Form of The Earth

Earth is not a perfect sphere. It is spheroid or ellipsoid.

Its equitorial circumference is approx 40,000 Km or 21,600 NM.

From equator to pole it is 10,000 Kilometer or 5400 NM.

Therefore its radius differ slightly with latitude.

Equatorial radius is 6378.14 km

Polar radius is 6356.75 km

This distortion may be expressed as a ratio of ellipticity or (a-b)/a where a is the

equatorial radius and b is the polar radius.

This is due to the rotation of the earth and gravitational effects causing it to bulge
at the Equator.

Accepted ratio of ellepticity derived from the International Ellipsoid Reference

(1924) is 1/297 (or 1:297).

Modern navigation systems use reference systems based on the true elliptical shape
of the earth.

Most common is the World Geodetic System of 1984 or WGS84.

Measuring the angle of a line from the centre of the earth above or below the
equator is called the Geocentric (earth centred) Latitude.

Since earth is a spheroid and not a perfect sphere, this line does not emerge from
the surface of the earth perpendicular to it.

An alternative way of measuring Latitude is to draw the line at right angles to the
earth's surface.

This gives the Geodetic or Geographic Latitude.

The Geocentric and Geodetic latitudes will be the same only at the poles and at the
equator.

The greatest difference in latitude will occur at 45°N or 45°S where it amounts to
about 11.6 minutes of arc.

Geodetic latitudes are plotted on charts, the differences between geodetic and
geocentric latitudes are largely ignored.
Question: Value for the flattening of the Earth is 1/298. Earth's semi-major axis, as
measured at the equator, equals 6378.4 km. What is the semi-minor axis (km) of
the earth at the axis of the poles?

Answer: 6357 km

Solution:

Ratio of Elipticity means that the semi-minor axis (Polar axis) is 1/298th shorter
than the semi-major axis (Equatorial axis).

If Semi-major axis = 6378.4 km

Then semi-minor axis is 6378.4 x 1/298 = 21.4 km shorter than semi-major axis
i.e.

Semi-minor axis = 6378.4 - 24 = 6357km

Note: For calculation purpose we assume that earth is a sphere whereas in reality it
is an ellipsoid and because of being an ellipsoid the distance measured by one
minute of arc subtended on the surface of the earth is actually different at different
latitudes as given below:

- 6107 ft at the poles (more than a NM)

- 6076 ft at 45°N and 45°S (exactly a NM)

- 6045 ft at the equator (less than a NM)

Given:The coordinates of the heliport at Issy les Moulineaux are:N48o50 E002o16.5 The coordinates of
the antipodes are:

a) S41o10 W177o43.5
b) S48o50 E177o43.5
c) S48o50 W177o43.5 <-- Correct
d) S41o10 E177o43.5

In geography, the antipodes of any place on Earth is the point on the Earth's surface which is
diametrically opposite to it. Two points that are antipodal to one another are connected by a straight line
running through the centre of the Earth.

Opposite of N48°50' E002°16.5' is:

Long E2.275°+180 = 182.275° showing that 2.275° has crossed the 180E/W meridian and has gone into
the other hemisphere, so it will be:

180-2.275 = 177.725°W or 177°43.5'W

N48°50' will simply be S48°50' so option (c) is correct. To visualize you can draw a diagram viewing the
globe from above (for change of long).

An aircraft at latitude 02o20N tracks 180o(T) for 685 km. On completion of the flight the latitude will
be:

a) 03°50S <-- Correct

b) 04°10S
c) 04°30S
d) 09°05S

685 km / 1.85 = 370NM

370NM / 60 = 6.17° or 6°10'

From a position of 2°20'N travelling towards south (180°T) by 6°10' will take the aircraft through the
equator.
2°20' Out of 6°10' will be in northern hemisphere and the remaining will be in the southern hemisphere:

6°10'
2°20'-
----------
or

5°70
2°20'-
----------
3°50'S

An aircraft departing A(N40°00' E080°00') flies a constant true track of 270° at a ground speed of 120
kt. What are the coordinates of the position reached in 6 HR?

b) N40°00' E064°20' <-- Correct

Departure (NM) = Change of Longitude (in minutes) x Cosine of Latitude

Distance 120 x 6 = 720

Cos 40 = 0.766

Change of Long = 720/0.766 = 940' or

940/60 = 15.66° or 15°40'

Flying West (270°) from E080°00' means the new long will be:

80°00'
15°40'-
-----------
or

79°60
15°40'-
-----------
64°20'E

An aircraft flies the following rhumb line tracks and distances from position 04o00N 030o00W: 600
NM South, then 600 NM East, then 600 NM North, then 600 NM West. The final position of the aircraft
is:

a) 04°00N 029°58W <-- Correct

b) 04°00N 030°02W
c) 04°00N 030°00W
d) 03°58N 030°02W
From 4N 30W going south by 600nm (10 deg) will end up at 6S 30W

From 6S 30W going east by 600nm (long change = 600/cos6 = 10.06 deg) will end up at 6S 19.94W

