An Introduction To Roman Dutch Law

A N I NT R O D U C T I O N
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I NTR OD U CTI ON
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Rhodes Professor of Ro man Du tch L a w -
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Fell ow of All So ul s C ll g
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H on L L D the Univ ersit y of the Wit wate rsrand
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D oct e ur ( h no i s ca usa ) de l U ni v ers ité de L y o n
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Vice Preside nt de l A cadémi e I nte rna tio na le de D

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ro t Co m re
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A Maste r of the Be n ch o f G ra y s
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Inn
F O U R TH E D I T I ON
O XF O RD
AT THE CL ARE ND O N PR E S S
l 9 46
P
UBL ISHER TO THE UNIVERSITY
PR E FA CE
( A DAPTE D F ROM THI RD E DI TI ON)
THE fir st e dition of t h is b oo k p u bli she d in 1 9 1 5 w a s

de sign e d t o pre se n t a su r ve y of t he Ro m an D u t ch L a w -
as i t t h e n e x iste d i n So u t h Afr i c a in Ce ylon a n d i n B r i ti sh , ,
G u ian a Fr o m Ja n u ar y 1 1 9 1 7 th is syste m w as r e pl a ce d
.
, ,
in Brit i sh G u i an a by t he Co m m on L aw of E n gl an d Go n se .
qu e n t ly in t he se co nd e diti on p u blishe d in 1 9 2 6 B r i tish

, ,
G u i a n a w as o m it t e d fr o m t he pi ctu r e So u t h Afr i ca a n d .
Ce ylo n r e m a in e d t he for m e r b e in g wit ho u t qu e stio n t he

,
p r e dom in a n t p art n e r In the i n te r v a l of t hir t y ye ar s whi ch

.
ha s e l a p se d sin ce t he fir st e di t io n l e gisl a t io n of t he Un io n ,
P a r lia m e n t a n d de ci sio ns of t he Appe ll a te D i visio n of t he

Su p re m e Co u r t of So u t h Afr i ca h a ve b e e n a ct ive in co n
s olid a t in g t he la w of t he Un io n To t he e x te n t t o which
.
t h e se in fl u e n ce s op e r a te t he old la w e it he r t a ke s a n e w
sh a pe or fa d e s in t o t he b a ckgr o u n d Eve n t oda y a n .
im m e n se ch a sm se p ar a te s the R o m a n D u t ch L aw of H ol -
l a n d fr o m t he m od e rn la w of So u t h Afr i ca In a n o t he r .
h alf ce n t u r y o r le ss re co u rse t o t he old au t hor it ie s wh ich

-
, , ,
st i ll fo rm t he b asis of t h is book wi ll se ldo m b e m a d e ,

The .
R om a n D u t ch L a w w ill h a ve b e e n su p e r se de d in Sou t h
-
Afr i ca n o t p er sa ltu m a s in B ri t ish G u ia n a b u t by a

, , ,
gr ad u a l pr o ce ss of disin te gr a t ion a n d re st a te m e n t This -

.
,
r a t h e r t h a n c odi fi ca t i o n m a y b e p r e d i c t e d as t he fu t u r e
,
of t he Ro m a n D u t ch L a w in t his p ar t of t he w or ld
-
.
Me a n whil e in t he Un ion of S ou t h Afr i c a ifn o t e l se whe r e

, ,
in e qu a l d e gree m a n y in st itu t i o n s of t he old la w e x hi b it

,
a st u bbo r n pe r siste n cy The la w of m arr i a g e p ar t i cu l ar ly

.
,
a s r e g ar d s t he p r op ri e t a r y r i gh t s of t he spo u se s a n d t he
c o n t r a ct u a l ca p a ci t y of t he W ife r e m ain s t o — da y su b st a n
,
t ia lly wh a t i t w as in t he t i m e of G r o t iu s ; a n d t ho u gh a
So u t h Afr i ca n j u dge ha s a dve rt e d t o t he u n for t u n a te c on
s e qu e n c e s a r i sin g fr o m t he a ppli c a t i o n t o m od e r n c o n di t i o n s
vi PR EF ACE TO THE F OURT H E D ITI ON
of an ch a i c syste m of law a ffe ct in g t he p r op e r t y of
ar
m a rr ie d pe rs o ns t he syste m t h u s d e s cr ib e d see m s o r
’
, ,
see m e d t ill l a te ly t oo fir m ly e st a blis h e d in pop u l ar se n t i

,
m e n t t o be in im m e dia te d a n ge r of ch an ge T hi s st a te m e n t .
m u st b e u n de r st ood t o b e lim i te d t o t he Uni o n of S ou t h

Afr i ca So u th e rn Rhode sia has followe d t he e x a m ple of
.
Ce ylo n in de cl ar in g ( Marr ie d P e rso ns Pr op e r t y A ct 1 9 2 8)

’
t h a t Co m m un i t y of p r op e r t y a n d of p r ofi t a n d lo ss a n d
‘
t he m a r it a l powe r o r a n y li a bili t ie s o r pr ivile g e s r e sul t

ing t he r e fr o m sh a ll n o t a t t a c h t o an y m arr i ag e sol e m ni se d
be twee n spo u se s w ho se m a tr im oni a l dom i cile is in t his
Colo ny e n te re d in t o a fte r t he d a te of t he co m in g in t o e ffe ct
of t his A ct ( u nle ss su ch spo us e s sh a ll by a n in stru m e nt in
wr i tin g e x e cu te d b e for e a m a gi str a te h a ve e xp re sse d t he ir
wish t o b e e x e m p t fr o m t he p r ovision s of t his la w ) .
Fur t he r in i m it at ion of t he law of N ata l t he A ct pr ovides

, ,
t h a t spo use s m arr i e d in c o mm u n i t y pr io r t o t he t akin g

.
ef fe ct of t he A c t m ay t a ke a dva n t a ge of it s p r ovisi ons by

po stn u p tia l de e d I s it sign ifi ca n t of a t r e n d of opin ion
.
in t he Un ion t h a t a Pri va te Me m b e r s B ill p r opo sin g

’
e x te nsiv e ch an ge s in t he c o m m o n la w w as in t r od u ce d in
t he 1 945 Se s sio n of P a r li a m e n t ( 6 2 p 3 33) .
If t he e st a blis he d la w of m a rr i a ge m ay be su ppose d a t ,
le ast in t he Unio n t o m a ke a se n t im e n t a l a pp e a l t he r e are

, ,
o the r in stit u t io ns of t he old la w whi ch h a ve n o thi ng t o

com m e n d t h e m D o n a tio ns b e tw e e n spo u se s ar e st ill
.
in e ffe ct u a l u n t il co nfir m e d by de at h a n d t he Appe ll a te

,
Division ha s r e ce n tly de cide d t h a t it is in com pe te n t to a

h u sb a n d m arr ie d o u t of c o m m u n i t y a n d wi t h e x clu sion of
t he m a r i t a l powe r t o m a k e a v a lid c o n ve ya n ce of i mm ov
a bl e p r ope rt y t o hi s wi fe Mode rn c ode s r e p u di ate su ch
.
ho a ry ar ch a ism s The pr o ce ss of t yin g u p p r ope rt y t hr o u gh

.
su c ce ssive ge n e r a t i o n s by wh a t is c a ll e d fide i co m missa r

‘
y
’
su b st it u t io n s i s a n o t h er c a se in po in t Th e se h a ve b e e n
.
p r ohi b ite d in Fr a n ce s in ce 1 7 9 2 a n d t he law is t he sam e

, ,
o r n e ar ly t he sa m e in o t h e r E u r op e a n c o u n t r i e s
, In So u t h .
Afri ca a te st a to r if he goe s t he ri ght w a y a bo u t it m a y

, ,
t ie u p hi s p r op e r t y fo r e ve r p Ca n it b e sa id t h a t
( .
PR EF AC E TO THE F OU R T H E D ITI ON vii
su c h a tyr ann y of t he de a d h a n d ha s an y r e a son fo r e xistin g

e x ce p t t h a t i t e xist s
The So u t h Afri can la w of in te st a te su cce ssion is of a n

im m e m or i a l a n t iqu i t y a sur viva l if Pr ofe ssor E M
, , . .
Me ij e r s of Le yde n i s c orr e ct of a pr e hist or ic Li gu r i an or

‘ ’
,
’
‘
Alp in e L aw wh i ch o n ce ob t a in e d ove r a gr e a t p a rt of
,
Ce n tr a l a n d We ste r n E u r ope This syste m a ssu m e s t h a t

.
t he whole of a d e a d m a n s e st a te ca m e t o hi m by de sce n t
’
fr o m his p a r e n ts or p ar e n t wi t h the c on se qu e n ce t h a t a su r
,
v i vin g p ar e n t h a v i n g c o n t r ib u te d n o t hi n g t a k e s n o t hi n g
, ,
fr o m a so n w ho di e s in te st a t e If t he Octroo i of 1 66 1 .
( p 40 8) has b ee n m or e in dul ge n t to a su r vivin g fa t he r or

.
m o t he r t he old la w is st ill e ffe c tu a l t o e x clu de a sur vivin g

,
gr a n dp ar e n t ( p A r e ce n t Un ion st a tu te follo w in g
.
,
t he e x a m ple of N a ta l a n d So u t h e r n Rhode sia has in tr o ,
du ce d a su cce ssi o n u nde mir et u xor u n kn own to t he co m

m o n la w ( p .
If I t o u ch u pon t he se fa c t s it is wi t h n o in t e n t i o n of
u n d e rr a t i n g t he R o m a n D u t c h system of la w b u t to su g
-
,
ge st t h a t it ca rr ie s a b ur de n of a n cie n t t r adi ti on m u ch of ,
whi ch is ou t of h a r m o n y wit h t he sp ir it of t he age .
The h i st o ry of t he Ro m a n D u t ch L a w co n t a in s m a n y
-
su r p r ise s Pe r h a p s t he gre a te st of t hese is it s pe rsiste n ce

.
u n d e r t he B r i t ish Cr own for m o re t h a n a ce n t ur y a fte r i t
ce ase d to fu n ct io n in t he l a n d of it s o r igi n a n d fo r a sho r t e r
pe r i od aft e r it s di sa pp e ar an ce fr om t he Colo ni e s st ill su b

j c e t t o t he Kin gdo m of t he N e t h e r la n ds It has e ve n b e e n .
e x t e n d e d t o t he Ma n d a t e d T e rri t o r y of S o u t h West Afr i ca -

,
in a b r og a t i on of t he m u ch m ore h ighly d e ve lope d syste m

of Ge r m an law .
A m in or su r pr ise is t h a t Ro m a n D u t ch L aw b e in g -
,
a llow e d by t he I nn s of Co ur t as a n a l te r n a t ive t o t he
E n glish L a w of Re a l Pr ope r t y has c o m e t o b e stu di e d by,
c an did at e s fo r t he E n gli sh B ar dr awn fr o m r e m o te p ar t s ,
of the wor ld who h a ve n o i n te n t ion of pr a ctisin g la w i n

,
a n y j ur i sdi ct io n w h e r e t hi s sy ste m i s a dm i ni st e r e d Su c h .
st u de n t s m a w e ll b e b e w i ld e e d by i t st r a n g e c o m pl e xi t y
y r s
a n d t he a r ch a i c c h ar a ct e r of i t s s o u r ce s Th e y woul d do .
viii PR EF ACE TO T HE F OUR T H E D ITI ON
we ll tog a r d it n o t wit h t he l a t e Sir P a ul Vin o gr a do ff
re , , ,
a se c o n d life of Ro m an L aw a ft e r t he
‘
a s a gho st st o r y
‘
’
de m ise of t he body in w hi ch it fir st saw t he ligh t b u t ,
r at h e r a s a su r vi vin g sp e c im e n of t he ju st roma n u m
‘
hodi er n u m wh i ch in o n e for m o r a n o t he r co nst it u t e d for

,
c e n t u r i e s t he c o mm o n la w of t he gr e a te r p ar t of We ste r n
E u r op e a n d has b e e n a u se fu l p e r h a p s n e ce ssa r y b ri dge

, , ,
b e t wee n t he Middl e Age s a n d m ode rn t im e s .
II
A L E G AL whi ch p asse s in t o su cce ssive e dit io n s
te x t b ook-
18 a pt t o e xp a n d a n d ofte n c h a n ge s i t s c h ar a cte r in do i n g
,
so . It is t h e r e for e a r e lie f t o fin d t h a t t he te x t of t hi s
e di t i o n ha s n o t b e e n e nl ar ge d by m or e t h a n t we lv e p a ge s ,
a n d of t h e se
,
fo u r ar e o ccu p ie d by n e w a ppe n di ce s o n e
, ,
o n I n her i ta nce a b i n tes ta to i n Ceylon t he o t h e r a s hort n o t e ,
o n Confli ct of L a w s So m e sp a ce ha s b e e n sa ve d by cu t t in g
.
o u t d e a d m a t te r in p a r t i cu l a r t he di su se d t a cit hypo t h e c s
, .
On t he o t h e r h an d t he L a w of Sale of D e li ct a n d of , , ,
Te sta m e n t ar y Su cce ssion h a ve b ee n m or e fu lly st a te d t h a n

in t he l a st e d it i on Th is has b e e n don e fo r t he c o n ve ni e n ce
.
of st u de n t s in or de r t h a t t he y m ay h ave a co m ple te r pi ct ur e
of t he whole law I h a ve m ove d s om e foo t n o te s in t o t he
.
te x t b u t I r e gr e t t h a t t h e se p a r a sit i c a ddi t io n s ar e a s
,
n u m e r ou s a s e ve r Afte r a ll t he y a ffor d a n au t hor a m e an s

.
,
of e sca p e fr o m t he te m p t a t io n t o ove r lo a d hi s te x t .
Be side s t h is book I h a ve b e e n t old ha s b e e n fo u n d u se fu l

, , .
by p r a ctisin g l awye rs a n d t h e ir n e e d s ar e n o t t he sa m e
a s t ho se of stu d e n t s a pp r o a chin g t he su bj e c t wi t h a vi e w
t o a n e x a m i n at io n ( t ho u gh I wo u l d n o t re c omm e n d a
st u de n t wholl y t o n e gl e ct t he foo t n o t e s
) .
The a u t hor of t hi s book c a n n ot b e su fficie n t ly gr a te ful

for t he in d u lgen t r e ce p t io n whi ch i t ha s m e t w it h fr o m t he
le g a l pr ofe ssion in So u th Afr i ca a n d Ce ylo n sin ce it s fir st
p u blica tio n He is ve r y se n sible of t he disa dv a n t a ge u n de r
.
w h i c h he ha s l a bo u r e d in b e i n g o u t of t o u c h wi t h t he
d a ily disp u ta ti o for i D ista n ce m a y le n d de t a ch m e n t t o

.
PR EF ACE TO T HE F OU R T H E D ITI ON ix
t he vie w b u t it te n ds t o blu r t he de t a ils a n d e ve n t he

,
pr in cip al fe a t u r e s of t he l a n dsca p e .
D r T W Pr i ce of Tr ini t y H a ll C a m b ri dge ha s ve r y
. . .
, ,
kin dl y co m pile d t he li st of c ase s an d give n m u ch v a lu a ble

he lp in e ve r y p a r t of t he book .
Pre vi ou s e di tion s of t his book h a ve bee n d e di ca te d To ‘
The Ho n Sir Joh n G K o t z e LL D On e of His Maj e st y s

’
. . . .
Ju dge s of t he Appe ll ate D i visio n of t he Su p r e m e Cou r t of

t he Un i o n of S o u t h Afr i ca : L a te Ch ie f Ju st i ce of t he
Tr ansva a l I de dicate t his volu m e t o his b e love d a n d
’
.
ho n o u r e d m e m or y .
R W LEE . . .
A L L S OU L S C O LLE G E , O XF O RD
A ll S ou ls Da y 1 9 45 ,
C O NT E NT S
P R INCI PAL AUTH O R ITI E S C ITE D WITH M O D E , OF

CITATI ON
TAB LE O F L AW RE P O RT S WITH M O D E O F C ITATI ON '
TAB LE O F CAS E S
TAB LE O F S TATUT E S
G E NE RAL I NT R OD U CT I ON
A ppe nd ix : BO W F A B T HE S TATUTE L A W o r HOLLAND OB TAIN S IN

S O UTH AFRI CA A ND C E YLO N
B OOK I
THE LAW OF PE R S ONS

IN T R O D U CTI ON
Chap ter I . B IR TH , SEX, LE GITI MA C Y
Chap ter I I . PAR E NTAG E
A . The par e n t al po w e r an d it s c o nse q
u e n ces
B . The re c ipro c a l du t y O f su ppo rt
Chap ter 1 1 1 . M I NO R ITY

Chap te r I V . MARR IAG E
Se c t ion 1 . The Co n t r ac t to Mar r y
Se c t io n 2 . q
T he L e ga l Re u isite s o f Ma r r ia ge
Se c t io n 3 . q
The Le ga l Co nse u e n ce s O f Mar r ia ge
Se c t io n 4 A n te n u pt ia l Co n t ra c t s
.
S ec t io n D isso lu t io n of Ma rr ia ge —Nu lli t y

Se c t io n 6 . Misc e lla n e o u s Ma tte rs re la t in g to Ma rr iage
Chap te r V . G UAR D I A NS HIP

Se c t io n 1 . The Ki n ds of G u a r di an s a nd t he A ppo m t m e n t of
Sec t io n 2 . Who m a y b e G u ar di a ns
Se c t io n 3 The P o w e rs , R ight s , a n d Du t ie s o G u ar dian s
. f
Se c t io n 4 A c t io n s ar is in g o u t o f G u ar di a ns hi p
.
Se c t io n 5 . Ho w G u a r dia ns hip e n ds
Cha p te r VI . UN SO U N D NE SS OF M IND—P R O D IGA LITY

Cha p ter VI I . JU R I S TI C PE R SONS
C ONT ENTS xi
B O OK I I
THE LAW OF PR OPE R Y T

I NT R O D U CTI ON
Chap te r I . T HE ME ANI N G O WNE R S HIP
OF
Chapte r II . C LAS S I F I CATI ON O F TH ING S

Chap ter 1 1 1 . H O W O WNE R S HI P I S A C QUI RE D
Chap ter I V . I NC ID E NT S OF O WNE R S H IP

S e c t io n 1 . Th e In cide n t s of O w n e r ship in G e n e r a l
Se c t io n 2 Ki d f Ow
. Th e n s O n e r s hi p o f La nd
Chap ter V P OSS E SS I ON
.
Cha p te r VI S E RVITU D E S
.
Chapte r VI I M O R TGAG E O R . H YP O THE C
B 0 OK I I I
THE LAW OF O B L G I ATI ONS

I NTR O DU CTI ON
PA RT I . OB LI G A TI ONS AR ISIN G FR O M C ONTR A CT 2 12
Cha p te r I . F O R MATI ON OF C O NT RA CT
Se c t io n A . The par t ies m u st b e a gre e d
B . The par t ie s m u s t in te n d, o r b e de e m e d t o in te n d,
to c re a te a le ga l o b liga t io n
Se c t io n C The O b e c t j of t he re e m e n t m u s t b e phy sic a lly

g
. a
a n d le gall y po ssib le
Se ct io n D The re u is ite form s

. q or m o de s of a gr e e m et
n ( if
a n y ) m u s t b e O b se r v e d
Se c t io n E . le on t he
gr o u n d 0
S e c t io n F . The a gr e e m e n t m u st n ot b e dir e c te d t o an ille gal
Se c t io n G . Th e p art ie s m u s t b e co m pe te n t to c o n t rac t
Chap ter I I . O PE R ATI ON OF C ONT RA CT

Se c t io n 1 . The pe rso n s a ffec te d b y a c o n t r ac t
Se c t io n 2 . The D u t y o f Pe r fo r m an c e
Se c t io n 3 . The Co n se q u e n ce s o f No n -
pe r fo r m an c e
Cha p te r III I NTE R P R E TATI ON

. OF C ONT RACT
xii CONT E NTS
Chapte r I V D E T E R M I NATI ON O F C ONT R A CT
.
Chapte r V P LU RA L IT Y O F C R E D I T O R S A ND D E B T O R S
.
Chapter VI S P E C I A L C ONT R A CT S
.
P A RT II . O B LI G A TI ONS AR ISIN G F R OM D E L ICT

A pp en dix : ADDITI ONAL C AS E S ON THE LAW OF D E FAMATI ON
P A RT I I I . OB L I GA T I ONS AR IS I N G FR OM S OU R CE S
OT HE R TH A N C O NTR A CT AN D D E L IC T
B O OK I V
THE L AW OF SU CCESS I ON
Chap ter I S UCCE SS I ON I N G E NE R AL
.
Chap te r II T E S TAME NTAR Y S U CCE SS I ON

.
Chap ter III I NT E S TATE S U CCE SS I ON

.
A P P E ND I C E S
A pp endix A . FORMS AND PRE C E D E NTS

I Fo. rm o f G ra n t of V e ni a A e t a t is in Ce y lo n
II F . o rm o f G r an t of V e ni a A e t a t is in S o u t h Afr i ca
III . Fo rm of An t e n u pt ia l Co n t rac t in u se in S o u t h Afr ic a
IV Pre ce de n t s of Mu t u a l Wills
A . No ta r ia l Wil l
B . U n de r ha n d Will
A pp endix B C ON TRACT S O F M INORS
. T HE
A pp en di x C MARRIAG E PROHI B ITE D D E G REE S

. :
A pp en dix D THE LE G AL CAPACI TY O F MARRIE D WOME N

.
A pp en di x E T H E LI MI T S O F THE J U S V IND I C A N D I
.
A pp en di F x C ONTRACT AND CAU SA

.
A pp ndi G
e x S TIP ULATI ON S FOR T HE B E NE FIT O F A THI R D PE RS O N
.
A ppe ndix H THE THE ORY O F MORA .
A pp ndix I
e THE PRACTI CE O F T HE S OUTH AFRI CAN C OUR TS WI TH
.
RE G AR D TO SPE C IFI C PERFORMAN CE

A pp endi x J C O MP E N SATI ON FOR I MPROVE ME NT S
.
A pp en dix K INHE RITAN C E A INTE S TATO IN C E YLON

. B
A pp e ndi x L C O NFLI CT O F LAWS

.
INDE X
PRI NCI PA L A U T HORI T I E S CI TE D , WI T H
MOD E OF CI TAT I ON
A LP H E N W VAN , . . fo r m u li e r b o e k
P a pe ga y P ap ega y O fte .
ANS O N SIR W R
, . L a w o f Co n t r a c t ( 1 8t h e di t io n )
. A n son .
An t w e r pe n , R e c ht e n e n de Co s tu m e n v a n , Ce u l e n , 1 6 6 0 .
AP E L D O O R N , P R OF . L . J VAN. . G e schie de ni s v an he t Ne de r lan d

sc he H u w e lijksr e c ht .
AB NT ZE NIU S , H J . . I n st it u t io n e s Ju r is B e lgic i Civ ilis de c o n di
t io n e ho m in u m .
A U S TE N J , . E . W W . . S c ho r e r , Aa n te e ke n in ge n ov e r de In le y din ge
t o t de H o lla n ds che r e c htsge le e r dhe id v an H . de G r o o t , u it
he t L a t ijn v e r t aa ld do or .
B AL A S I NG HA M , K . Th e L a w s of Ce y lo n .
B E LL W H S S o u t h Afr ic an L e gal D ic t io n ar y
, . . . .
B e llu m Ju r idi c u m s i ve O o r lo g de r A dv o c a te n .
B E RW IC K T A Con tr ib u t ion t o an E n glish Tr a n sla t io n

, . . of V oe t s
’
Co mm e n t ar y o n t he Pan de c ts , c o m pr isin g a ll t he Tit le s o n

Pu r chase and S a le —L e tt in g a n d H ir in g—Mo r ta ge s
E v i c t io n s— War r a n t y— an d a lli e d su b je c ts ; b e in g li b . x v ii ,
x ix , x x i , a n d t it . v ii o f lib . x iii , 2n d ed . 1 90 2 .
B I JNK E R S H O E K , C O RN E LI S VAN .
Ob se rv a t io n e s Ju r is R o m an i Obs Ju r Rom . . . .
Qu ae st io n e s Ju r is Pr iv a t i Qu a es t Ja r P ri v . . . .
O bse r v a t io n e s T um u l t u a r ia e O T . . .
B ISS E T , M , an d S MT
I H , P F The D ige s t o f S o u th Afr ica n Case
. . .
L aw Co n so lida te d E di t i on t o t he e n d o f 1 9 2 1 , 6 v o ls
. Co n .
s o lida te d e d it io n 1 9 2 2— 3 3, 2 v o ls ; An n u a l S u pple m e n ts . .
B LA ST N E
C K O , SIR W Co m m e n tar ie s o n t he L a w s o f E n gla n d . .
w i th n o t es b y E dw ar d Christ ian . B la c ks t .
B LAIN E C H Ne w Co ns o lida te d In de x
, . . to t he S ta t u te L a w O f t he
Un ion O f Sou t h Afr ica u p to 1 9 3 6 .
B oe l, T S ee L oe ni u s
. .
B O EY , T Wo o r de n t o lk
. .
B O RT , P . Co m pla in te
Tra c t ae t v an .
Tr ac tae t v a n de D o m e yn e n v a n H o llan dt .
B r i t ish G u ian a , The L a w s o f, e d 1 90 5 . .
B r it ish G u ian a , R e po rt o f t he Co m m o n L a w Co m m issio n ,

1 9 14 .
B r it is h G u ian a . The Civ il L a w o f B r it ish G u ian a O rdi n an ce , 1 9 1 6 ,

e di t e d w it h n o te s b y t he H o n . L l C D a lto n ( G e o r ge to w n ,
. .
B R U NE M A NNU S , JO H Co mm e n tar ius in le ge s . Pa n de c ta ru m .
B U OKL A ND , W W A Te x t B o o k o f R o m a n
. .
-
L a w ( 2n d
xi v AUT H OR ITI ES CIT E D
B U OKL AND , W W . .
, d M NAIR A D R m
an C
, . . o an L aw an d Co m m o n
L aw .
B URGE W . Co mm e n t a r ies o n Co lo ni a l an d F ore ign L a w s

.
Ne w e di t io n
B ur ge r li c hes G e se t z b u ch ( G e r m a n Civ il Co de ) B G B . . . .
B ur ge r lijke We t b o e k ( D u t c h Civ il D o de ) B W B
‘
. . . .
CAL VINU S , J . L e xi co n j u r i dic u m j u r is Caesa r e i s im u l e t Ca n o n ic i .
C ANE Y , L . R . A Tr e a t ise on t he L a w r e la t in g to No v a t io n .
Th e L a w of S u re t y shi p in So u t h Afr ic a .
Ca pe R u l e s o f Co u r t ( C J In gr a m a n d J E de Villie rs ) . . . . .
R I D e la Ca us e de s O bliga t io n s
HE N 3 m éd , Pa r is , 1 9 2 7
°
CAPIT A NT , . . . .
Ce nsur a F o re n s is S ee L ee u w e n , S v an . . .
S RE
CHE HI , G C The Mo de r n L a w O f R e al Pr ope rt y ( 4th a n d
. .
5 th
Pr iv a t e In te r n a t io n a l L aw ( 2n d
CHE VRIER , GE ORGE S . E ssa i l H is t o ir e de la Ca u se da n s le s
su r
’
Ob liga t io ns , These po u r le do c to r a t e n dr o it , Sir e y , Pa r i s , 1 9 2 9 .
CHI J S , J A V A N D
. . ER . Ne de r la n dsc h In di sc h Pla ka a t B o e k - -
.
CH RI S TI NAE U S , P A ULU S . In L e ge s Mu n icipa le s M e chlini e nse s

Co mm e n t ar ia a c No t ae .
Co de Civ il ( Fr e n c h Civ il Co de ) C C . . .
Co de Civ il Su isse .
Co de x Ju r is Ca n o ni c i .
Co de x Th e o do sia n u s Cod Theodo s . . .
E AR
C O K , SIR E D W D Co m m e n tar y o n L it t le t o n s Te n u r e s Co I/itt
’
. . . .
C O I , A , an d CA PIT ANT , H Co u r s élém e n t a ir e de dr o it c iv il

LN . .
fr an ca is ( 6me
Co mm e rc i a l L a w s O f t he Wo r ld , v o l x v ( So u th A fr i ca , .
CO HE N , J . O b se r v a t io n e s reru m in Se n a t u H o lla n di ae , Ze lan di ae ,

Fr isiae ju d ic a t aru m .
Co r pus Ju ris Civ ilis . In s t it u t io n e s . I ns t .
D igesta . D ig .
Co de x . C od .
No v e llae . Nov .
A u t he n t ica . A u the n t .
Cu m n o t is D G o t ho fre d i G o thofr edu s

. . .
CU Q E D O
, UA R D Man u e l de s ins t itu t io n s u r idi
. j q u es de s R o m a in s
2 m° Pa r is , 1 9 2 8
( .
DE B LEC OUR T , A . S . K o rt B e gr ip v an he t O u d V a de r lan ds c h -
B u r ge r li jk R e cht ( fijv de dr u k ) .
DE B RUYN D P
Opin i o n s o f G r o t iu s ( t r an sla te d in to E n glish
, . .
fro m t he H o lla nd s che Con su ltati e n ) .
DE HAAS , G E R AR D U S Nie u w e H o lla n ds che Co ns u lta t ie n [a n d s ee .
L e e u w e n , Sim o n v a n ] .
AUT H OR ITI ES CIT E D xv
D ec is ie n en R es o lu t ie n v an de n Ho v e v an H ollan d ( s Haa ge ’
, 1 75 1
D E CK ER , MR C O . RN E LI S W . L a t in a n n o t a t io ns o f S . v an L ee u w en
’
s
R o o m sc h H o llan ds ch R e c ht , e d 1 7 80 . . D e cke r ad Va n L e eu w en .
DE VI L L IER S J , . E an d MA CIN T O S H J , . C . Th e L a w of A ge n cy in
So u t h Afr ica
DE WE T ,
J C D ie O n tw ikke lin g . . v an di e O o re e nko m st te n
B e ho e v e v a n n D e r de ( L e ide n ,
’
D OMAT M L e s L o ix Civ iles

, . .
GE
D ON S T E Th e L ia b ilit y fo r Sa fe Ca r r ia ge
, . . O f G o o ds in R o m a n
D u tc h L a w .
U
D FF , P W Pe rso n a lit y in R o m a n L a w
. . .
E NN E CE R U s K IP - P W O LFF
-
, L e hr b u c h des B ur ge r liche n R e c hts .
F O C KE MA A ND RE AE , MR S J B d r a ge n t o t de Ne de r lan ds c he . . .
R e cht sgesc hie de n is ( H a ar le m , 1 888

