Sich difrence exits to any euse, ‘uti sess marked for Tow than fr high velo of impact ud Ege {164.) and (1.42) probaly give reasonably accurate valves fo the deformation and sree (espocaly the deformation) ruling from the np fa evltivety heavy body moving at low velo. The lenitive effect of che inertia of the body struck and af attached buds, ‘xoressed by Kis greatest when Ube masses of thee pats ate lore ‘xmpared with that of the moving body. When thi ee cose pet can be serious ony ifthe velocity i relatively high, nnd under such {Seeumstances the formulas probably give only rough indication of ‘the ast strates and deformation t be expected (See Ref 18) 185 Tomperature Stresses ‘Whenever the expansion or contraction thet would normally result from ‘the heating or cooling of a bady ix proved, esesces wre veloped that tre elled thermal, of temperature, sresen Tit ‘convenient co dstingulah two diferent see of creumetancer under Which thermal stresses oscar. (1) The far of the body and the temperature conditions are such that there would be no stresies xcept forthe sonstraint of externa! forces, in any such case the ‘tresses may be found by dotcemining the shape and dimensions the tndy would assume if unconstrained sind thea valuing the seta Broduced by forcing it back wie orginal shape and dimensions (ce Sec. 7.2, Example 2) (2) The form of the body and the tomper e188 ‘oyramic ane Temperature Stesses 759 conditions are such that steaes ere produced in the ebence of ‘Sina contra ally bocsuae of he Incompatible atl ‘pani o onto of the diferent parte of he by Senn a eepecmnttine examples ofeach typeof thermal ses weil be eosiored Ina nnancen the mols of sutiity Ted he cotiint of thera exasaon yee asumed tobe constant Tae Siperatare range invelved andthe sneer irene ‘Sparse A soa of pt: Se mca i ofthe epposin Lind. Ao, teased that the Siprdtee succes proline do ot produce buckling and hat eeitedoe now acer iether Duckling er ye ess By Tree tel ound hen the alton must elie by apo Pinte methods deed in previous chapters ‘svesses due to etornal constraint 1. Anite stright br is mba to a temportate change AP {hsoughoue we eld atthe ens: the routing unit stress SSTud feompresion). or echer ondiions of en restraint see able a came ta120) 2A uniform fat plate i subjected toa tomperatre change BT hyougout wl heb at the egos he ronling wit tes is SPEC) toompresion. ea {1 Avo body oan frm is ebnted to 9 temperature change ‘udpout wl el to these fom snd volume; the resulting ruse ATVE/GL— 2) (compreesin). 4: rm taro tangle satin ao fe at sien ‘Raperovre Tan the opposite face at ufran mperatre Tras the tenyorstue graent between these faces being Totaripe'bor meu norly curve i the ae of the circle Sas gays where dete stance between the ot and cd {eect Gada are fae, the bar wil be hed stsight by end eee ats) a cod the nani esting bending ese wi SPATE Compresion onthe bt face tension on the ad Ie {Wer mans her enon of nd resteuine and paral esting ered canes Oa Tae 62 cane ro, Tble 83, case ‘Sirte cae 1, Table Ba, cases 8! and Table 89 case (at) hfe plat of ifr thiknos and sfany shape has one face st ‘Ahm temperature Pan the tbe face at ior tempers ochactas aaa' 2‘1 emule tr Stes ond Stan paw ture 747, the tomperature gradiont between the fces being linear. Tho plate would normally assume a spterical ewratare th radius (47%). If te edges are fed, the pate wil be hel at by uniform edge momenta andthe maxima resulting bed ing stress will bo LATVEV(—»)(eompreesion onthe hot lace, tension an the cold fe). (For many other conditions of ede resivint and axisymmetec partial heating, soe Table 112, cases ‘Stoth; a mere general testmont ofthe sold citeulae pate ogven in Table 11.2, cave 15) 6 Ifthe plate described incase Sis creular,no sre is produce by supporting the edges in a direction normal tthe plate the plate dosribed in cae § has tho shape of an eau loiangle of altitude a (ides 20/3) and the edges ane tgily supported =) a8 tobe held in a plane, the supporting reactions wil eonsist of «uniform load {A7¥Bi¥/a per unit length slong igh ‘edge against the het ince end concantraed Toul SATyRE/12 at each commer against the cl face, The maximum Fesuiting being sess | AVE atthe carers (ctnresion on the hot face: tension om the col face), Phere are sl high shear strestes ene the crmars (Rel) 6. If se plate described in case 5 it aquaro, no simple formila is valu fr the reactions nectaary to old the edges ia ther Criginal plane, The maximum bending stress asturs nea the gon, an is value approaches }ATYE. There re alan high ‘hear steeses naar the corners (Rel), Sirossos due to item constnt 9. Par or all of the suriace of «soli body i suddenly subjected to temperature change AT: a compressive street ATYB/( 9) i Aeveloped inthe surface layer of the beated part (Ref. 10. A thin cirula disk at uniform temperature has the erperature ‘changed AT throughout a comparatively asuall central eieulor potion of radivs a. Within the heated part ther are radial and fangontat compressive. strseee a —E8TyB At, pos cutsde the heated parte distance 7 trom the center of the ds but sil close tothe central ‘portion, the strnees are y= EST Bat/e (Compression) anda, =] AT Ea!/r ensiony, at the edge of the heated portion, there is = maximum shear Steost ATVB (Ret. 11 the dis of ease 10 is ested uniformly throughout a small contal portion a elite wc 1581 Dynamic and Temperature Stresses 767 the ends of the lips andi mum sree the tangential tes psn re yey [ + (al where asthe major and b the ha ofthe epee tel. out ite center and 12, ithe disk ofcose 10s Heated symmetrically a lems ue te mt nh da func nen any pt a stance fom the enter are e -a(efne- 37) non(renli near) Bin state dik tn the recoding expressions, ha meet Shining vs Rr ot tte RECT othr tn tment reel he neh th Mt jint along the edges of the strip where seni en tan SB gr Sere te) Halfway betwven P and G, a compressive szeas 6, Ee ctahe eine Aaa ' 13 ig heated as described except Ca the lower fa ot ene andthe enraged uh, do aea being linen Te maxim ene sees at Fa 14, Tho plate of ea the hin walls has the outer surface ‘tal the inner rtace atthe norma 15. ong tow iden thao tempertare‘782 Formate or Stees and Sin loan Temperature TAT. The temperntore gradient through the thickness is tienr. At points remote fom the end, the maxima lewumferentil stress i {778/(1—») Compression atte ince surface tension atthe outer surfs) andthe langitunal sre {AT}H/(1~ 1) compression atthe inside; tension a the otal), (Mies formulas apply toa thin tube of aay eres section} At the fends. these are free, the maximum tenale stress int tab of turclar sect is about 20% greater than the vee piven bp the Fevmala (a. 16. hollow eslinder with thick walls f inner radive 6 and outer ‘dis ¢ has the outer aurfne at the uniform temperstare Tsee the inser surface at the uniform’ temperature rs AT. After stendy-state heat flow is established the temperature decceanes lognsthmscaly with rand then the maximum steric, Sick ae circumferential and which our atthe inner and ger mtaces (veer surtae) S08 sm) nn "arm inert ay nner serfs) 4 =a tite (* emf) ‘ompreasion At the inner and outer surfaces, the longitudinal streiies are ‘ual fo the tangential sets et 27 the thick tube of case 16 has the temperature of the outer ‘unface rained atthe uniform rat of m/s thom after ase rate ‘of temperate rse as beon reached throughout, the madinens (Ouser surface) oat -¢ ais) emorenion nner sertace) Bm (gaat a(S) enn re A i huts of thermal ity egal othe Seti of thermal conde yh ee a ‘sony emerald eis ee a Dymanic ene Tampere Sesser 768 se grin mutes wm an a ns scsne stu coe ra eon a nce a at hate td ng ° 18 A ld rl os ands belog stay soa te WEOTGE A Soper che af re tae a ees eeu soto ven font Deuce. ae : 10 eke ec ie, se en ao te a acon ign em nee land longitudinal stresses at any point a distance mean Tay A fina -0 sme =a oe Hace A ns tho seme meaning asin case 17 and ei the radu of TACULaR ft wegative rele Sndietes compression, «po result anion (Ret 9) ve 20, Avoid phere of radius ce considered instead of a sit inde {iPr ll ther antons kept the ame a in css 0, The ial