From 6S 19.94W going north by 600nm (10 deg) will end up at 4N 19.94W

From 4N 19.94W going west by 600nm (long change = 600/cos4 = 10.03 deg) will end up at 6S 29.97W
or 6°S 29°58'W

An aircraft starts at position 0411.0S 17812.2W and heads True North for 2950nm, then turns 90o left
maintaining a rhumb line track for 314 km. The aircraft's final position is:

a) 5500.0N 17412.2W
b) 4500.0N 17412.2W
c) 5500.0N 17713.8E
d) 4500.0N 17713.8E <-- Correct

Starting Position = 04°11.0'S 178°12.2'W

2950nm North = 2950/60 = 49.16° (takes the aircraft in the northern hemisphere)

49.16 - 4.18 = 44.98 = 177°48'

From 45N a 90deg left turn for 314km makes the aircraft cross 180EW anti meridian.

314km/1.85 = 169.7nm

Change of long = 169.7/cos45 = 240' or 240/60 = 4°

178.20W + 4° = 182.2

360-182.2 = 177.8 or 177°48'

Final Position = 45N 177°48'E

5 hours 20 minutes and 20 seconds hours time difference is equivalent to which change of longitude:

a) 81o 30
b) 78o 15
c) 79o 10
d) 80o 05 <-- Correct

5 hours 20 minutes and 20 seconds = 5.338 Hours

1 hour = 15 deg

5.338 hrs = 15 x 5.338 = 80.08 deg or 80°05'

 Given:
Position A is N00o E100o
Position B is 240o(T), 200 NM from A
What is the position of B?

a) S01o40 E101o40
b) N01o40 E097o07
c) S01o40 E097o07 <-- Correct
d) N01o40 E101o40

Angles:

240-180 = 60

270-240 = 30

New Position:

Sin 30 x 200 = 100/60 = 1.66 deg South

Cos 30 x 200 = 173.2/60 = 2.88 deg West

An aircraft departs a point 0400N 17000W and flies 600 nm South, followed by 600 nm East, then
600 nm North, then 600 nm West. What is its final position?

a) 0400N 17000W
b) 0600S 17000W
c) 0400N 16958.1W <-- Correct
d) 0400N 17001.8W

Starting at 0400N 17000W

Flying 600nm South (600/60 = 10 deg) the position becomes 0600S 17000W
Flying 600nm East (600/cos6 = 10.055 deg. 170-10.055 = 159.945) the position becomes 0600S
159.945W

Flying 600nm North (600/60 = 10 deg) the position becomes 0400N 159.945W

Flying 600nm West (600/cos4 = 10.024 deg. 159.945+10.024 = 169.969) the position becomes 04°00'N
169°58.1'W

An aircraft at position 2700N 17000W travels 3000 km on a track of 180T, then 3000 km on a track of
090T, then 3000 km on a track of 000T, then 3000 km on a track of 270T. What is its final position?

a) 2700N 17000W
b) 0000N 17000W
c) 2700N 17318W <-- Correct
d) 2700N 14300W

Same as the previous question but this time without calculations.

3000 km South means 27 deg (after doing the required conversions). Now the aircraft flies east on the
equator. Meridians dont converge on the equator. Then it flies north for 3000 km i.e. back to Lat 27N.
Then it flies west for 3000 km. Meridians will converge here. For the same distance on equator there will
be more change of longitudes here. So position will be to the west of the original starting position. There
is only one option (c) suggesting that.

As the INS position of the departure aerodrome, co-ordinates 35o32.7N 139o46.3W are input instead
of 35o32.7N 139o46.3E. When the aircraft subsequently passes point 52o N 180oW, the longitude value
show on the INS will be:

a) 080o27.4W
b) 099o32.6W <-- Correct
c) 099o32.6 E
d) 080o27.4 E
Change of longitude when aircraft reaches 180W = 180-139.77 = 40.23

Longitude shown on INS = 139.77-40.23 = 99.54 or 99°32.4'W

Some Basic Stuff

1) Conversion Angle is equal to 1/2 x Convergency

2) Convergency is the difference between two Great Circle Tracks at two separate
positions, i.e. the difference in Great Circle Tracks between A and B.

3) Conversion Angle is the difference between the Great Circle Tracks and the
Rhumb Line Track at any one position, i.e. either at A or B.

4) The Convergence Factor is a constant (Sine of Parallel of Origin) applied to

Lambert's Charts, which is a numerical value derived from the fact that Earth
Convergency = Chart Convergency at the Parallel of Origin.