He t Ou d Ne de r la n dsch B u r ge r lijk R e cht ( H aa r le m ,
-
E ach A nd . .
G r o t iu s , In le idi n ge t o t de H o lla n ds c he R e chtS ge lee r dh e id , -
m e t aa n t ee ke n in ge n , de r de , he rz ie n e e n v e r m e e r de r de u it ga v e
do o r Mr L . . J V a n A pe ldoo r n , A r nh e m , 1 9 2 6
. .
FO STE R JO S E P H
, . L e ga l Fo r m s fo r c o m m o n u se in t he Cape Co lo n y .
FR UIN R O B E RT
, . G e s chi e de nis de r S taa t s in s te llin ge n in Ne de r la n d ,
uit ge ge v e n do or D r H T Co le n b r a n de r . . .
( t w ee de b ijge w e r kte
’
dr u k, S G r a v e nh a ge ,
G AIL L , A . Pr a c t icae Ob se r v a t io n e s .
GAI U S In s t it t i
, u o n es .
GATL E Y L ib e l . S lan de r , 3r d an d ed .
G I E R HE . D e u t sche s Pr iv a t re cht .
GIR AR D , P F . .Ma n u e l élém e n ta ir e de dr o it r o m a in ( 8me éd 1 929,

r ev u e e t m ise a j o u r pa r F élix S e nn ) Gi r a r d . .
GLU C K , C F . . A u sfiihr liche E r lau te ru n g de r P a n de c te n .
G O T H O FR E D U S Co rpu s . Ju r is Civ ili s R o m a n i cu m n o t is D io n y sii

G o t ho fr e di .
G O U D S MI T , J . E . Pan de kte n -
sy ste e m .
G R nIIM D e u ts che R e c htsa lt e r t ii m e r

. .
G R O E NE WE G E N V A N D E R M D , S A nn o ta t io n s o f G r o t iu s In
’
A E .
le idin ge t o t de H o ll an ds che R e cht S ge le e r dhe id G r oe n a d G r -

. . .
Tr ac ta t us de le gib u s a b r o ga t is e t in us it a t is in H o llan dia v ic i

n is qu e r e gio ni b u s G r e en de leg a br . . . .
G r o o t P la c c a e t B oe c k, v e r v a t te n de de P lac a te n , Or do nn a n t ie n ,
-
e n de E di c t e n v an de S t a t e n G e n e r ae l , v an de S t a t e n v a n
H o lla n dt e n We st V r ie slan t e n v a n Ze e lan dt ( 1 5 7 6 -
B y e e n ge b r a c ht do o r C Ca u , Sim o n v an L e e u w e n J e n . , .
J P S che ltu s e n J v an de r L in de n G P B
. . . . . . .
xv i AUTH OR ITI ES CIT E D
G R O TI U S ( DE G R OO T ) H UG O I l idi g t , . n e n e ot de H o lla n dsc he
R ec htsge lee r dhe id G r . .
[ Se e F o c ke m a A n dr e as ; G r o e n e w e ge n ; K e e sse l, v an de r
R e c hts ge le e r de Ob se r v a t ie n ; S c he lt in ga ; S c ho r e r .
]
Tr a n s la t io n o f t he a b o v e u n de r t he t it le J u r is pr u de n ce o f
‘
H o ll an d b y R W L e e V o l 1 , T e x t , t r an sla t io n an d n o te s
’
.
'
. . .
v ol . 2 , Co m m e n t a r y .
De Ju r e B e lli ac P a c is .
G U D E L INU S , P . De j u r e n o v is sim o .
HALL , C G . .
, an d K E LLAWAY , E A . . Se rv it u de s .
H AL S B U R Y E n c y c lo pae di a o f t he L a w s o f E n glan d
. .
HE I JNS B E R G E N D R P V A N V e r spr e ide O pst e lle n ( Am ste r da m

, . . .
,
1 929 L
HE INE C CI U S , J . G . E le m e n t a Ju r is Civ ili s . E le m J u r Ci v . . .
E le m e n t a Ju r i s G e r m a n ic i E le m Ja r . . . G erm .
Ann o ta t io n s o f V inn i us a d I ns ti tu ti ones .
HEUM ANN Han dl i n d n Q e ll n d Om i he n

. e x co zu e u e es r sc R e c ht s .
H O LD S W O RT H PR OF W S A H i t o y f E n glis h law , . . . s r o .
H O LLAN D SI R T E J i p d n ce 1 3th d 1 9 2 4
, . . ur s ru e , c .
, .
H olla n ds che Co ns u l t a t ie n . H oll . Con s .
H O LLE MAN , F . A . R e cht sge schie de ni s de r H e e r li jke V e r e n in

H o ll an d .
H O W ARD C L , . . The A dm in ist r a t io n o f E st a t e s in S o u t h A fr i ca .
H UBER , H e e de n s dae gsche R e c ht sge le e rt he y t

U L RI K . .
The Ju r ispru de n ce o f m y Tim e ( H e e de n dae gse R e cht sge le e r

t he yt ) b y U L I C H R
E t r ans la t e d fr o m t he F ift h E dit ion UB R ,
b y Pe r c iv a l G a n e , Ju dge O f t he Su pr e m e Co ur t O f S ou t h
Afr ica a ss ign ed t o t he E a ste r n D ist r ic ts L o ca l D iv isi o n
’
.
B u tte r w o r t h CO ( Afr ica , L t d 1 9 39 , 2 v o ls . . .
Pr ae le c t io n e s Ju r is Civ il is .
HUNTER W , . A . R o m an L a w .
I N GRA M , C . J an d DE VILLIER S J , . E . Ru le s of Co urt ( Ca pe ) .
JE NE S E D W AR D A D ige st o f E n glish Civ il L aw ( 3r d

, .
J O S S E R A ND L O U I S Cou r s de dr o it c ivil po sit if fr a n ca is

, . .
Jou m a l o f the So c ie ty o f Co m par a t iv e L e gisla t ion J ou rn . . Com .
L eg .
J UT A , S LR HE NR Y W . a te r R ight s .
[ See L in de n , v an de r .
]
KE E S SE L , D G . . V AN D ER . The se s se le c t e e j u r is H o lla n di ci et Ze
la n di c i ad su pple n da m
G r o t ii In t r o du c t io n e m Hu go n is ad
Ju r ispru de n t iam Ho lla n dic a m V d Th . . . K . .
Tr a n s l a t i o n o f t he a b o v e b y C A L o r e n z . . .
M S D ic t a t a u po n t he a b o v e V d
. D i cta i . . . K . .
x viii AUT H OR ITI ES CIT E D
MC K E RR O N R G The L a w o f D e lic t ( 2n d e d
, . .
MA C K E U R T AN G H The Sa le o f G o o ds in S o u th A fr ic a ( 2n d e d
, . .
1 9 35 )
MAIN E SIR H ,
. S A n c ie n t L a w
. .
MAR S W H , . . Th e L a w O f Ins o lv e n c y in S o u th Afr ic a . M ars ,
I ns olve nc y .
M AR S A L
H L , SI R C H Ju dgm e n t s , & c , o f t he Su pr e m e Co u r t AR L E S . .
o f t he Isla n d o f Ce y lo n ; Par is , 1 83 9 .
MATT AE S
H U , A TO D e A u c t io n ib u s N NIU S . .
P a r o e m iae B e lga ru m ju r is c o n su lt is u s it a t issim ae .
ME RUL A , P AU L . Ma n i e r v an Pr o ce de r e n .
MI E RI S F ,
G r o o t Char t e r b o e k de r G r a v e n v a n H o lla n d , Ze e
. V AN .
la n d e n V r i e sl a n d , L e i de n 1 7 5 3—6 . .
MO D D E R M A N , MR W D e R e ce pt ie v a n he t R o m e in s che R e gt . . .
MO L T ZE R , J P D e o v e r e e nk o m s t t e n b e ho e v e v an de r de n ,
. .
Am s t e r da m , 1 87 6 .
M O NR O , C H D ig x li 1 ( de adqu ir e n do r e ru m do m in io )
. . . . .
The D ige st o f Ju st in ia n , t r a n sla t e d ( t o lib x v ) . .
MOR E
IC , G T E n glish a n d R o m a n D u t ch L a w ( 2n d
. .
-
Sa le in R om a n D u t c h L aw -
.
[ Se e V a n de r L in de n ] .
LE
MO Y , J B Im pe r at o r is Ju st ini ani In s t itu t io n u m L ib r i Qu a t tu o r ,
. .
w it h In t r o du c t io n s , Co m m e n t ar y , a n d E x c u r su s ( 5 th
The Co n t r a c t o f Sa le in t he Civ il L a w .
N AT H AN MANFRE D , . The Co m m o n L a w Of S o u t h Afr ica .
NA THA N MANF RE D , , an d SCHL O S BERG H J , . . T he L a w O f D a m a ge s
in So u th Afr i ca .
NE O S T AD I U S C O RN ELIU S , . Ob se r v a t io n e s rerum ju di ca t ar u m de
pa ct is a n t e n u pt ia lib u s . Ne os ta d de .
p ac t a n ten u p t . .
U t r iu s u e Ho llan di a e , q Z e la n di a e , Fr isiae qu e Cu r ia e D e c is io
n eS . D ec is . va n den H ova , S u pr C u r D ecis
. . .
N O R MA N , RO BER T . Pu r cha se an d Sa le in S ou t h A fr ic a ( 2n d ed .
,
1 9 39 )
On tw e r p v an h e t B ur ge r lijk We tb o e k v o or he t K o n in gr i jk de r
Ne de r la n de n , 1 82 0 . On twerp .
P a pe ga y .
[Se e A lphe n , v an .
]
P ERE RAI , TH E HO N J . . C . W . The L a w s of Ce y lo n ( 2md ed
Co l o m b o , P er ei r a .
PL A NI O L , MAR C E L . T r a it é élém e n t a ir e de dr o it c iv il ( 1 1 m e éd
ave c la c olla b o r a t io n de G e o r ge s R ipe r t ) .
PO LL AK W Th , . e So u t h Afr ican L aw O f Ju r isdi c t io n

P O LL O C K SIR F , . The L a w o f T o r t s ( 1 4th e d , .
P O T HI ER R J Co n t , . . rat de L ou a ge .
Co n tr a t de V e n t e .
Tr a it é de s O b liga t i o n s .
AU TH OR ITI ES CIT E D x ix
P O TH IE R R J
, V e r han de li n g v an Con t r ac t e n e n a n de r e V e r
. .
b in te n i sse n u i t he t Fr an sch v e r t aa ld , e n m e t e e ni ge aa n m e r
ki n ge n v e rr ijkt do or Mr Jo ha n n e s v a n de r L in de n . .
Pr o t e c t o r a t e O f S o u t h We st A fr ica , O ffi c ia l G a z e tte -
.
R e c htsge le e r de Ob se r v a t ie n , D ie n e n de t o t O phe lde r in g v a n v e r

sc he ide gi n u yt de I n le idi n ge t o t d e H o lla n d sc he
p assa e
R e c ht s ge lee r dhe id v a n H de G r o o t ( Am s te r da m , 1 7 7 6
-
.
R echts Obs . .
R e po r t O f t he ( B r it is h G u i an a ) Co mm o n L a w Co m m iss io n ( G e o r ge
t ow n ,
RO BER TS , A . A . A S o u t h A fr i c a n L e ga l B ib lio gr a phy ( Pr e to r ia ,
1 92 1 L
R O B Y , H J R o m a n Pr iv a te L a w
. . .
R OD E N BURG , CHRI S TI , Tr a c ta tu s de u r e co n ju gu m , An t u e rAN j

piac , 1 6 7 6 .
R O L I CO U Q UE R QU E , MR L M H e t A as do m s e n S che pe n do m s
LN . . .
r e c ht in H o ll an d e n Ze e la n d u it ge ge v e n doo r he t Pr o v in c ia a l
U t r e cht sch G e n o o t s cha p v an u n s t e n e n We te n scha ppe n , K

’
s G r a v e n ha ge , 1 89 8 .
S ALM O N D , S IR J . The L a w of T o rt s ( l 0t h e d ite d by Dr . W .
T S St a ll y b r ass , 1 9 45
. . .
S AL M N
O D , SIR J an d I F W N I E LD , P . H . Pr in c iple s of t he L a w of
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S AN E
D , J A D e a c t io n u m
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D e c isio n e s Fri s icae D eci s F ri s . . .
A GN
S VI Y , F C VO D as R ec ht des B es it z e s
. . N . .
On P o sse ss io n , t r a n s la t io n o f t he a b o v e b y S ir E Pe rr y . .
Sy st e m de s he u t ige n R Om is che n R ec ht s .
S CHE L TI N G A , O FF G ERL
D ic ta ta a d G ro t iu m . .
SC H O M K A ER Co n s ilia e t R e spo n sa Ju r is
. .
ER
SC H OB , W A n n o ta t io n s o f G r o t iu s In le idi n g to t de H o lla n d
.
’
s c he R e c ht sge le e r dh e id ( M idde lb u r g, S chor er ad G r .
[ Se e A u st e n ] .
S CHR A S S E R T , J Co ns ul ta t ie n , A dv y z e n e n A dv e r t isse m e n te n
. .
Se n t e n t ie n e n ge w e z e n z a ke n v an de n H o o ge n e n Pr o vi n c iale n
R aa d in H o llan d, Z
ee la n d e n We st V r i es l an d ( R o tte r da m , o
1 66 2 }
S E WE L W , G r o o t Wo o r de n b oe k ( Am ste r da m ,
.
S mi t h s L e a di n g Case s in Co mm o n L a w ( 1 3t h
’
MT
S I H , M NR O U E Th e D e v e lopm e n t o f E u r o pe an L a w
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S O HM , R D O P H Ins t it u t e s O f R o m an L aw , t r an sla te d b y
. J . C .
L e dlie ( 3r d
So u t h Afri c a n L a w Jo u r n a l .
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1 9 22 .
xx AU T H OR ITI ES CIT E D
S PI E G EL , L . V e r ha n de lin g o v e r de n O o rspr o n g e n de
P . V AN D E .
H ist o r ic de r v a de r la n dsc he R e chte n ( G o e s ,

ST E Y , G The L a w o f Wills in S o u th Afr ica
N .
S TE N
Y , D R I V AN ZI JL Mo r a D e b it o r ie v o lge ns die He de n daa gse
. . .
R o m e inS H o lla n dse R e g, aa pst a d , 1 9 29

- K .
ST O BBE D e u t sc he s Priv a t re c ht
. .
ST O CKM ANS
D e c is io n e s B r a b a n t iae
. .
ST R
O Y , J Co n fli c t o f L a w s
. .
q
E u it y Ju r ispr u de n c e .
’
S w i ss Co de de s Obliga t io n s
‘
.
TA CITU S P C O RN E LI U S G m n i
, . . er a a .
TH O M S O N H O N H B Ins t it te s
, . . . u of t he L a w s of Ce y lo n , 1 866 .
T ijdsc hr ift v oor R e cht s ge sc h ie de ni s .
T y ds kr if v ir He de n da a gs e R o m e inS Ho lla n dse R e g -

.
U t re c ht s che Co ns u l t a t ion .
VAN GER O W K ARL A D O LP H L e hr b u ch de r Pan de kte n

,
. .
V E E G E NS J D a n d O PP E NH E I M A S S c he t s v a n he t Ne de r
, . .
, , . .
l an dsch B u r ge r l ijk R e cht ( de r de dr u k 1 9 2 1

V e r v o lg O p de H o llan ds c he Co n su lt a t ie n .
I AT
V C , P B V o ca b u la r iu m Jur is
. . .
V I NNI U S , A R NO L D U S I n u a t u o r lib r o s I n st it u t io n u m I m pe r ia liu m

. q
Co m m e n t a r ius aca de mi cu s e t fo r e n s is Vi n n i u s ad I ns t . .
Se le c te e Ju r is Q u a e st io n e s .
Tr a c t a t u s de Pa ct is .
V INO G R AD OFF , SIR P R o m an L a w in Me die v a l E u r o pe , 2md A UL .
ed 1 929 .
V o ca b u lar iu m ju r ispr u de n t ia e R o m a n a e e dit u m ju ssu in st itu t i

Sa v ign ia n i .
VO E T J O HANNE S
, . Co mm e n ta r iu s ad Pa n de c t as . Voet .
To m u s t e r t iu s j
e u s de m Co m rn e n t a r ii c o n t in e n s Su pple m e n
t um a u ct o r e J . v an de r L in de n S u pp le m e n t ad P a n dect
. . .
Co m pe n diu m j u r is j u x t a se r ie m P a n de c t a r u m .
E le m e n t a Ju r is .
D e b e gin se le n de s r e cht s .
V O E T A UL U S
, P D e m o b iliu m . et im m o b iliu m n a t ur a .
V O RM H V A N D ER
, . V e r ha n de lin g v an he t H o lla n dsch , Ze e la n dsch
.
en We st vr ie slan dsch v e rste rfr e cht , 7 dr u k , m e t A a n t e e ke

n i n ge n d oo r V J B lo n de e l . . .
V R O MA N S , P Tr a c t a a t de for o c o m pe t e n t i
. .
WALT O N , F P . . Th e E gypt ia n L a w O f Ob liga ti o ns ( 2n d

WA S S E NAA R ,
'
G . V ANP r a x is Ju dic ia r ia
. .
WE SE L A BRA HA M , A . Co m m e n t a r iu s a d n o v e llas c o n st it u t io n e s
Ul t r a je c t in a s .
WE SS E L S , HON . J W H isto r y
. . of t he R o m a n D u t ch L a w -
.
The L a w o f Co n t r a c t in S ou t h A fr ica , e di t e d b y A A R o b e rt s
. . .
2 v o ls 1 937 . .
AU T H OR ITI ES CIT E D
WILL E , G . Te n a n t in S o u t h Afr ic a ( 3r d c d
L a n dl o r d and .
,
Th e L a w o f Mo rt ga ge a n d Ple dge in S ou t h Afr ic a .
Pr in c iple s of
S o u t h Afr ic a n L a w
W ILLE , G .
, a n d M ILLI , P N
Me r ca n t il e L a w . of S o u t h A fr ic a .
WI ND S CHE I D , B . L e hr b u ch de S P a n de kte n r ec ht s .
WINFI E LD P H A T e t B k f t he L w f T rt ( 2n d e d
, . . x -
oo o a o o
ZUL UE TA F D E
, Th R m a n L w o f S ale ( Cl
. . n do n Pr e e ) o a ar e ss .
ZU R C K E VAN C d
, . B t vu s . o ex a a .
ZUTP H E N B ER N H AR D V AN P c t y ck d
, Ne d l n dsc h R e hte n . ra e er er a e c .
ZYL V AN C H T h N t a r i l P c t i
, . .f S o th Af i c e o a ra ce o u r a .
ZYL V AN G B Th e J di i l P ac t i e f S o t h A f ic
, . . 3 d ed u c a r c o u r a, r .
,
1 92 1 .
ZYPA E U S , F . No t itia Ju r iS B e lgi c i .

TA B L E OF L A W R E PORT S
WIT H MO DE OF CITATI O N
A pp Cas . . A ppe a l Case s ( H o u se O f L or ds an d Ju di c ia l Co m

m i t te e o f t he Pr iv y Co u n c il ) ,
A ppe ll a te D iv is io n O ft he Su pr e m e Co u r t o f S o u t h
Afr i ca , 1 9 1 0 o n w a r ds .
B u ch . B u c ha n a n , J a m e s 85 E J Case s de c ide d in t he . .
S u pr e m e Co ur t of t he Ca pe of G oo d H o pe ,
1 868—79 .
B u ch A C . . . B u c han a n , Ja m e s E . J . D M . . Case s de c ide d

in t he Co u r t o f A ppe al o f t he Ca pe o f G o o d
H ope , 1 880 1 9 1 0 —
—
.
Ca pe L a w J o ur n a l , 1 884 1 900 .
Co mm o n Ple as , o r Co m m o n Ple as D iv is io n
( E n glan d ) .
C P D
. . . Case s de c ide d in t he Cape Pr o v in c ia l D iv isio n o f
t he Su pr e m e Co ur t o f S ou t h Afr i ca , 1 9 1 0
o n w ar ds .
C T R
. . . Cap e T i mes R e po rt s , 1 89 1 —1 9 1 0 .
Ce y lo n , N L R . . . Ce y lo n Ne w L aw R e po r t s .
Ch . Cha n c e r y , or Ch a n c e r y D iv i sio n ( E n glan d ) .
Sir E dw a r d Co ke s R e po r t s
’
CO R e p . . .
Curre n t L R . . Cu rr e n t L a w R e po r t s ( Ce y lo n ) .
E D C
. . . Case s de c ide d in t he E a st e r n D ist r i c t s Co u r t O f
t he Ca pe O f G o o d H o pe , 1 880 — 1 909 .
E D L
. . . Case s de c ide d in t he E as te r n D ist r ic ts L o c a l
D iv is io n o f t he S u pr e m e Co ur t o f So u t h Afr ica ,
1 9 1 0 o n w ar ds .
E x c he u e r R e po r t s ( E n gla n d ) , 1 846—
q 56 .
F o or d, A J Cas e s de c ided in t he S u pr e m e
. .
Co u r t o f t he Ca pe o f G o o d H o pe , 1 880 .
H . C G . . R e po r ts o f t he Hi gh Co u r t o f G r i u a la n d We s t , q
1 882—1 9 10 .
H e rt z o g He rt z o g s ’
Cas e s in t he H igh Co ur t o f t he S o u t h
Afr i c a n R e pu b lic , 1 89 3 , t r a n s la t e d b y L e o n a r d .
Ko t z é , J Case s de c ide d in t he H igh Co ur t o f

. G .
t he Tr a n sv aa l ( 1 87 7
K ’
in g s B e n ch , o r K
i n g s B e n c h D iv is io n ( E n g
’
l an d ) .
K n a pp P C . . K n a pp s
’
R e po r t s o f Cas e s de t e rm in e d b e fore t he
Co mm it te e s o f M S Pr ivy Co u n cil, 1 82 9—3 6
H . .
’
.
L a w R e po rt s , Co m m o n Ple as , 1 86 5 —
75 .
L a w R e por t s, H o u s e o f L o r ds , E n glish a n d
Ir ish A ppe a ls , 1 86 5 —
75 .
TA B L E OF LAW R E PORT S xxiii
L . R P C . . . L a w R e po r t s , Pr iv y Co u n c il , 1 865 —75 .
Me n z ies , H o n W Cas e s de cide d in t he S u pr e m e

—
. .
Co u r t o f t he Cape o f G o o d H o pe , 1 82 0 5 0 .
MO O P C C Mo o r e Pr ivy Co u n c il C ase s , 1 83 6—
’
. . . . s 62 .
MO O P C C . . . . D it to Ne w Se r ie s
. .
N . L . R . Na t a l L a w R e port s , S u pr e m e Co u r t , Old Se r ie s ,
1 87 3—9 .
N . L . R . Na t a l L a w R e po r t s , Su pr e m e Co u r t , Ne w Se r i es ,
1 87 9 1 9 1 0
-
.
Ne w L a w R e po rt s ( Ce y l o n ) .
Case s de c ide d in t he Na t a l Pr o v in c i a l D iv is i o n
of t he S u pr e m e Co u r t Of So u t h Afr ic a , 1 9 1 0
o n w ar ds .
O F S
. . . R e po rt s of t he High Co u r t of t he O r an ge Fr e e
S ta t e , 1 87 9 —83 .
O P D
. . . R e po rt s O f t he O r an ge Fr e e Sta t e Pr o v in c ia l
D i v is io n , 1 9 1 0 o n w ar ds .
O R . . fi
Of c ia l R e po rt s o f t he Hi gh Co u r t o f t he S ou t h
Afr i ca n R e pu b lic , t r a n s la te d in to E n glish b y
W S We b b e r J G o t z e, 1 89 4—9
. . . . K .
O r a n ge R iv e r Co lo n y , R e po r t s O f Cas e s de c ide d
in t h e Co u r t , 1 9 0 3—
Hi gh 10 .
R e po r t s o f t he Pr o b a te , A dm i r a lt y , and D iv o r ce
D iv i s io n of t he H igh Co u r t ( E n gla n d ) .
Pre n t ice -
H a ll We e kly , L e gal S e r v i ce .
R a m an a t han , P . Ju dgm e n ts of t he Su pre m e

Co ur t an d H igh Co u r t Of A ppe al , Ce y lo n ,
b e t w ee n 1 82 0 —33 .
Im po r ta n t Case s , S u pr e m e Co u r t , Ce y lo n , 1 843
55 .
Im port an t Case s , Su pr e m e Cou rt , Ce ylo n , 1 860

8 .
Im po rt an t Case s S u pre m e Co u r t , Ce y l on , 1 87 2 ,
,
1 87 5 , 1 87 6 .
R e po rt s Of Cases , Su pr e m e Cour t , Ce y lo n ,
1 87 7 .
R e tt ie S e ss io n s R e port s
’
s se r i e s o f t he C o u r t Of
( t he F o ur t h S e r ie s ), 1 87 3 —98 .
R o sc o e s R e po r t s O f t he Su pr e m e Co u r t O f t he
’
Ca pe of G ood H ope , 1 86 1 —78 .
S e a r le S e a r le , M . W
Case s de c i de d in t he Su pr e m e
.
Co u r t o f t he Ca pe O f G o o d H o pe , 1 85 0 — 67 .
S o u t h Afr ic an L a w J ou r n a l , 1 90 1 o n w a r ds .
Case s de c ide d in t he S u pr e m e Co u r t o f t he
S o u t h Afr i c an R e pu b li c .
Su pr e m e Co ur t R e po r ts ( Ca pe of G o od H o pe ) ,
1 880 — 19 10 .
xxiv TAB L E OF LAW R E POR T S
S u pr e m e Co ur t Cir c u la r ( Ce y lo n ) ;
S u pre m e Co ur t R e po r ts ( Ce y lo n ) .
Case s de c ide d in t he Witw a t e r sra n d H igh Co u rt

( Tr a n s v aa l ), 1 9 0 2—10 .
T P D
. . . Ca se s de c ide d in t he Tr a n sv a a l Pr o v m c ia l
D ivisio n o f t he Su pr e m e Co u r t o f S o u t h
Afr ic a , 1 9 1 0 o n w ar ds .
Case s de c ide d in t he Tr an sv aa l Su pr e m e Co u r t ,
—
1 90 2 10 .
V a n de rs t r a a t e n , J W
. . D e c is io ns , Su pr e m e Co u r t , Ce y lo n , in
A ppe a l , 1 86 9—7 1 .
W . L D . . R e po r t s of t he Witw a t e r sr a n d L o c a l D iv is io n
of t he Su pr e m e Co u r t of S o u t h Afr i ca , 1 9 1 0
o n w ar ds .
xxvi TAB L E OF CASES
An de rso n CO Pie n aa r v
CO . .
[ 1 9 22] T P D . . . 43 5 1 9 8, 3 1 9
’
A n de rs o n S Ass ign e e
’
A n de r v
so n s E x ors .
( 1 89 4) 11 43 2 250
A n dr e w s L e vy [ 1 9 30] S R 10 1
. . 3 39
A nn a m m a v Mo o dl e y .
[ 1 9 43] A D 53 1 . . 2 72
An o n ( 1 87 1 ) V a n de r S t ra a t e n 1 7 2 40 5
i
A ppuh am i v K r iham i .
( 1 89 5 ) 1 Ce y lo n N L R 83 . . . 3 35
A ppuh am y v A ppu h a m y .
( 1 880 ) 3 Ce y lo n S O C 6 1 . . . 1 44
A r b o r Pr o pe r t ie s B a il e y [ 1 9 37 ] W L D 116 . . . 268
Ar e n d E st Na kib a .
[ 1 9 2 7] CP D 8
. . . 1 85
A r ms tr o n g Ma gid [ 1 9 37] A D 2 60 . . 2 33
Ar o n o w it z v A t kins o n .
[ 1 9 3 6] S R 45 . 2 44
Ar u lam pika i v Tha m b u .
( 1 9 44) 45 Ce y lo n N L R 40 7 . . . 366
A tt o r n e y G e n e ra l -
v Pa n a .
A dappa Che t t y ( 1 9 2 8) 2 9 Ce y lo n N L R 43 1 . . . 196

A t to r n e y G e n e r a l v Pi t c he
-
.
( 1 89 2 ) 1 Ce y lo n S C R 1 1 . . . 1 29
A v is v V e rse pu t
.
[ 1 9 43] A D 33 1. 2 89 2 9 0.
, ,
29 1
A y ob CO v Clo u ts . .
[ 1 9 2 5] W L D 1 9 9 . . . 2 74
A z ar , e x p a r te [ 1 9 32] O P D 1 0 7 . . . 63
B
B aar d , ex p a rte [ 1 9 2 6] C P D 2 0 1
. . 85 .
B a b a iha m y v M a r c m aha m y .
( 1 9 0 8) 1 1 Ce ylo n N L R 2 3 2 2 88 .
B a de nh orst , ex p a r te [ 1 9 3 7] T P D 1 7 4
. . 378 .
B a de nh o r s t 0 J ou b e r t .
[ 1 9 2 0 ] T P D 1 00
. . 1 70 .
B a dr o o die n V an L ie r [ 1 9 2 8] C P D 3 1 1
. . 45 1 .
B a ikie Pr e t o r ia Mu n ic [ 1 9 2 1 ] T P D 37 6
. 2 46
. .
j
B a ie , ex p a r te 1 9 41 ( 2 ) P H B 66 [VV L D ] 7 4
B e
. . .
.
, .
’ ’
B ake r S E st ak r 8 E st . .
( 1 9 0 8) 2 5 S C 2 3 4 41 2 .
[ 1 9 1 9] 2 K B 5 7 1 2 23 .
B a lkis v P e re r a.
( 1 9 2 7 ) 2 9 Ce ylo n N L R 2 84 3 84 . .
B als illi e , ex p a rte [ 1 9 2 8] C P D 2 1 8