and tangential stress produoed at say pom Fen tho enter are oat Tea Fim (aay {A negative rel indicator comprosin, a postive recut tenon et.) cand ier radive 8 and 2, ttn phere hoon wih outer aie an ines ain and init all other conlttns kept a tated in case 17,Te Forma tr Stes an Sn enn 6 wit (7-209) 25H gv) Beet) oe . rer BH 14 negative result indicates compnession positive result tension et) Other problems involving therm cannot be expressed by simple formulas ae considered in the refer, ‘nee cite shove ain Rel 3, 10am 23 to 29 hart or lest of thermal stresses cubes are given in Ret 11 Derations for any ofthe thermal loadings shown above slong with thermal ladings on her examples of bars, rings, plates, and liadscal end “Spherical soll are given in ff. 28 the solutions of which Dynamic and Tempwatre Stason 74S | °[Dynamic and Temperature Stresses 769‘chapter 17 Stress Concentration When « lage ereisgradiont occurs ine smal, oclized! ares, of « ‘rucrure, th high see in oferred tas stress concentration. Neat ‘Ghunges in goumetry of Toaded structure. the flow of tres ia {mveriored with easing high stress gradients where the maximum ‘neat and strata my Bret exeecd th evorage or nominal vlues ‘sod on simple enleulatons, Contact stresses, as discussed in Chap or 1d also exhibit high stone gradient ness the point of cant ‘Shies nabs quickly as one anes way fom tho contact ares Ths, The ore most common occurrences of stress concentrations are de £9 {U)iacontnuites in continuum apd @)eontac forces. Discontinue Se continuum include ehanges in geometry and material properties, {This chapter la devotes to geometric changes Raph! geometry changes Gsrupt Use snoth ow of sresss thrash the mructure between loud application areas. Plates in tensin oF bending with bles, notches, steps, ot. ave sme examples involving ‘lecct normal steve, Shafts in tension, bending. and torsion, with bles, otches, spe, keyways, ste, are simple examples involving {ireland bending neal stresee and torsional shear stresces. Mate Complicated geometries must be analyzed either by experimental oF ‘Gumeroal techmgues sacha the finite slamont method. Other, les tdnsoun,zeomety changes inch rough surface fishes and extern {Ind Internal ered. ‘Changer in material properties are aigcussod in Chap. 7, and demonstrated ia an sxample where a change in oul of elasticity Grmialy changod the stress stabation, Changes in material Dropertieg can our both at macroscopic and sicrosepie levels Thich inckde alloy formulstion, grain sve aad orentabon, foreign Tater, te772 Formulas for Stre6s and Strain, em. 17 weet) ‘trees Concentration 773 y= eli4 26] + The analysis of the plate in tension with « hole just is tor a ° Uocrease, dhe mani sexe becomes est than thr fe containing the hoe: Figure 17a shows ‘The maximum stress is oy = = 280 , ieee B j leat re and 0200". Figure 172 slate af thickness ¢ 0125, with D150, with « hole o stows hw the tangential ees se along tex andy ae ae Water Pr 050 in and an ale! unr stress y= S20 ya Dlate Forse top and bottom) af the hale me ste te tne seadions «extremely lage compared with the nominal sess nd hence the tonne oo =e [TO Be (ay Loaded plate () Photocase model =| Ce Ss (6) Stes distoton7A Formulas or Sees and Sain few ‘A photoelastic* model is shown in Fig. 17.48). Prom a photoelastic Analysis, the stestes at pints 8, and ¢ ape fondo be aaned-A 9, = 820 ps4 tone B-B. 6h = 280351, 2, = 1150p ‘The nominal stress in sone BB is D 180 Pm = D359 = 75D 958 = $80 I the tress was uniform from # no, the steest would bo 480 ps However, th photoelastic analysis shows the stress o be nonunion, ning from 280 pal at to @ maximum stress at ¢of 10 pe Thus, for this example, the etoaeconceatation factor found tobe “The static ctrese concentration factor for a plate containing a centrally leased ele in which the plate is Iaeded'n tension depends (on the ratio 27/D ag given for ease Ta of Table 171. For our example dere, 2r/D = 05/18 f Tae equation for K trom Tle 17.2 giver K, 300-3184) + 266" —1.509)'= 291 which is within 2% of the rust from th patoslastc model ‘abt 17.1 provies the means to wants the stati eves concen tration factors in the elastic range for many cams that apply fo {undamental forme of geometry and loading coins Nexber’s Formula for Nonineer Matis! Bshvior. If the load on a structure exewods the value for which the maximum street ot & stress concentration equals the elec limit uf the meter, the ‘ieess distribution changes fiom that within. the clastic range NNeuber (Ret 61) presented a formula whith includes cess ard brain. Defining aa effective strews concentration Tato, Ky ym and an effective strain concentration factn, Ke tafe, Nether etablished wha i the geometric macs of Ue wee ad Senin tor That Uae g x8 «nas a : “Poway oan tne gh 8 am ‘ress Coneetton 75 In terms of the stroscos and strains, Eg, (17.18) can be writen a ston = KE nnta ont K, and am a obisined exactly the same as when the max stress trthin the elastie range The determination fey e fund from the Thateralseustiesireseatain curve uring the morinal sees EXAMPLE ‘Aerealor shaft wth x squce shouler an tie undergoing tending Cae Acepnuittt Afni amt of oN ng eta ee eri, For ttah B20 mm b= 9mm anir=3 mm Thea” seach sat atrial eben pote oF. Sura ‘tena Solution, rom the sven inasons hi = 4/3 =8. From ae Tho Tle = 1228 + 08015-00108) = 264 = =. 09585-05718) = 2002 cya Fad ast 08690) = L580 (Cha -Boty + 2046-05950) = -0a182 wih 200 1, =260—2002096)+ 1581035" —0518H036)' = 1.780 sree) ceeeEBes1778 Formuisfor Sea nd Stain fount “The noon eras athe minor aie fhe ep sha in aw seco) ee nn = gp = 185400 Nya = 1554 Dai "FAH awF ANF” SAM Me 1a the lanes the ne = Koa = .TBOC185.8) = 2766 MP owen, 4 on en ase Goo the srersrnnplt that thin eens the let in of SAPs "Tas, ar mas be deternaed om Neer Te modal ‘Thur he nom eto) Thee Krmatinn Fron the tabulated data the pact «can be tabulate ution a ‘hw ea athe fling "run fd Be eg = ye B= 9 (OBO) 3896 MPa mopeissaxrT010%) ee 72) ‘Suess Concanwation 777 sine by a further eduction of materi This i cantar co the ‘ommon aden" i ot tong enough make i bigger" Ths co Seresplined by examining he fw ana “Tae governing Eel equations for idol rotational fi ow ave ute sil to ese for sens Thus hore exists an analogy Hee ‘at ow ine, vlosty. and pressure gndens onthe one han and ‘Rise crete ities, ta pina meres on the other "Rifow taalogy or he tein Pig 17.0 shown In The 17a there riven surface toundaries are replaced y soi shannel esis forthe A (wherever stress cannot exist id ow aunot en) The sora apliod ons sre replaced by = wir Sins asd on Ea (17-9, ae aching Er eva pe 25828, ‘elena + eéncon OTS and 0008 Thun oy 262 __ 26-252 Taste 0 ~ one Thi es Por dynamic problems where lading is eyeing, the concentration factor ‘Bacuason of th 172 Stress Concentration Reduction Methods Tncuitive methods auch asthe flow analogy ane sometimes helpful to the analyst faced withthe task of reducing stan consentratons, ‘When doting wit a situation where tis nesesay to reduce the oes ssctionabruply, the resulting steos concentration can olen be mini =] ool Ei778 Formula fr Ses and Sain feos fd fow ld. Along th entrance section A~A of Fig. 17.5) the ow ‘trenmlinns need to adjust move around the cial sstace fre io accomplish thin, particle close a eteamiine I must mike the (retest adjustient and ust acsslerate unl Une reach ection BB, trhore they roach maximum velo, and then dacclrate to their ‘Saginal unsform velocity some distance fom -B, Thus, the weleity 1 point cis the maximum, The compaction the streamlines at ¢ wil leat to the development of w preasro gradient, which will sctually ause the velocity of paint & to be Tess than that of tho incoming ‘elecity of etearline 6 at A-A, Note algo that when a pariele on Gieeanline 1 reaches point d, the particle Ubeoreticlly takes on ‘elrtyprrpondicear tthe net fo hie analogy agress with hat of the plate loaded intansion with econtrally lost ole. The sts ‘manimunt at the edge of the hele corresponding fo point ¢ in Fi 1T7.8(@), The strane in tho plete corresponding to point bis lower than ‘hespplied stress, and for pointe the etes