5) Convergency = Change of Longitude x Sine of the Mean Latitude

6) Convergency = Change of Longitude x Convergence Factor (Lambert's Chart)

7) Convergency = Change of Longitude (Polar Stereographic Chart)

What is the standard formula for convergency? "Convergency = dlong x sin

mean latitude"

dlong = difference of longitudes

 A great circle track joins position A (59°S 141°W) and B (61°S 148°W). What is
the difference between the great circle track at A and B?

a) it increases by 6° <-- Correct

b) it decreases by 6°
c) it increases by 3°
d) it decreases by 3°

Difference between the great circle track at A and B is simply "Convergency"

Convergency = Change of long x Sin mean lat

Convergency = 7 x sin 60 = 6°

The angle between the true great-circle track and the true rhumb-line track
joining the following points: A (60oS 165oW) B (60oS 177oE), at the place of
departure A, is:

a) 7.8° <-- Correct

b) 9°
c) 15.6°
d) 5.2°

The angle between the true great-circle track and the true rhumb-line track is the
"conversion angle" which is half of convergency.

Convergency = Change of long x Sin mean lat

Change of long = 165+177= 342. Since 342 is greater than 180 we will subtract it
from 360 i.e. 360-342 = 18 (change of long).

Sin Lat 60 = 0.866

Convergency = 18 x 0.866 = 15.58

Conversion Angle is half of convergency i.e. 15.58/2 = 7.79°

Given that:

A is N55 E/W 000

B is N54 E 010

If the true great circle track from A to B is 100T, what is the true Rhumb Line track
at A?
a) 096
b) 107
c) 104 <-- Correct
d) 100

Draw a diagram as explained under Convergency and Great Circle Tracks

Convergency = 10 x sin 54.5 = 8

Conversion angle is half of convergency = 4

At "A" rhumb line track will be more than 100 and since difference between rhumb
line track and great cicle track is the conversion angle, the rhumb line track will be
104.

Given:

Waypoint 1 = 60°S 030°W

Waypoint 2 = 60°S 020°W

What will be the approximate latitude shown on the display unit of an inertial
navigation system at longitude 025°W?

a) 060° 11’S
b) 059° 49'S
c) 060° 00'S
d) 060° 06'S <-- Correct
The aircraft using INS will fly a great circle track. At midpoint (25W) between 30W
and 20W the great circle track will be slightly south of rhumb line track. If we know
one angle and one side of the triangle, we can calculate the difference in latitude.
The distance between 30W and 25W (i.e. 150 nm) is one side of the triangle
(adjacent). Conversion angle at 30W is 4.33. Join 30W point to a point on the 25W
meridian to make a right angle triangle. The line will cut the conversion angle of
4.33 into half, so the angle of the triangle (at 30W) becomes 4.33/2 = 2.16.

tan 2.16 = opp(ch of lat)/150

ch of lat = tan 2.16 x 150 = 5.65 nm

So INS at 25W will read:

60°00'00
00°05'39+
----------
60°06'S

Waypoint 1 is 60N 30W. Waypoint 2 is 60N 20W. The aircraft autopilot is coupled
to the INS steer. What is the latitude on passing 25W?

a) 6005N <-- Correct

b) 6011N
c) 6032N
d) 5949M

Same logic as the previous question but this time its the northern hemisphere so
the latitude will be slightly north.

A Lambert conformal conic chart has a constant of the cone of 0.80. A straight
line course drawn on this chart from A (53oN 004oW) to B is 080o at A; course at B
is 092o(T). What is the longitude of B?

a) 011°E <-- Correct

b) 009°36'E
c) 008°E
d) 019°E

Draw the diagram as usual. We need to know the change of longitudes so that they
can be added to position A to find the long of position B.

On a Lambert conformal, Convergency = change of longitude x conversion factor

or

Change of longitude = Convergency / 0.8

Course at A is 080 and at B is 092 i.e. 12 deg of change is the convergency

Change of longitude = 12 / 0.8 = 15 deg.

From 4w going 15 deg East, the long of B is 11E

Given:
A is N55o 000o
B is N54o E010o

The average true course of the great circle is 100. The true course of the rhumbline
at point A is:

a) 100 <-- Correct

b) 096
c) 104
d) 107
Avg great circle course is 100 which will be at midpoint. At mid point great circle
course and rhumb line course is equal and since rhumb line course is constant, it
will be 100 at A. Mathematically:

Convergency = 10 x sin 54.5 = 8.14

Conversion angle = 4.07

Going towards east Great circle track angle is increasing i.e. 8.14 deg from A to B.
So at at A it will be 100-4.07 = 95.93

Conversion angle (0.5 x convergency) is the difference between Great circle track
and rhumb line track. 4.07 in this case. The diagram shows that at A rhumb line
track is more than great circle track. So Rhumb lin track at A = 95.93 + 4.07 =
100.

The Great Circle bearing from A (70oS 030oW) to B (70oS 060oE) is

approximately:

a) 090o (T)
b) 048o (T)
c) 132o (T) <-- Correct
d) 312o (T)

Simple calculation but beware of the tendency to assume 090T considering that
latitude is the same at the two places. Question is asking for great circle bearing
from A to B not between A and B. It will be 90 between A and B. According to the
diagram the angle will be less at B and more at A. Convergency comes out to be
84.57 from A to B so at B the great circle track at B will be 90-42.3= 47.7 and at A
will be 132.3 which is the only correct option in the question.