. 85 86
. .
,
B a n da r a v E la pa t ha .
( 1 9 22 ) 2 3 Ce y lo n N L R 41 1 49 . . .
B a nks A yr e s ( 1 888) 9 N L R 3 4 . 33 5 . .
B a nks Cle m e n t s N O . . C P D 1 97
. . . 92, 94
B ar c lay S B an k v The Ma ste r
’
.
[ 1 9 3 4] C P D 41 3
. . . 1 87
B a r ke r B e cke tt Co . .
[ 1 9 1 1] T P D 1 5 1 449
1
. . .
B ar n a b as Ple in CO SO .
Jac o b so n Son [ 1 9 2 8] A D 2 5. .
B ar n ar d , e x p a r te [ 1 9 2 9] T P D 2 7 6
. . .
B ar n a r d Co l G o v t . .
( 1 887 ) 5 S C 1 2 2 .
B ar n e t v G la nz .
( 1 90 8) 2 5 S C 9 6 7 .
B ar n e t t v Miln e s .
[ 1 9 2 8] N P D 1. . .
B ar n e t t v Ru dm an . .
[ 1 9 34] A D 2 0 3
. .
B ar re t t v 0 N1e l s E x o rs ( 1 87 9 ) K o t z e 1 0 4
’ ’
. .
B a rr y C M u n de ll
.
( 1 9 09 ) 2 6 S C 47 5 .
Ba r r y Co ln e CO v Jackso n s ’
.
L td .
[ 1 9 22 ] C P D 3 7 2
. . .
B askin B ar n e tt v B arn ar d .
[ 1 9 2 8] C P D 5 8
. . .
B assa L td E as t As ia t ic
.
CO L td
. .
[ 1 9 3 2] N P D . . . 3 86
TA B LE OF CASES
B a t cho o v Cr ck . i [ 1 9 41 ] N P D 1 9 . . .
B au m v R o de .
[ 1 90 5 ] T S 6 6 .
[ 1 9 37] S W A 7 3
. . .
B a yn e N O . . u K a n t hac k [ 1 93 4] W L D 1 3 . . .
E car t , I n r e [ 1 9 1 2] N P D 65 . . .
[ 1 9 1 0] 2 89 2 67
B e e be e v Ma gi d .
( 1 9 2 9 ) 30 Ce y lo n N L H R 61
. 3 45 1
B e ge m an n v Cir o ta .
[ 1 9 2 3] T P D 2 7 0
. . . 33 6
[ 1 9 0 9 ] T S 5 00 . 87
B e ll v L e v e r B r o s L td
. . .
[ 1 93 2 ] A O 1 3 2
. . 22 1
B e llin gham u B lo m m e t je .
[ 1 87 4] B u ch 3 6 . 45 1
B e lls te dt u S A R . . . .
[ 1 9 3 6] C P D 3 9 7
. . . 39, 3 37
B e n ischo w i t z v The Mas te r .
[ 1 9 2 1 ] A D 5 89 . . 3 66
j
B e n a m in v S a lkin de r .
( 1 9 0 8) 2 5 S C 5 1 2 . 95
B e nn e t , ex p a rte [ 1 9 2 6 ] C P D 43 6
. . . 85
B e nn e t t B e nn e t t [ 1 9 39 ] P 2 74 . 89
B e nni n g ni o n G o v t U .
[ 1 9 1 4] A D 42 0
. . 2 33
B e n sim o n v B a r to n .
[ 1 9 1 9] A D 1 3
. . 327 , 3 2 8
B e r e tta v B ere tta .
[ 1 9 2 4] T P D 6 0
. . . 217
B e r gl Co v Tr o tt B r o s . . .
( 1 903) 24 N L R 50 3 . . .
B e r ni t z v E u v r a r d
f
.
[ 1 9 43] A D 5 95
. . 2 63
B err an ge , ex p a rte [ 1 9 3 8] W L D 39 . . . 37 9
B e rt hi au m e v D ast ou s .
[ 1 9 30 ] A C 79
. . 64
B e s t e r v T a y lo r
.
[ 1 9 1 2] O P D 60
. . . . 30 9
B e u ke s v Co e t z e e .
( 1 883 ) 1 S A R 71 . . . 3 43
B e v an v B e v an
.
[ 1 90 8] T E 1 93
. . 87
B e y e rs v Mc K e n z ie
.
( 1 880 ) Fo or d 1 2 5 1 43 , 2 1 8, 2 30
B e z u i de n h o u t v S t r y do m .
( 1 884) 4 E D C 22 4 . . . 238
B e z u ide n ho u t V an G r ae n [ 1 9 3 8] T P D 33 1
. . . 2 47
B ha ijee v ho a K j [ 1 9 37 ] A D 2 46 1 92
e
. . . .
B han a Nan a v P a t l .
[ 1 9 29] W L D 2 34 . . . 27 8
B iggs v M o le fe
.
[ 1 9 1 0] C P D 2 42
. . . 250
B iljoe n Pe t e r s o n .
[ 1 9 2 2] N P D 63
. . . 2 42
B in g L a u e r 1) V a n de r
.
H ee v e r [ 1 9 2 2] T P D . . . 279
B in gham Jo hann e sb u r g City
Co u n c il [ 1 9 3 4] WL D 1 80
. . .
[ 1 9 3 4] T P D 30 1
. . .
’
B la ck B lac k S E x o rs ( 1 90 4) . 21 555
B la tc hfo r d v B la tc hfo r d s E x or s ( 1 86 1 ) 1 E D O 3 65
’
. . . . .
B la t t v Sw a ko pm u de r B an k
n
.
v e re in S W A 90
. . .
B lide n v Ca ras ov [ 1 9 27] CP D 2 .
u
. . .
B loe m fo n te in Mu m o . .
Jac kson s L td
’
[ 1 9 2 9] . A D 2 66
. .
B loe m fo n te in To w n Co u n c il, ex
p a rte [ 1 9 34] O P D. . .
B lo e m fo n t e in T o w n Co u n c il C .
R ichte r [ 1 9 3 8] A D 1 95
. .
B lo m e r us ex p a r te [ 1 9 3 6] C P D 368
. . .
B lo m so n v B o sho fi .
[ 1 90 5 ] T S 42 9 .
TAB L E OF CA SES
B lo o m A rn e r ica n
v. Sw iss
Wa t c h CO [ 1 9 1 5 ] A D 1 00
fi
. . .
fi
B lo om e ld v B lo o m e ld [ 1 9 42 ] C P D 2 5 1
. . . .
B lo w e r 0 V a n No o r de n .
[ 1 9 0 9 ] T S 89 0 .
B lu m b e r g v B u y s Malkin [ 1 9 0 8] TS 1 1 75
. .
B lu m b e r g S u lski 11 B r o w n .
Fr e ita s [ 1 9 22 ] T P D 1 3 0 3 12 . . .
B o n a Pi e r ce 0 H a n M o n 1 9 44 ( 1 ) P H , O 1 0
. 326 . . .
B o o y se n , I n r e ( 1 880 ) F o o r d 1 87 6 4, 9 0
B o sh o ff v R e in h o ld .
[ 1 9 20] A D 2 9 1 75 . .
B o sho ff v Th e r o n .
[ 1 9 40 ] T P D 29 9 309 . . .
B o sh o ff V an Zy l C P D 41 5 33 5 . . .
k
.
B o sm a n B r o s V a n Nie ke r [ 1 9 2 8] C P D 6 7
. 297 . . .
B o t ha v B o t ha .
( 1 848) 1 Me n z 2 5 9 93 .
B o t ha v B r in k .
[ 1 87 8] B u ch 1 1 8 . 33 2 .
B o t ha v Pea c h .
[ 1 9 39 ] W L D 1 5 3 327 . . .
B ot ha V an de r V y v e r ( 1 9 0 8) 2 5 7 60 379 .
B o t ha N O u Tu n b r idge N O [ 1 9 3 3] E D L 9 5
. . . 1 13 . . . . .
B o w dit ch v Pee l Ma gill [1 92 1] A D 56 1

. 2 30 . .
B o w e r v He am .
[ 1 9 3 8] N P D 3 9 9 326 . . .
B o w e rn v G o w an .
[ 1 9 2 4] A D 5 5 0 2 64 . .
B o w n v Mo w b r a y Mu ni c
.
[ 1 9 1 1 ] C P D 42 9 42 9 . . . .
B o y d , ex p a r te [ 1 93 8] C P D 1 9 7 5 1 0 3 88 . . .
B o y d v Ne l .
[ 1 9 22 ] A D 41 4 2 15 . .
B o y d v S ta ble s
.
( 1 82 1 ) R a m a n a t han , p 1 9 312 .
B o y d v S t u t tafo r d
.
[ 1 9 1 0] A D 1 0 1 30 4 . .
B o y e s v V e rsigm a n
.
( 1 87 9 ) B u ch 2 2 9 75 .
B r an dt v B e r gst e dt .
[ 1 9 1 7 ] C P D 3 44 2 35 . . .
B r au de v B r au de .
( 1 89 9 ) 1 6 S C 5 6 5 2 39 .
B r au n v P o w ri e .
( 1 90 3 ) 1 3 C T R 464 1 78 . . .
B r au n s chw e ig V M B o ar d .
U
n io n G o v t [ 1 9 1 7 ] E D L 1 86 . . . .
B re da s E x or s v Mills
’
( 1 883 ) 2 S C 1 89 . . .
B ro de ll v Pie n aar .
[ 1 9 2 4] C P D 20 3 . . .
B re e d C V an de n B e r g
.
[ 1 9 3 2 ] A D 2 83 . .
B ree ds v B r e e ds .
[ 1 9 2 9 ] N P D 1 22 . . .
B r e nn e r v H ar t .
[ 1 9 1 3] T P D 60 7 . . .
E r e sky v Viv ie r .
[ 1 9 2 8] C P D 2 0 2 . . .
B re yt e n Collie r ies L td v . .
[ 1 9 1 3] T P D 2 6 1 1 52
11 61
. . .
B re yt e n b a c h v Fr an ke l [ 1 9 1 3] A D 390 49 , 1 , 1 , 422
. . .
B re y te n b a ch V an Wi k [ 1 9 2 3] A D 5 41 1 46 , 445 j
Z
. .
B r ice v u r che r
.
[ 1 9 0 8] T S 1 0 82 30 7 .
B r iggs v Hu ghe s .
[ 1 9 33] N P D 6 1 8 234 . . .
B r ill v Mad e le y
.
[ 1 9 37 ] T P D 1 0 6 3 44 . . .
B r ink v L o u w .
( 1 842 ) 1 Me n z 2 1 0 72 .
B r in k s Tr us te es v Me cha n
’
( 1 864) l R o sco e 2 09 . 2 92
B r in km an Mc G ill [ 1 9 3 1 ] A D 30 3 318 . .
B S A CO v B u la w a y o Mun i c [ 1 9 1 9 ] A D 84
. . . . . .
B r i t ish We s t in ghous e CO
. .
2) .
U
n de r gr o u n d R
y CO [ 1 9 1 2 ] A G 67 3 . .
B r o di e v A tt o r n e y G e n e r a l
.
( 1 90 3 ) 7 Ce y lo n N L R -
. . .
TA B L E OF CASES x xi x
B r o o ks Wyn b e r g v . Ne w
Un ite d Y e a s t D ist r ib u t o rs
L td .
[ 19 3 6]
B r ow n B r ow n [ 1 905]
B r ow n B r ow n [ 1 9 2 1]
B r ow n B r o wn [ 1 9 29]
B r o w n v L a in g .
[ 1 9 40 ]
B r o w n v R ic ka r d .
( 1 883 )
’
B r o w n s E st E llio t B r o s . .
[ 1 9 2 3]
B r o w n s E x e cu t r ix v M c A da m s
’
.
[ 1 9 1 4]
j
B r o w n o hn v B r o w n o hn . j [ 1 9 44]
B r o w n lie Ca m pb e ll ( 1 880 )
B r u n sd o n S E st v B ru n s do n 8
’ ’
. .
E st .
[ 1 9 2 0] C P D 159
. . .
B ru t o n , ex p a r te [ 1 9 3 8] C P D 5 48
. . .
B u ck v G r e e n [ 1 9 3 2] N P D 42 5
E
. . . .
B u i s inn e , I n r e I n so lv st . .
( 1 82 8) 1 Me n z 3 1 8, 3 2 6 .
B u isinn e v M u lde r .
( 1 83 5 ) 1 Me n z . 1 62
B u ll E st B u ll .
[ 1 9 40 ] WL D . . . 1 33
B u lle r N 0 v L in de r . . .
[ 1 92 5] NP D 9 . . .
B u r ge r Ce n t r a l S A R y s . .
[ 1 90 3] TS 5 7 1 .
B u r ge rs n ight K [ 1 9 1 6] N P D 399
. . .
B u r n s 0 B u r ns.
[ 1 9 3 7] N P D 67. . .
B u r r ow s v Mc E v o y .
[ 1 92 1 ] C P D 2 29
. . .
B u r s t e in , ex p a r te [ 1 9 41 ] C P D 87
C d [ 1 9 1 6]
. . .
B u s hb y v G u ar dian Ass O L t
. . . . A D 488
. .
B yr n e B o a dl e ( 1 86 3 ) 2 H C 7 22 . .
C
C v C
. .
[ 1 9 43 ]
Ca che t , I n r e ( 1 89 8)
Ca di ja Umm a v S on an i s . . D M
A ppu [ 1 9 39 ]
Ca ga n o ff v Zac ks .
[ 1 9 1 7]
Ca lit z v Calit z .
[ 1 9 39]
Cam pb e ll We lv e r die n d D ia
m o n ds L t d .
[ 1 9 30 ] T P D
. . . 2 87
Ca n a v a n R iv as v Th e Ne w .
Tr an s v a a l G o ld Far m s L t d .
[ 1 90 4]
Ca n e y v E st JO hn ss o n
. .
[ 1 9 2 8]
Ca n t ia r e S an R O CC O S A v . . .
Cly de Shipb u ildi n g a n d

[ 1 9 2 4] A C . . 226
Ca pe D a ir y G e n e r a l L iv e an d
s t o c k A u c t i o n e e rs v Sim [ 1 9 2 4] A D 1 67 . . .
Ca pe E xplo s iv e Wo r ks L td v . .
S A O il
. F a t In du s t r ie s
.
L td .
Ca pe G o vt v Fr e e r
l
. .
Ca pe G o v t v L iq B a lrn or a . . .
D ia m o n d CO T S 6 81 . .
x xx TAB LE OF CASES
Ca pe To w n Co u n c il Ben
Ca pe T o w n Mu ni c v Fle t che r . .
Ca pe T o wn M u ni c v Pa in e . .
Ca pe To w n Wa t e r w o r ks CO . v
’
E lde r s E x or s . 8 SC 9 131 .
Car e lse E st D e V r i e s . 2 3 S C 5 32 327 .
Care y Ca r e y C P D 46 5
. . 88 .
Car lis le B an kin g CO B r a gg v 1 K B 489 . 222 .
Car o li s Sim o n 3 0 Ce y lo n N L R 2 66 3 87 . . . .
Casse ls L ov e . E D L 28
. . 312 .
Ca t o v Al io n 85 H e lps
. N P D 46 9
. 1 9 2 , 20 0
. .
’
Ca t o s E st E st Ca t o . . A D 29 0
. 3 5 3 , 3 7 0 , 3 81
.
90
~
Ce llie rs v Ce lli e r s . T S 926

. .
Ce n t r a l S A R y s v Mc L a r e n
. . . . TS 7 27 . 2 16
Ce y lon E xpo r t s L t d v A b e y . .
3 5 Ce y lo n N L R 41 7 . 1 45
Chan dl e r v Midde lb u r g Mu n ic
. T P D 45 0
. . . 33 7
Ch ase 21 D u T o it s Tr u s t e e s 3 S e a r le 7 8 196
’
.
Cha t e r , ex p a r te O P D 106 . . . 74
Chee k v Che e k . A D 33 6 . . 91
Che llia h F e r n a n do 3 9 Ce y lo n N L R 1 3 0 . . .
33 2 , 3 33
Ch e s t e r Mu n ic Co u n c il of
Wa v e r le y 55 L G B 49 5 3 42
f O
.
Chi a ppin i , I n r e In s o lv Est

. .
[ 1 86 9 ] B u ch 1 43 83 .
Chin ni a v D u nn a .
[ 1 9 40 ] N P D 3 84
. .40 .
Chisho lm E as t R a n d Min e s [ 1 90 9] T H 2 9 7
. .31
Chiw e ll v Car ly o n .
( 1 89 7 ) 1 4 S C 6 1 70 .
Ch o n g v Cho n g .
[ 1 9 42 ] C P D 1 9 2
. . 87 .
( 1 5 89 ) 1 CO R e p 1 2 0
’
Chu dl e igh s Ca se 376 . .
Cillie rs , ex p a rte [ 1 9 2 7 ] O P D 65
. 3 84
. .
Cit y D e e p Mc Ca lga n [ 1 9 2 4] W L D 2 7 6 . 1 80 . .
Cla r ke B r u n in g [ 1 9 05] T S 2 95 . 2 42
Cla r ke S o ffia n t in i 1 9 39 ( 1 ) P H , B 30 . 64 . .
Cle m e n t N O B a nk s
. .
[ 1 9 20 ] B D L 3 62
. 70, 7 7
. .
Clo e te v Clo e t e s Tru s t e e s

’
.
( 1 887 ) 5 S C 5 9 97 .
Clo e t e v R ob e rt s
.
( 1 9 0 3 ) 2 0 S C 41 3 25 8 .
Clo e t e Un ion Co rp L t d . .
[1 9 29] T P D 5 0 8
. . 205 .
Clu l e y v Mu lle r
.
[ 1 9 2 4] T P D 7 2 0
. . 299 .
Co a t o n A le x a n de r [ 1 879 ] B u ch 1 7 2 00 , 20 2 .
Co a t o n s E st v Th e Mas t e r
’
. .
[ 1 9 1 5] C P D 3 1 8
. . 39 4 .
Co ck v Ca pe O f G o o d H o pe
.
Ma r in e As s CO ( 1 85 8) 3 S e a r le 1 1 4
. . 261
Co e t z e e , ex p a r te 1 9 30 ( 1 ) R H B 5 . 85
Co e t ze e v H iggin s .
( 1 887 ) 5 E D C 3 5 2 . . . 43 2
Co e t z e e v S A R . .
[ 1 9 33 ] C P D 5 6 5
. . . . . 3 42
Co he n , ex p a r te [ 1 9 3 7] T P D 1 5 5 . . . 3 88
Coh e n H e r m an Ca n a r d ( 1 90 4) 2 1 S C 6 2 1 . . 239
Co he n R a pido l L t d [ 1 9 3 4] A D 1 3 7 . . . 27 2
Co he n Shir es , Mc H at t ie
( 1 882 ) 1 S A R 41 . . .
TAB LE OF CASES
Co he n V a n de r We sthu iz e n [ 1 9 1 2] A D 5 19
. .
Co he n K
le in v i D u n ca n G r a y
CO .
[ 1 9 3 6] C P D 49 0
. . .
Co le 1) S t u ar t [ 1 9 40 ] A D 399
. .
Oliv e r C P D 464
’
Co le s E s t .
[ 1 9 3 8] . . .
Co lle n C Wr ight .
( 1 85 7 ) 8E B 6 47 . .
Co lle t Eva [ 1 9 2 6] C P D 1 87
. . .
Co llin v T o ffi e
.
[ 1 9 44] A D 45 6
. .
Co llin e t L e sli e ( 1 90 7 ) 17 C T R 1 10 . . .
Co lli n s B la n t e r n ( 1 7 67 ) 1 Sm D C 40 6 . .
Co llin s Co llin s [ 1 9 39 ] W L D 48 . . .
Co llin s v H u go . 1 89 3 ) He r t z og 176
Co lm a n v D u n b a r .
[ 1 9 33] A D
. . 1 41
Co lo n i a l B a n kin g Tru st CO .
H ill S Tr u ste e
’
[ 1 9 2 7] A D 488
. .
Co lo ni a l In du st r ie s L t d Pr o .
v in c ia l In s u r CO [ 1 9 2 2] . . A D 33
. .
Co lo n ia l Man u fa c t u r in g CO v . .
Wi id [ 1 9 2 7] CPD
. . . 198
Co l on ial Mu t u a l L ife A ssu r an c e
v Ma c do n a ld A D 41 2
O
. . .
Co lu m b ia Fu r n ishi n g C v . .
G o ldb la tt [ 1 9 29 ] A D 27
. .
Com e r m a v Co m e r m a .
[ 1 9 3 8] T P D 2 20
. . .
Co mm r s o f Cu s to m s v Ran dle s
. .
B r os .
[ 1 9 41 ] A D 3 69
. . 1 9 2 2 40
,
Co mm issio n e rs o f Fr e n ch H o e k
v H u go
.
( 1 885 ) 1 0 A C 336 ; 3 S C . . .
3 46
Co rm n r fo r In la n d R e v e n u e
.
’
v
Cr e w e s E st . A D 65 6
. . 3 7 0 , 443
Co mm rs o f In la n d R e v e n u e
. 1)
E st G r aa fi
. A D 2 10
. . 2 89 , 445
Co mm r s O f In la n d R e v e n u e
. 1)
E s t H o lla r d
.
Co n in gsb y v Co n in gsb y .
Co nr a die v Jo n e s .
Co n r adi e v R o us s o u w .
Co n so lida t e d Fin a n ce CO . v
R e u vi d T P D 10 19
. . . 27 6
Co n w a y We s tw o o d N P D 2 45
. . . 3 44
Co o k Co o k A D 1 54
. . 90
Co o pe r Cr a n e P 3 69
. 95
Co o pe r v J o r dan . 4 E D C 1 81 . . . 1 38
Co o pe r Th e G o v t . T S 436 . 3 33
C P D 30 9
’
Co o pe r s E st I n r e . . . . 3 70
Co o r a y 0 F e r n a n do. 42 Ce y l on N L R 3 2 9 . . . 3 35
Co pe la n d Cr e e d D itto n 9 E D C 1 23 . . . 429
Co r e a v Pe ir is
. A C 5 49
. . 335
Cor o n a t io n Co llie r ie s CO . v
Co r o n e l
’
s Cu r a t o r 9 E st Co r o n e l . .
x x x ii TAB L E OF CAS ES
Co u l thar d v Co u l t ha r d .
[ 1 9 22] W L D . . . 13
Co ur t v Mo se n t ha l
. CO .
( 1 89 6 ) 1 3 S C . 1 27
Co u tts Ja c o b [ 1 9 2 7] E D L . . . 1 20
Co w a n v B e c kw o rt h
. 1 9 32 ( 1 ) P H . .
, B 1 .
(D .
CL D . . .
Cr a ggs , p a rte
ex [ 1 9 1 5 ] T P D 3 85
. . .
Cr e sse y Afr ic an L fe A ss u r i
a n c e S o c L td .
[ 1 9 1 7 ] A D 60 5 . .
Cr isp v Cr isp
.
[ 1 9 3 4] W L D 2 6 . . .
Cr o n je v Cr o n je
.
[ 1 9 0 7 ] T S 87 1 .
[ 1 9 3 8] C P D 2 3 6
’
Cr o n w r ight S E x o rs , e x p a r te . . . .
Cr o o k v P e de rs e n L td
. .
[ 1 9 2 7] W L D 6 2 . . .
Cr o o ks CO A gr ic u l t u r a . l
CO O p
-
n io n U [ 1 9 22 ] A D 42 3. .
Cu llin an v Pis t o ri u s .
[ 1 9 0 3] O R C 33
. . .
Cu lli n an n io n G o v t U .
[ 1 9 2 2] C P D 33
. . .
Cu m in g v Cu m in g . .
[ 1 9 45 ] A D 20 1
. .
Cu n dy L in dsa y ( 1 87 8) 3 A pp Cas 45 9
i
. .
Cu r t is , E st v G r o nn in gsa e t e
. .
'
[ 1 9 42] C P D 531
. . .
Cu t hb e r t , I n r e [ 1 9 32] N P D 615
. . .
Cu tt in g V a n de r H o v e n [ 1 9 0 3] T H 1 10
. .
D ad O O L td v r u ge r s do rp . . K
Mun i c Cou n c il . A D 5 30
. .
D a lto n v An gu s. 6 A pp G as 7 40 . .
D am a v B e r a
. T P D 9 28
. . .
D ani e ls Co o pe r 1 E D C 1 74 . . .
D an o v i ch v D a n o v it ch s
’
.
E x or s . T P D 1 98
. . .
D a v ies 11 L aw lo r
. E D L 1 28
. . .
D a v is v L o ckst o n e
.
A D 1 53
. .
D a v is I\ 1 t or
’ ’
E st D a v i s . W L D 1 68 . . .
D a w so n D a w so n 9 SC 446 .
De B eer De Beer T P D 2 30
. . .
De Beer E st D e B e e r .
C P D 1 25
. . 46 .
D e B e e r v V an d e r M e r w e
.
A D 378
. .1 48, 1 7 5
D e B ee r s Co n s o l Mi n e s
’
. 10 3 5 9 ; ( 1 89 5 ) 1 2
L o n do n 85 S A E x plo r a t io n .
S C 1 0 7 ; [ 1 89 5 ] .
CO .
A O 45 1 . .
D e b e n h am v Me ll o n .
5 Q B D 394 43 2
St P o l II D hO O
. . .
D e Char m o y . .
‘
NP D .2 54 . .
De Ja ge r , ex p a r te T S 2 83 .
De Ja ge r , ex p a r te N P D 41 3
. . .
De Ja ge r , In re B u ch 2 2 8 .
De Ja ge r v. Oliphan t ’
s Syn di
ca t o
De Ja ge r v . S che e pe rs
x xxi v T AB L E OF CASES
D o nn ige r v . Th o r pe [ 1 9 3 0 ] T P D 83 9
. . .
D o r m iu x v . Kr ie ke n be e k ( 1 82 1 ) R a m a na t ha n ,
3 3, p 2 3 .
D o u b e ll v T ippe r .
( 1 89 4) 1 1 S C 2 3 .
D re y e r s Tr u s te e v L u t le y 1 884) 3 S C 5 9
’
. .
D u c ket t v .
[ 1 9 3 1 ] C P D 49 3
. . .
D u kes C Mar t hin u se n

.
[ 1 9 37 ] A D 1 2
. .
D u n ca n v D u n ca n .
[ 1 93 7 ] A D 3 1 0
. .
D u n m a n v Tr a u tm an .
( 1 89 1 ) 9 S C 1 4 .
D u n n v B ow y e r
.
[ 1 9 2 6] N P D 5 1 6
. . .
D u Ple ss is v A sw e ge n . T P D 33 2
. . .
D u Ple ssis v E st Me y e r . .
[ 1 9 1 3] C P D 1 0 0 6
. . .
D u Pr ee z v D u Pr e e z .
( 1 9 0 1 ) 1 8 S C 43 8 .
D u Pr e e z v M K w a m b i [ 1 9 29 ] E D L 90
’
. . . .
Du Pre e z v S te e n ka m p .
[ 1 9 2 6] T P D 3 6 2
. . .
D u r b a n Co r p v Mc Ne il . .
[ 1 9 40 ] A D 6 6
. .
D u tc h R e for m e d Chu r c h Of
D e w e ts do rp, ex p a rte [ 1 93 8] O P D 1 3 6
. . .
D u T o it v R e n is o n
.
[ 1 9 39 ] E D L 1 0 1
. . .
D w y e r v G o ldse lle r
. .
[ 1 9 0 6] T S 1 2 6 .
D w y e r v O Flinn s E x o r
’ ’
. .
( 1 85 7 ) 3 S e a r le 1 6
( 1 86 0 ) 3 S e a r le 2 82
Dye r Me lr o se Stea m L au n dr y [ 1 9 1 2] T P D 1 64
. . .
E
E as te r n S A Te le gr aph CO
. . .
L td . Ca pe To w n Tr a m
A C 3 81
. .
E as te r n Ra n d E xplo r a t io n Co
v Ne l
. . T S 42
. .
E as t L o n do n Mu ni c u H a lbe r d . . 3 S C 1 40 .
E as t w oo d v She psto n e . T S 294 .
E a to n v R e gis t r a r O f D e e ds
. 7 S C 2 49 .
’
E b de n s E s t v E b de n . . A D 32 1
. .
E b e rt v E b e rt
. 40 Ce y lo n N L R . .
E b r a him s E st , I n r e
’
. T P D 60
. . .
E c kh a r dt v No lte . 2 S A R 48 . . .
E dm e a de s v S chee pe r s . 1 S C 334 .
E dw a r ds v H y de T S 3 81
M
. .
E dw a r ds ( Waa ikr aa l ) G CO
v Ma m o ga le
.
E ks te e n v E ks te e n
.
E le c t r ic Pr o c e ss En gr a v in g Co
E lli o t E lli o t
E llio t L o r d JO ice y
E ls Mills
E m s li e A fr ica n Me r c ha n ts
L td .
E n s li n Me y e r
E r asm u s v Du T o it .
E rasm u s v E r asm us .
TAB LE OF CASES x x xv
’
E r as m u s v E r a sm u s G u a r dia n s [ 1 9 0 3 ] T S 843
. .
E r a sm u s v R us se ll s E x o r
’
.
[ 1 9 0 4] T S 3 65 .
[ 19 1 7] O P D 5 3
'
E ssa ko w v G a lb r a it h . . . .
E ste l v No v a z i
.
[ 1 9 1 9 ] N P D 40 6 . . .
E v a n s , e x p a r te 1 9 42 ( 2 ) P H , B 7 3 . . .
E v an s Pl O W S v Willis CO [ 1 9 2 3 ] C P D 49 6 . . . . .
E v e r a r d , e x p a r te E x o rs E st [ 1 9 3 8] T P D 1 9 0 . . . . .
E x c e ll v D o u glas
.
[ 1 9 2 4] C P D 47 2 . . .
F
F e x p a r te
.
[ 1 9 1 4] W L D 2 7 . . .
Fa ir lie v R a u b e nh e im e r
.
[ 1 9 35 ] A D 1 3 5 . .
F a r m e r s CO O p S o c v B e rr y
’
-
. . .
[ 1 9 1 2 ] A D 3 43 . .
F am um v . A dm .
-
G en . Of B r it
( 1 889 ) 1 4 A pp Cas . . 65 1
F a rr e ll v H a nk e y [ 1 9 2 1 ] T P D 5 90
F a u r e v Tu lb a gh D iv CO u n cil
. . . .
. . 8 S C 72 .
Fe de r a l T o b a cc o Wo r ks v B a r .
ron CO .
[ 1 9 0 4] T S 483 .
F e ige n b au m v Mills .
[ 1 9 2 9 ] N P D 2 35
. . .
F e llo w s Sm ith v Shan ks

-
.
[ 1 9 2 5 ] N P D 1 68
. . .
F e n de r v St J O hn M il dm a y
. .
-
[ 1 9 3 8] A O 1 . .
F e r gu s o n v H u c kn e ll L an .
ge r m a n [ 1 9 03 ] T E 2 2 1
. . 353
F e r n an de z v Fe r n a n de z .
[ 1 9 43 ] C P D 3 6 3
. . . 87
F e rn a n do v A lw i s .
( 1 93 5 ) 3 7 Ce y lo n N L R 2 0 1 . . . 37 9
F e r n an do v Fe r n an do .
( 1 89 9 ) 4 Ce y lo n N L R 2 85 . . . 268
F e r n a n do v F e rn a n do .
( 1 9 1 6 ) 1 9 Ce y lo n N L R 1 9 3 . . . 46
F e r n a n do v Fe r n an do .
( 1 9 2 9 ) 3 1 Ce y lo n N L R 1 0 7 . . . 1 68
F e r n a n do v a lu t a r a P o li c e . K ( 1 9 43 ) 45 Ce y lo n N L R 49 . . . 1 29
Fi Oha r dt v We b b .
( 1 889 ) 6 C L J 2 5 8 . . . 1 60
Fi c ha r d t L td v B r a n d . .
[ 1 9 2 8] O P D 5 6
. . . 311
Fi cha r dt L td v F a u st m a n n . .
[ 1 9 1 0] A D 1 68
. . 2 89
Fi char dt L t d v Fri e n d Ne w s . .
pa pe rs L t d .
[ 1 9 1 6] A D 1 . .
F ic k v B ie r m an
.
( 1 882 ) 2 26
F ick v R e x
.
[ 1 9 0 4] O R C 2 5
. . .
Fie t z e v F i e t z e
.
[ 1 9 1 3] E D L 1 7 0
. . .
Fillis v J o u b e rt P ar k Pr iv a te
.
H o spita l [ 1 9 39 ] T . P D 2 34 . .
F in dl a y v n ight . K [ 1 9 35] A . D 58 .
F in e v G e n A ssu r Co rp
. . . .
[ 1 9 1 5] A . D 213 .
F in n v J o u be r t
.
[ 1 9 40 ] C . P D 1 30 . .
F i sche r v L i u ida t o r s . n io n q U
( 1 89 0 ) 8 46
Fi she r v Co le m a n.
[ 1 9 37] T P D 26 1
. . . 325
Fi she r v Ma lhe r b e
. R igg [ 1 9 1 2] W L D 15 . . . 73
F ishe r S o n v V o ge s .
[ 1 9 25] C P D 3 70
. . . 236 237
F it z ge r a ld ex p a r te , [ 1 9 23] W L D 1 87 . . . 38
F it z ge r a ld v G r e e n .
[1 9 1 1] B D L 433
. . . 9 , 3 1 , 35 , 6 3
Fla na ga n v Fla n a ga n .
[ 1 9 1 3] N P D 45 2
. . . 45 0
TA B L E OF CA SES
Fla ts L t d . v . Tr an sv aa l Co n s .
L an d CO [ 1 9 20] T P D . . . 1 46
l a
.
F le t che r v B u a w y o Wa te r .
Wo r ks [ 1 9 15] A D 63 6 . .
Flu xm an v B r it ta in .
[ 1 9 41 ] A D 27 3 . .
Fo r d , e x p a r te [ 1 9 40 ] W L D 155 . . .
F o r d v R ee d B r o s
. .
[ 1 9 2 2] T P D 2 66
. . .
F o rs t e r v B e c ke r .
[ 1 9 1 4] B D L 1 93
. . .
F o s te r v H illm a n B r o s . .
[ 1 9 32] W L D 222 . . .
F o s t e r v M o ss D e ll.
[ 1 9 27] E D L 20 8
. . .
F o st e r v Whe e le r ( 1 887 ) 3 6 Ch D 69 5
O
. . .
Fo u ch e v B a tte n h a u se n C
. .
[ 1 9 39 ] C P D 2 28
. . .
F o u r ie v D e B ru yn . .
[ 1 9 1 4] A D 374 . .
F o y v Mo r ke l
.
[ 1 929] W L D 1 74 . . .
Fr a m e v B o y ce CO . .
[ 1 9 25] T P D 35 3
. . .
Fr a n c is v S a v a ge Hill .
( 1 882 ) 1 S A R 33 . . .
Fr an c o v lu g . K [ 1 9 40 ] A D 1 26
. .
Fr e n ch H o e k Mu n ic v Hu go . .
( 1 883 ) 1 0 A pp Cas 33 6 ; 3 . .
S C 3 46 .
Fr e sh Me a t Su pply CO . v .
dar d Tr a din g Co .
Fr ie dlan de r v Cr o x fo r d .
Fr ie dm an v F r ie dm an .
Fr i e dm a n v H ar r is .
Fr o st v L e sli e
.
F u chs v Whil e y , N O.
F u l t o n , ex p a r t e
G a b e r gas v G a b e r gas . E D L 279