inte plate compressive perpendicular tothe axl direction. This analogy can be used to sugges improvement to reduce stress oncentatons. For example, for he plate withthe bol, the hole can belonged to an alipo as shown in Fi. 17.50), which wl improve the flow ransition into setion BB (oate that this is godt of toataria), Ai lips, however inal prectical waluton, but it ean ‘tetvaly be approximated by iin two smaller reli hoes in ine Problem Sotaion Toad ea Terns owe 8 seo 172) sree opnaewc udm ce pexnity tthe rg oles shownn ig, 12.10 Te wrUina? Seen the le, proved he be re closy wi Be # ‘eleitetare mime thew Gone) wil ow. Coarqont [aif nts ach ete fe pia ole eee gt onsen n make sean sce hs na reduton at et aarti oe se wean te par sss me70 Formos lr Sess and Sin fen holes wil make things worse. One must kewp ia mind that the fist hole increased the srese setional area nd (2) by changing the ab ‘Tho two additional holes in Fig. 17-9) do no change the. ares ‘eduction unles they are larger than the aiginal hole. However, at Stated, the addtional holes will improve the fw foneequenty recon the ste concentration, Aner tng the plate with the hole ito elongate Us olen the asl diecion torn aot Some orhor examples of situations where stresy concentrtions secur and possible methods af improvements are given in Fig. 170 Nate that in each case, improvement is made hy naling mat This snot a hard apd fst rule, however snot reductions in high strass concentrations are made By removing material fom ndjacent lowatreseed areas This “drawe’ the high stresses away fom the front concentration rea towards the. low-teened area, mbieh “ecresses the rroa inthe high-siesed aren wee 173 Teble ‘Asi 174, Sees concen nose ste) a i | ‘ f 1 2 iseo 173) foun? 752 Formulas tor Sree an Sin ‘ponaa3) sae ase aRNNENS HGFwc 73) loon 786 Fowmuins for Sree tain ‘Gouaea) saa ame jemi aR FEN ATL‘Bos (sae ee ae naan185 Fomor Sve an Sin few. 2 cnet a inst oe ue eqpteguem maton auf gece yl Ca a Ba Fine Hite Babe t Asah Landings ASME pT. Mwy me 83 to Ee ca ametteestetcinndtinanie waa aut tan Be Bocas cern ncerinana a, Rin tin. ASME ap Mech ek tne 11 See eet re RE ns eae oe Be Ge RARE er Sey Ser he ISSR eccnapie eee ae SS Aim cthtes inarimeke irene {Gn ny Uni Teo Ede Bm ch Ps SMES Ap 2 BEY ete ger oa tne 1 ahs Se Bier 0 0 1 fs Mer Fatma Pty ASRS heat Fan Shae hats Fut Se +8 alle 7 MT Hani Gonentrtin Parte Should Shaft, Pac I Sh 4 REGAN Preeti Seer He, 8000 Eng So Data Ci anda, Th Ke Ue cher fhe Eons TEsssE Raper om Stee anivey ser Arby Cntr Bo 18? cf a Se Croan red a Duis La ‘esa EEE Gnite sate co Ree T Brotha: & Phat doce Sey of Snes in Be ee MLS lie Pt ey Soe tape Membre ‘, Bodynos Bs -Advamoed Sct and Ape Swe Alyn” a Mira ON SUS Eaw I tt Mee Sue Bl 28 oo 8————__"—-/__-—-—-—— Kppendix. ‘Appendix Properties of a Plane Area ‘Decause of tei nportance in connection with che snalsisof bending ane certain ection for Se sacond-area moments, commons an oe ee mants of inertia, ave indicated fp the fllowing role he pe equetine given are in roferency to Fig, A, and {he notation eo Flows ‘Aaron ofthe section 5E.¥tectanguar axes in the plane of te aeeson at arbitrary point ° sy receangular aes in the plane of he section pagel to X:¥ car dy with arg mth centroid, C, of the ection200, Formulas for Stress and Strain = polar axis dough © 5.9 tags aa th pln of te ein, ihr at instned wes cntnrcctwis ang Ofoas yen 1,2 principal axes at inclined at « count nc inelined terclockwise angle, the distance from C to the dA element, By definition, ras Moment ofinertis = fata, I I= saa Polar moment of inertia: a LaJuhPdd=hsh= bel =hth Producto tia: y= [yy Raditof eatin: A= VITA, hy» VITA Parallel axis theorem: “ Bea htAvh Wa btAd, Ipaty tana ‘Transformation equations: _— 1, = Koo? 041 ain 0 fy sin 28 Ly Lesa 0 eos? 4 1 xn 20 \de~ 14020 + yen Principal moments of inertia and directions Jey teins GOA} 0 stu (2%) pon the determination of th em tho wo principal moments of inet, . 2 to angles, 9 apt, cas be saved for from the equation for a mas be vous which ange corresponds to ics pial mower of mi: the oes mtb se tthe Feared ot | Ration af they nasa xis om ‘andi being the penclpal moment of nr a the meio IE, for a set of principal (A IEE S. ft aSet of pines though alow that Diane, are equal with ana) Propertiaa of a Plone Arex 801 to oF more asee of dential apmmetey Te the same for say central “The moment of inertia and radius of gyration of a section with seapct to a conoidl aie are les chan for any other axis parallel thereto. ‘Th taomentof inertia ofa composite section (one regarded as made ‘up of rectangle triangles, cecuar segment, ete) about am axis ‘Gat tothe uma of the moments of iors of each component part Sout that axis Voids are ealeen into eccount hy subtracting the momenta nertin of the void are, ‘upresions for tho, aeea, ditances of centroids from edges moments oferta, an ei of gyration are given in Table At for @ Tomber of presentativesectione. The ments of product of inertia [ee smposite seas ean be fxd by addition; the centroids of compo» ‘Ste nrens can be found by uring the olatian tat the statin) moment ‘boa any ine ofthe entire aren ix equal tothe sun of the station frome of ts companent pars “tmagh propentes of wirucrs) secionewidedlange, beams “honmast anglee, ce-—are piven in tructura) handbooks, formu ho Eecad in Table At forse sections These are applicable to ‘eng having a wider eangy of wb end ange thicksesses chan ‘pormaly found in the rolled e extruded sections Sncuded in the Ibendboks ‘lave or ulinate esength design is dscusted In Sees. 615 and fd and the use of thie techague requires the value of che fay plane bending mment~the product ofthe yield strength of «duce terial and the page ection modulus Z. The lst clus Table saa eee for many ofthe scons the va an exprowsin for Zand {ation ofthe woutrl aie under ally plastic pure bending. This (titrate. dacs not, in gener), pass through the centroid, Bee" instend divides the ston sate equal areas in tension and compression.Proprio oa Pare hea 95 (804 Formulas for Stress and Strain ~ a ee oer crn(eeiaa) sees omnncaig vy Few‘roertes of Plane Ares 908on 10 Forms for tose an Stain ‘Gonauca)saopor eens WL(12 Formulas for Stress and Strain TABLA Proprio ston Conteh ‘Appendix Glossary: Definitions “The dafinitionsgivon hore apply to tho terminolgy used theoughout thin book Some af the terms may be define siferenes by other uthore when tis athe nae allernntve terminology is noved. When two oF tore terme with identical or similar mesnin sre im gener scceptanc, they are given In the order of preference of the current Allowable stress (working stress): Ifa momber isso designed {hat the masintum sires as ealulated fr the expected condition of sericea than same anti value, the mere wil haven proper margin ofsecunity against damage or are Thi ting yale ste lowable stress sabjet to the material and condition of service 10 {quenton. Th allowable steer i males than the dambging se Ucnuse of uncertainty as tothe cndians of serve, nonuniformity of and ineecuraeyof the ereee analysis (ove Rel 1) The margin [etweon the allowable stress andthe damaging sre ny he reduced sm proportion t the eortasnty ith which the conitins ofthe vee fare loosen the ntrinne reliability of te material the seraracy wath ‘which the strse produced by the loading ean he eaeulatd. andthe Agree to which falar ie snattonded hy danger oro, (Compare with Daamosing stress: Factor of soley: Factr of utleaon: Margin of safery Soe Refs 1-3.) Apparent elastic limit (useful limit points ‘The stress at which the rate of change of strain with rept stress ia 50% greater tas tere steps Tes more definite detorminabl from te sees stain ‘agra than se the proportiona) lit and ix seul for comparing Inaterinl of the same general cass. (Compare with Elastic lim Proportional lin Yld point, eld strength) Apparent stress: The strwss corresponding toa given uni strain on ‘he sosumption of unin! elastic stress, It ie ealeulated by ul18 Femur See an iin ea) Piving the unit rin by the modus of elasisity, and mas ifr from ‘he true stress bectuse the effect af the tranaveran tests snot taken inte account Bending moment: Rofernce ito simple straight beam, seemed for convenience ta bo horizontal and loaded and supported by fren, allot which ie ina tera plane: The bending moment at any ston ‘tthe beam is the moment ol foros that act on the beam tote et (ce right of tha section, taken nbn the foritntal exe inthe plane ofthe scion, When considering the moment atthe sation ie fo the roost the left af the ection, the bending moment i= positive when ‘ountertlockise und negative when clockwise ‘The reverse i true when considering the moment det fares Yo the righ ofthe ston ‘aus, a positive bending moment bands the Ream such that the bea Akforms concave upward. and a negative bending moment bende ‘concave dowaveard The ending moment equation isan expression for the bonding moment at any seein in terms of the distanee lon ‘the lnngitainal aie of the boar tothe section measured ont a ‘gi, usually taken to be the lft end ofthe boar, Bending moments ae applied wo staighe beams in_ two-lane symmetrie or unsymmetri bending, curved beams, or pee are litmoce involved, and are discussed nthe appropriate setsone ofthis eal Bending stress (flexural stress): The tensile sd compressive siceestransitied in a bedm or plate thst arises Gro the heading ‘moment (See Flesure equation) Boundary conditions: As vsed in structural analysis, the term usualy refs to the condition of stress, diplacerent, or slope a the tens or edges of «member, whore theve conditions are apporent frm the eieumstances of the problem. Far expe, given bea with fod ends, the zero dsplacoment and slope at each end ate boundary fnaitions Fora plate with a frely eupportd edge, the etree ‘tate isn Houndaey condition Brittle fracture: ‘The temaile fare of « material with negligible plastic deformation, The metaral ean inherently be brite steal {nits normal stat such ax glas, mason, ceraic co ir, or high “strength high-carbon steel tae Ste 3.7) a can hes material normally foniesed duce which contane imperfections exceeding. spect Jimi. oF inn low-temperature environment, oF underlay high stuin eats, or any combination thread, Bulk modulus of elasticity: The ratio a» tensite or compressive ‘restau and equal mall rctions eg, hydrostatic preset the relative change it produces tm vauane wma ‘lor: Setters 915 meal Corrosion fatigue: Fatigue aggravated by corscian, sm in pars Fepeatedlystovsed while exposed toa carosive environ. seeps Continuous Incense in. deformation under constant or Seeetting trea, Te torn orinarly ed with reference fo the icnwor of metals under tension at slowed temperatures, The Sine plies oer ner omgren ste ou cr fae Geap at atonpeie temperate aus to susie ese strom ip nometines call dif or rlatie dri. (Soe aso futon) Sergi srem: The lst uit ts of «gn Kind and fr cere aed codin of sti tat wil der member ESSE cere the eo ews Tema de tb by See Sinton ty steve yung of rep heath 2igueceahing. ecene ain hardin rant Damping eapecity: The amount of enorsy dissipated into heat per finite otal erain energy present maximum strain fa 2 eomplte ‘te Soe Rel 4) mation: Changs inthe sage or dient of «als Posed by ses: Bnet net sed oe tpn daira, create ce ving copeeive iar, rion et cntin Bsc formation cation at ar serpin sece apo enor of scan, when permanent or ae eeee asain ster he wine scr Compre wh sm scenticity:_ lout component toa arma a given ces Pesala Zaher ecentne wih mapa tht ncn tes SES aah incendie perptcladitance tom th ine SP aPay IS ie ese yor a to coe with ‘See tha ae Hastie: Capable of sustaining stress without permanent dlora ‘onthe form i als ond to denote enformity to che law of res15 Formulas for tees and Sin ron strain proportionality Hook's lew). An elastic stesso stein is « ‘eestor sea within the elastic hit Elastic axis: The elastic ars of « beam isthe line, lengthwise ofthe beam slong which transverse loads must be applied to avoid toron of the bean at any section, Strictly peaking, ao rach line exists except fora few conditions of loading. Usually the elastic aie a assured fo bathe ine through the elasticcentar of every eectin, The tare oat ‘flan used with reference to nn airplane wing of ether te shell or multiple spar type. Compare with Torsional center, Fleal center Blastc center. See Ref. 8), Elasticcenter: ‘The slate contra given section fa boa is that Faint in the plane of the section Iving my tween the shear enter and center of twist ofthat section, The three points may Bo Llnticalmwhich is the normal assumption, (Compare with Shear ‘enter; Torsional center; lati ais, Set Ref 5 and 6) Elastic curve: The curve assumed by the longitudinal axis of an lniilly straight beam or column in bending where the tress i witha the elastic mit. Blastic tastabitity (buckling): Unstable local oF global elastic deformations causet by compresive stores in mombers with large length to lateral dmessions (Soe Slenderness Palio) Elastic, perfectly plastic materia: \ moiel thst represents the sluvas-srnin curve of «material as lines fram zvo stroman sean the eluate limit. Beyoud the lactic limit, the sess remaine censtant with strain lastic limit: The last str that will cause permanent set (Compare with Proportional limits Apparent elastic limit, Weld point, ‘eld strength Soe See. 42 and Ret?) Blastic ratio: ‘The ratio ofthe elastic imitco the ultimate strength, Eilipsold of strain: An ellipsoid that represents the state of stenin sat any gen point ina body. It hae the thape asumed under steer ‘sphere centrod atthe point in guration et 8). Ellipsod of stress: An ellipid that represents the state of sess any given point ina body its seme ae vectors representing the ‘rine streses at the pont. and any radi vector represents the Fesukant street on a particular plane through tho. pon For a ‘pndiion of plane stress, where one of the Pintpal sense keto, the ellipeid becomes the elise of sess ace Rel 9 Bndurance limit (fatigue strength): Tae maximum sess ample: ‘ule of paely reversing stress that can be applied toa material an indefinitely arge number of eyes without producing facture (28 Sec. 3. nto eh ee a sor ames t,o Tb at, dt ss se a Fe cae ae Ee Doman tie ae srry ng een tt it rae: a et ht ae ‘sive) stroas of the saine magnitude as the oe wait eeatiaeat at eka vr cua iene eee ares osce vale of peed, deco, tera ‘eninton,ovoter stress producing quantities. (Compose with low meg sale gm min Fase Deca a ns teaser non nt amg ete ; rea acing degra eat cata He Serene co iit to the ultimate898 Fomulas fr Ses tn Stain ore Flesure equation: ‘The equation for tensile and compressive strestesin beams undergoing bending, given by ¢ = e/E Flexural rigidity (oar, plate): A meas of the resstace of the bending deformation of boam oF plate. Fer s besam the enue "igity is given by A whorons fora plate of thicknoas iti given by Epa} Form factor: ‘The term is applied to saveralstustions pertaining beame (2) Given a hoam section ofa given shapa, the frm facta isthe ratio ofthe madulus of upcare af a beam having tht prsculer section {othe modulus of rupture of beam otherwise sna but having section adopted x n'standard. Ths tandard ection unualy hen rectangular or square; for wood it vg 2in by in square with edges horzontl and vertical (oe Sees 3.11 and 813) (@) For the chou doletion of bua de to transverse loading, the ‘ore factor is correction far that isthe ratio ofthe actual shear defection to the shen defection calculated on the secu Sion of uniform shear stress acros the snction (eae Se, 810) (©) Fors given maximum fiber stress within the atc Him, the form factor is the ratio of the tual resisting moment ofa wide Hanged ‘beam tothe esting moment the beat would dovelop ifthe Boer sreas were uniformly distributed neoss the entice with ofthe Banaes. So ust the term expremen the strength reducing elle of shea lg. Pretting fatigue (chafing fatigue): Fatirwe eguravated by surface rubbing. as in shale with reseed olla Guided A support condition atthe end of « beam or column or at tho edge af «plat or shell that prevents ration ofthe edge af the neutral surface in tho plane of bending but pert longitudinal and tansseree displacement. (Compare with Fed: ‘Held. Simply supported) eld: A