. . 33 .
G ab r ia l v A dik ar an . 42 Ce y lo n N L R 1 46 2 0 4
G a lan t v Ma ho n ga . B D L 69
. 1 67 , 1 85
. .
G a llie r s v R y cr o ft . A C 1 30 ; 1 7 S C 5 69 3 81
. . .
G a mm o n v Mc Clu r e . C P D 1 37
. . 65 .
G an t z v Wa ge n a a r. 1 Me n z 9 2 46 .
G a r de n s E st L t d v L e w I S . . A D 1 44
. . 1 69
G a r dn e r , e x p a r te E D L 1 75
. .1 22 .
G a skill v G a skill . P 42 5
. 33
’
G a t e s E st , ex p a rte . C P D 1 62
. . 40 .
G au lt v B e hr m an
. T P D 37
. . 1 34 .
G a v e n as v G a v e n as . C P D 1 32
. . 63 .
G e lde n hu y s , ex pa r te O P D 155
. . 1 67 .
G e lde n hu y s Ne e thlin g
A D 42 6
. .
G e n e r a l Ce y lo n Tea Est a te s
v Pu lle
.
9 Ce y lo n N L R 9 8 . . .
G e o r ge v L e w e . A D 2 49
. .
G e r b e r , ex p a rte W L D 228. . .
G e r be r v G e r b e r .
W L D 30 0
. . .
G e r iks v G e r iks .
14E D C 1 13 . . .
G hisli n s E st v Fa gan
’
.
C P D 206
. . .
G ib so n , I n r e N P D 204
. . .
TAB LE OF CA SES
G ill e sp ie , ex p a r te [ 1 9 43 ] C P D 58
. . 374
G ils o n v Pa yn ( 1 89 9 ) 1 6 S C 2 86 261
G ir igo r isha m y v L e bbe M
.
ar ika r ( 1 9 2 8) 0
. .
. 3 0 Ce y lo n N L R 2 9 1 1 1 . . .
G la se r v B lo t w ick .
[ 1 941 ] C P D 40 3
. . 2 42 .
G lass v P e r l T P D 2 64 333 , 3 44
G le dhill , I n r e I t e st E S n
. . . .
t of ( 1 89 1 ) 1 2 N L R 43 40 6
. . .
G lo v e r v F in ch C P D 35 8 319 .
G lu c km a n v G o o dw o r t hs L t d [ 1 9 2 8]
. . .
. B D L 95
. .31 1 .
G lu c km a n v S chn e ide r [ 1 9 36] . A D 151

. .3 33
G n an a pra kasa m v M a r ia pilla i ( 1 9 3 7 ) . 3 9 Ce y lo n N L R 40 6 1 7 6 . . .
G o ldb la tt v Fr e m a n t le [ 1 9 20] . A D 123

. . 217
G o l db la t t v M e r w e ( 1 902 ) . 19 S C 373 .261 .
G o ldfo o t v My e rso n [ 1 9 2 6]
W
2 42 2 46 , 445
hite la w [ 1 9 l 7 ]
.
G o ldin ge r s Tr us te e v A D 66
’
. . 1 42 , 1 9 0
.
G o ldm an N 0 v E st G o ld . . . .
[ 1 9 3 7 ] W L D 64 . 43 . .
, 3 88
G o ldse lle r v u r a n da . K [ 1 9 0 6] T H 1 85
. . 3 33
G o n st a na v L u didi D u n a .
( 1 89 2 ) 7 E D C 6 0 . . . 3 14
G oo n e r a t n e v D o n Philip .
( 1 89 9 ) 5 Ce y lo n N L R 2 68 . . . 23 4
G o o n e w a r de n e v G o o n e w ar .
( 1 9 29 ) 3 1 Ce y lo n NL R . . . 9 37 1
G o o n e w a r de n e v . Wic kre m a
( 1 932 ) 3 4 Ce y lo n N L R 5 . . . 89
G oo se n v B o sc h .
[1 9 1 7] C P D 1 89
. . . 35 3
G o o se n s Tr us te e s v G o ose n 3 E D O 3 68
’
( 1 884) . . . . 1 90
G o pa lsa m y v Ra m a sa m y Pu ll e ( 1 9 1 1 ) . 1 4 Ce y lo n N L R 2 3 8 . . . 35 3
G o r d o n I n r e I n te s t E s t o f
, ( 1909 ) . 3 0 N L R 3 25 . . . 40 6
G o r d o n v G o r do n [ 1 9 29 ] W L D 1 65 92
G o r do n s B a y E st a te
.
sv Sm ut s [ 1 9 2 3 ]
. . .
’
A D 1 60
. . 3 86
G o r fin ke l v Mill e r [ 193 1] . C P D 25 1
. . . 3 46
G O W v The M as te r
.
[ 1 9 3 6] C P D 29 6
. . . 37 3
G r a a f R e in e t B d o f E x o rs v
-
.
E st E r lan k .
[ 1 9 33] CP D
. . . 41
G r a ha m v L o c a l O v e r se as .
In v e st m e n t s ( Pt y ) L td [ 1 9 42 ] A D 95
. . 158
G rassm a n v H O fi m a n . .
( 1 885 ) 3 S C 2 82 . 42 9
G r a y v P e rpe t u a l flTus te e CO
. .
[ 1 9 2 8] A O 39 1
. . 39 5
G r a y v P o u t sm a
.
[ 1 9 1 4] T P D 20 3
. . . 3 40
G r e e f v V e rr a u x
.
( 1 82 9 ) 1 Me n z 1 5 1 . 51
G r e e ff v Pr e t o r iu s
.
( 1 89 5 ) 12 104 1 94
G r e e n v Fit z ge r a ld
.
[ 1 9 1 4] A D 88
. 1 0 , 3 4, 3 65 ,
. 40 6
G r e e n v G r iffi ths .
( 1 886 ) 4 S C 3 46 1 60 , 1 6 1 , . 30 8
G r e e n b e r g s E st v R o se n b e r g
’
. .
G r ee n b e r g [ 1 9 2 5 ] T P D 9 24
. . 2 47 445 .
G r e k v Ja n ke lo w i t z
.
[ 1 9 1 8] C P D 1 40
. . 3 40 .
G r e y dt R idge w a y v H O ppe rt
-
. 1 9 30 1 P H J 1 4. .338, . .
G r e yv e n s t e in v H a t t in gh .
[ 1 9 1 1] A C 35 5 ; [ 1 9 1 1 ] A D
. . .
3 58
G r in k e r v . G r in k e r [ 1 9 40 ] W L D 236 . . .
G r o b le r v . G r o b le r [ 1 9 43] C P D 192
. . .
G r o b le r v . S c hm ilg F r e e dm a n [ 1 9 2 3] A D 49 6
U
. .
G r o b le r v . ni o n G o v t .
[ 1 9 2 3] T P D 42 9
. . .
x xx v iii TA B L E OF CASES
G r o e n e w a ld v V a n de r M e r w e .
[ 1 9 1 7] A D 2 33
. .
G r o o t c hw a in g Sa lt Wo r ks L t d .
v V an T o n d e r
.
[ 1 9 20 ] A D 49 2
. .
G r u e n e w a ld v Ma t h ias [ 1 9 25 ] S W A 1 1 7
( 1 9 1 9 ) 2 1 Ce ylo n N L R 2 57;
. . . .
G u n a t ille ke v F e r n an do . . . . .
[ 1 9 2 1] 2 A C 357 . .
,
N L R 3 85 22 . . . 1 44
G u n a t ille ke v Mi ll e No n a ( 1 9 3 6 ) 3 8 Ce y lo n N L R 2 9 1 . . . 95
G u n e r a tn e v . Y a pa ( 1 9 2 6 ) 2 8 Ce ylo n N L R 3 9 7 . . . 29 1
H
H ( w r o n gly c a lle d C ) v C
. . . .
[ 1 9 29] T P D 9 92
. . .
H aa c ke v D e u t s c h e P r e sse L t d
. .
[ 1 9 3 4] T P D 19 1
. . .
H adl e y v B a x e n da le .
( 1 85 4) 9 E x c h 3 41 .
H a ge m ann ex p a r te ,
.
( 1909 ) 26 S C 50 3 .
H a in e s E x o r v Ha in e s
’
. .
[19 17] E D L 40
. . .
H a ir m an v . Cr a w le y [ 1 9 2 3] O P D 3
. . .
H a ll v H a ll s T r u st e e s
.
’
( 1 884) 3 S C 3 .
H a ll v H o w e
.
[ 1 9 29] T P D 59 1
. . .
Ha ll v Zie t sma n
.
( 1 89 9 ) 16 S C 2 13 .
H a lliw e ll v Jo ha nn e sb u r g .
Mu n i c Co u n c il .
[ 1 9 1 2] A D . . 659
H a m il t o n v Ma c K inn o n .
[ 1 9 35] A D . . 1 1 4, 3 46
Ha n au Wicke v . T he S t a n
da r d B an k ( 1 89 1 ) 4 S A R 1 30 . . . 2 49
Ha n ifi a v O ce a n A c c ide n t Co r p ( 1 9 33 ) 3 5 Ce y lo n N L R 2 1 6
. . . . . 2 60
H a nna y v Pa r fi t t .
[ 1 9 2 7] T P D 1 1 1 . . . 30 2
H a n se n , Sc hr a d e r CO v . .
K o pe lo w it z [ 1 90 3 ] T S 7 0 7 . 305
Ha r da ke r v Tja b r in g [ 1 9 2 7 ] N P D 1 45
. . . . 3 44
H a r e v Hea t h s Tr us te e
.
( 1 884) 3 S C 3 2
’
. 191
H ar m s v Ma lhe r b e .
[ 1 9 35 ] C P D 1 6 7 3 40 . . . 42 7
H a r r is v A C Whi t e CO L t d [ 1 9 2 6] C P D 1 0 4
. . . . . . . . 3 34
H a r r is v B u isinn e s Tr u st e e
’
.
( 1 840 ) 2 M e n z 1 0 5 1 45 , 1 46 , . 19 1
H a r r is v Pie t e r s .
[ 1 9 2 0 ] A D 644 . . 2 74
Ha rt v Co he n .
( 1 89 9 ) 1 6 S C 3 6 3 . 341
H ar t v L e nn o x
.
[ 1 9 2 6] W L D 2 1 9 . . . 1 34
H ar t v The Ma s te r
.
[ 1 92 3] C P D 7 8 . . . 3 62
H a rt o gh v Na t B a nk .
[ 1 90 7] T S 1 0 92; [ 1 9 0 7]
. .
T H 20 7 . .
H a r t z e n b e r g, ex p a rte [ 1 9 2 8] C P D 3 85 . . .
H as le r v H as le r .
( 1 89 6 ) 1 3 S C 3 7 7 .
H a u m an v No rt je .
[ 1 9 1 4] A D 2 9 3 . .
H a u pt v H a u pt .
( 1 89 7 ) 1 4 S C 3 9 .
H a v e m a nn v O lda cr e B r o s ( 190 5 ) 2 6 N L R 5 6
. . . . .
H a v e m a nn s Ass ign e e v H a v e
’
.
m a nn s E x o r
’
[ 1 9 2 7 ] A D 47 3 . . .
H a y e s v Ha y e s .
[ 1 9 2 8] T P D 6 1 8 . . .
H a z ar e e v K a m a lu din .
[ 1 9 3 4] A D 1 0 8 . .
H az is v Tr an s v aa l. D e la go a
B a y In v es t m e n t CO [ 1 9 39] A D 3 72 . . .
H e a d v D u T o it.
[ 1 9 3 2 ] C P D 2 87 . . .
TAB L E OF CASES x xx ix
H e a r so n v Na t a l Witn e ss .
[ 1 9 3 5 ] N P D 60 3
L td . . . 3 44
He ide lb u r g M u n ic v U y s . .
( 1 89 8) 1 5 S C 1 5 6 . . 173
H e ilm an v V o r b e ck [ 1 9 25 ] T P D 7 90 236
He in a m a n
n[ 1 9 1 9 ] A D 9 9 8
. . . .
He m a m a nn E st , v . . .
H e lps v Na t a l Witn e ss L td
. . A D 45 . . 3 44
H e n de rso n v H e n de r so n .
[ 1 9 44] A C 49 . . 87
H e nl e y s Tr u ste e v H e nl e y
’
.
[ 1 9 2 6] N P D 1 1 9
. . . 96
H e nn in g v L e R o u x .
[ 1 9 2 1 ] C P D 5 87
. . . 30 2
[ 1 9 35] C P D 2 24
. . . 91
He r b e rt A n de rso n ( 1 839 ) 2 M e n z 1 6 6 . 2 6, 1 60
H e r i o t G M CO v . n i o n G o vt . . . U .
[ 1 9 1 6] A D 41 5. . 3 19
H e r m a nn v Ch a r le sw o r t h [ 1 905 ] 2 K B 1 23 2 39
72
. . .
He rn CO v de B ee r . .
[ 1 9 1 3] T P D 7 2 1
. . .
,
H e rr o n , I n r e , ex p a r te Wa te rs ( 1 840 ) 2 M e n z 42 3 . 372
H e rsm an v Sha pir o CO .
[ 1 9 2 6 ] T P D 3 67
. . . 279
H e r t z o g v We sse ls E st’
. .
[ 1 9 2 5 ] O P D 1 41
. . . 45 0
H e r z e n b e r g M u lln e L t d v Ca
p
e[ 1 9 2 6]
. .
T o w n Co u n c il C P D 45 1
. . .
H e y de n r y ch v F o ur ie ( 1 89 6 ) 1 3 S C 3 7 1
ik
. . .
H e y de nr y ch v S ta n da r d B a t
Of S A C P D 3 35
d
. . . . .
H e y m a n v D a r w in s L t’
. .
[ 1 9 42 ] A O 3 5 6
. .
H iddin gh v Co m m is sio n e rs fo r .
Inl an d R e v e n u e [ 1 9 41 ] A D 1 1 1
. .
( 1 885 ) 3 S C 42 4 .
H ilde b r a n d v Hi lde b ra n d .
[ 1 9 2 3] W L D 1 5 1 . . .
H ilde r v Y o u n g .
( 1 89 0 ) 1 1 N L R 1 5 4 . . .
H il l CO v Mc Clu re . .
[ 1 909] T H 2 1 2
. .
H o chs te r D e la T o u rv .
( 1 85 3 ) 2 E B 678 . .
H o dgso n B r o s v S A R . . . . .
[ 1 9 2 8] C P D 2 5 7
. . .
H o ffm a n v E st Me c ha u . .
[ 1 9 2 2] C P D 1 7 9
. . .
H O fI I n a n v P r in slo o 85 H o ffm an [ 1 9 2 8] T P D 6 2 1
’
. . . .
H o ffm an v S A Co n se rv a . . .
t o r iu m O f Mu s ic ( 1 90 8) 25 S C 24 .
H o ldga te v Mo o dl e y [ 1 9 34]
. N P D 35 6
. . .
H o ldt v Me is e l
.
[ 1 9 27] S W A 45
. . .
H olm e s G a r a ge L t d v L e v in [ 1 9 2 4] . . 58
Hon g on g K S ha n gha i B a nk
v K r ishn a i lla i
.
p ( 1 9 3 2 ) 33 Ce y lo n N L R 2 49 20 6 . . .
H o o ge n do o r n L td v F o u che [ 1 9 33] . . C P D 5 60
. . 3 40 .
H o ple y S E st , ex p a r te
’
[ 1 9 40 ] . C P D 60
. . 3 88 .
H o r ak v H o r a k .
( 1 860 ) 3 S ea r le 3 89 33 , 9 6
H o m e v Hu tt .
[ 1 9 15] C P D 331
. . 295 .
H o m e v Willia m s CO
.
[ 1 9 40 ] . T P D 106
. . 261 .
H o t z v S tandar d B an k ( 1907 3 B u ch A C 5 3 238

H
. . . . .
H o u ght o n E st CO v Mc a tt ie ( 1 89 4) . . . 1 Off R e p 9 2 30 7 . .
H o u l ds w o r t h v Cit y o f G lasgo w .
( 1 880 ) 5 A pp Cas 3 1 7 . .
H ou st o n v B le tc hly .
[ 1 9 2 6] E D L 30 5
. . .
H u lle y v Co x .
[ 1 9 23] A D 2 34
. .
Hu lt o n v Jo n e s [ 1 9 1 0] A O 20
7
. . .
H u m a n v R ie se b e r g .
[ 1 9 22] T P D
. . . 15
xl TAB L E OF CA SES
H u m phr e y s ex p a r te ,
H u m phr e y s v Casse ll .
Hu m phr e y s v Pickle s .
Hu n t v Hun t.
H u r w it z v Ta y lo r .
H y am s Wo lf v Sim pso n .
Ib r ahim Sa ib o v Pa lla ku L e b b a . 29 Ce y lo n N L R . . .
In c o rpor at e d L a w S o c v R e id . . 25 612
In gle Co lon ia l B r o o m CO v . .
H o ckin g CP D
. . . 49 5
Ir vin John so n ( S A L t d v . . .
K a pla n C P D 6 47
. . .
Ir w in v D a v ie s
. C P D 442
. . .
I sa a cm an v Mille r . T P D 56
. . .
Ism a il v Ma r ikar
. 3 4 Ce y lo n N L R . . .
Ja c o b s v . Cape To w n M u n ic i
pa lit y .
[ 1 9 3 5 ] C P D 47 4
. . .
Ja co b s v L o r e n z i
.
[ 1 9 42 ] C P D 3 9 4
. . .
Ja c o b s v Ma cdon a ld
.
[ 1 9 0 9 ] T S 442 .
Ja co b so hn s Tr us t e e v St an da r d
’
.
B an k ( 1 89 9 ) 16 20 1
Ja fi a r , ex p a r te [ 1 9 44] C P D 1 42
. . .
Ja jb ha y v Ca ssim .
[ 1 9 39] A D 5 37
. .
J a m e s v Ja m e s E s t’
[ 1 9 41 ] E D L
R [ 1 9 0 8]
. . . . .
Ja m e so n s Min o r s v C S A
’
. . . . . T S 5 75 .
Jan so n v D r ie fo n t e in Co n s
. .
Min e s [ 1 9 0 2] A C 484
s O
. .
Ja phtha v Mill E x r s ’
.
[ 1 9 1 0] E D C 1 50
. . .
Jas sa t v L e w is
.
[ 1 9 2 4] T P D 11
. . .
Ja y a sha m y v A b e y su r iy a .
( 19 12) 1 5 Ce y lo n N L R . .
Ja y a w ickr e m e v A m a sur iy a .
[ 1 9 1 8] A O 86 9
. .
Je ffe r y v Po lla ck.

[ 1 9 3 8] A D 1
. .
Je w is h Co lo n ia l Tr u st v E st . .
[ 1 9 40 ] A D 1 63
. .
Jin a dasa v Silv a .

( 1 9 32 ) 3 4 Ce y lo n N L R . . .
Jin a se n a v E n ge lt in a .
( 1919) 2 1 Ce y lo n N L R . .
JO ffe v A fr i ca n L ife A S S
. L td .
[ 1 9 33] T P D 1 89
. . .
Jo fife CO v H o skin s . . A D 43 1
. .
J ohann e sb u r g City Co u n cil v .
Vic c in o v ich [ 1 9 40 ] A D 3 65
T
. .
J oha nn e sb u r g Mu n v r an s . .
v a a l Co ld S t o r a e CO
g [ 1 9 0 7] T S . . 7 22
Joh a nn e sb u r g Mu n Co u n c il v . .
Afr ica n R e a lt y Tr u s t L t d [ 1 9 2 7 ] A D . . 1 63
Johann e sb u r g Mu n Co u n c il v .
R an d To w n ships R e gis t ra r [ 1 9 1 0 ] 1 314

Jo ha nn e sb u r g Mu n Co u n c il v .
R o bin s o n G M CO .
WL . . . . D . 99
xlii TAB L E OF CA SES
K e ln e r v . B a x te r ( 1 86 6 ) L R . . 2 G R 1 74
K emp s
’
E st v . M c D o n a ld ’
s
Tr u st e e [ 1 9 1 5 ] A D 49 1 . .
K e m s le y v K e m s le y [ 1 9 3 6] C P D 5 1 8
. . .
K
.
e nn e dy v S te e nk a m p [ 1 9 3 6] C P D 1 1 3
. . .
K
.
[ 1 9 1 0] T S 63 7
W g
e n t v S a lm o n d
. .
K e r gu e le n S e a l in g ha lin
Co v Co m m rs fo r Inl an d
. .
Re venu e [ 1 9 3 9 ] A D 487 . .
K e r kh o f, e x p a r te [ 1 9 2 4] T P D 7 1 1
. . .
K e yt e r v T e r b la n che [ 1 9 3 5 ] E D L 1 86
. . .
K
.
idn e y v G a r n e r .
[ 1 9 2 9] C P D 1 6 3
. . .
K i e le y v D r e y e r .
[ 1 9 1 6] C P D 6 0 3
. . .
K ilb u m v E st K ilb u m . .
[193 1] A D 50 1 . .
K illi an v R e illy .
( 1 9 0 8) 1 8 O T R 1 5 9 . . .
K
.
in g v G r a y
.
( 1 90 7 ) 24 S C 5 5 4 . .
K in g v Ne a le [ 1 9 3 6] B D L 2 3 6
p
. . . .
K in gsle y v A fr ica n L a n d o r . C .
[ 1 9 1 4] T P D 66 6
. . .
K ir kpa t r ic k v B e z u ide n h o u t . . T P D 155

. . .
K ir s h v Pin c u s
.
[ 1 9 2 7] T P D 1 9 9
. . .
K irs t e n v Nila n d .
[ 1 9 2 0 ] E D L 87 . . . .
K i st an v K o m a r asa m y
.
[ 1 9 40 ] N P D 5 6 . . .
K it hir a t n e v S a lga do .
( 1 9 3 2 ) 3 4 Ce y lo n N L R . . .
K l as s v l a ss
. K [ 1 9 2 4] W L D 1 36 . . .
Kl e in ha n s , I n r e E st [ 1 9 2 7] C P D 7 3
. . .
K le t t e v Pfi t z é .
( 1 89 1 ) 6 B B C 1 3 4 . . .
K le y n v E s t . le y n . K [1 9 1 5] A D 5 27. .
K le yn ha n s v U
'
sm a r .
[ 1 9 29] A D 1 2 1
. .
K le yn ha n s B r o s v We sse l s’
Tr u s t e e [ 1 9 2 7] A D 27 1
. .
K loppe r v Ma lo ko .
[ 1 9 30] T P D 860
. .
K
.
lu g v P e r kin
.
[ 1 9 3 2] C P D 40 1
hk
.
K
. .
n o c ke r v S t a n da r d B a .
[ 1 9 33] A D 128
K
. .
n o o p, I n r e ( 1 89 3 ) 1 0 S C 1 98
K K
. .
o ch 2 S C 3 82
n ox v . .
( 1 883 ) . .
Kn u pfi e r v L o n do n E xpr e ss .
Ne w spa pe r L t d .
[ 1 9 44] A C 1 16
K
. .
o c h v P a n o v ska
.
[ 1 9 3 4] N P D 776
K K
. . .
o ck v le in C P D 1 94
.
[ 1 9 33]
K
. . .
o en , ex p a r te [ 1 9 30 ] O P D 1 54
K
. . .
o e n ig v G o db o ld C P D 5 26
.
[ 1 9 2 3]
K
. . .
o e n ig v o hn s o n
. CO J [ 1 9 35] A D 2 62
K
. . .
o e n i gsb e r g CO v R o b in s o n .
G M CO
. . .
[ 1 9 0 5] T H 9 0
K
. .
o m e n v D e He e r .
( 1 9 0 8) 2 9 N L R 2 3 7
K
. . . .
o m e n , E x or E st v D e H e e r . . .
( 1 90 7 ) 28 N L R 5 77
K
. . .
om en , E x or E st v D e H e e r . . .
( 1 9 0 8) 2 9 N L R 487 . . .
K On iglich Pr e u ss is c h B r an de n
b r gische
u H a u s fi de ik o m
m is s v A dm in S W A . .
[ 1 9 2 8] 82
K
. .
t
. .
o o pm a n s E st v E s t D e We
’
. .
[ 1 9 1 2] 1061
K o t z é v Fra n ke l
. CO . A D 41 8
. .
TA B LE OF CA SES x liii
Kte Jh
o z v . o ns o n [ 1 9 2 8] A D 313
. . 2 66
Kte Pi
o z v . r ns .
( 1903) 20 S C 1 5 6 . . 43 3
K ig S b l
r e v co e [ 1 9 1 2] T P D 81 4
. . 35 3
H o r a t a la
. .
K i t pp Ch tt y
r s na a e v .
( 1 92 3) 2 5 Ce y lo n N L R 3 9 -
. 20 6
K E
r oon v h d . n sc e e [ 1 90 9] T S 374 . 318
K i H
r o on e r v . e ss CO .
[ 19 19] A D 20 4
. . 297
K pf p t
ro , ex ar e .
[ 1 9 3 6] W L D 28 . . . 59
K g
ru V ter v . e rs e r [ 1 9 25 ] CP D 6
. . . 43 5
K D B
un n e v . e e er [ 1 9 1 6] C P D 6 67
. . . 42 7
K ‘
unz vSw t . ar [ 1 9 2 4] A D 618