support condition at the end ofa beam or sun or a the ‘eg of «plate or shell that prevents longitudinal and transverse ‘displacement of the ego of the neutral sarace bal petits rotation in the plane ‘of bending. (Compare with Find; Guided. Simpy supported) Hertzian Stress (contact stress} Stress cnuced by the pressure between elasie Hodes in soak Hysteresis: The dissipation of eneray ax heat during a sree cele ots member Influence line: Usually pertaining os puriculae action of bea, fn influence line ia curve draw so chat ite ornate at an point ‘epresente the valle of the reaction, verti shen. bending moment, ‘rdefction produced st the particular sition by unit lod spp "the print where the ondnate is menswred An inane Line may he Used to chow the effect of lod postin on any quantity dependent hereon, such a he stress sn geen trust member the deflection fa fsa or the twisting moment in sal Teoelinle: A Ine in a stead body) at all points on which ene Corresponding principal senses have the asme divetion Teotropies Having the sme properties in ldrctions. Io ie None fein sng of tea trons eel? mes ‘vn the sn stooge laste properties noun lanes ‘Sot niga: aad Pos asn adietone Keen tard: Relocate pala ston «eb Tiskorinta ees inne south whch neo lon fares ptt stop aps ne Sen scl thc ml in false rt Senda hich Limit load: The titiouschoretial loa that th cross estion of x ‘heer made of an elasti,pertetiy ple material reaches whieh the entire section goes inca the plas ane Leider’ Ines: See Stip tines Margin of Safety: As usnd in seronstie! design, murgin of salts 2FtNe centage hy wth alias stots oa mee ede the deri toad. The design foad te the applied lsd. or maxima prabable load, multpiedby 9 apecife traf aft. [The use ofthe ferme margin of safely and dev load sv thie sears is precticaly trict to aeronslical engineering ote Ket. 12), ‘Member: Any single partor element af a machine o structure, such fs boom, column, sha, ete Modelos of lati Bounds magus The rte che Stree within the proportional lini piven mala. Fur mot its all mteioe the mali fascia he same or enon fn compression. For toniotopie naerini such ax wood, ices to datingush Between Thc inodut of easticy fn eeent directions20 Forme fr Sane Sin roo Modulus of estienc per unit volume Aheorbed upto the lst nt under conditions of eniform nisin Modulus of rigidity, G (modulus of elasticity in shese}: The with espet to shear train, within the proportional limit of = given materiel. Por nonisotropic materials ‘uci a won, tis asessnry to datnguish between the modal of gilt i diferent dictions Modulus of rupture in bending (computed ultimate ben frongihy The fettious oral ates i tbe extreme Mr of eam sompsted hy the Bexate equation #~Mge/h, whore My i he Einding moment hat ctses rupture Modulus of rapture in torsion (computed ultimate torsional strength)» The fetious shear stress at the outer radive of a ‘Srelar shale computed by the worcion equation t= Tyr/J, where Ty {2 the torsional moment tat entre rept Iilomene ofan area (rst moment ofan area): With respect oan faxienithn he plane of an ase the sum ofthe produce obtain by rultilying each elnent of the area dA by ie inane, , from the fbi its thorefore the quantity fy 4. Moment ofinertia of an area eccond moment ofan ares): With spect to-an ane within they pine ofan are, te sum of profs ceaned by mulliplyng sak element ofthe re by the quae the Seance 7 fom the + aul i Thus the quant ad ce append Neutral asi: Thelin of ro Ser sens in any given section of « tember eject oenfng! ie thei fd bythe nares the neutral surface und the section. aa ‘ [Neutral surface: The longitu) sce of sre Ser tess in Toomber sje io fending i sclaine the uta au of every sectian. “ * 0 Noteh-eensitvty fctor: Used to compare the sets concentration feton Kae fsa tin fat To hse tty acer qf omen dened ste rt (2/0, ~ Dh ad ‘ae om fr se ni ce materi 1 fa coe hand Sette ner Plane strain: condition where the normal pd shear stains ina particular aiocion are er ir ary lane stress: A condition where the normal and shear strenes in a ticular dieetion are 2006; 8.6, = Tar ty Plastic moment; plaste hinge; plastie section moduli: The rratinium hypothetteal bending moment for which the tresses in oll bors ats scetion ofa ductile member in bending resch the lower yield Pete oy Ueclled the plostc moment, My, Under thie condition the Potton cannot seesmmdat any aationl ad, anda plat Ringe Site foro, The sstion modulus Zy is defined 99M, Plasticity: ‘The property of sustaining appreciable permanent lor ‘ation without rapture The term is also used to denote the property Uiyieang or lowing undsr steady load (Raf. 13). PPoiseon’s ratio, vz The ri of lateral to longitudinal strain under ae Seetion of aniform ad wnisuil longitudinal sree within the proportional limit Polar moment of inertia: With spec oan axis mortal co the ‘tasfan arose sum the products cbrained iy mltipisig each Bisment ofthe aren dA bythe square ofthe stance rom thease i {eis the quantity (7 dA foee Appendix A, Principal axes of inertia: The two mutually perpendicular axes in ceasre stam area, centered atthe entroid of the are, with mo- (eda inerta that are maximum and minimum (ee Appondts Principal axesofstrose: ‘Tho three mutnallyperpendieulr axes st Tepes pint within a eld where the sate of stron om each muriee ‘.ofoal ta the axes contains a tnsle or compressive stone and 2270 hear stress, Principal moment of inertia: The moment of inertia of as sea Shout pincpal axis of inertia (2e Appendix 4) Principal stresses: The tenlle or compressive stress cting ‘long the prineipa exer of atress Product of inertia of an area: With respect 10 a psie of 37 Fetes axea in the plane of an are, Ue sum of the products ‘hese by multiplying each element of area dA by the corinatee ih seapeet to these sess; thai fxd ne Appendix AV. THE ‘roluct of inertia relative to the principal axes of ert i eo. Proof stress: Pertaining to asoptance tests of metals, a specified crete Soar that must be sustained without dofrmaon in eacees of 1 speeied amount Proportional limit; The grestest stress hata materia can stain Aeitout deviating fron the lew of stress-strain. progertionality Tooke lus) Campure Blast Hint; Apparent elastic limits Yold point, Weld strngth: Sco Sec. 82900 Ret, 8)(2 Forma tr Stes ad Sin bm ace of gyration, ke The radia of oration ofan area with reepect oa gon ans tho square ote he goa eisend diving the momento inertia the yo wih Taps ott oe be tho area Atha k= VTA oe Append 8) Reduction of area: The diference between the cross-sectional res ofa tensile specie ot the tion of rape lee ane and after rupture, ere before Jo Relsxation: ‘The reduction in stose when th deformation ie mai tained eanstont, (Cmpare Creep) Rupture factor: Used in rofirence to brittle materials, ie, mate nls in which failure oecurs through tensile rupture tathce then texcesive defirmntion, For x member of given form, sie and mater, loaded un supported ina given manne, the rapture factors the sale ofthe fettous maximuen tensile serene flare ae Coeulated by the ‘ppropriate formula far elastic sree, ta the ulinate tne stcogeh 9 ie materia a decried By 8 conventional tension te ee Sain-Venants pence: «lad dssbation is replaced by ‘siealyentlet fee sat te nebo oes ge heb ie posi ered onl nar the reps of a apple Section modulus (section factor, S: Perini to the cross section ofa bem, the section edutee with respet wits panel {kis of ner te tho momento neta with ropa wo that war vied bythe distance fom that asst the mat remote point af seston, ¢ thats, 8= He (Compare Plstc secon madulae) Set (permanent deformation): Sirsin remaining after the removal the applied ending ‘Shakedown foad (stabilizing loa be applied » beam origi fume and spon remaval lave real omni tht alguentappcatons of he mane sa cosh, toad will enue ony elstiesreaane “ " ‘Shape factor: The rt of he plastic acton modulus othe tie ‘section modulus, " mah hee Shr center ru! cena) Wh faint bam, he ‘Sh on af ons p in te ee oe mee th ch tre nd pls secon Poe benting detec aly nd oat che coe eae "ih Tralee Blade rt, Bact Sora Sc) eo Coss: bettors 925 Shoar lng: Because of shear strain, the longitudinal tensile or tompreive bending saves io wie bear Agen decease with fhe cistance fein the web), an this sees reduction called ‘hr la ‘Simply-supported: A support condition atthe end of «beam ot lure or atte edge cf plate or abel that prevents trnaceree “Taplacenen ofthe edge of the tal mite at permis rotation ‘and lmatudin’caplaceoment (Compare Fsed, Oued Hel) Singularity functions: A class of mathemati functions that can beured to desrbe dsentinaces behavior ing one equation. Sing Tiny fanctons ave commonly employed to reprerent sear ere, Tend momenta pee and delrtaton ae funcsonf postion fr ‘lecoatiuousloedingof beams plate, and shells The functions are ‘erten using bres tation ag Fy isa" where fy 0 fr Feand Fe= (eof fr > a. (See Rel. 12) lendernets ratio: The ratio of length of « uniform eau tothe Inna raion of eration ofthe eros-seton Slip lines (Lider tines): Lines tht appear on the plished fae oferta or cyan Day that Hine been Strosed bond {Do case be Paty present te intersection of the race by plans cn which shear eres has produced plas hip foe Sez 8. nd Ret 1m, Strain: Any freed change inthe dimensions and/or shape of en de element A stretch ie a tesa strain sbartenng Is a ‘Compressive stain: and an angular stron loa ser stain ‘Strain concentration factor: Localized peak strains dovlop in the presen of sre ner, The strain coneenczatin factor tthe tate othe localized masinum ain at 8 gen locaton to the mina tre iain ta aon he ial urge thn NSaingutod rom the soerage stone and knowledgo ofthe sre ‘Scan havior of the mato saiation whee all ears ed ‘Minne are las, the srs and stain vocetrtsn fore o ‘rust (Compare with Stress concentration foctor) Strain energy; Mochnical enory stored in stressed tril Stree within the eesti limit implied where the stain energy le fuel to the work done by th external forces in producing the tree lind ie revere Strain roseter At any yolnt on the surface of a stresed bods Soni meagured along each of thre itareeting gage Lines mabe inc calsledon ofthe pence wore pune. The Eugenes ad the eaveeponding strane are aed tala rosetes,Forms or Sites and Sri lone Strengths Typically eters a particular ining alo which a material ceases to behave according t some reer vd function. (Compare Endurance mt (align nengeD Bede, surengthUimetesengh Weld srenging "EO Padoronce Stress Internal force red Der unit arn eared on seid uric Wn the re tng othe uct sealed no sire: whe the fei ot tot sane the ae ee ‘normal stress; when the normal dower nce ites conprene sree ‘ay tm th sre ced steals g, Ieper suchas hol icon treads nthe tn shary cules whee Petes ‘ea shat, or other membre to lenin yee igh ‘led sete. Tie phenomenn scaled sea eee sh ir egalars tat ae are aed se the pura pe tes ‘on facto. The tinal calculation cet on te nt es oper atthe ication of hea oa = rss false ignoring the resin, of trae cased bythe form esa, ee See B10) Stross intensity factor: A com employed in fae Aleseribo the elestic sires Held wirrounding e tack ip Stress trajectory (sostatic): line ina stresod body) tangent to he direction of one of the principal naa {hs Astin of Oe othe nial sees evry ph hugh Superposition, principle of veh ele of Wich erein exceptions, the efit of 2 gen combined long on strata ay be rl doe ey be cole by determin ing the ete of each load separately ad adding tne re te, aialy, Theorie may be ape provide (eat ss neared the ad that profit Gh elond doc kee contin which aes the releases oda ) eee ms resulting om any specie lad ar et lacge tones rns Sisiy ler the yaometrieretions ofthe pase wake sence symen es S13) ‘Torsional center (center of twist stewing ope ap 2.8 fen scion fw taht member, that scion fee a Some point int plane. This pin, which dows ol ase she ae member twists, a the torsional eater Render twist, i the tein coer ofthat ation (Se Rata ‘Torsional moment (torgue, twisting moment): At any section of {Trnember the moment fall frees that act on the member othe lef (oenight ofthat action, taken about. enter of that ection. For soctions frinepel a, the url center eoineids withthe centroid (se Res Sand 10, ‘Transformations of stress or strain: Conversions of stress or [Renin at a pin fom one thovedimensinal coordinate gystem to Ihuthes (See See. 23 and 24) ‘Transverse sheat force vertlal shear References ta simple rte Seas sme coerce 0 bona 04 raed Sid nupportd by fowes ilo hah ie ia verte plane The insert shee fre atany stn ofthe bea ip the vertical ‘SMa al faces tht aon the bam oth leo ho of {hoo The shar fe eon an apresion fr he ee ‘tte Shear at any stn In rte of the tae that tion treasured fom chan igi, anally taken fom the Ie of the on ‘Tresea stress; Based on the failure mode of ductile material being ‘hue fo shear sires, the Dresea stress ina single sear stress value (thi i oauvalet to an acts ombined stat of tress, ‘True strain: The summation (integral of each infinitesimal slong tion Ab of succesive vgluee ofa specie gage length L divided by that Teneth, I equal t (20/1) =e (L/L) = Ton (22, where Ly the original gage leagth and ¢ is the normal strain as ordinarily Sebned el. 19, ‘True sirens: For an axially loaded bar, the foe divided by the tesul eros-ecional aren dergoing loading. It differs from the gineering stress define in tars of the orgies fof pormanent deformation red over an arbitrary length Snluding the section of rape), [Ultimate strength: ‘The ultimate strength ofa material ip uniaxial tension or compression or pure shea, respectively, isthe maximus teneile, compressive, shear treer that Ube material can sustain Clulad onthe bass of the greatest lond achieved price to fracture ind the original unstrained dimensions re on the failure mado of ductile material nergy cnoied by. atrese state, th von Mist von Mises stress Deing due o distortion25 Fomulo for hese an in on sree i wing normal stess valu, which x equivalent to an actual ‘combined state of ees, Yield point The sess which the sun increases witout ax inerese in scan For sme punto import Beagus Seton upper tnd lazer id pt. When they scar the toper ‘elt pint roche ftv masta thes owed Pe Lined pint sian Ona fow maser tits Cue point Far thr tet erm esti aed sora ‘ih sel strength. Camere Hee srngth: Rat oe Maret antes Proporta it, Sea), Yield strength: Tho stese at which a material exhibits a spcied permanent deformation or et. This stress in usually determtaed by {Be offset method, where the srain depart rom the Kinet partion of the actual tross-steain dageam hy an offs unit stain of 0.08, (See Ret-7) REFERENCES 2 Ste Ring Sree AME Paper A Ap Meh 2.08 3 Unga Seraura Maire, Te A. Si Cl Bo. oT: rin Pr a, Mach eo. 8 « julian 08; Dann apy o Marl, ASHE ol 2k Lee Re nmane oman aps St ah ee inane 1 Came tomre 12 fhe "AtraocedShegth an ln Se oa” WCB: Becki SCA he eke br Pein Mar oS ‘Appendix Contributed by Barry J. Berenberg ‘irl Mana, Compute Heri Sf Siete epost In collaboration with ir Pit Stn fe 08H Soe Scene fe neta a composite members a cused in Secs 83 nd 88a componeo fore tn ou mel here ech eal of oni oh Rotocencourrowsceion, Tne equivalent silfcees ot saree are determined by engl technique wang an suet ut Composite nator onthe other hand re rae vp of more Tepe ratelal ential pert a the mars level ‘amcnulat pretation, sad shang the cried ater opr mac se compl To eed, per fea = esa: Gnce the mural propetos have ben exe fom oe SEMA tee equndons and teblen provided i this book cn be TARYN sho Glowing dneston i oly tended to pronle some Stetecery init into the abaya of serceree somos of “aang a spt eed f ne ac a ‘Speen Uhm Se wc ate wowatecomisoant(828 Formutes for Stress and Srv me Sompaito materials. Cerainty, much more exposure is necessary efoe one can become preficlent inthis impurtas tape © Composite Materials Composites are firmed fom two or re ds ‘hic contbte othe nl propria Unite etic oes ater 4 compte remade fy ek eae ae ie ‘mecca Most enginvering compares const of to materia: a reinforce iment anda ates The einorcemen proves scorn sa {he mire hold the material together and serves to tema fe Asone the deomtnoonrintcenents Paes sents ire in Figure C1 ane continu a a or woven, short chopped fibers, te ‘alrces