. . 39 7
K u sm a w a t h i v We e r asm ghe .
( 1 9 32 ) 3 3 Ce y lo n N L R 2 6 5 . . . 3 83
K yn o c hs L t d v Tr a n sv aa l S il . .
ver B as e Me ta ls L td .
[ 1 9 22] WL . . D . 71
L
L aas , ex p a r te [ 1 9 2 3] NP D . 104 . . 378
L a ce y v L a c e y .
[ 1 929] W L D 1 32. . . 42 7
L a c ht e r v G la se r .
[ 1 9 1 4] T P D 46 1
. . . 33 4
L a in g v L e R o u x.
[ 1 9 2 1] C P D 7 45
. . . 71
L a in g v S A M illin g C O
. . .
[192 1] A D 3 87
. . 294
L a lla , I n r e E st .
[ 1 9 2 2] N P D 18
. . . 35 9
L a lc ha n d v Sa r a v a n a m u t t u .
( 1 9 3 4) 3 6 Ce y lo n N L R . . . 2 7 3 43 1
L a m a ha m y v K a r u n a r o tn o .
( 1 92 1 ) 2 2 Ce y lo n N L R . 2 89 43
L a m b v Wa lte r s .
[ 1 9 2 6] A D 358
. . 2 29
L am b S o n s v G o r in g B r ic k CO .
[ 1 9 3 2] 1 K B 7 10 . . 27 1
L a m o n t v H e yns .
[ 1 9 3 8] T P D 22
. . . 1 35
L a n d B a n k v Ma n s .
[ 1 9 33 ] C P D 16
. . . 198
L a n da u v Cit y A u c t io n Mar t .
[ 1 9 40 ] A D 2 84
. . 2 64
L anfe a r v D u T o it . .
[ 1 9 43] A D 59
. . 272
L a n ge v L a n ge .
[ 1 9 45 ] A D 332
. . 95
L a n ge v L ie sc hi n g .
( 1 880 ) Fo o r d 5 5 37 6, 3 83 , 43 4
L a r kin v Ja c o b s .
[ 1 9 29] T P D 693
. . . 30 4
L a t e ga n v n io n G o v t . U .
[ 1 9 37 ] C P D 202
. . . 1 69
L a v e ry CO v Ju n ghe in r ich . .
[ 193 1] A D 156
. . 2 67
L a w r ie v n io n G o v t . U [ 1 9 30 ] T P D 40 2
. . . 3 47
L a w s v R u t h e r for d
.
[ 1 9 2 4] A D 261
. . 216
L az ar u s Jackso n v We sse ls [ 1 9 0 3] T S 5 10 . 1 86
L e cho a n a v Clo e t e .
[ 19 25] A D 5 36
. . 7 9 , 45 2
L e c le r v G r o ssm a n.
[ 1 9 39] W L D 41 . . . 90
L e d im o v L e dim o .
[ 1 9 40 ] O P D 65
. . . . 87
L ee dh a m , I n r e ( 1 90 1 ) 1 8 S C 45 0 . . 36 1
L e e u w , ex p a r te ( 1 905 ) 2 2 S C 3 40 . . 40 6 41 2
L e ib e n gu t h v V a n S t r aa t e n .
[ 1 9 10] T P D 1 20 3
. . . 332
L e isa v S iy a t hu h a m y
.
( 1 9 25 ) 2 7 Ce y lo n N L R . . . 3 1 5 3 33
L e L ie v r e v G o u ld .
( 1 89 3 ) 1 Q B D 49 1 . . . 32 5
L e sc hin v o v n o Sic k B e n e t s
. K fi
So c .
[ 1 9 36] WL D . . . 9
L e v e r v B u h r m a nn
. .
[ 1 9 25 ] TP D
. . . 25 4
L e v in v L e v in .
[19 1 1] CPD
. . . 1026
L e v in e v L e v in e .
[ 1 9 39 ] CP D
. . . 97
L e v in e v L e v in e .
[ 1 9 39] C P D
. . . 2 46
L e v ise u r v S c o t t .
[ 1 9 2 2] O P D . . . 1 38
xli v TAB LE OF CA SES
L e v y v P hilli ps
.
L e v y v Ty le r
n
.
L e w is CO v M a lki . .
L ie b e n b e r g v L o u b se r .
L ie b e n b e r g 8 E st v S tan dar d
’
.
B an k
L ili e n fe ld v B o u r ke .
L io n e l v H e pw o r t h
.
q
L i u i da t o rs O f n i o n B an k v U
K iv e r 8S C 1 47
n
. .
q
L i u ida t o rs O f n io R ho de U
s ia Who le sa le L t d v B r o w n . .
Co . A D 5 49
. . 1 89 , 2 03
L issa ck CO v Sigm a B u ild . .
in g CO . 4O R . . 213
L iv e r a v G o n sa le z
. 1 7 Ce y lo n N L R . .
L iv e r po o l Co rp v Co ghill . . 1 Ch 30 7 .
L o b le y v L o b le y . C P D 42 0
. . .
L o ga n v B e it 7 S C 197 .
t
. .
L o n do n Ch e m is t s Op ic ia ns
L td v Shapir o
. . T P D
. . . 690
L o n do n S A E xplo r a t io n . .
CO . v im b e r le y To w n
. K
Co u n c il ( 1 882 ) 1 H CG 1 36
E O
. .
L o n do n S A xplo r a t i n . .
CO v R o u lio t
. .
( 1 890 ) 8 S C 75. .
L o n gpa n Sa lt CO v B lu m e nfe . ld
CO .
[ 1 9 2 2]
L o r d v G illw a ld
.
[ 1 9 07]
L o r e n t z N O , e x p a r te .
[ 1 9 2 8]
.
L or e n z v R a b in o w i t z
.
[ 1 9 33]
L or e nz o v R a ka gia t is .
[ 1 9 3 8]
L o te r y m an CO v Co w i e [ 1 9 0 4] . .
L ou do n , I n r e in s o l e st o f, D is . .
co u n t B an k v D a w e s ( 1 82 9 ) .
L o u isa v V an de n B e r g
.
( 1 83 0 )
L o u r e n s o n v Sw a r t [ 1 9 2 8]
.
L o u w , ex p a r te [ 1 9 20]
L ou w v L ou w
.
[ 1 9 33 ]
L o v e ll v P a x in o s
.
[ 1 9 37 ]
L u b b e v Tr o llip
.
[ 1 9 2 6]
L u ca s
’
Tru s te e v Ism a il .
Am o d .
[ 1905]
L u yt v M o r gan
.
[19 15]
L u z m o or v L u z m oor .
[1 905]
L y de n b u r g E s ta te s v Pa lm .
'
Schu t te [ 1 9 2 3]
L y o n v S te y n
.
[ 1 9 3 1]
M
Ma c do n a ld e x p a r te [ 1 9 29]
,
Ma c D o n al d L td v R a di n N O [ 1 9 1 5 ] . . . .
TA B L E OF CA SES xl v
Ma c du fi CO . v . Jo ha nn e s
b ur g Co n s o l In v e st m e n t .
CO .
[ 1 9 2 4] A D 573 . .
Ma c G r e go r v Sa y le s .
[ 1 9 0 9] TS 5 5 3 .
M a cha tt ie v Film e r .
( 1 89 4) 1 O R 30 5 . .
M a c ka y v Mc Can ki e .
( 1 883 ) 1 0 R 537 .
Ma cke lla r v B on d .
( 1 884) 9 A pp G a s 7 1 5 . .
M a cke n z ie v B ilb r o u gh [ 1 9 0 6] T H 1 16
t
. . .
Ma c Na u ght v Ca le d o n ia n H o e l .
[ 1 9 3 8] T P D 5 77
. . .
Ma c r a e v Na t B a nk O f S A
. . . .
[ 1 92 7] A D 62 . .
Ma dr a ssa v Jo hann e sb u r g .
[ 1 9 1 7] A D 7 18 . .
Ma ha r a j v Ma ha r a j .
[ 1 9 38] N P D 128. . .
M a lc o lm v M a lc o lm .
[ 1 9 2 6] C P D 235
. . .
M a le ex p a r te
, ( 19 10 ) 2 0 C T R 9 41 . . .
M a n de lko o m v S t r a u s s .
[ 1 9 42 ] C P D 49 3
. . .
Ma nn v M a nn [ 1 9 1 8] C P D 89
Wa x v He a thc o t es
. ‘ . . .
Ma nn in g ’
Tr u s te e [ 1 9 1 5] E D L . . .
Ma n t o n v Ma n t o n .
( 1 9 0 9 ) 30 N L R 3 87 . . .
Ma pe n du ka v A shin gto n .
[ 1 9 1 9 ] A D 3 43
. .
Ma r a is v An dr e w s .
[ 1 9 1 4] T P D 2 9 0
. . .
Mar a is v Co m m e r cia l G e n e r a l
.
A ge n c y L td .
[ 1 9 2 2] T P D . . . 440
M a r a is b u r g D iv . Co u n c il v .
[ 1 9 2 3] C P D
. . . 94
Ma r cus v . Sta m pe r Zo u t e n
[ 1 9 1 0] A D 5 8. .294
Ma r e v G r o b le r N O [ 1 9 30 ] T P D 6 3 2 43 5
( 1 9 30 ) 3 2 Ce ylo n R L E 1 11 3 40
. . . . . .
Ma r ika r v Mar ika r . . . .
Ma r ika r v Su pr a m a ni an Che l
.
lia r ( 1 9 43 ) 43 Ce y lo n N L R 40 9 . . . 259
Ma r it z v Pr a t le y
.
( 1 89 4) 1 1 S C 3 45 2 1 8,
. . 220
Ma r ks , ex p a r te [ 1 9 2 6] T P D 1
. . . 3 88
Ma r ks, e x p a r te E st .
[1 92 7] T P D 3 16
. . . 3 88
Ma r ks , r e E st .
[ 1 92 1] T P D 1 80
. . . 37 4
Ma r ks v L au ght o n
.
[ 1 9 20] A D 12
. . 23 1
[ 1 9 2 8] N P D 323
. . . 37 7
M ar t ie n sse n e x p a r te , [ 1 9 44] C P D 1 39
. . . 90
Ma so n v B e rns t e in
.
( 1 89 7 ) 1 4 S C 504 . . 43 1
Maso n CO v Willia m s . .
( 1 884) 5 N L R 1 68 . . . 42 9
Mas te r ex p a rte The
, , [ 1 9 0 6] TS 5 63 . 1 32
M as t e r ex p a r te The
, , [ 1927] T P D 1 17
. . . 1 10
Mas t e r Th e v A fr ic a n Min e s
, .
Co r p L t d TS 9 25 .
el i
. . .
M a ste r , The v Ca st l a n .
[19 1 1] T P D 7 63
. . .
Ma st e r , The v E dge c o m b e s
’
.
E x ors [ 1 9 1 0] T P D 2 63
‘
. . . .
Mas t e r , The v O ce a n A cc ide nt .
Co r p L t d . .
[ 1 9 3 7] C P D 30 2
. . .
Mas t e r s v Ce n t r a l Ne w s
.
[ 1 9 3 6] C P D 3 88
. . .
Ma tso n v D e tt m a r .
[ 19 1 7] E D L 37 1
. . .
xl v i TAB L E OF CA SES
Ma t t he w s v Y o u n g .
[ 1 9 22 ] A D 49 2
. .
Ma x w e ll E a rp v E s t D r e y e r ( 1 9 0 8) . . 25 S C 7 2 3 . .
M a yn ar d v U she r .
( 1 845 ) 2 Me n z 1 7 0 .
Ma z ist a Sla te Qu a rr ie s L t d v . .
O o st hu iz e n [ 1 9 43 ] T P D. . . 28
M c Al pin e v Ce llie rs .
[1 9 2 1] B D L. . . 1 12
Mc Ca b e v B u r isch .
[ 1 9 30 ] T P D. . . 261
Mc Ca lga n I n r e , ( 1 89 3 ) 10 S C . . 277
Mc Ca lI n a n v Tho r n e [ 1 9 3 4]
. NP D . . . 86
Mc Ca r thy v Ne w t o n Ze e de r .
bur g ( 1 86 1 ) 4 S e a r le 6 4
Mc Cu llo gh v F e m w o o d E st a t e .
L td .
[ 1 9 20 ] A D 204
. . 443 , 444
Mc Cu llo u gh v ROSS [ 1 9 1 8] . C P D 3 89
. . .
Mc Cu ll o u gh Wh it e he a d v
White a w a y CO [ 1 9 1 4] . A D 599 . .
M cD a id v D e Villie r s
.
[ 1 9 42 ] C P D 2 20
. . .
Mc G e e v M ign o n [ 1 9 0 3] T S 89 .
M c G ill v M c G ill
.
[ 1 9 2 6] N P D 39 8
. . .
Mc G r e go r v S A B r e w e r ie s . . .
L td .
[19 19] WL . . D . 22
Mc G r e go r s Tru st e e s v Silb e r
’
.
bau e r ( 1 89 1 ) 9 S C 36 . .
Mc In t yr e v G oo diso n .
[ 1 87 7 ] B u ch 83 .
Mc I n t yr e v Jo hn st o n .
( 1 89 5 ) 2 O ff R e p 2 0 2 . . .
Mc K a b e v M o o r e .
[1909] E D O 161. . .
M c K a y B r os v E a gle st o n e [ 1 9 32]
. . T P D 30 1
. . .
Mc K e n z ie v B lo e m fo n t e in To w n .
Co u n c il [ 1 9 0 4] O R C 83 . . .
Mc K e n z ie v Fa rm e r s CO 0 .
-
M e a t I n du s t L t d [ 1 922] . . A D 16 . . 2 14
Mc K e n z ie v V a n de r M e r w e [1 9 17]
. A D 41
. . 339
Mc L a u ghlin v o e n ig [ 1 9 2 8] . K C P D 102
. . . 33 9
M c L e a n v Mu r r a y .
[ 1 9 2 3] A D 40 6. . 3 44
M c L o u ghlin N 0 v Tu r n e r [ 19 2 1] . . . A D 5 37. . 2 37
M c Na u ght v M c Na u ght [ 1 9 37 ]
. W L D 103 . . . 94
Mee n a dc hipilla i v S an m u ga m ( 1 9 1 6 ) . 1 9 N L R 2 09 . . . 328
Me hn e r t v Mo r r iso n .
[ 1 9 35 ] T P D 1 44
. . . 33 8
Me in t je s E st ex p a r te
’
( 1 90 7 ) .
, 1 7 C T R 45 1 . . . 1 83
M e in t je s v O b e r ho lz e r.
( 1 85 9 ) 3 S e a r le 2 6 5 177
Me in tje s v Wil so n .
[ 1927] O P D 1 83
. . . 1 42
Me ir in g v Me ir in g s E x o rs
.
[ 1 87 8]
’
. B u c h 2 7 ; 3 R o sc o e 6 . 35 8
Me iya No n a v D a v it h V e da r a la ( 1 9 2 8) . 3 1 Ce y l o n N L R 1 0 4 . . 37 7
Me lc k E x o r O f B u r ge r v D a v id ( 1 840 )
, . . 3 Me n z 46 8 . 1 45
M e llish v The Mas t e r
.
[ 1 9 40 ] T P D 27 1
. . . 3 66
M e rr in gt o n v D a v idso n ( 1 90 5 ) . 2 2 S C 1 48 . . 2 20
M e y e r v B o t ha He r ge n r o de r ( 1 882 )
. 1 47 2 0 0 20 2
M e y e r v G le n din n in g
. 84 1 65
Me ye r v Jo c kie
.
, J 1 4[E D . . 2 66
M e y e r v Me r c ha n t s T r u s t L t d [ 1 9 42 ]
. . A D 2 44 . 22 1
Me y e r v R u do lph
.
[1 9 17] N P D 159 . . . 2 88
Me ye r v R u do lph s E x or s
.
[ 1 9 1 8]
’
A D 70 . . 2 88, 2 9 2
TA B LE OF CASES l
x vii
M e y e r o w it z v A nn e tt s [ 1 93 7] . NP D . . . 1 40
Me y e r s E x o r s v G e r ic ke
’
( 1 880 ) . . Fo o r d 14
M e y e r s E x o rs v M e y e r s E x o rs [ 1 9 2 7 ]
’
T P D 33 1
’
. . . . .
[ 1 9 1 3] N P D 47 7. . .
M G u n i v M Tw a li T P D 368
’ ’
.
[ 1 9 2 3] . . .
M ic he lson v A a r o n so n B a ikie [ 1 9 1 4]
. T P D 1 58. . .
Mi dde lla n dsche Na t io n a ls Pe r s

v S ta h l
.
[ 1 9 1 7] A D 6 30
. .
Middl e r v H am il t o n .
[ 1 9 2 3] T P D 441
. . .
Mill e r ex p a rte
, [ 1 9 22] W L D 1 05 . . .
[ 1 9 1 8] C P D 50
. . .
Mille r v A tt w e ll
.
[1 9 27 ] C P D 1 50
. . .
Mille r v D e B us sy
.
[ 1 9 0 4] T S 65 5 .
Mille r v H a rr is
.
[ 1 9 1 2] C P D 203
. . .
Mi lle r v Mille r
.
[ 19 25] E D L 1 20
. . .
Mi lle r v Mille r [ 1 9 40 ] C P D 466

5 S o n s v B e n j a m in B
. . . .
M ills 8 ros . .
T r u st e e s [ 1 87 6 ] B u ch 1 1 5 .
Miln e r v We b ste r [ 1 9 3 8] T P D 598

Mit c he ll v Ma iso n L ib so n
. . . .
.
[ 1 9 37] T P D 13
. . .
M it che ll v M it c he ll .
[ 1 9 22 ] C P D 43 5
. . .
Mit che ll v Mit c he ll .

[ 1 9 30] A D 2 17
. .
Mit che ll Co t t s CO v Co m m r .
O f R a ilw a y s [ 1 90 5] T S 3 49 .
Mkiz e v Ma r t e n s
.
[ 1 9 1 4] A D 3 82
. .
M o fi a t v R a w st o r n e
.
[ 1 9 27] T P D 43 5
. . .
Mo fi a t v T ow y z . CO [ 1 9 1 8] . B D L 3 16
. . .
Mo fuk e n v Mt e m b u .
[ 1 9 29] W L D 82 . . .
Mo ga m a t Jas sie m v
Ma ste r ( 1 89 1 ) 8 S C 259 . 34 .
M o gr a b i v Mo gr a b i [192 1] A D 274 68
R 3
. . . °
M o ha m a d v E as t e rn B ank ( 1931 )
. 33 Ce y lo n N L 7 191
M o le po v A cht e r b e r g [ 1 9 43 ] A D 85 3 3 3 , 3 44
M o lyn e u x v Na t a l L a n d E tc Co ( 1 9 0 3 )
. . .
. . . 2 4N L R 2 5 9 ; [ 1 9 0 5 ] . . .
AC 555 ; ( 1905 )
2 6 N L R 42 3 . . .
Mo m o lo lo s E x o r v U pIn I’
. .
[ 1 9 1 9] A D 58
. .
M o m s e n v M o st e r t .
( 1 881 ) 1 S C 1 85 . .
M o o lm a n ex p a r te , [ 1 9 0 3] TS 1 5 9 .
M o o lm a n v Cu ll .
[ 1 9 39 ] A D 2 13
. .
M o o hn a n v E r asm u s .
[ 1 9 1 0] C P D 79
. . .
Mo o hn a n v E st Mo o hn a n . .
[ 19 27] A D 1 33
. .
Mo o r r e e s E s t v B o a r d
’
. . of
E x o rs .
[ 1 9 3 9 ] A D 41 0
. . 379
M o o sa v D u m a
.
[ 1 9 44] T P D 30
. . . 3 44
M oo sa v M a ho m e d
.
[ 1 9 39 ] 27 1 318
M o ri sse t v B r o c hu .
( 1 883 ) 1 0 Qu e b e c L R . . 1 04 219
M o r ke l v H o hn .
( 1 882 ) 2 S C 5 7 2 49
dB
. .
M o rr is o n v St a n dar . u ildin g
So c .
[ 1 9 3 2 ] A D 22 9
. .
Mo rt o n v . Mo r t o n [ 1 9 3 4] C P D 5 1
. . .
Mo ru m Bros . v . Ne pge n [ 1 9 1 6] C P D 39 2
. . .
l
x viii TA B L E OF CASES
Mo s e s Mo se s
v . C P D 24
. . . 94
MO SS v Mo ss .
P 263
. 33
M o s t e r t v M o st e r t .
2 S e a r le 1 2 8 89
Mo st e rt v The M a s t e r . B u ch 83 . 61
Mo st e r t s Tru st e e v Mo st e r t 4 S C 35
’
. . . 61
Mo t a n v J o o su b . A D 61
. . 43
Mo t i CO v Cassim 8 T r u s t e e A D 7 20
’
. . . . 20, 3 16
M o u t o n ex p a r te,
T P D 40 6
. . . 85
Mo u t o n v B e cke t -
. A D 1 81
. . 3 39
Mo w b r a y v S y fr e t . A D 199
. . 3 38
M o w le m v M o rr is . E D L 83
. . . 2 64
M shw a ke z e le v G u du ka . 1 8 S C 1 67 . . 1 35
M t e m b u v We b st e r . 2 1 S C 323 . . 2 26
Mu lh o lla n d v Sm it h . 1 0 H C G 3 33 . . . 328
Mu l le r v Cha dw i c k . CO T S 30
. 2 7 , 1 87 , 43 3 ,
. 43 4
Mu lle r v Mu lle r . W L D 1 61. . . 92
Mu lle r v Mu lle r . C P D 3 32
. . . 87
M u lli ga n v M u lli ga n . W L D 1 78. . . 29 1
M u lo c k B e n t le y v Cu r t o y s
-
. O P D 8
. . . 33 5
M u r c hie v Mu r c hie . S R 1 16 . 89
Mu r is o n v Mu r i so n . A D 157
. . 89
Mur phy v L o n don S A Ex. . .
plo r a t io n CO . 5 S C 25 9 . .
Mur r a y s E st , I n r e , ex p a rte
’
.
Mulh e ar n 18 S C 2 13
k l
. .
Mu tt ia h Ch e t t y v U k u r a a
K o r a la 2 7 Ce y lo n N L R 33 6
. . 35 3 .
Mu tt u n a y a ga m v B r it o . . A O 89 5
. . 77
Mu t t u n a y a ga m v S e n a t hlr a j a . 2 8 Ce y l o n N L R 35 3 2 7 5
. . .
Mu t u a l L ife Ins CO o f N Y . . .
v . Hotz A D . . 556 2 54, 445
Na hass e x p a rte, [ 1 9 39] C P D 173

. . . 61
Na r u n sky ex pa r te , [ 1 9 22] O P D 32
. . . 2 47
Na sio n a le P e r s B pkt v L o n g . .
[ 1 9 30] A D 87
. . 3 45
Na t a l B an k v Ku r a n da .
[ 1 907] T H 155
. .10, 259
Na t a l B a nk v R o o d s H e ir s .
’
[ 1 90 9 ] T S 2 43 ; [ 1 9 1 0 ] A C
. . .
5 7 0 ; [ 1 9 1 0] T P D 1 360 9 7 , . . . 39 3
Na t a l L an d C o l o ni z a t io n CO .
v Pau lin e Co llie r y S y n

.
dic a t e [ 1 9 0 4] A C 1 2 0 ; 2 5 N L R
. . . . . 1 444
Na ta l Tr a din g CO v In glis . .
[ 1 9 2 5] T P D 7 2 4
. . . 3 40
Na t io n a l A c c e pt an ce CO v .
R o b e r ts o n [ 1 9 3 8] C P D
. . . 1 75
Na t io n a l B a nk O f S A v .
Co he n s Tr u s t e e
’
[ 1 9 1 1] A D . . 2 35 1 87 , 1 9 0 , 1 9 1 ,
1 9 2 , 2 00 , 2 5 1 , 2 7 5
Na t io n a l B an k of S A . v L e on
L e v so n S t u dio s [ 1 9 1 3] A D 2 13
. .
Na t io n a l B a nk O f S A . . v . M ar ks
A a r o n so n [ 1 9 2 3] T P D 6 9
. . . 2 50 , 2 7 5
1 TAB LE OF CA SES
O Ca lla gha n N 0 v Chaplin [ 1 9 2 7] A D 3 10
’
. . . . .
O Cal la ghan s A ss ign ee s v Ca v

’ ’
.
ana h ( 1 882 ) 2 S C 1 22 . .
[ 1 9 41 ] C P D 15
’
O c hb e r g v O c hb e r g s E st
. . . . .
O de n daa l , ex p ar te [ 1 9 2 6] C P D 223. . .
O de n daa l , e x pa r te [ 1 9 2 8] O P D 2 18
. . .
O de n daa l , e x p a r te E st .
[ 1 9 3 3] O P D 1 22
. . .
O de n da a l v D u Ple ss is [ 1 9 1 8] A D 470 . .
s[ 1 9 39 ]
.
O de n daa l v R e gist r a r O f D e e d. N P D 327. . .
O gle v O gle
.
[ 1 9 1 0] N P D 87 . . .
O hl ss o n s Ca pe Br e w e r ie s v
’
.
Co ss e y [ 1 905] T E . . 16
O h ls s o n S Ca pe B r e w e r i e s v
’
1 1 C T R 2 75
W ( 1 90 1 )
Tho m pso n ” . . .
Olifa n t s V le i G M
’
v o lff . . CO .
( 1 89 8) 1 5 S C 3 44 . .
O lipha n t , e x p a r te [ 1 9 40 ] C P D 5 37
. . .
Oliv e r v Ma t z n e r
.
[ 1 9 42 ] T P D 3 24
. . .
O liv ie r v P as c hke .
[ 1 9 2 8] S W A 116
. . .
O lu fse n v F i e lde r .
[ 1 9 30 ] N P D 2 60
. . .
O m a r v S a hib ( 1907 ) 28 N L R 625

s
. . . . .
’
O o s t hu iz e n v O o st hu iz e n s E t . .
[ 1 9 0 3] T S 688 .
O o st hu iz e n v St a n le y .
[ 1 9 3 8] A D 322 . .
O o s t hu y se n v O o st hu y se n .
[ 1 86 8] B u ch 5 1 .
O r a n ge z ic ht E st a te s L t d v . .
Ca pe T o w n T o w n Co u n c il ( 1 90 6) 23 S C . . 297
O r fo r d , e x p a r te [ 1 9 20 ] CP D . 3 67
. .
O r lan din i , ex p a r te [ 1 93 1 ] O P D . 1 41. .
O rs m o n d v V a n H oor de n .
[ 1 9 30] T P D. 723 . .
O st y v H ir sc h , L o u b se r
. CO .
[ 1 9 2 2] CP D . 531
. .
O t t o v O tto
.
[ 1 9 3 0] W . L D 25 1 . .
O u dt sho o r n T o w n Cou n c il v .
[1 9 1 1] C P D 558. . . 276
Ow e n v . F in e 1 9 43 ( 1 ) P H B . .
, . 59
P
Pa ige s v V a n R yn G o ld Min e s
.
E st L t d. .
[ 1 9 20 ] A D 600
. .
Pa lipan e v Ta lde n a .
( 1 929 ) 3 1 Ce y lo n N L R . .
P a pe n do r p , ex p a r te [ 1 9 3 2] C P D 1 67
. . .
P a r a k v R e ynh a r dt
. CO .
[ 1 9 30] N P D 2 54
. . .
Par a m a n a t han v Sar a v a n a .
( 1 9 2 8) 3 0 Ce y lo n N L R . . .
Pa r am pa lam v Ar u n a cha la m .
( 1 9 27 ) 2 9 Ce y lo n N L R . . .
Par ke r v E st F le t che r
. .
[ 1 9 3 2] C P D 202
. . .
Par ke r v R ee d . .
( 1 9 0 4) 2 1 S C 49 6 . .
Par u k v G le n da le E st CO
. . .
[ 1 9 2 4] NP D 1
. . .
P a te v Pa t e
.
[ 1 9 1 5] A C 1 100
. .
P a te r s o n , e x p a r te E st .
[ 1 9 42 ] C P D 5 41
. . .
P a te r s o n s E x o r s v We b st e r ,
’
. .
S te e l CO .
( 1 881 ) 1 S C 35 0
U
. .
P a t he s c o pe n io n o f S A v . .
Ma llin ick [ 1 9 2 7] A D . . 292

TAB L E OF CA SES li
Pa t o n v P a t o n . T P D 776
. . .
Pa t z v S a lz b u r g
. TS 5 26 .
P a yn v L o kw e
. . E D L 33
. . . .
P e ac o ck v H o dge s . B u ch 6 5 .
Pe ar c e v D e Ja ge r . C P D 45 5
. . .
P e a r d v R e nn ie
. So n s 1 6 N L R 1 75 . . .
P e a r l As su r an ce Co v ni o n . . U
G ovt . A D 277
. .
P e a r l A ssu r a n ce CO v G o v t o f . .
t he U
n io n O f S A . . A C 5 70
. .
, [ 1 9 3 4] A D
5 60 2 68
P e dr is v B a t c ha
,
. 2 6 Ce y l o n NL R 89
. . . 153
Pe ir is v Vill a ge . Co m m it t e e
Pa lu w a 40 Ce y lo n NL R. . . 54 1 69
P e n t e c o st v Ca pe . M e a t S u pply
CO . C P D 47 2
. . . 2 82
Pe n t z v Co l G o v t
. . 8 S C 34 . . 1 66
P e ple r v L ie b e n b e r g
. C P D 266
. . . 43 2
P e r e r a v Pe r e r a . A C 3 54
. . 3 63
P e r e r a v Silv a . 3 7 Ce y lo n N L R 1 5 7 . . . 193
Pe r e r a v So b a n a . 6 Ce y lo n S C C 6 1 . . . 1 65
P e r e r a v T isse r a . 3 5 Ce y lo n N L R 2 5 7 . . . 2 34
Pe r ia Ca rpe n v H e rft . 7 S C O 1 82
. . . 259
P e r lm a n v Zo u t e n dy k . C P D 15 1
. . . 325
P e t e r s , F la m m an CO . v . K ok
P e t ers e n v Ja jb ha y .
P e t e r se n L t d v In a g Afr ic a n . .
In du st r ia l CO .
P e t t e rse n v Y a t e s .
Pha r o v S te pha n.
P hil ip v M e t r o po lit a n R y CO
. .
Philips v B r o o ks .
Phili ps L t d v V e r m o u t h . .
Phillips ( E st ) v Co m m for . . .
In lan d R e v e n u e
P hi llips v H e ar n e CO
f
. .
Phillips v S A I n d O r d e r o . . . .
Me chani cs
Philli ps G o r do n v A dam s .
Phil po tt v Whit t a l , E lst o n 8 7 . .
Cr o sb y CO . E D C 1 93
. . . 339
’
Pie n aa r v Pie n aa r s Cu r a t o r
. O P D 171
. . . 1 19
Pie t e rs CO v S a lo m o n . . A D 1 38
. . 2 20
Pie te r se , N O , ex p a r te . . SWA 4
. . 3 62
P ist or ius , ex p a r te T P D 29 7
. . . 1 82
Ple a t v v an St a de n
. O P D 91
. . 41 . 422
P o ckl in gt on v Co w e y So n . 6 N L R 1 18 . . . 429
P o dis in gho v Ja gu h a m y . 2 6 Ce y lo n N L R 87 . 161
P o l e mi s , I n r e 3 K B 5 60 . . 3 42
P o lic a n sky B r o s v P o lic a n sky . . A D 39
. . 337
lii TAB L E OF CA SES
P o r t E liz a b e t h H a r b o u r B o a r d
v M a kie , D u nn
. CO .
( 1 89 7 ) 1 4 S C . . 46 9
P o s t v P o st
.
[ 193 1] N P D . . . 1 17
P o s t m as te r G e n e r a l v V a n Nie .
ke r k [ 1 9 1 8] C P D 3 7 8
. . .
P o tg ie t e r v B e llin ga n .
[ 1 9 40 ] E D L 2 64
. . .
Po t gie te r v Zie t sm a n .
[ 1 9 1 4] B D L 3 2
. . . .
Po t t e r 8 5 P o tt e r v R a n d T o w n .
ships R e gis t r a r .
[ 1 9 45 ] A D 27 7
. .
P o u le t t Pe e r a ge Ca se [ 1 9 0 3] A C 39 5
. .
P o y n t o n v Cr a n .
[ 1 9 10] A D 205
. .
P r e st o n v L u y t [ 1 9 1 1] B D L 298
n
O
. . . .
Pr e t or ia H e b r e w Co n gr e ga t i
Tr u s t e e s , e x p a r te [ 1 9 22] T P D
. . . 29 6
Pr e t or i a Mu n ic v B o n A c c o r . . d
Ir r iga t io n B o a r d [ 1 9 23] T P D . . . 1 15
P r e t o r ia Mu n i c v E st e r hu iz e n . .
[ 1 9 2 8] T P D . . . 678
P r e t o r iu s , e x p a r te [ 1 9 20] T P D . . . 29 7
P r e t o r iu s v A fr ic a n G a t e .
F e n ce Wo r ks L t d .
[ 1 9 39] A . D 571 .
P r e t o r iu s v H a c k .
[ 1 9 25 ] T . P D 6 43
. .
P r e t o r iu s v V a n Zy l .
[ 1 9 27] O . P D 226 . .
P r ie st v Ch ar le s
.
[ 1 9 35] A . D 1 47 .
Pr in c e ss E st v R e gist r a r O f . .
M in in g Tit le s [ 1 9 1 1 ] T P D 1 0 66
. . .
’
P r in l O S Cu r a t or s v Cr a ffo r d .
[ 1 90 5 ] T S 6 6 9 .
Pr o v in c ia l A dm i n v . .
Jo hn A da m s 85 CO .
[ 1 9 29] O P D 2 9
. . . .
P u gh v P u gh [ 19 10] T S 7 92
7 2—
18 6
. . .
P u lle v G a n do e
.
( 1 87 5 ) R a m an a t han , ,
p 1 89 259 .
P u lle v Pu lle.
( 1 89 3 ) 2 Ce y lo n S C R 1 0 5 35 3 . . .
P u n chi B a n da v . Pe r e r a ( 1 9 2 8) 30 Ce y lo n N L R 3 55 1 43 . . .
Q
Qu a dl in g v Qu a dl in g .
[ 1 9 37] N P D 3 1 9
Q u e e n v K o n in g
. . .
.
( 1 9 0 0 ) 1 7 S C 5 41 . .
Q u e e n s t o w n A ssu r a n c e CO . v .
Wo o d s ’ r
lh u st e e
'
( 1 887 ) 5 S C 327 . .
R
R a b o t v D a S ilv a.
[ 1 909] A C 376 . .
R a dlo f v R a lph .
[1 9 1 7] E L 1 68 .
R a in fo rt h v B r o w n . .
[ 1 9 37] S R 2 69. .
R a m a lin ga m v R a m a lin ga m _
.
( 1 9 33 ) 3 5 Ce y lo n N L R . . . 174
87 , 89
R a m a Na r o t a m v . Na tha D u l
la b h [ 1 9 1 4] N P D 2 2 7. . . 3 14
R a m a n a t ha n v S a le e m .
( 1 9 40 ) 42 Ce y lo n N L R . . . 80 3 9 2
R am pe r sad v G o b e r du n .
[ 1 9 2 9] N P D 32 . . .
1 6 8, 1 69 , 1 7 7 , 3 42
TA B LE OF CA SES lii i
R a n d F u r n ishin g CO . v . Hey
d e nr y c h
R a pso n v Pu t t e r ill .
R as v V e r m e u l e n
.
R a u b e n h e im e r v E x o rs O f V an .
B r e da
R e a d v Pype r .
R e c e iv e r O f R e v e n u e , Pre t o r ia ,
v H a n c ke
. A D 64
. .
R e d dy v D u r b a n Co r po r a t io n
.
R e dgr a v e v H u r d .
R e e d B r os v F o r d . .
1 9 7 , 1 9 8, 3 1 9
R e e de r s We pe n e r v Jo h a nn e s .
b u r g To w n Co u n c il
R ee d s Tr u st e e v R e e d
’
.
R e e se v R e gis t r a r O f D e e ds
.
R e gist r ar O f D e e ds ( Na t a l ) v
E st Sha w .
R e id v A dm o r s E s t R e i
. . . d
R e id 85 CO v Fe de r a l S u pply CO . . .
R e inh o ld CO v V a n O u dt . .
sb o o m
R e is v G illo w a y s E x o r s
’
. .
R e lo o m e l v R a m sa y .
R e ns , I n r e
R e t ie f v H am e r s la ch .
R e t ie f v L o u w .
R e u te r v Y ate s .
R e x v B laa u w
.
R e x v Chr ist ia n
.
R e x v D e t o dy
.
R e x v G ille t t
.
R e x v F it z ge r a ld
.
R e x v H a rr iso n
.
R e x v Ma b u la
.
R e x v Ne l .
R e x v P a t e rso n
.
R e x v S ac ks .
R e x v S e e blo e m
.
R e x v St a m p.
Rex v illa h
. Z
R e y n e , E st v R e y n e . .
R e yn e ke v R e y n e ke .
R ho de v Min ist e r O f D e fe n ce
.
R h o de s ia R ly s v C o m m Of . .
Ta x e s . A D 43 8
. .
R ic ha r ds , Sla t e r CO . v . F u lle r
Co 1 E D O
. . . 1
liv TAB LE OF CASES
R ichm o n d v Chad w i ck .
R ic ht e r v D u Plo o y .
R ic ht e r v Mac k
R ic hte r v Tr an s v aa l G o V t
.
R ichte r v Wa ge n aa r .
R idl e r v G ar t n e r
.
R idl e y v M a r a is
R itc hk e n s E x o r s v R it ch ke il
.
’
. .
R o b b v Mea le y s E x o r
’
.
R o b e r t v E t t lin ge r .
R o b e r ts v B o o y .
Ro b e r ts L e tt s v F ym I .
R o b in s o n I n r e ,
R o b in so n v R an dfo n t e in E st s .
G M CO
. . . A D . . 1 68
R o b in s o n v R an dfo n te in E s t s. .
G M CO
. .
[ 1 9 25 ] A D 1 73
. . .
R o ddy v O hlsso n s B re w e r ie s [ 1 9 0 7] T S 1 25
’
. .
Rofi CO v M o se ly .
[ 1 9 25] T P D 1 0 1
. . . .
R o lfe s , Ne b e l 85 CO v w e ige n . . Z
[ 1 9 0 3] TS . 1 85 2 5 3,
R o o d v Wa ll a c h [ 1 9 0 4] TS 1 87 22 6
C
. .
R o o de po o rt & c G M O v . . . . .
D u T o it [ 1 9 2 8] A D 6 6. . 20 4
R o o r da v Co hn .
[ 1 9 0 3] T H 2 7 9
. . 227
R o o t h v The S ta t e
.
( 1 888) 2 S A R 2 5 9 . . .
R o sc o e , e x p a r te [ 1 9 3 8] C P D 1 2 6
. . 93 .
R o se v B r e w e r C P D 49 3 44 .
R o se 83 Fr an k CO v C
. . .
r o m pt o n . .
[ 1 9 2 3] 2 K B 2 6 1 . 22 3 .
[ 1 9 39 ] W L D 5
WL D
R o se n v R an d T o w n ships
. . 1 33 . .
R o se n b a u m v Ma r go lis . 1 9 44 ( 1 ) P H , B 33 [.
] 336 . . . .
R o se n b e r g v D r y s E x o r s [ 1 9 1 1 ] A D 67 9
’
. . . 3 47 , 3 9 5
.
R o ssite r v B ar c la y s B an k [ 1 933] T P D 3 7 5
’
. . . 37 .
R ow e v R o w e
.
[ 1 9 2 2 ] W L D 43 . 87 . .
R o w e l Mu da liy a r v P ie r is .
( 1 89 5 ) 1 Ce y lo n N L R 81 1 29 . .
R o y st o n v R a de b e .
[ 1 9 1 4] A D 43 0
. 2 27
.
R u b e ns v R u b e n s .
( 1 909 ) 2 6 S C 6 1 7 .95 .
R u b idge v M c Ca b e .
[ 1 9 1 3] A D 433
. 1 69
.
R u b in v B o t ha
.
[ 1 9 1 1 ] A D 5 68
. 30 7 45 2
.
R u do lph v L y o n s . T P D 85
. . 2 41 .
R u pe r t i s Tr u s t e e v R u pe r t i
’
. . 4 S C 22 . 81 , 1 9 7 .
R u ss e ll v R u sse ll .
[ 1 9 2 4] A O 6 87
. . 32
R u ss o , I n r e ( 1 89 6 ) 1 3 S C 1 85 .34 .
R u to w it z s Fl o u r Mills v Th e
’
.
M ast e r [ 1 93 4] T P D 1 63
lT
. . .
R y a n v Mu t u a
. o n t in e A ss o c .
[ 1 89 3] 1 Ch 1 1 6 .
R y a n 81 B u r t o n v Th orn t o n
. .
[ 1 9 1 2] E D L 1 6 8
. . .
R y kc li e f s H e ir s v R y kc li e f s
’ ’
.
E x ors ( 1 89 6 ) 1 3 S C 64 3 87
h
. . .
Ryla n ds v Fle tc e r .
( 1 86 8) L R 3 H L . . . . 33 0 1 5 3 , 3 38
TAB LE OF CASES lv
S a b a pa t hi v Hu n t le y ( 1 9 3 7 3 9 Ce y l o n N L R
. . . . 39 6 3 3 2
S a b a pa t hy v M o ha m e d Yo osu f ( 1 9 3 5 ) 3 7 Ce y lo n N L R
. . . . 70 3 92
Sadhan a n da Te ru n a n s e v Su m .
a n a t issa ( 1 9 3 4) 3 6 Ce y lo n N L R . 422 1 2 1
Sa di e , e x p a r te [ 1 9 40 ] A D 2 6 . . 3 86
S a di e v S ta n da r d B a nk
.
( 1 889 ) 7 S C 87 . . 2 9 4, 2 9 5
S t L e ge r v To w n Co u n c il o f
. .
Ca pe To w n ( 1 89 5 ) 1 2 S C 2 49 . . 171
S t Ma r c v H ar v e y
. .
( 1 89 3 ) 1 0 S C 2 6 7 . . 2 39
Sa ka z i v G u rr [ 1 9 0 6] T S 3 0 3 3 14
J la
. . .
S a lis b u r y Mu ni c v ooa [19 1 1] A D 1 78 . . 1 54

S a llis v J o n e s
.
[ 1 9 3 6 ] P 43 . 3 73
S a lm o n v L a m b s E x o r [ 1 9 0 6] E D O 3 5 1
’
. . . . . 177, 178
Sa lo n chi v Ja y a t u .
( 1 9 2 6 ) 2 7 Ce y lo n N L R . 3 66 3 7 7
Sa lz v Wa iggo w sky
.
[ 1 9 1 9] W L D 9 0 . . . 81
S a lz ma nn v H o lm e s .
[ 1 9 1 4] A D 47 1 . . 3 44
S a m a r a diw a kar a v D e S ar a m [ 1 9 1 1] A C 75 3 . . . 3 85
Sa m a r a sin ghe v Cha ir m an V C . .
Ma t a r a ( 1 9 3 2 ) 3 4 Ce y lo n N L R 39 1 69
y
. . .
Sa m e d v S e gu t a m b
.
( 1 9 2 4) 2 5 Ce y lo n N L R . . . 481 28
S a m in a t han Che t t y v V a n de r .
Po or te n ( 1 9 3 2 ) 3 4 Ce y lo n N L R 30 7 2 0 5
8
. . .
S a m ps o n v n io n 5 R ho de s ia
. U
Whole sa le L t d [ 1 9 2 9 ] A D 46 8; [ 1 9 3 3 ] . . . A C . .
1 7 8 2 1 8, 2 2 9 , 2 3 1 , 2 5 0
S a n de m an v S o lo m o n .
( 1907 ) 2 8 N L R 1 40 2 3 5 , 2 42
. . .
S a n dila n ds v T o m pkin s .
[ 1 9 1 2] A D 171
. . 337
S a n dle r v Who le sa l e Co a l S u p
.
pl ie r s L t d .
[ 1 9 41 ] A D 1 94
. . 267
S a n dr ase gr a v Sin n a t a m b y .
( 1923 ) 2 5 Ce y lo n NL R
. . . 1 39 1 7 8
Sa n ga r a m o rt hy v Can da ppa .
( 1 9 32 ) 3 3 Ce y lo n NL R
. . . 36 1 395
Sa r a m v T hir u che lv a m
.
( 1 9 45 ) 46 Ce y lo n NL R . 1 45 3 5 5
S a t he r v O rr. r [ 1 9 3 8] A D 42 6
. . 332
S a u e r la n de r v To w n se n d [ 1 9 30 ] C P D 55
. . . 296
h
.
S a u e r m a n v E n glis h Sc o t t is
.
L a w L ife A ssu r an c e A sso c .

( 1 89 8) 1 5 S C 84 . .
S a u e rm a n v S a u e r m a n .
[ 1 9 2 8] C P D 2 0
. . .
S a v o r y v B a ldo c hi
. .
[ 1 90 7] T S 5 23 .
’
S c har fi s Tr u s t e e v S c ha r f . f [ 1 9 1 5 ] T P D 46 3
. . .
S che ide l v Th e M a st e r.
[ 1 9 3 6] C P D 2 87
. . .
S che in v J o u b e rt
.
[ 1 9 0 3] T S 42 8 .
S ch e in v S che in
.
[ 1 9 2 4] W L D 2 83 . . .
Sche u b le , ex p a r te [ 1 9 1 8] T P D 1 5 8
. . .
S c hie r h ou t v M in o f Ju i ce ” . . St [ 1 9 2 5 ] A D 41 7
. .
S c h ie r ho u t v M in o f Ju st ice . . . A D 99
. .
Schie r ho u t v n io n G o v t . U .
[ 1 9 2 6] A D 2 86
. .
S chle n ge m an n v M e y e r , B r id .
ge n s CO .
[ 1 9 20 ] C P D
. . . 49 4
lvi TAB L E OF CAS ES
S c hn aar v J an s e n . NP D . . . 2 18
S c hn e ie r 85 L o n do n L t d . v
B e nn e tt
S cho e m an v O li v ie r .
S c h o e m a n v R a ffe r t y .
S c ho lt z v F a ife r .
S chu l t z v S chu lt z .
S c hu lt z , N 0 v M e y e rso n . . .
S c hu ste r v G u e t he r .
S c hu tte v Me y e r s A ss ign ee
’
.
S c o t t v Se b r ight
.
S c o t t v S yt n e r
. .
S cr u t t o n v E hr li c h .
S e a v ille v Co lle y .
S e c r e t a r y fo r L a n ds v Je r o m e .
Se c r e t ar y , S A A s so c v . . .
M o st e r t B u ch 3 1 .
Se e da t
’
E x o rs v Th e
s . . Mas t e r
( Na t a l ) A D 30 2
. .
S e ga l v Ma z z u r
. C P D 6 34
. . .
Se ggie v Philip B r o s . . C P D 292

. . .
S e lla r B r o s v Cla r k . . 1 0 S C 1 68 . .
S e ll a s am y v K a lia m m a . 44 Ce y lo n N L R 7 6 ; . . .
61 T L R 99 .
355
Se lo ha m y v G o o n e w a r de n e . 3 0 C e y lo n N L R . . . 1 1 2 1 84
S e n e ka l e x p a r te
, T P D 131
. . . 3 88
S e r c o m b e v Co lo n ia l Mo t o r sL t d. N P D 58
. . . 1 95
S e r fo n t e in v R o dr ic k . O R C 51
. . . 3 66
S e rru r ie r v L a n ge v e ld . 1 Me n z 3 1 6 . 317
Sha kin o v sky v L a w so n . T S 32 6 . 449 45 0
S ha pir o v o t le r 8. K
5 R a b in o w i t z W L D 60 . . . 2 60
S ha pir o v Yu t a r . C P D 92
. . . 30 4, 3 1 0
S h a r p v D a le s . N P D 39 2
. . . 39
C P D 26
’
S ha r p s E st v S che e pe r s . . . . . 2 72
S he a r e r v She a r e r s E x o rs C P D 81 3
’
. . . . . 3 73
fi
S he f e ld v H a rt . T H 460
. . 30 5
She r v A llan
. O P D 1 37
. . . 2 1 5 , 3 00
Shill v M iln e r
. A D 10 1
. . 2 7 1 , 45 0
Sho r t , ex p a r te . T P D 1 55 3 7 7 , 3 88
ed
. . .
S ho r te r CO v Mo ha m . . 39 Ce y lo n N L R . . . 1 13 50
Siche l v de We t . 5 E D O 58 . . . 80
S ikit i v F o le y
. B D L 2 86
. . . 58
Si lb e r b a u e r v V a n B r e d a . 5 S 23 1 . 155
S ilb e r e ise n B r o s v L a m o n t . . T P D 3 82
. . . 267
S ilb e r m a n v H o dk in so n . T P D 5 62
. . . 47
S ilke v G o o de
. T P D 9 89
. . . 236
S ills , e x p a r te B D L 2 78
. . . 85 , 86
S ilv a v B a las ur iy a
. 1 4 Ce y lo n N L R . . . 45 2
2 8, 3 3 3
S ilv a v . Ma ha m m a du 1 9 C e y lo n NL R. . . 42 6 50
lviii TA B L E OF CASES
e A A sso c v M o st e r t
. . .
r A A ss oc v V a n S t a de n
. . .
a A B a z aar s L t d v Na t
. . . .
n io nU Of D ist r ib u t iv e
Wo r ke rs NP D . . . 79
m A O il 85 F a t In u st r ie s v
. . d
Pa r k R yn i e Wha li n g CO .
e A R v Co n r a di e
. . .
r A R v E dw ar ds
. . .
e A R v E st S a u n de rs
. . . .
w A R v Na t B a n k o f S A
. . . . . .
Sou t he r n L ife As so c o f Afr ic a .
C P D 15 316
R 1
. . .
S o y sa v S o y sa . 1 9 Ce y l o n N L . . . 3 4 1 19
Spa n ge n b e r g, e x p a r te 2 4 S C 2 88 . . 41 2
Spe n c e r v C o s t e lo w . A D 617
. . 2 7 , 264
Spe n diff v E as t L o n do n D a ily .
D e spa t ch L t d . E D L 1 13
. . .
Spie s v H a ns fo r d. T P D 1
. . .
Spie s v Spie s . 2 M e n z 45 4 .
T S 47 3
’
Spie s E x o rs v B e y e r s . . .
Spu r r ie r v Co x w e ll . C P D 83
. . .
St a c y v S im s . C P D 5 33
. . .
S t a n d a r d B a n k v D u P lo o y . 16 S C 161 . .
S t a n dar d B an k v E st V an R yn . . A D 2 66
. .
S t a n da r d B a nk v H e y de n r y c h . A C 33 6 ; 3 B u c h
. . .
A O 1 45 . .
S t an da r d B u ildi n g S o c v Ca r
m
t o u li s
S B So c v
. . el er nn . . K l a
S t an de r v S t an de r .
St a ple s v Mar u a r d . q
S t e e n ka m p, ex p a r te
S te e n ka m p v Ju r iaa ns e .
S t e e n ka m p v M a r a is .
’
S te e r s E s t v S t e e r . .
S t e in b a ch v S c hm i dt .
St e phe n s v L ie b n e r .
S t e r n v S c ha t t e l
.
S t e v e n so n v Alb e r t s .
’
S t e w a r t s Tr u ste e v n i o n da le . U
St e yn v D a v is 85 D a r lo w
.
S t iglin g v M e lc k .
S t iglin gh v Fr e n ch .
St ill v No r t o n
. .
S t ilw e ll , I n r e
St o fb e r g v E st v an o oye n. . R
S t o n e v Sto n e .
St r a chan v Pr in slo o .
S t r a t fo r d s Tru s t e e s v L o n do n
’
.
85 S A B an k . . 3 E D C 439. . .
TA B LE OF CA SES lix
St r ickla n d v S tr ickla n d . A C 55 1 . .
W
S t r i de v R e ddi n
.
[ 1 9 44] A D 1 6 2 . .
S t r u b e n v Ca pe T o w n
. a ter
( 1 89 2 ) 9 S C 68 . . 151
St r y do m v S t r y do m s Tr u st ee
’
.
( 1 89 4) 1 1 S C 42 5 . . 3 84
S t u tt a fo r d 8
5 CO v O b e r ho l z e r . .
[ 1 9 2 1 ] C P D 85 5
. . . 48
Su b a ida U
mm a v Wo do o d .
( 1 9 2 7 ) 2 9 Ce y io n N L R . 3 30 3 3 8
S u la irn an v A m a r die n .
[ 1 93 1] C P D 509 . . . 3 28
S u lliv a n v S u ll iv an 2 H a gg Co n 238 95
n
. . .
Su n L ife In s Co v u r a da . . . K [ 1 9 2 4] A D . . 20 205
Sa o n v Su r m o n
.
[ 1 9 1 6] A D . . 47 3 1 , 32
Su r v e y o r G e n e r a l ( Ca pe ) v E st / .
D e Villie r s [ 1 9 2 3] A D 5 94 . .
Su t c liffe v Su t c lifi e .
[ 1 9 1 8] T P D 686. . .
Su t he r lan d v B an w e ll .
[ 1 9 3 8] A D 47 6 . .
Su t t e r v B r o w n
.
[ 1 9 2 6] A D 155 . .
Sw an e po e l v V a n de r H o e v e n .
[ 1 87 8] B u ch 4 .
Sw a n e po e l v V an de r We st .
[ 1 9 30 ] T P D 80 6. . .
Sw an e po e l v V a n H e e r de n .
[ 1 9 2 8] A D 1 5 . .
S w a r t v Sw ar t
.
[ 1 9 2 4] N P D 1 0 4. . .
T
Ta it v Wi cht
.
( 1 89 0 ) 7 S C 158 . . 227
T an n e v F o ggit t
.
[ 1 9 3 8] T P D 43 . 47 ,. . 42 1
T a rr , ex p a rte [ 1 9 41 ] C P D 104
. 370,
. . 372
T a rr a n t v M ar ikar.
( 1 9 34) 3 6 Ce y lo n N L R 1 45 . . . 2 41
Ta t ham v An dr ee .
( 1 86 3 ) 1 M0 0 F C C ( N S ) . . . . .
3 86
Ta u b e r v V e n ter
.
[ 1 9 3 8] B D L 82
. . . .
Ta y lo r v Ca ldw e ll
.
( 1 86 3 ) 3 B 85 S 82 6 . .
T a y lor v Pim .
( 1 9 0 3 ) 2 4 N L R 484 . . .
Ta y lo r v Ta y lo r
. W L D 2 15 . . .
Ta y lo r N 0 v L u ca s N O [ 1 9 37 ] T P D 40 5
w
n
. . . . . . . .
Te x as CO ( S A v Ca pe T o
. . . .
Mu n ic [ 1 9 2 6] A D 46 7 1 86
a a
. . . .
Th a n ga m m a v P o n n m b la m .
( 1 9 43 ) 43 Ce y lo n N L R 2 6 5 . . . 3 47
The r o n v G e r b e r
.
[ 1 9 1 8] E D L 2 88
. . . 202
The r o n v S c ho o m b ie
.
( 1 89 7 ) 14 S C 1 92 . . 29 6
The r o n v The r o n
.
[ 1 9 2 4] A D 2 44
. . 91
The r o n L t d v G r o ss . .
[ 1 9 29] C P D 3 45
. . . 22 1
The u n iss e n v F le isc he r , Wh e e l .
do n 85 Mu n n ik ( 1 883 ) 3 E D C 29 1 . . .
T hie n ha n s v Th e Mast e r .
[ 1 9 3 8] C P D 69
. . .
Th o m a s E st v
’
e rr . . K ( 1 9 03 ) 2 0 S C 3 54 . .
Tho m pso n v P u llin ge r .

( 1 89 4) 1 O R 298 . .
Thor n t o n v Pr ie st s Tr u st e e C P D 29 6
’
’
.
’
[ 1 9 3 2] . . .
Thor pe s E x o rs v Tho r pe s . .
( 1 886 ) 4 S C 488 . .
Tie t z e v Wo schn it z o k
.
[ 1 9 2 9 ] S W A 39
. . .
Tim o n y 8 5 in g v in g K . K [ 1 9 2 0 ] A D 1 33
. .
Tio pa iz i v B u law a y o Mu n i c
. .
[ 1 9 2 3] A D 3 1 7
. .
1x TAB L E OF CA SES
Tippe t t , ex p a r te [ 1 9 42 ] C P D 68
. . 3 60 .
Tis se r a v T is se r a .
( 1 9 40 ) 42 Ce y lo n N L R 6 0 1 34 . . .
T o e r ie n v D u n c a n .
[ 1 9 32 ] G P D 1 41 , 1 80 3 3 2 , 3 40
. . .
T o m s v To m s .
[1 920] T P D 45 5
. . 90 .
T o nki n v V a n H e e r de n.
[ 1 9 35 ] N P D 5 89
. . 1 70 .
T o t h ill v Fo st e r .
[ 1 9 25] T P D 85 7
. . 33 1 .
To y v B lake
.
[ 1 9 2 3] C P D 98
. . 3 19 .
T r a de sm e n s B e n e t S o c ie t y v
’
fi
D u Pr e e z ( 1 887 ) 269
Tr a m w a y Wo r ke r s n io n v U
H e a di n g [ 1 9 38] A D . . 47
Tr a n sv aa l 85 R ho d sia n E st s e
L t d v G o ldin g. .
[ 1 9 1 7] A D 1 8. . 3 2 8, 3 43
Tr a ns v a a l Pr o v A dm in . .
C o le y [1 9 25] A . D 24 .
Tr a u b v B lo o m b e r g
.
[ 1 9 1 7] T . P D 276 . .
T r e dgo ld v E st Ar de m o . .
[ 1 9 2 6] C . P D 25 . .
T r e ge a v G o dar t [ 1 9 39 ] A D 16
ht
. . .
Tr e gidga 8 5 CO v S iv e w r i g . .
N O . .
( 1 89 7 ) 1 4 S C 86 . .
Tr ic ha r dt v Mu l le r .
[ 1 9 1 5] T P D 1 7 5
. . .
Th im b le v Ce n t r a l Ne w s .
[ 1 9 3 4] A D 43 . .
Tsha b a la la v V an de r M e r w e .
[ 1 9 2 6] N P D 7 5 . . .
Tsho b a Co ll ie r y v Tsho b a Co a l .
Syn dic a t e [ 1 9 2 6] N P D 5 2 6. . .
Tu c ke r v Ca r r u t he r s .
[ i 9 4i ] A D 2 5 1 . .
Tu t t v Tu t t
.
[ 1 9 29] C P D 5 1
. . .
Tw e n t y m a n v H e w it t .
( 1 83 3 ) 1 M e n z 1 5 6 .
U
U m hle b i v U rnhle b i s E st 1 9 E D C 2 37
’
. .
( 1 905 ) . . .
U m laa s Wo o l Washi n g CO .
, In
re [ 1 9 3 4]
Un i e V o lkpe s B pk v R o s so w r . u [ 1 9 43]
Un io n 85 R ho d sia VVhO le sa le
.
L td S a m ps o n
. v .
[ 1 9 2 8]
U ni o n G o v t v D e o ch N . . K O [ 1 9 1 8]
U
. .
n io n G o v t v Fi she r s E x e cu
’
t r ix [ 1 92 1 ] T P D 328 1 33
U
. . .
n io n G o v t v G o w a r .
[ 1 9 1 5 ] A D 42 6
U
. .
n i o n G o v t v H a w kin s , . 1 9 44 ( 2) P H J 33 9
U
. .
n i o n G o v t v J o r da a n s E x o r
’
.
[ 1 9 1 6 ] T P D 41 1 259
U
. . . . .
n i o n G o v t v L a r ka n .
[ 1 9 1 6] A D 2 1 2 85
U
. .
n i on G o v t v L e ask s E x o r s
’
-
.
[ 1 9 1 8] A D 447 85
U
. .
nion G ov
t v L ee . .
[ 1 9 27] A D 202 3 2 9 33 0
U
. .
n io n G o vt v M a r a is . . A D 2 40 15 1
U A
. .
ni o n G o v t v Na t Bk O f S D
. .
[ 192 1] A 12 1 3 2 4, 3 2 5 , 3 45
U
. . . .
n io n G o v t v Oliv ie r D
. .
[ 1 9 1 6] A 74 3 7 7 , 3 7 8, 3 87
U
. .
n i o n G o v t v S ke s D 161
y . .
[ 1 9 1 3] A 3 3 8, 3 41
U
. .
n io n G o v t v T o nk in D
. .
[ 1 9 1 8] A 5 33 1 48
U
. .
n i o n G o vt v V i an in i D
. .
[ 1 9 3 8] A . . 5 60 2 15
TA BL E OF CA SES lx i
Un io n G ovt . v . Wa r n e ke A D . . 65 7
Un io n G v t v Wh itt a ke s E st
o . . r
’
. A D . . 194
Un i n L ight ge C v L o n d o n
o era O . .
G r a v in g D o c k CO .
U n i t e d B u i ldin g S o c v L a w . .
U n it e d B u ildin g S o c v L e nn o n
U
. .
n it e d B ui ldin g S o c v S m o o k
TS
’
le r S T ru s t e e s 623 1 9 7 , 1 9 8, 2 0 3
C O
.
U n it e d S ho e M a c hin e r y O f .
Ca n a da v B r u n e t
hn
.
U n it e d S A A sso c L t d v Co
. . . . .
U r t e l v Ja c o b s
.
U y s , ex p a r te
V a lli a m m a i v A nn a m m a i . 4 Ce y lo n N L R . . 8
V a n A a r d t v H a r t le y S T r u s t e e s 2 Me n z 1 35
’
. .
V a n B iljo n , e x p a r te O . P D 1 04. .
V a n B re da v J a c o b s . A . D 3 30 .
V an B r e da v S ilb e r b a u e r . L . R 3 R C 84 . . .
V a n Co lle r v H e nn y C P D 2 44
5
. . . .
V a n de n B e r gh v P o llia ck 8 .
CO .
V a n de r B y l v H a n b u r y .
V a n de r B y l 85 CO v S o lo m o n . .
V a n de r B y l s A ss ign e e s v V a n
’
.
de r B y l ( 1 886 )
’
V a n de r B y l s E st v Sw a n e po e l . .
[ 1 9 27 ]
V a n de r H e e v e r s E st v G r e y
’
. .
l in g ( 1 907 ) 2 4 S C 41 4 . .
V a n d e r Me r w e v F r a n c k .
( 1 885 ) 2 S A R 26 . . .
V a n de r M e r w e v V a n de r .
M e r w e s E x e c u t r ix
’
[ 1 92 1] T P D
. . . 9 3 70 , 3 84
V a n de r M e r w e v V a n Wy k
“
N O . .
[192 1]
V a n de r Me r w e v We bb .
( 1 883 )
V a n de r Ne st v V a n de r Ne s t .
[ 1 9 25]
V an de r P lan k N O v O t t o . . .
[ 1 9 1 2]
V a n d e r V y v e r v D e Wa y e r .
( 1 86 1 )
V a n de r Wa lt v V a n de r Wa lt s
’
.
E x o rs .
( 1 89 6 ) 1 3 S C 336 . .
V a n de r Wa lt v R e gist r ar O f .
D e e ds [ 1 9 35] C P D . . . 46 3
V an d e r We st hu i z e n v E n ge l .
b r e c ht [ 1 9 42 ]
V an d e r We st hu iz e n v R e x .
[ 1 9 2 4]
V a n de r We st hu i z e n v V e len ski .
( 1 89 8)
V a n D igge le n v T r iggs .
[19 1 1]
V a n D y k, e x p a r te [ 1 9 39 ]
lx ii TA B L E OF CA SES
D y k v V a n D y k s E x o rs ( 1 89 0 ) 7 S C 194
’
V an . . . .
V an E e de n , ex p a r te [ 1 905] TS 1 5 1 .
V an E e de n v ir s t e in . K ( 1 880 ) K o t z é 1 82
V an Hee r de n v Co e t z e e .
[ 1 9 1 4] A D 1 67
. .
Van H e e r de n v P re t o r iu s .
[ 1 9 1 4] A D 69. .
V an Jaa r sv old v V an Jaa rs . .
v e ld s E st [ 1 9 3 8] T P D 3 43
’
. . . .
Va n L e gge lo v Ar gu s Pr i n t in g .
CO [ 1 9 35 ] T P D
. . . 2 30
ip e
.
Van Mi s do , ex p a r t '
[ 1 9 2 8] C P D
. . . 78
V an Nie ke r k v Wirnb le .
[ 1 87 8] B u ch . 1 90
V an Nie ke r k 85 Un io n G o v t v .
[ 1 9 1 7] A D 35 9 1 2 9
. . 1 30 1 6 1 1 40
Van No or de n v . De Jo n gh ( 1 89 2 ) 9 S C 2 9 6 . . 25 7
V an No o r de n ’
8 E st v . E st V a n
.
No o r de n [ 1 9 1 6] A D 1 75
n
. .
Va n O o ste n v V a n O o s t e .
[ 1 9 2 3] C P D 409
. . .
V an Ple t se n v H e nn in g .
[ 1 9 1 3] A D 82. .
V an R e e n e n v B o ar d o f E x o r s .
[ 1 87 5 ] B u ch 44 .
V an R e e n e n v G le nl ily .
[ 1 9 3 6] C P D 3 15
. . .
Re e n e n v Van R ee n e n s
’
Va n .
E st .
[ 1 9 25] O P D 2 39
. . . 39 4
V an R e n s b u r g v Sn y m a n .
[ 1 92 7] O P D 123
. . . 333
V an R e n s b u r g v S t r au gha n .
[ 1 9 1 4] A D 3 17
. . 3 46
V an R e ns b u r g v Sw e rsky B r o s .
[ 1 9 2 3] T P D 25 5
. . . 430
V an R o o y e n v V a n R o o ye n .
[ 1 9 2 7] C P D 266
. . .
V an R o o y e n v We r n e r .
( 1 89 2 ) 9 S C 42 5 . . 39 , 1 0 2 ,
V a n R yn Win e 85 Spiri t CO v .
Cha n do s B a r [ 1 9 2 8] T P D 41 7
. . .
V a n S cha lkw i k v D u Ple ss is j .