evar pati cing Metals ed ther tnditonal engineering mata ae unr, or ‘soon in ature. This menne that mated poor eh ssength, sites and thermal sonduchnys are Macoeoaeer ot, Yost wihin the materi and he hace cern sea ee Ahscontinious tre of eomponsnnorcemente ash ee oe material popertie can vary wih bth pnt nal hee xan, sn oon ean veisernd with contre gh aMe ‘tyhigh strength and stinen int dneeioey fe e ‘bu er ow pope nro or rnstere te a This tectyinraten the eomplenty of eel aac ‘material, however, equines fn By coordinnts system shown in Figure 2. The conan we ten Youngs moful (he loagitudinl modslus in te descton alte aber, 2, aad tho transverse modulus naval othe fives Ey one Poss rao inca the major Poisons rain, el nese Feet Competes hy snfreent ope congoate nee 8 ; ne aus Fy elias sen Ath constant, the minor Poiaton's ratio vy is determine from the ‘ther properties through the reciprocity relation ta ote ro La sey of composite stm eC sows pil properties fo varity a Bihettccompontesiodre nurenal oon snags purl oni ae diene gal al ‘Sir nti ter ma, rene erste AcrPadul gly funcons fhe ean ml. Phe her ine er leet ml of cpt ‘ewe either rope. Ti te a {Rowe tical engin foreach tei Ae wi th elle rope STi ene rie he enn! a {he waneera econ Ale note hat sompreav tenth a ‘tena wer ha tease Tae ier ‘Souter for men soaveng compost ruta fr fl 62 Laminates Composite Materials | properties in Table C.1 are for single ply of lamina of cmp Bene ty an prin 1 eh itn. To move tn tuners opr ofthe line he ee av stacked so the bee are rotated varios ele frat tos-cnvonin amit corte syst te hw Fugue C5, inthe or of @bunm, for example th was of the{20 Fomatas for Shes and ain me ARECI_ Compost tal Sates 9 INTRO 6 MARE Ef SBR a/R Sry Cay iis "ane “Say pay SS aa i gow oe Soa af ase Eso 8 a EE na te es laminate ordinate sytem might laminate ordinate yom might be caten to cbcid with heais ating to pli nce the properties the laminate ie tio, but thie comer atthe expense af decreas in proper he Jkminate section "The get the rtation tl the este oe decrnae in ron ropertin. Figure Cor apie, hor oe he ods te laminate ecto cet noe veel tai. The hay i lightweight laminte Sango role fot ugh off axa wliness ov stength to handle the ssondany ‘while erent ne man = ‘isle ornting as many fhe ts preble i the Aeton of the TP Sk oe bh ow ru 64 Laisa ton al ee Composite laminates ere analyzed by desermining the properties of tus individual laminae and then cleulting tho effeeive properties ot {he tinate Ply properties mut be expres in terms of the TRiinate coordinate syeem; this eeunsformation is accomplished (idng'e method similar to stress and strain transformations (1 Mahe er) This anulytsal process is called Classical Laminated Pate Theory (CLPT) CLPT yeiees al lamina and Inminate stiffaes equations 10 spronct in meta orm, Becae of the Inege amount of matrix Imathenaticr ‘involved, CLPT solutions aze wwually handed By & ‘Rtpator eaware, program. Users snput the laminate stocking ‘Sener ropes and oe the progam ouput she sis Tats, engineering properties and streses and stains “A Tat of shorewaze and commercial programs ss avalale on the neers (Ret). Some of the more popular programs used or Insnmee anagao incade: 1 CompasitePro 1+ ESAComp = Hypasizee = Laminator Va |Alshough the programs handle al ofthe mathematics, it x inmportant| ‘at get underatond the base strese-rain relation for laminate ‘Fue flowing discussion presents am overview of laminate theorybe Fares Vin tri, mata etn alamiat tnd hndig ‘more complete coverage ean be fund in any texthok on composite ‘aly such og Darel snd Tet (Ra. 1). ‘A goneal laminate caf be ebjected to bath membrane Gi-plans) nding loeds. CLPT assures thatthe eeouling strains and Gsevatures are uniorm throughost the lamina, Because the pee sre evened in various directions, thowh, ftesst stv continue nly within the individual pls. Figure C'S shows the variation jn ‘Heain, modulus, and strech «laminate subjected oa bending lad ‘The strain variation ie Hines, as with any initrope materia, Because the ply modull are discontinuous, however ply stresses ate also tiscontinuous Stzessos vary linearly within each psy but ar discon tinuous a the ply boundaries. Because the areans are discontinuous, ite easier to define applied loadin terms of averaged streoes,o tres resultant, An element of sminate can have upto # applied stress resultant shown in Figure Co: three i plane reultans Nani three bending entaste 1M For an isotope material, the resitante are simply the applied Paes Pace and manu nts wet Compote Maia om stressor stress couple multiplied by the thickness. For ‘composites the resultant are found by intograting the gy stress ‘hrough tho thisknes the laminate, Ae with the siffnes proper, the CLPT computer programe handle the neceeary integrations. ‘although software maker it snnecesacy uo work dre withthe sulfite mario, tis mportant to understand what the diferent ‘eles mean. The general orm uf the laminate scest-strai relation Js given by x By 4 x a y 4 =|. Ey en M s M 5 which eam be wisn more sussincly as = (ae +2101 a a = EL + DIS) “The matrices [N] nnd (A) ate the applied membrane and bending lad, expresed a ses relat, ("are the in-plane strains: the “persrpt 0 indiates the trsine are refernoed to te laminate Inlipane, tn] are the leminate curvature, [Al (BJ, and {D) are the hale forme oft laminate stifonsce, The ates [A] relatos in lane lose to Sn-plane strains, and the mati (Drives bending Toa 0 earvatres. iis known ae the membrane-bending sowpling mates. I shows that, under the right conditions, «purely in-plane load cat cause he laminate to warp, ors pure bending mamentcan cause te laminate to stretch, This can be seen by looking at one of the sx siess-trai Ny =AndtAad +t, + Bake Bias, +Bhediy (CA) 1 By is non-er, then pling the Iaminato n ho section also ‘eaves ito warp about Ue ase. This she sae fl: that eases ‘motalc beame (See £2) to warp, and infact the laminate atees- ‘ruin elation will rege tothe Hxmetale beam solution i all of he plies are mada from isotropic meteral. Such coupling betwoon i plane and bening bebavioe ie often undesirable, Fortunatly, iis Emote matter todenig m laminate whore all terme are equal tosseribed by thir stacking sequence. Tis lists the ck pl inthe sack, Begining withthe tp pf bes area the same material and thickness, then no further notation Js needed. Numerical tubsripterofer tothe numberof tices a py ration i repeated. Superscripte may be used to denota dillerent ‘materials and thcknease. Far example (04/90) laminate consists of hee pies eo 0” plies, flowed by one 8 ply. Otten the subscript “Tis used to denote “total” Thus, the protious laminate might Be writen 05/90) ‘A Temingto is called eymmeti if foreach ply on one side of the laminate midplane, there iss sonrespondiag ply on the other side of the midplane atthe same distance and ofthe atbe tater thickness and trintation. The subsergt"S" is used to denote symmetry. The Tamnate in Figute 67 ean be written ae [0/90/90/90/80/0) oF more sucenety as (0/90/30 ‘The matrix [Bis identically 2ro fr all eymmetie laminate. Tie svat teducn the strueatain eatone by uncoupling he Sombra and bending terms ™ «s (04) = Is) o Ina general symmetric laminate the Aya, Ag, Dis, ad Dag terme ars nonnor. This tenn that there i cuingettcen extensional ‘Stones and shene strains, and between bending and twisting. Once gain the N, equation ix Daud + And + Aah, © whore the Ay term shows that en extensional lond ie related shear ‘The Aig shear coupling terms can be ade to vanish by requir that the lntinate conict only of plies arented sO and 9, or tha all =[2]8[8]2]-| wns Compete Maine 5 nal pis be alunced. Angle pis are balanced when, foreach ply at +0, there is corresponding ply at ~W Ifthe laminate fe bath balanced and symmetric, then al eoupling terme are zero and the steesbstrain ylation reduces te Resi eh # 2G) Figure C.8 shows the stacking sequence for [0 4 20/90/+448}p balanced laminate: Figure C.9 shows the stacking sequence for 2 (01-4 Sil balanod symmetric laminate Fr hubancadaymmetrs laminate, ie alao pose to calealate effective engineering propetin. They are a here isthe total laminate tices, ‘There are several other types of speda laminates, but the ono of ‘ost interest is the quaei-eotopic laminote, Quastbetops ln ‘ates are balanced-symmecric, aad the ply angles are such thatthe Jnminate stffess properties ave independent of direction. In ether m6 Floss 0/309) £46 hand nite295 Fomute for Seas na Stn we sors, th laminate behaves like an icotropi material (Strength and Bonding suftece however stil vay with drecuon ~ hence the term (quastientropie) (Quastaotopc lines ste ofthe form (ang (ose, in radians) Gall, where m ib any intager greater than 2. The two simplest snd most fomaion quasiinemopie Isminatee ave (0) 60ly and [0/48/2%e, lseteated in Figure 10) and (), epee o ee Staking quash cnn splat - p lanae wo} Composter 27 C3 Laminated Composite Structures Casscal Laminate Plato Theory deseribes tho behave of laminated ple elements under in-plane and bending lade The shition applies ‘nly to plate elements that aro in fod equilibria — it dove not sccount forthe geometey ofthe pate othe boundary conditions. 