( 1 900 ) 1 7 S C 45 4 . .
V a n S c halkw y k v H u go .
( 1 880 ) F o or d 89
V a n S cha lkw y k E st ex p a r te .
[ 1 9 27] C P D 268
. . .
V a n s t on v F r o st .
[ 1 9 30] N P D 121
. . .
’
V a n Vlie t 8 Co llec t io n A ge n c y
v S chr e u de r [ 1 93 9 ] T P D 2 6 5
fD d
. . . .
V a n V u r e n v R e gis t r a r o ee s.
[ 1 9 0 7 ] TS 2 89 .
V an V u u r e n , ex p a rte [ 1 93 7 ] T P D 1 44
. . .
V an Wyk v L eo .
[ 1 9 0 9 ] T S 7 88
he s
.
V a n Zy l v Afr ic an T a t r e
L td .
[ 1 93 1] C P D 61
. . .
V a n Zy l v V a n Zy l .
[ 1 9 2 5] T P D 1 30
. . .
V e de ski v V e de ski .
[ 1 9 2 3] W L D 31
K
. . .
V e e r a pill a i v an tar .
( 1 9 2 8) 3 0 Ce y lon N L R . . .
V e n t e r , ex p a rte [ 1 9 20] O P D 153

. . .
V e n te r , ex p a r te [ 1 9 3 4] T P D 69
D e B ur ghe r s
. . .
V e n te r v . do rp
S t o re s [ 1 9 1 5] CP D
. . . 25 2
V e n te r v S m it .
[1 9 27] CP D
. . . 30
V e n te r v V e n te r
.
[ 1 9 35 ] CP D
. . . 27
V e r m aa k v P a h e r .
[ 1 87 6 ] B u ch . 25
V e r m aa k v V e r m a a k .
[ 1 9 29 ] O P D
. . . 13
TA BL E OF CASES l x iii
V e r m aa k s E x o r v V e r m aa k s
’ ’
.
H e ir s [ 1 9 09] TS 679 9 8, 35 3
M
. .
’
V e r m e u le n s E x e cu t r ix v 001 .
[19 1 1] A D 3 84 . .
V i cke r m a n , e x p a r te [ 1 9 3 5] C P D 42 9
. . .
Vi c t o r i a F a lls 8 5 Tr an sv aa l
P o w e r CO v Co n s L a n g . .
laa gt e Min e s [1 9 1 5]
V iljo e n v H illie r .
[ 1 9 0 4] T S 3 1 2 .
V iljo e n v V iljo e n .
[ 1 9 44] C P D 1 3 7
. . .
V il jo e n v V isse r C P D 47 3
M
. . . .
[ 1 9 22 ] C P D 2 0 8
’
V i ljo e n S E x o r s v The as t e r . . . .
[ 1 9 39 ] C P D 1 5 2
’ ’
V illo t 8 E st v V ille t S E st . . . . . .
V im pan y v A tt ri dge .
[ 19 27] C P D 1 13. . .
[ 1 9 1 4] A D 3 7 9
. .
V isa gie , e x p a r te [ 1 9 40 ] C P D 42. . .
V isa gie v Mu n t z 8 . 5 CO .
[ 1 9 2 1 ] C P D 5 82
. . .
V iv ie r s v i li a n
. K [ 1 9 2 7 ] A D 449. .
V o e ge s v V o e ge s
.
[ 1 9 2 2] T P D 2 9 9
. . .
V o lshe nk v V a n de n B e r g .
[ 1 9 1 7] T P D 32 1
. . .
V o n H o ld t v B r e w e r .
[ 1 9 1 8] C P D 1 63
. . .
V o n L u dw ig, I n r e E st .
[ 1 9 3 1 ] C P D 488
. . .
V u u r m an v n iv e r s a l E n t e r
. U
pr ise s L t d .
[ 1 9 2 4] T PD . . . 488 237, 238
W
Wa ge na a r v Wa ge n aa r .
[ 1 9 2 8] WL D 30 6. 9 6, . . 2 88
Wa lke r v Ma tt e rso n
.
[ 1 93 6 ] N P D 49 5
. . . 2 41
Wa lke r v Syfr e t N O
. .
[19 1 1] A D 1 41. . 2 50
Wa lke r v Ta y lor .
[ 1 9 3 4] W L D 101 . . . 2 60
Wa lke r v V a n We z e l
.
[ 1 9 40 ] W L D 66 . . . 33 5
Wa lke r v Wa le s .
[ 1 9 22 ] C P D 49
. . . 295
Wa llac h s L t d v Ma rs h
’
. .
[ 1 9 2 8] T P D 531
. 3 44. . 3 45
Wa ll a ch s Tr u ste e v Wa lla ch
’
.
[ 1 9 1 4] A D 20 2
. . 445
Wa n iga r a tn e v Se lo ha m y .
( 1 9 41 ) 42 Ce y lo n N L R 3 5 3 . . . 2 89
Wan iga t u n ga v Sin n O A ppu . . 1 9 25 ) 2 7 Ce y lo n N L R 5 0 . . . 1 30
Wa r d ex p a rte C P D 70 3 86
Wa r in g 85 G illO W v She r bO
,
rn e
. . .
.
[ 1 90 4] T S 3 40 . 3 42
Wa r r e n 85 Tu r pin v The Mast e r .
[ 1 9 1 3] C P D 7 84
. . . 395
Wa t e r m e y e r v K e r de l s Tr u s .
’
tees ( 1 83 4) 3 Me n z . 42 4
Wa t e rm e y e r v . Mur r a y [ 19 1 1] A D 6 1
. .
Wa t e r m e y e r ’
s E x o rs v . Wa te r
m eyer
’
E x or s .
[ 1 87 0 ] E a ch 69 .
Wa t e rso n v Ma y b e rr y .
[ 1 9 3 4] T P D 2 10
. . .
Wa t so n v McHa tt ie .
( 1 885 ) 2 S A R 28 . . .
We b b v G iddy ( 1 87 8) 3 A pp Cas 90 8 . .
We bb v L an ga i
.
( 1 884) 4 E D C 68 . . .
We b b e r v We bb e r .
[ 1 9 1 5] A D 2 39
. .
We b b e r s E x o r ex p a rte
’
.
( 1902 ) 1 9 S C 42 7 . .
We b st e r v B o sa n u e t . q [ 1 9 1 2] A C 394
. .
We b ste r v E lliso n .
[ 1 9 1 1] A D 73
. .
lx iv TA B L E OF CASES
We e ks v A m a lga m a te d A ge n
.
c ie s L td A D 2 18
. . 1 44
We e r a sin ghe v Pe r e r a . 43 Ce y lo n NL R . . . 5 7 5 1 70
W e ge S E st v S t ra u ss
’
. . A D 76
. . 2 41
We in e r le in v G o c h B u ildin gs .
L td . A D 2 82
. . 22 1
We lc h v H a r r is . B D L 298
. . 25 7 .
We lge m o e d v Co he n . T P D 1 34
. . 3 45 .
We lla ppu v M u da lih a m i . 6 Ce y lo n N L R 2 33 2 88 . . .
We lls v D e a n Willc o cks

. C P D 89
. . 53 95 .
,
We lls v D u Pr ee z 2 3 S C 2 84 2 36
C
. . .
We lls v S A A lu m e n it e O
. . . . A D 69
. . 238
We lsfo r d, E st v E st Wr ight . . . O P D 1 62
. . 3 81 .
We n t z e l v We n t z e l . A D 55
. . 91
We sse ls v We ssels . 1 2 S C 46 5 .89 , 9 2 .
We sse ls , N 0 v U y s . . . O P D 329
. . 61 .
We st R a n d E st a te s L t d v .
Ne w e a lan d I n s u r CO Z . .
We ste r n Al a r m S y st e m ( P t y )
L t d v G o in i 85 CO
. .
We ye r v E s t We y e r
. .
Whe la n v O o st hu iz e n .
Whe la n v Whe la n .
Whit e v L a n ds b e r g s E x o r s
.
’
.
Whi t e B r o s v Tr e a su r e r G e n . . .
Whit in g, R e E st .
Whit lo ck v Smi th .
Wh it t ake r v R OO 85 B a t e m an . S
Whit t in gt o n v B O W le s .
Wic kr e m an a y a ke v T he Tim e s
o f C e y lo n 3 9 Ce y lo n N L R 5 47 . 3 32
Widdic o m b e , I n r e N P D 31 1
. . . 90
Wie n e r v E s t Mc K e n z ie
. . C P D 5 62
. . 1 43 , . 2 39
Wije sir iw a r de n e v G u n ase ke r a . 2 0 Ce y lo n N L R 9 2 . . .
2 3 4, 30 5
Wi je so or ia v Ib r a hirn sa . 1 3 Ce y lo n N L R 1 9 5 . . . 50
Wije y sin ghe v V e lo h a m y . 2 9 Ce y lo n N L R 3 49 . . . 204
Wi le y v Th e Mas t e r
. C P D 97
. . . 292
Wilhe lm v No rt o n . B D L 1 43
. . .
Wilh e hn s Tr u ste e v She pst o n e

’
. 6 N L R (O S ) 1
. . . 258
Wilke n v H o llo w a y . C P D 41 8
. . . 3 47
Wilke n v Ko hle r . A D 1 35
. . 227
Wilkin so n v T r e v e t t . C P D 39 3
. . . 3 34
Wilkin so n s E st v Wilkins on ’
. . 2 4 s C 60 2 . . 3 60
Wille n b u r g v Wille nb u r g . 3 B u c h A C 409 . . . 59
Wille n b u r g v Wille n b u r g ( 1 ) . 2 6 S C 447 . .
W ille n b u r g v Wille n b u r g ( 2 ) . 2 5 S C 89 4 . . 58
Willia m s ex p a r te , B D L 325
. . . 85
Will ia m s v R o b e r t s o n . 8 S C C 36. . . 11
Willia m s v R o n de b o sc h Fo u n .
t a in G a r a ge CO . C P D 43 9
. . .
lxvi TAB L E OF cAsES
‘
You n g s’
Pr o v is io n St o r e s v
Va n R yn e v e ld C P D 87
. . .
Zan db e r g v V an Zy l
.
Ze li e v. e lieZ
Zie de m a n v Zie de m an
.
Zw e ige n ha ft v R o l fe s ,
. Ne b e l 8
5
CO . T H 2 42
. .
TA BL E OF STAT U TE S
I . DU T C H
Pla c a e t O f Phil ip, D u ke o f B u r gu n dy , Ju n e 1 1 2 6, 1 5 9
I ns t r u c t i e v o o r de n St ad t ho u de r e n de L u y de n v a n de
K a m e r v a n de n R a d e , Ar t 42. 5
G r e a t Pr iv ile ge O f Mar y O f B u r gu n dy , M a r ch 1 4 1 47
Pla c aa t O f Cha r le s V , J a n u a r y 2 2 2 6, 1 5 9
P lac aa t , M a r c h 20 364
P la c aa t O f Cha r le s V , M a y 1 0 6 , 1 45 , 1 46 , 1 89
Plac aa t , O c t o b e r 1 6 364
P e rpe t u a l E dic t o f Cha r le s V , O c t o b e r 4 . 6 , 60
Ar t 2
. 42 9
Ar t 6
. 82
Art 8
. 258
Ar t 1 2
. 364
Art 1 4
. 35 7
Ar t 1 6
. 2 83
Ar t 1 7
. 5 6 , 5 8, 3 65
Pla c aa t , Ma y 9
Plac aa t O f Philip II , Fe b r u a r y 2 1 3 17
Co de o f Cr i m in a l P r o c e du r e O f Philip II 6
Pla ca a t O f Phil ip 1 1 , M a y 1 5 1 37
Co de O f Civ il P r o c e du r e 6
P o lit ica l O r din an c e , A pr il 1 6
Ar t 3
. 5 7 , 60 , 62
Ar t 1 3
. 57
A rt s 1 9 —2 9
. 40 0
Ar t 2 9
. 7 1, 35 5
Art 3 1
. 2 6, 1 5 9 , 20 3
A rt 35
. 1 90
Ar t 3 7
. 1 89
l
In t e rpr e t a t io n o f t he Po lit ic a O r din a n ce , Ma y 1 3
Pl ac aa t de r 40 S t e P e n nin g D e c e m b e r 2 2
, .
P la c aa t O p t st u ck v a n de Su c c e ss ie n a b in te st a to ,
’
De cem b er 1 8 40 2 , 40 5 , 40 9 , 45 3 , 45 5
Pla c aa t , Ma y 1 27
Pla ca a t , M a r c h 6 1 45
R e so lu t ie v an de St a te n v a n H o lla n dt , S e pt e m b e r 1 5 1 30
Plac a a t v a n de S t a t e n v a n H o lla n dt e n de We st
V r ie sla n dt , Ju ly 30
O r dr e v a n R e gi e r in ge , O c to b e r 1 3
O ld S t a t u t e s O f B a t a v ia
Pla c ae t , Je ge n s t pre se n t e r e n e n de n e m e n v a n v e r
’
b o de n G ifte n e n de G a v e n , 1 Ju ly ( St a t e s G e n e r a l )
-
27
1 65 6 E cht R e gle m e n t v a n de S t a t e n G e n e r a a l , Ma r ch 1 8
- -
Ar t 47
.
Art 5 2
.
A r t 83
.
1X
0 0 .
TA B L E OF S TAT UT ES
E c ht R e gle m e n t
-
v an de S t a t e n G e n e r aa l , M a r c h 1 8
-
85
Ar t . 90
Pla c ae t v a n de St a t e n v a n H o lla n dt te ge ns de Pa c hte rs
e n de B ru y c ke rs v a n de L a n de n , S e pt e m b e r 2 6
Art 9 . 27
A rt 1 0 . 30 6
Art 1 1 . 1 9 6, 30 6
Ar t 1 3 . 30 7
Ar t 1 4 . 30 7
O c t r o o i t o t he E as t In di a Co m pa n y , J a n u a r y 1 0
40 2 , 40 4, 40 8
Pla c aa t , D e c e m b e r 9 , Ar t 5 1 . 27
Wa e r sc ho u w in ge v a n de S t a t e n v a n H o llan dt e n de
We st V r ie slan dt , F e b ru a r y 5
-
Pla c ae t v a n de St a t e n v a n H o llan dt e n de We st V r ie s
l a n dt , Ju ly 2 3
R e so lu t ie v an de S t a te n v a n H o l a n dt e n de We st l
V r i e s lan dt , M a r ch 1 8
Pla c a e t v a n de S t a te n v a n H o lla n dt e n de We s t
V r ie sla n dt , Ju ly 1 8
O r dr e de r H o v e , M a r ch 2 9
Wa e rs cho u w in ge v a n de S t a t e n v an H o lla n dt e n de
We s t V r ie sla n dt , A pr il 3
-
2 6, 159
O r dr e e n de R e gle m e n t , No v e m b e r 2 9 27
Plac a e t , F e b r u a r y 2 4
Pla c aa t t e e ge n s n e e m e n v a n gifte n e n ga v e n , 1 0
D e ce m b e r ( St a t e s G e n e r a l )
R e so lu t ie v a n de S t a t e n v a n H o lla n d, M a y 1
O c t r o o i v a n de B e r b ice , D e c e m b e r 6
O r do n n a n t ie o p he t M idde l v a n de n v e e r t igst e n
p e n n in g , M a y 9 , A r t s 9 a n d 1 9 . 1 60
P lac aa t v an de S t aa t e n v a n H o ll a n d , F e b r u a r y 2 5 5 4, 3 65
P la c aa t v a n de St a a t e n v a n H o lla n d , M a r c h 7 27
Ne w S t a t u te s O f B a t a vi a
R e so lu t io n o f t he S t a t e s G e n e r a l , O c t o b e r 4 ( L a w s o f
B r it G u i v o l i , p 1 )
. . . . 8, 40 7
P lac aa t v a n de S t aa t e n G e n e r a a l , u gu s t 1 0 A 1 50
II I M PE R I A L
.
S t a t u t e O f D ist r ib u t io n ( 2 2 85 2 3 Ca r 2 , c . .
S t a t u t e O f Fr au ds ( 2 9 Ca r 2 , c 3 ) . .
L o r d H a r dw i c ke S A c t ( 2 6 G e o 2 , c 33 )
’
1
. .
( B r it is h G u i a n a ) O r de r In Co u n c il , D e c e m b e r 5
L e t t e rs Pa t e n t c o n st it u t in g t he Co lo n y o f B r it ish
G u ia n a , M a r c h 4 ( L a w s o f B r it ish G u ia n a , e d
'
1 90 5 , p 1 2 )
. 11
Wills A c t ( 7 Will 4 85 1 V ict c
. Se c 1 8
.
, . . 373
G a m in g A c t ( 8 85 9 2 42
S a le O f G o o ds A c t ( 5 6 8 5 5 7 V ic t , c . . 293
Ma rr ie d Wo m e n s P r o pe r t y A c t ( 45 85 46 V ic t , c 7 5 )
’
. . 443
The F ac t o r 8 A c t ( 5 2 8
’
5 5 3 Vi c t , c Se c 2 . . . 43 5
TAB L E OF S TATU T ES lx t x
S o u t he r n R ho de sia O r de r in Co u n c il , O ct o b e r 2 0
S o u t h Afr ic a A c t ( 9 E dw 7 , c . .
S ou t h e r n R ho de sia ( A n n e x a t io n ) O r de r m Co u n c il ,
Ju ly 30
S o u t he r n R ho de si a C
o n st i u t io n t
L e t te rs ate n t , P
S e pt e m b e r 1
L a w o f Pr o pe r ty A c t ( 1 5 G e o 5 , c 2 0 ) . .
S e c 40 ( 1 ) .
Se c
3
.
A dm in ist r a t io n O f E st a te s A c t ( 1 5 G e o 5 , c 2 ) . .
Se c 46 .
L e git im a c y A c t ( 1 6 85 1 7 G e o 60 ) .
S e c 1 ( S u b se c 2 )
8 G
. .
A u c t io n s ( B iddin g ) A gr e e m e n t s A c t ( 1 7 5 1 8 e o 5 , .
c 12)
9
.
A ge o f Ma rr ia ge A c t ( 1 8 5 20 G eo 5, c 36) . .
Ma t r im o n ia l Ca u s e s A c t ( 1 E dw 8 85 1 G e o 6 ) . .
Se c 2 .
Se c 7 .
Se c 8
t
.
o
.
Ma rr ia ge ( S co t la n d ) A c ( 2 85 3 G e 6 , c 3 4) . .
L a w R e for m ( Fr u st r a t e d Co n t r a c t s ) A c t ( 6 85 7 G e o .
6 , c 40 )
9
.
1 9 45 L a w R e fo r m ( Co n t r ib u t o r y Ne glige n ce ) A c t ( 8 8 5
G e o 6 , c 2 8)
. .
III . U NI O N O F S O U T H A F R IC A
In t e rpr e ta t io n A c t ( NO Se c 5
. . .
P u b lic D e b t Co m m iss io n e r s A c t ( NO 1 8) .
P o w e r s a n d Pr iv ile ge s O f Pa r l ia m e n t A c t ( NO 1 9 ) .
Irr iga t io n a n d Co ns e r v a t io n O f Wa t e rs A c t ( NO .
Se c 2 .
Se c 8 .
A dm in is t r a t io n O f E s ta te s A c t ( NO 2 4) .
Se c 2 .
Se c 30 .
Se c 3 1 .
Se c 3 4 .
Se c 5 4 .
Se c 5 6 .
Se c 6 l .
Se c 6 2 .
Se c 7 1 .
Se c 7 2 .
Se c 7 3 .
Se c 7 6 .
Se c 7 7 .
Se c 7 8 .
S e c 80 .
Se c 81 .
Se c 82 .
T AB LE OF S TATUT ES
A dm in ist r a t io n O f E s t a t e s A c t ( NO 2 4) .
S e c 83
.
S e c 84
.
Se c 85
.
S e c 86
.
Se c 87
.
Se c 88
.
Se c 89
.
Se c 9 8
.
Se c 1 0 7
.
S e cs 1 0 8 9
.
-
Se c 1 1 0
.
fi
R e m o v a l o r Mo di ca t io n O f R es t r i c t io n s o n Im
m o v a b le Pr o pe r t y A c t ( No 2 ) .
R a il w a y s A c t ( NO Se c 1 8 ( 1 )
. .
In s o lv e n cy A ct ( No .
Se c 1
.
S e c 84
.
S e c 86
.
S e c 87
.
Me n t a l D iso r de r s A c t ( NO Se c 6 2 .
O
.
Cr im in a l Pr o ce du r e a n d E v ide n ce A c t ( N .
Se c 3 44
8
.
Ma gist r a t e s Co u r t s A ct ( NO S 0 59 . .
Tr e a t y O f P e a ce a n d S o u t h We st Afr ica Ma n da t e -
A c t ( NO 49 )
.
Na t a l a n d Tr a n sv aa l M a rr ia ge L a w A m e n dm e n t
A c t ( NO . Se cs 1 , 3 . 42 3 , 42 4
A ppe lla t e D iv isi o n A c t ( No 1 2 ) . 14
U n i o n Pr o c la m a t i o n No 1 . 14
Mar r ia ge L a w A m e n dm e n t A c t ( N 1 7 ) O . 42 4
Co in a ge A c t ( NO . Se c 3 . 25 6
A v ia t io n A c t ( NO . Se c 9 . 1 28
A do pt io n o f Childr e n A c t ( NO 2 5 ) 41 , 41 3 , . 42 5
In su r a n c e A c t ( NO .
Se c 2 0 ( a )
. .
S e c s 2 3 ff
. .
fi
R e m o v a l o r Mo di c a t i o n o f R e st r i c t io n s o n Im m o v
a b le P r o pe r t y A c t 1 9 1 6 A m e n dm e n t ( NO 2 0 ) .
B ir ths , Ma r r ia ge s , a n d D e a t hs R e gist r a t io n A m e n d
m e n t A c t ( No 1 7 ) S e c 4
t
. .
In so lv e n c y A c t 1 9 1 6 A m e n dm e n t A c ( NO .
Se c 2 9
.
U su r y A c t ( No . Se c 2 .
Co m pa n i e s A c t ( NO 46 )
Se c 7 7
N 1
.
Co m pa n ie s L a w A m e n dm e n t A c t ( o 1 ) .
No t a r ia l B o n ds ( Na t a l ) A c t ( NO 1 8) .
S u c c e ss io n A c t ( NO 1 3 )
N
.
Cape St a t u t e L a w R e v isio n A c t ( o 2 5 ) .
A b o li t io n o f Qu it r e n t A c t ( NO 5 4) .
B u ildin g S o c ie t ie s A c t ( No 6 2 ) .
TA B L E OF S TATU T ES lx x i
Ma rr ia ge L a w Am e n dm e n t A c t ( No 8) .
S e a sh o r e A ct ( NO 2 1 )
_
O
.
D iv o r c e L a w s Am e n dm e n t A c t ( N 32 ) .
G e n e r a l L a w A m e n dm e n t A c t ( NO 46 ) S e c 1 0 1 , .
Su b S e c 3 . 32
In so lv e n c y A c t ( NO 2 4) . 239
Se c 2 0 ( l ) ( a ) , Se e 2 2
. . 25 1
Se cs 2 7 , 2 8 . 84
S e c 33 . 1 99
S e cs 3 6 , 3 7 . .
S e c 47 . 1 99
S e c 84 . 196
S e c 85 . 1 9 2, 1 9 6
S e c 86 . 20 1
S e c 87 . 20 2
Se c 9 8 . 202
The Childr e n s A c t ( NO 3 1 )
’
. 41 , 41 3 , 42 5
A b o lit io n O f Qu it r e n t ( T o w n s a n d V illa ge s ) A c t
( NO 3 3 )
N
.
D e e ds R e gis t r ie s A c t ( O 47 ) .
Se c 5 0 . 19 1
Se c 5 1 . 1 87
Se c 5 3 ( 1 )
. 20 1
S e cs 5 6 , 5 7 . 19 9 , 20 4
S e c 63 ( 1 )
. 1 85
Se c 6 5 ( 1 )
. 177
Se c 6 7 . 1 84
S e cs 7 5 .76 1 74
S e c s 86—89 .
Se c 1 0 2. 1 3 2 1 60 , 1 9 1
c
,
M a t r im o n ia l Ca u s e s Ju r is di c t io n A t ( NO 2 2 ) 45 5
.
Co m pan ie s Am e n dm e n t A c t ( NO 2 3 ) . 12 1, 3 13
1 9 43 Pr e sc r ipt io n A c t ( NO 1 8) . 1 49 , 2 81 , 2 83 , 3 44
Se c 2 ( 1 )
. 5 0 , 1 47 , 1 48, 1 7 6 , 1 84, 2 33 ,
29 9, 327
Se c 3 . 1 49 , 2 0 8, 2 82
Se c s 6 , 7 , 9 , 1 0
. 2 82
Se c 8 . 2 86
Se c 1 3 . 1 48
Se c 1 5 . 2 86
M a t r im o n ia l Ca u se s Ju r isdic t io n A c t ( N 3 5 ) O
45 6
.
IV . THE C O L O NY O F THE C A PE OF G O O D H OPE

1714 R e so lu t io n O f t he G o v e r n o r in Co u n c il , Ju n e 1 9 40 6
1 80 6 A r t ic le s O f Ca pit u l a t io n o f t he Ca pe , Ja n u a r y 1 8 9
1 81 3 Sir J o hn Cr a dock s Pr o c la m a t io n , A u gu st 6
’
161
1 82 9 Or d . NO . 62 44
1 833 Or d . NO . 1 0 5 , Se c 1 . 10 1
1 83 8 Ma rr ia ge O r de r in C ou n c il , S e pt e m b e r 7
- -
328
Se c 1 7
. 59
Se c 1 9
. 52
1 845 Or d . NO . 12 12
lx xii TAB L E OF S TATUT ES
Or d NO 1 5 , S e c 3
. . .
A c t NO 1 6 .
A c t NO 6 , S e c 4
. .
A ct NO . 24
A ct NO . 7 , Se c 1 0 6 .
A ct NO . 11
A ct No . 2 6, S o c . l
Se c w .
A ct NO . 2 3 , Se c b
o
.
A ct NO . 21
Se c w .
A ct NO . 2 2 , Se c w .
Se c
p
.
Se c .
A ct NO . 3 , Se c .
A ct NO . 8 ( G en eral A m e n dm e n t )
Se c 7 .
Se c 8 .
1 889 A ct NO . 36
1 89 2 A ct NO . 40 , S e c 2 .
1 89 3 A ct NO . 1 9 , Se c 5 4 .
1 90 2 A ct NO . 36
V . N ATA L
L e t t e r s P a t e n t , Ma y 3 1
O r d NO 4
. .
R o y a l Cha r t e r , Ju ly 1 5
L a w NO 2 2 , Se c 5 9
. .
Se c 5 0
—
.
Se c 0
1
Se c «
1
.
L a w NO 1 .
L a w NO 2 , S e c
a
u
.
Se c.
p
r
Se c c
'a
Se c q
.
S e c s 8—1 0
.
L aw NO . 25
L aw NO . 14
L aw NO . 13
L aw NO . 12
L aw NO . 40
L aw NO . 7 , Se cs . 1 85 2
Se c 3
.
1 89 5 L a w NO . 22
1 89 6 A c t NO . 39
1 89 8 A c t No . 45
1 90 3 A c t NO . 37
1 905 A c t NO . 3
TAB L E OF S TATU TE S
R e gu la t io n NO 1 5 ( L o st Pr o pe rt y ) , R S ca p 6 3
. . . .
O r d NO 7 ( Pr e v e n t io n O f Fr au ds ) , R S c a p 5 7
. . . . .
Se c 2 . 1 6 0 , 1 7 4, 1 9 1 , 227
S ec 3 . 363
Se c 5 . 37 1 , 37 3
Se c 9 . 3 68
Sec 1 0 . 3 66
Se c 1 3 . 3 63
Se c 2 1 . 3 1 2, 3 17
O r d No 2 1 S ec 1 ( The Wil ls O r din a n c e ) , R S c a p
’
. . . . . . .
49
Se c 2 .
O r d NO 6
. .
O r d NO 5 ( Th e Civ il L a w O r din a n c e ) , R S
. . . . ca p . 66
1 1, 22
Se c 3 . 259
O r d NO 1 7 , S e c 1
. . . 191
O r d NO 4, S e c 2 , R S ca p 2 6 7 . 1 37
O r d NO 7 ( A ge O f Ma o r it y ) , R S c ap 53
. . . . .
. . j . . . 44
O r d NO 2 2 , R S Ca p 66
. . . . . 3 1 2, 3 19
O r d NO 2 2 ( Pr e s c r ipt io n ) , R S c a p 5 5 ,
. . . . .
Se c 3 . 1 48
Se c 4 . 1 68
Se c 1 1 . 50
O r d NO 1 1 ( E n t a il a n d S e tt le m e n t ) , R S c a p 5 4 3 7 7 , 3 87
. . . . .
O r d NO 1 5 ( M a t rim o ni a l R ight s a n d In h e r i t a n c e ) ,
. .
R S ca p 47
. . . 45 3
Se c 8 . 69
Se c 2 3 . 84
Se c 40 . 40 5
O r d NO 1 7 , ( Tr e asu r e Tr o v e ) , R S c a p 1 47
. . 1 37 . . .
O r d NO 5 ( Th e G e mm in g Or di n a n c e ) , R S ca p 1 6 4 1 3 8
. . . . .
O r d No 3 , S e c 2 ( Tr e asu r e Tr o v e ) , R S c a p 1 45
. . . 137 . . .
O r d NO 2 ( M arr ia ge R e gis t r a t io n ) , S e c 1 6
. . 53 .
O r d NO 1 4 ( E v i de n c e O r di n an c e ) , R S ca p 1 1 , S e c
. . . . . .
1 12 33
O r d No 1 1 ( Sa le o f G o o ds ) , R S c a p 7 0
. . 23, 2 9 3
. . .
1 9 ( M a r r ia ge R e gis t r a t io n ) , R S c a p 9 5 63 . . .
Se c 1 7 . 42 5
Se c 2 1 . 51
S e c 22 . 35
Se c 2 3 . 61
O r d NO 1 ( G a m e P r o te c t i o n ) , R S ca p 3 2 6
. . 1 36 . . .
O r d NO 1 9 ( H o te l
. .
’
K
e e pe r s L ia b ili t y ) R S cap 6 3 319 , . . .
O r d No 9 ( Tr u s t s ) , R S c a p 7 2
. . . . 3 87 , 3 9 2
.
O r d NO 2 6 ( L o st Pr o pe r t y ) R S , c a p 6 3
. .
, 1 37 . . .
O r d NO 2 ( Th e Mo n e y L e n din g O r din a n c e ) , R S
. . . .
c a p 67.
O r d NO 1 8 ( M a rr i e d Wo m e n s Pr o pe r t y ) , R S c a p
’
. . . . .
46 2 3 , 65
O r d NO 1 8, S e c 2 9
. . . 316
O r d No 1 8 ( Carri a ge o f G o o ds b y Se a ) , R S c a p 7 1 3 1 9
. . . . .
TABL E OF S TATU T ES lxxv
O r d No 2 1 ( Mo r t ga ge ) , R S ca p 7 4, Se c 3
. . . . . .
Se c 1 7 .
O r d No 2 3 ( R e gis t ra t io n o f D o c u m e n t s ) , R S
. . . .
10 1
Se c 3 .
Se c 7 .
Se c 1 6 .
S ec 1 7 .
S ec 1 8 .
Or d No 2 5 ( B ills o f E x chan ge ) , R S c a p 6 8
. . . . .
Se c 9 7 .
O r d No 5 1 ( Co m pa n i e s )
. .
O r d No 6 ( Co m pa n ies L a w A m e n m e n t )
. . d
No 2 4 ( A do pt io n o f Childr e n )
n
.
O r d No 1 9 ( Co m pa ni e s L a w Am e n dm e t )
. .
No 5 4 ( A m e n din g No 2 4 o f 1 9 41 )
. .
IX . B R IT I S H G U IA NA
Or de r v a n R e gie rin ge , O c t o b e r 1 3 .
O c t r o o i fo r B e r b ic e , D e c e m b e r 6
R e so lu t io n s o f t he S ta t e s G e n e r a l, O c to b e r 4
Ar t ic le s o f Ca pit ul a t io n o f E sse u ib o a n d D e m e r ar a , q
Se pte m b e r 1 8
O r de r 111 Co u n c il , D e c e m be r 1 5
R u l e s o f Cr i m in a l Pr oc e d ur e
L e t te rs Pa te n t c o n s t it u t in g t he Co lo n y o f B ri t ish
G u ia n a , Mar c h 4
Civ il L a w o f B r it is h G u ian a Or din a n ce ( No 1 5) .
X . SO UT H A F R I CA N PR OT E CT O R ATE S
1 884 B as u t o la n d , Pr oc l o f t he H igh Co mm iss io n e r , Ma y 2 9