1h general analytical solutions for composite structures are much ‘more dificult to derve than far iutropie structures, Seition for beams (Refs 2nd 3), plats (Refs 2 and, and shee Ret 2) can be found if the loads, geometry and boundary conditions remain sinple Beam solutions aro the simplest and are illustrated in the two ‘examples below Bending of Composte Seams t's compote plate mects the geometric definition of « beam hamely thatthe width and height are much enter than the length then the assumptions of standard hoam cheory san be: weed Ar ‘quivalone modulus Be derived fr composite beams under pure Tending. The equivalent modulus is then tued in senanction with Table 81 of Chap. 8 to provide an npproxtnate astion for the lending of laminated rectangular beams. The sation ignores tres ere shen defamation, which cola bo significant, 2 resale vould Deus for inital ing only. ‘In additon tothe standard beam Uheory aasumptions, the flowing equicements alco appl 1. Tho Beem is of rectangular cose-scton with width band height 2. Plies ie in the s-2 oF 1-2 plane 3 The sheur coupling trms (and (Jas fhe matrices [4 [nd (haze zero. ‘Tae equivelort modulus is found by applying the beam chery assump tons to the enstitutive equations, By (C2, which gives «simple “xpreston forthe moment teiltant M. in tarms ofthe curvature m, (Gets 2 and 9). This expression ean then be substituted into the standard beam bending expression, (Ds, = M to ind the lay-up is symmetric about the mid-plane, then By; =0, and ‘the equivalent modulus redacns to co 1)sear (on Bie)” ey apd is the transformed slinas matrix of ply k The componente of ‘are fonction ef the ply material properties and the orientation angle @ is found while calculating the matrices (A, (Band), and Je usally output by whatever software package e being used pete, inputs in ong sin wa snnclovrsd ac he pte a aoe teaconeenrted on lb athe a Te ded tnd he nu than an the vessels th op ve pe Pot Table ct che py proper are = 196M, = 124M C.91Msi, and vy ~ 0.918 Nortalized ply thickness ie 0.005in, for ® amine icra f 0.100 opertin amis ram © standard witware package, a [9 Qi 6.398 = 10% pa. THe curve: ‘Brey = -OU8bin ging he alos or be py moet ‘he stress oon the laminate conrite ste, rcp 4nd aero at 445" and "aor the ey streaer no py cite en hive ssbercompoent can the Sheer sagt of tomes euch Tower than the tense stent thie innate wad have tbe ceed for {se by comparing the rig vlan own hos @ und 8 wih the hinteeesrengt of 300/98 ‘vil stiffness (EA) ie und. Again, the standard beam assumptions ‘apply. withthe following ediinal resections 1 Plas e in the x-2 oF 1-2 plane 2. The sen coupling terme (ye and ()s=0- {8 The laminate is balaneedymmetric (B= 0. ‘The requirement for «ratangular cross section has beon rela, but the laminate now restrctd to balanced syrmeti nyape. Without that assumption, the membrane-bending coupling matrix (Bis nonzero, and pare axial lndsonse bending tn the bet. ‘Te process for calculating the equivalent bear sins is similar to the prcees fr ealulating bean bending stiface (Refs, 9 and. ‘The constitutive equations (C2) ar again simplifed using the beam thoory assumptions, and the eandand bea equation (BA = P ie ‘olved sing the laminate properties (hay = bray, a3) where 5 isthe equivalent width of che crose-ection. For «rest falas beam, 6 =, the width of the erosseetion Fora thin-walled {Sroulae eros section, be = 2D, tho eireumfrence of Uh cove eaten Ifthe beam is bale up fom a series of unorm cro sections ich ae ‘ba beam ora Iba), hen cea 2 by ey Uwhere the product "Ay is cummed over ach eressetion, Ply stease ae ealelated from Fee = Whe (ei) where e-aar 1) BOUMPLE, ‘Acompsite [bum i mad om T20/078 graphite cpny with a+ 0g lnutahnre n= for aach lange and n= Sorte wee The ane seh O18 ck tw mel inal and 0. hk Toe ooh of he Trai in, An atl teaae ld f able ppd tthe Year es ‘Sted dtl doin ad the sss the pePs proprin are the tn the previous cama, Th cosine pontine caclted ean & estar iar package, are ad ny = 2190 «0 (Aue = 19148 10 yin ‘The suivant ines i (EAP = TAM =A Ae = 92390 310%) “4axna14) 10H = 7008 «108 "uation (7.10 of Chap. 7 thon gee the tata ein 8 PABA =(1.0009,0/7008 10) = 2854 10° ‘The tanned tts prope ace again fy the sftnare package, CREE area temo Sane eee SSeS tantra ions mesa, © BRR Stn tts he soma Index Ania Jpeittee sng aan’ nee er ‘tra fe Neural) ie rocpal a onan, 1, 18Bene ot desde aa plane ey ral ans of 17 enact God 55 SE oh ie "robe Wagner ac) ‘tina, (Sera cn Pt lt Sh) in “hulling 7) icra. ‘Buna mn thd CSD, 1 Bodine (On Sa, Ieee La bing) eee SEE Sea aa Echt, abi | “ ‘hows proprio 9,38 chant rn we 08 “achewatons te, 959-499 sess Soca ‘Siete Oot Ayan ed oration, 4-700 Inge ito aca 8 49 oun ating 8 ‘nin mote nr Sad einige, 4 Eine ‘a lmtp ee CLP, Cmpaate meri 2-840 wie Seer SR ce, Scirus 0 =o a Se wea ae Npamers od temas of satineee ee icra a7-808 ‘it iaptracma pasar pla: at fn 08 am exh itera! wove, oa, ici i en a errr re nf rn, ee wit thn ced liter mgr, sl ming x al es 1 AEE a an ae arcs Shu Sein oe) etn ote momen, tne nf ii. Luli bending ener. 81? un ecemey ros 87 Eun rf ene apicn b iting mame. S81 Pate ire mtd DM, 7 HS sth msn ‘ato 6-9 “ake can ste eae sce ahs tales Seaaeas Beit Frac, rite SL 2 iene,hina oe Cdr vod op arans w Roe means 616 meen’ of ome of iia) a ati Barat eas sig Late bling team, 10 uh 68.1 SEM 884 ‘Souiemein an, 8 vee si agin oat 18 Sesmom pigaatrain hey. 32 Ssemompenaastos har. obra yr ‘orn, 100 ona 69-1 ‘erie 108 ie rae 0 ey bar nt, 1, 809 secon a cine 86 tig ee eng en Maer eel, 882 Neer orale ts leon: ‘frame el i in of mms ca thin ea ‘pres eccmercaly add abla, Se ete doce med 8 ene 0 rare pee =e Pantie ‘Sere aat ‘Steet 8,801,821 tfc an anc sinctimote nee Foie Ht plats Lag actin Pre lap Eta 3 roe oe St) cla te rnp enero ri 4 Pinal sone, 2-39 rte as nig 96 eaten 2 "Gra oe Car ate) Bet, odo 6121, 890 akan [Set ie fet 8 nie ie Naan) ‘Stnedlge pelt at Seon ca Seni rw iron, 8 ioe ena Se sr (mt ‘grovel etn) "Se or Conic she) eee Bot signe irl nl sey veri ine per See eg i) She so sie ee fine, 7 Saag (Cont ‘ep ncn 13 tevin gid 18 frchn pein omarion, 42-04 ‘ten fe Bry Sh ee ma sat ‘irony eed 210 sa cen 0 Sa rm aSer (nt Soke Scena vl 2 ‘Tidewaio apie ahle ‘invitee ped shed le ot Sa hin oy ‘radio conssration fet, 702 ‘aly aoe ese are 388 Sin eS ‘Donal Gobi, 41-47 Soret ‘Sate tain ote 08, 736 rane ae nid met 6.18 eet shy ef nal oe Cail) ‘Sin eel va {eer re Spheres) ara oa og em. 08 ey ttt 67 a ea tng ‘gs dln 6 818PO eee About the Authors Warren C. Young is Professor Emeritus in the Department of Melhanial Begineering at the University of Wisconsin, Madiono, Ufone hs was om the faculty for over 40 years, Dr. Youry has also Tiight cea visting prafegor at Bengal Engineering College a Cate, Tada, and served ax chief of the Energy, Manpower, and ‘Titning Project sponsored by US Air in Bandung, Iadonesi Richard G. Budynas is Professor of Mechanical Engineering ot Faepetee Tastate of Technology He Se author of « newy revised Mecha Hil entbock, Applied Strength ond Applied Stress Anais 2d ton