. 12
1 904 Sw a z ila n d , Pr oc l o f t h e H igh Co mm iss io n e r , No 3
. . 13
1 907 Sw a z ila n d , P r o c l O ft he Hi gh Co mm i ss i o n e r , No 4
. . 13
1 909 B e c hu a n a lan d , Fr o c l o f t he H igh Co mm is sio n e r , No 36
. . 12
XI . SO UT H E R N R H O D E S IA
O r de r 111 Co u n c il , O c t o be r 2 0
O r de r i n Co u n c il Ju l y 3 0 ,
Marr ie d P e rso n s Pr o pe r t y A ct ( R S ca p 1 5 1 )
’
. . .
D e c e ase d E s ta te s Su c ce ss io n A c t ( R S ca p 5 1 ) . . .
A b o li t io n o f Q u i t r e n t A c t ( No 1 6 ) .
Co in a ge A c t No 3 2 , S e cs 1 3 , 1 5 . .
M a t r im o nia l Cau se s A c t ( No 2 0 ) .
Se c 7 .
Sec 9 .
Se c 1 2 .
S ec 1 4 .
lxxvi TAB LE OF STATUTE S
R E V I SE D STA TU TE S O F S O UTH E R N R H OD E S IA
Ca p 2 7
. . Pr e s cr i pt io n 1 48, 1 49
Ca p 49. . Wills 3 68
Ca p 1 87
. . G am e 1 36
2 59
X II . S O U TH
WE ST A FR I CA PR O TE CT OR A TE
-
1919 A dm ini st ra t io n o f Ju st ic e Pr oc la m a t io n ( No 2 1 ) .
1 9 20 Pr o c la m a t ion No . 31
A DD E ND A
23 4, n . 3, i n fin e . In B o tha v . A ssa d [ 1 945 ] T P D 1 t he . . .
( Sc hr e in e r J . an d B r e bn e r A . J .
) he ld t ha t t he do c t r in e o f
e n o r m is do e s n o t a pply to c o n t r a c t s o f le t t in
g an d hir in g .
2 66, n . 2 . A dd Jacki e v . M eyer [ 1 9 45] A D 3 5 4 . . .
326, n . 3 . A dd P i er ce V . Ha n M on [ 1 9 44] A D 1 7 5 . . .
C O RR I G E ND UM
p 3 81 n
. . 1 in
fin e fo r ,
E st . Welsfor d v E s t Welsfor d r e a d E st Welsfor d v

. . . . E st . Wr ight .
INTR ODU CTI ON
G ENE R AL I NTR OD U CTI ON
TH E phr a se Ro m an D u t ch L a w w a s in ve nt e d by Sim on
‘
-
’
v a n L e e u we n
1
who e m ploye d it a s t he su b tit le of hi s
,
-
wor k e n t itle d P a ra ti tla Ju r i s No vi ssimi p u bli she d a t L e y

de n in 1 6 5 2 Su b se qu e n t ly his l a r ge r a n d b e t t e r kn own
.
t re a t ise o n t he R o m a n D u t c h L a w w a s i ssu e d u n d e r t h a t
‘ ’
-
n a m e in t he ye a r 1 6 6 4 .
The syste m of law t hu s de scr i b e d i s t h at whi c h ob t a in e d

in t he p r ovin ce of H oll a n d fr o m t he mi d dl e of t he fif
2
te e n t h t o t he e a r ly ye ar s of t he n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y It s .
m ain p r in ciple s w e r e c a rr ie d by t he D u t ch in t o t h e ir se tt le
m e n t s in t he E a st a n d We st I n d ie s ; a n d wh e n s o m e of
t h e se n a m e ly t he C a p e of Good H op e Ce ylon a n d p art
, , , ,
of G u i an a a t t he e n d of t he e ighte e n t h a n d t he b e gin nin g

,
of the n in e te e n t h ce n t u r y p a sse d u n de r t he do m in io n of
,
t he Cr own of G r e a t B r i t a in t he old la w w a s r e t a in e d a s t he
,
co m m on law of the t e r r it or ie s whi ch n o w b e c am e B r i ti sh

c olon ie s .Wit h t he e xp a n si on of t he B r it ish E m pir e in
S ou t h Afr i ca t he sph e r e of t he R o m an D u t ch L a w ha s
,
-
e x t e n d e d it s bo u n d a r i e s u n t il t he whole of t he a r e a co m
,
p r i se d wi t hin t he Uni on of Sou t h Afr i ca r e p r e se n t in g the ,
fou r form e r coloni e s of t he Ca p e of Good H ope N a t a l the , ,
Tr a n sva al a n d t he Or a n ge R ive r a s we ll a s t he c ou n tr y
, ,
for m e r ly a dm ini ste r e d by t he B r itish So u t h Afr ic a Co m

p a n y a n d n o w con stit u tin g a se p ar a t e c olon y u n de r t he
n a m e of S o u t h e r n Rhod e sia ha s a dop te d t hi s syste m a s it s ,
com m on la w Thi s i s t he m or e r e m ar ka ble sin c e in H olla n d

.
it se lf a n d in t he D u t ch col oni e s of t he p r e se n t da y t he old

la w ha s b e en r e pl a ce d by code s ; so t h a t t he st a t u te s a n d
,
te x t book s whi ch ar e sti ll cons u lte d a n d follow e d in t he

-
,
1
Se e J ou rn Comp L eg , N S , v o l x ii, p 5 48
. . . . . . . .
2
The s tu de n t w ill n o t fa il t o r e m e m b e r t ha t H o lla n d w as o n e
o n ly o f t he se v e n pr o v in c e s w h ic h , ha v in g de c la r e d t he ir in de
pe n de n c e o f Spa in c o m b in e d t o fo r m t he R e pu b li c o f t he
U n ite d Ne t he r la n ds (
p 5 , n Th e m
. o d e r n e u iv a le n t i s t he
. q
K in gdo m o f t he Ne t he r la n ds , a n d t his i s w ha t w e c o m m o nl y
‘ ’
m ea n t o d a y w he n w e spe a k o f H o lla n d
‘ ’
.
ROMAN -
DUTCH LAW 3
a bove -
do m ini on s a r e se ldom of pr a cti
m e n t i o n e d B r i t i sh ,
1
c a l i n te r e st in t he l a n d of t h e ir o r igin .
Thou gh t o in di ca te in ge n e r a l te r m s t he n a t u r e of t he
R o m a n D u t c h L a w i s a m a tte r of n o gr e a t di fficu lt y pre
-
,
ci se ly t o d e fi n e i t s e x te n t in t i m e o r sp a c e i s n o t s o e a sy .
D e r ive d fr om t w o sou r ce s Ge r m a ni c Cu st o m a n d R om a n Its origin

, ,
L a w t he R o m a n —
,
D u t c h L a w m a y b e s a i d t o h a ve b e e n
a n t i ci p a te d so s oo n a s t he fo r m e r of t h e se in cor po r a te d e le
m e n t s d e r ive d fr o m t he l a t te r Un do u b te dly su ch a p r o ce ss .
w a s a t wo r k fr o m ve r y e a r ly t i m e s Lo n g b e fo re t he Co r p u s .
Ju r i s of Ju st in ia n ha d b e e n r e ce ive d in Ge r m a n y t he
‘ ’
Code x Th e odo sia n u s ( A D 43 8) ha d le ft it s m a r k u po n

. .
t he cu st o m a r y l a w s of t he c o u n tr y n o w c o m p ri se d wi t h in
t he li m it s of t he ki n gdo m s of H oll a n d a n d B e lgiu m
2
L a te r a n d de v e .
,
lo pme nt
t he Fr a n kish Mo n a r c hy t he Ch ur c h t hr ou gh t he m e diu m
‘
of it s Ca n o n L a w t he Un ive r sit ie s a n d t he Cou rt s of law

3
,
fo r ge d fr e sh lin ks b e t w e e n R o m e a n d G e r m an y The .
ge n e r a l r e ce p t i o n of t he R o m a n L a w in G e r m a n y a n d H ol
l a n d in t he fifte e n t h a n d six te e n t h c e n t ur ie s co m ple te d a
p r o ce ss whi ch in v ar i ou s w a ys a n d t hr o u gh va r io us c h a n
4
n e l s ha d b e e n a t w o r k fo r u pw a r d s of a t ho u s a n d ye ar s .
Fo r m a n y ce n tu ri e s a fte r t he d iss olu t io n of t he Fr a nkis h

E m p ir e ( 0 9 00 ) t h e re w a s n o ge n e r a l le gisl a ti o n Un de r
. .
t he ru le of t he Co u n t s of H oll a n d t he la w of t h a t p r ovi n ce
c o n siste d p r in cip a lly i n ge n e r a l a n d lo c a l c u st o m s su ppl e
m e n t e d t o a n u n c e rt a in d e gr e e by R o m a n L a w The n u . ,
m e r c u s p r ivile ge s ( ha n dves ten ) wr u n g fr o m t he Cou n t s by

t he gr owin g po w e r of t he t o w n s o n ly te n d e d t o com pli ca te
5
t he la w by a m ul tipli ca t i o n of lo ca l a n o m a lie s In su ch a .
1
O n c o di fi ca t io n in H o ll a n d se e a n o te b y D r W R B iss c ho p . . .
in J ou rn C om p L eg N S v o l ii i p 1 0 9
. . .
, . .
, .
, . .
3
V an de Spie ge l , Ver ha n de li n g over den O or spr on g e n de H is tor i e
de r Va der la n ds che R e chte n , pp 7 3—4 . .
3
Ib id p 1 1 0 F o r so m e r e m a r ks o n t he pa rt pla y e d b y t he
. . .
Can o n L a w in t he fo r m a t io n o f t he m a t u r e s y st e m o f R D L se e -
K
. . .
o t z e, Va n L e eu w e n [ 2 md v o l i , pp 46 8 ff . . .
4
This has b e e n a pt ly de sc r ib e d as t h e in lt r a t io n in c o n t r as t
‘
fi
w it h t h e r e c e pt i o n , o f t h e R o m a n L a w
‘ ’
.
5
This w as pa r t icu la r ly t he c as e w h e n , a s u su a lly ha ppe n e d , t he
j
t o w n s e n o y e d t he pr iv il e ge o f m a kin g lo ca l r e gu la t io n s ( keu r e n ) .
We sse ls , H i s tor y of the Roma n D u tch L a w , p 2 1 0 -

. .
4 GENE RAL INTRODUCTI ON
s t a te o f t hi n gs it i s n o t su r pr isin g t h a t wh e n m e di e v a l in ,
stit u t io n s p r ove d in a d e q u a te t o m e e t t he n e e d s of a fu ll e r
a n d m o r e co m pl e x life r e s o r t w a s m a d e to t he R o m a n
,
L a w a s t o a syste m log ic a l c oh e r e n t a n d co m ple te ,

1
This ,
.
w a s t he r e a li z a t io n in t he N e t h e r l a n d s of t he m o m e n t o u s
‘
p r oce ss w hi c h schol a r s h a ve de scr ib e d a s t he r e ce p t io n

’ ‘
of the Ro m a n L a w in Nor t h e r n E u r ope ’ 2

L a te r u n de r .
,
Sp a ni sh r ul e c a m e a n e r a of c o n st r u ct ive le gisl a t ion ; b u t

,
by t h a t t i m e t he r e ce p t io n of t he R o m a n L a w w a s a lr e a dy
a ssu re d .
The re ce p Pr o m in e n t a m o n g st t he c a u se s wh i ch stim ul a te d t he
t io n o f t he
re c e p t io n of t he R o m a n L a w i n t h i s sp e c i a l se n se w a s t he
‘ ’
Ro ma n
e st a bli sh m e n t of t he G r e a t Co u n cil a t Me c hli n in t he ye ar
L a w in the 3
Ne t her
la n ds ; 1 47 3 wi t h j ur is d i ct i o n ove r t he p r ovin ce s of t he N e t h e r
la n ds t he n su bj e ct t o t he D u ke of B u r gu n dy Thi s Cou r t .
,
whi ch c on t in u e d t o e x ist u n t il t he War of I n de p e n de n ce 4

,
did m u ch t o a ssim ila t e t he law in t he v a r io u s p r ovi n ce s ,
a n d t h u s e x e r c ise d a j u r i s dic t io n co m p ar a bl e t o t h a t of t he
Ju di cia l Co m m itte e of t he P r i vy Co u n cil o r ( in a n arr ow e r

fie ld ) of t he App e ll a te D ivi sio n of t he Su pr e m e Co u rt of
5
Sou t h Afr i c a a t t he p r e se n t da y N i col a u s E v e r a r du s o n e .
,
of o ur e ar li e st a u t ho r i tie s fo r t he Ro m a n D u t c h L a w w a s -
,
P r e side n t of t hi s Co u rt in P e r h a p s w e sh a ll n ot b e
wr o n g if w e se le ct t he ye ar of t he i n st itu ti o n of thi s t ri
1
S ir J o hn K o t z e in 2 6 40 7 —8 a n d K o t z e
pp .
, ,
Va n L e eu w e n , v o l i , A ppe n dix , pp 45 9 —6 0. . .
2
Vin o gr a do fi , Rom a n L a w i n M edi e va l E u r op e ( 2md
’
cd .
,
p 12. .
Th e G r e a t Co u n c il ( D e G r oo te Raa d ) w as in s t it u te d in t he
y e a r 1 446 b y Philip t he G o o d , D u k e o f B u r gu n dy a n d Cou n t o f
fi
H o lla n d I t w as x e d a t Me c hlin b y Char le s t he B o ld in 1 47 3 , a n d
.
a ga in b y Phil ip t h e F a ir in 1 5 0 3 ( Fr u in , G es chi ede n is de r S taa ts i n
s te lli ngen i n Nede r la nd , p The Pr o v in c ia l Co u rt o f H o llan d

.
( H of va n H o lla n d ) a lso e x e r c is e d a n im po r t a n t in fl u e n c e in t he
sa m e dir e c t io n F or a s hort his t o r y o f t he se Co u r ts se e
. o t z e, K
o p c it , pp 47 8 ff
. . . .
Ifi u in , p 2 6 1
'
I t s pla ce w as t a ke n , a s r e ga r ds H o lla n d a n d
Z
. .
Ze e la n d o n ly , b y t he H ooge R aa d va n H o lla nd ( en e e la n d ) es ta b ,
lishe d in The H a gu e in 1 5 81 Z
e e la n d su b m i t te d t o i t s u r is dic t io n
. j
in 1 5 87 .
5
K o tz é, 2 7 S A L J p 29
H
. . . . .
He had pr e v iou s ly b e e n Pr e side n t o f t he Co u r t o f o ll a n d

fr o m 1 5 0 9 .
6 GENE RAL INTR ODUCTI ON
la w of t h e ir co u n t r y wh i ch it is i n fe rr e d t he y e n sl a ve d to , , ,
a n a li e n syst e m B u t t h e y m u st h a v e t he cr e d it of b r in gin g
.
s o m e or d e r in t o ch a o s No o n e di sp u te s the fa c t of t he re .
ce pti o n of t he R o m a n L a w Wh a t is qu e stio n e d is t he .
de gr e e t o which t he r e ce p t i o n we n t Va n de r L in de n su p .
plie s t he a n swe r : In o r de r t o a n sw e r t he qu e st i o n wh a t i s ‘
t he la w in su ch a n d su c h a c a se w e m u st fir st in qu i r e
wh e t he r a n y ge n e r a l la w of t he l a n d o r a n y lo ca l o r din a n c e
(plaa tselijke hea r ) h a vin g t he fo r ce of la w o r a n y w e ll , ,
e st a bli sh e d c u st o m ca n b e fo u n d a f fe ct in g it The R o m a n ,
.
L a w a s a m ode l of wi sdo m a n d e qu it y i s in d e fau l t of su ch ,
a la w a cc e p t e d by u s t hr o u gh cu st o m i n o r d e r t o su pply
,
t hi s w a n t
1
The li m it s of t h is a c ce p t a n ce a r e d e fin e d by
’
.
V a n de r K e e sse l in a se r ie s of t h e se s whi c h t he l a te Pr o
2
3
fe ssor Fo cke m a A n dr e a e a c ce p t e d a s su b st a n t i a ll y c or r e ct .
D u r in g t he p e r iod of Sp a ni sh ru le le gisla ti on b e ca m e ,
a ct i ve Ma n y u se fu l m e a su r e s w e r e p r o m u lg a t e d by
.
Ch ar le s V su ch a s t he Pla ca a t of Ma y 1 0
,
r e l a t in g ,
t o t he t r a n sfe r a n d hypo t h e c a t i o n of i m m ov a ble p r op e r t y ,
a n d t he P e r p e t u a l E d i c t of O ct ob e r 4 In 1 5 7 0 his ,
6
so n Phili p II i ssu e d a Cod e of C r i m in a l P r oc e d u r e which ,
r e gu l a te d t he p r a c t ic e of t he D u t ch Colo n i e s u n t il su p e r
7
se de d by t he h u m a n e r p r ovis io ns of t he E n gli s h L a w .
The Polit i ca l Or d in a n c e of Ap r il 1 m u st a l s o b e ,
m e n t ion e d a s o n e of t he fo r m a ti ve e l e m e n t s of t he m od e r n
la w The C i vil Pr o ce du r e of t he Co u r t s w a s r e gu l a te d by
.
9
a n o t h e r Or di n a n ce of t he sa m e ye a r a n d da y .
1
V a n de r L in de n H a n dboe lc ( Ju t a s t r a n sla t i o n ) p 2 S e e a lso
’
. .
, ,
Gr . 1 2 22 ; Van L e eu w en , 1 1 1 1
. . . . .
2
V d K 6 —2 3
. . . .
3
I n leidi nge to t de H o lla n dsche R e chts ge le e r dhe id , bes chr e ve n bi] -
Hu go de G r o ot, m e t a a n tee ke n i n ge n va n M r S J F o cke ma A n dr e a e , . . .
H oogle e r aa r te L e ide n ( de r de u it ga v e ) , Ar nh e m , 1 9 2 6, v o l ii , p 1 2 ;
'
. .
K o t z e, u bi s u p a t p 5 0 8 . . .
l G P B 374 . . . .
5
1 G P B 311 .We sse ls ( p 2 1 8) su m m ar iz e s it s c o n te n t s
. . . . .
2 G P B 1 00 7 ; We s s e l s , p 3 7 3
. . . . .
7
I t r e m a in e d pa r t o f t h e L a w o f B r i t ish G u ia n a u n t il 1 82 9 ,
w he n i t w as s u pe r s e de d b y R u l e s o f Cr im i n a l P r o c e du r e m a de
u n de r t he a u t ho r i t y o f a n O r de r i n Co u n c il o f D e c e m b e r 1 5 , 1 82 8 .
8
l O P B 3 3 0 We sse ls ( p 2 22 ) su m m a r iz e s i t s c o n t e n t s
. . . . . .
9
2 69 5 S e e We sse ls , p 1 86 . . .
ROMAN -
DUTCH LAW 7
The hi st or y of the Ro m an D u t ch L a w 1 s for ou r p re se nt The

p u r po se t he hi st or y of t he a u t hor i t ie s fr om who m w e de D32?
r ive o u r kn owle dge of it To t he se w e sh a ll p r e se n t ly r e fe r L aw In
. .
Q ua n d
In t he ho m e of it s or igin t he Ro m a n Du t ch L a w as a se p a r
'
a te syste m su r viv e d by a fe w ye ar s t he di ssolu t i o n of t he
Re p u b li c of t he Uni t e d N e t h e r l a n d s In 1 80 9 it w a s su p e r .
se de d by t he N a pol e on i c Cod e s whi c h in tu r n g a ve pl a ce

,
in 1 83 8t o t he e x istin g c ode s in for ce in t he K in gdo m of the

.
N e t he r l a n ds Va n de r L in de n t he l a te st w ri te r o n t he old
.
,
law w a s a l so t he e ar li e st wr ite r o n t he n e w W h e n t he old

,
.
syste m cru m bl e d b e n e a t h hi s h a n d s he l e ft u n fini sh e d hi s
p r oj e c te d Su pple m e n t t o Vo e t s Co m m e n t ar y u po n t he
’
1
P a n de cts a n d a pplyi n g his t ir e le ss in du str y in a n e w
, ,
fie ld b e ca m e t o hi s cou n tr ym e n t he in t e r p r e te r of the l a ws
,
of t he ir con qu e r or The e x istin g D u t ch Civil Code how

2
.
,
e ve r in m a n y r e sp e ct s r e v e r t s fr o m t he ru l e s of t he Fr e n ch
,
la w t o t he e ar li e r la w of H o ll a n d .
Ha vi n g sa id t hu s m u ch of the R om a n D u t ch L aw in -
ge n e r a l w e go o n t o sp e a k m or e p ar ti cu l a r ly of it s hist or y
,
in t he D u t c h Colo n ie s a n d in t ho se p a r t s of t he wo r ld
wh e r e t hi s syst e m still ob t a in s Afte r t h a t w e sh a ll sp e a k
.
of t he sou r ce s fr o m which o u r kn o w le dg e of t he R o m an
D u t ch L aw is de r ive d .
The t w o gr e a t tr a di n g co m p a n i e s of E a st a n d We st t he The ,
Du t ch E a st In dia Co m p a n y in c orpor a te d in 1 60 2 a n d
, ,
t he D u t ch W e st In di a Co m p a n y in c or por a t e d in 1 6 2 1 L w in , ,
a
ca rr i e d t he R o m a n D u t c h L a w in t o t h e ir se tt le m e n t s 3 30 363
1 11 0 11
-
1
.
The C a p e w a s o ccu pie d by Va n Rie b e e k in 1 6 5 2 The .
m a r i tim e dist ri ct s of C e ylon w e r e w o n fr o m t he Port u gu e se

in 1 6 5 6 The D u t ch se t t l e m e n t s u pon t he W ild Co a st of
‘ ’
.
Sou t h A m e r i ca whi ch c a m e t o b e kn own a s G u i a n a d a te

, ,
fr o m t he e ar ly ye a r s of t he se ve n te e n t h ce n t u r y H ow fa r Ho w far .
m
tf
k
t he st a t u te s of t he m o th e r c ou n t r y w e r e in for ce m t h e se g éz tf
Coloni e s t he e vide n c e h ar dly a llows u s t o say On pr in L ev w s
In y
r
.
a
'
OI CO .
1
J oha n n i s Voe t Com m e nta r ii ad P a n decta s tom u s ter ti u s con
, ,
ti n e ns su pp le m e n tu m a u ctor e J oa n n e va n de r L i nden Se c t io pr irn a .
a lib r o I u s qu e ad XI I Pa n de c t ar u m
,
Tr a je c t i ad R he n u m 1 7 9 3
, , .
9
I n his B e r ede n e er d r egi s ter op he t w e tboe k Nap o leon , i nger i cht
voor he t K on i ngr ij k H olla nd ( A m s t e r dam , 1 80 9 ) an d o t he r w o r ks .
ciple wo u ld n o t a pply u nl e ss e xp r e ssly de cla re d t o
t he y
1
b e a ppli c a bl e or a t l e a st u nl e ss lo ca ll y p r o m u lg a t e d ; bu t
,
s o m e m a y h a v e b e e n a cce p te d by cu st o m a s p a r t of t he
co m m on la w As re g ar d s l a ws of t he pa tr i a p a sse d su b
2
.
se qu e n t ly t o t he d a t e of se t t l e m e n t it m a y b e t ho u gh t t h a t
t he b u r d e n of p r oof lie s o n him who a lle g e s t h e ir a ppli c a

t ion The St a t e s of H oll a n d ( i e t he P r ovin ci a l L e gisl a
. . .
3
t u r e ) w e r e n o t co m p e t e n t t o l e gi sl a te for t he Colo ni e s .
The St a te s — G e n e r a l ( i s the Fe de r a l L e gi sl a tu r e of t he . .
Uni t e d N e t he r l a n d s ) se ldom did so The t w o Ch a r te r e d .
Co m p a ni e s of E a st a n d We st a ct e d t hr ou gh t he ir E x e cu
t i ve Co m m itt e e s t he Cou n cil of XV II a n d t he Co u n ci l of
,
X r e sp e c t ive ly wh i ch n o dou b t in flu e n ce d t he c ou r se of
, , ,
le gi sla t ion in t he se ve r a l Colo n i e s b u t for m a lly t he le gi sl a , ,
iv
t e au t ho r i t y i n e a ch c a se w a s t he G o v e m or i n —
Co u n cil -
,
a n d i n t he E a st I n di e s t he Gov e r n o r G e n e r a l who fr o m
, ,
-
B a t a vi a i ssu e d ru l e s for t he gov e r n m e n t of t he v ar iou s

st a t ion s which if lo c a lly p r o m u lg a te d ha d bin din g fo r c e
, , ,
u n t il su p e r se d e d o r fo r go t t e n
4
Fa ilin g the a bove a n d a n y .
coloni a l cu st o m h a vin g t he fo r ce of la w r e cou r se w a s ha d ,
t o t he l a ws st a tu t e s a n d cu st om s of t he Un it e d N e t h e r
‘
’
l a n d s a n d wh e r e t he se we re sile n t in t he l a st r e sort t o
, ,
t he L a w of R o m e
5
It m a y b e su ppo se d sin ce t he D u t ch
.
,
A s t o t he n e c e ss it y o f pr o m u lga t io n se e G r 1 2 1 , a n d G r o e n e
1
. . .
w e ge n a n d S cho r e r , a d lo c : V a n L e e u w e n , 1 3 1 4 ; V d K 1 . . . . . . .
2
S e e A ppe n dix t o t his c ha pt e r ( i nfr a , p .
3
This d o e s n o t e x c lu de t he a c c e pt a n c e o f so m e e n a c t m e n t s
o f t he S t a t e s o f H o lla n d a n d t he ir in c o r po r a t i o n in t he c o m m o n
la w o f S o u t h Afr ic a E s t H e i n a ma n n E s t H ei n a m a n n [ 1 9 1 9 ]
. . V . .
A D a t p 1 1 4 ( de V illie r s
. . . R ex H a rr i son [ 1 9 22 ] A D a t V . . .
p 3 3 0 ( Inn e s
.
4
R ex S a chs [ 1 9 43 ] A D a t p 422 V . . . . .
The c o lle c te d e dit io n o f t he S t a t u t e s o f B a t a v ia o f 1 6 42 se e m s

t o ha v e b e e n pr o m u l ga t e d a t t he Ca pe in 1 7 1 5 B u r ge , C o lon i a l .
a n d F or e i gn L a w s ( Ne w E di t io n ) , v o l i , 1 1 5 G o v e r n o r v an de r
p . . .
Par r a s Ne w S t a t u t e s o f B a t a v ia o f 1 7 66 w e r e n e v e r r e co gn iz e d b y
’
t he S t a t e s G e n e r a l a n d ha d n o t s t r ic t ly t he fo r c e o f la w
-
( B u t se e .
The Ne w St a t u t e s o f In dia a t t h e Ca pe , b y J L W S t o ck, 3 2

‘ ’
. . .
p Ne it he r o f t he se c o lle c t io n s w a s pu b lishe d
.
u n de r t he 0 1d r e gim e Th e la w in fo r c e in t he We st In die s w a s
.
fi
d e n e d b y t he Or dr e va n Regi er i n ge o f O c t o b e r 1 3 , 1 6 2 9 ( 2 G P B . . .
1 2 3 5 ; B u r ge , v o l i , p a n d l a t e r b y t he r e so lu t io n s o f t h e
. .
S t a t e s G e n e r a l o f O c t o b e r 4, 1 7 7 4 ( L a w s of B r i t G u i , e d 1 9 0 5 , v o l
-
. . .
5
i , p l ; B u r ge , v o l 1, pp 1 2 1 ii )
. . B ur ge , v o l i , p 1 1 6
. . . . .
R OMAN -
DUTCH LAW 9
Colo n ie s st ood in n o p e cu li ar r e la t io n t o t he pr ovin ce of

H olla n d m or e t h a n t o a n y ot h e r pr ovin ce of t he Un ite d
N e t h e r la n ds t h a t e ve n ge n e r a l cu st o m s of t his p r ovin ce
,
ha d n o p r e fe r e n t ia l cl a im t o a cc e p t a n ce in t he Colon i e s .
I n t h e or y t hi s is tru e In p r a cti ce t he p r e do m in a n t p a r t n e r
.
c arr ie d t he da
y In So u t h Afr i ca a t a ll e ve n t s t h e r e is a
.
, ,
p r e su m p ti o n in fa vou r of t he a d m issi o n of a ge n e r a l cu st o m
of H oll a n d r a th e r t h a n t h a t of a n y o t he r p r ovin ce a s p a r t
of t he c o m m o n law of t he c ou n t r y 1
.
The D u t ch se t t le m e n t s of t he C a p e of Good H op e Ce y The ,
10 11 a n d G u ia n a p a sse d in t o t he h a n d s of t he B r it is h a t
,
t he e n d of t he e i gh t e e n t h a n d t he b e g inn i n g of t he n i n e L w u n de r a
t e e n t h ce n t u r y The C a p e w a s t a ke n fr o m t he D u t ch in
.
1 7 9 5 g iv e n b a ck in 1 80 3 r e t a ke n in 1 80 6 sin ce wh e n it ( a ) A t t he
, , ,
C
ha s r e m a in e d p a rt of t he Br i tish D o m inio ns
a pe ;
2
I t doe s n o t .
a pp e a r t h a t a n y e xp r e ss st ip ul at i o n w a s m a d e u po n t he
occ a sio n of e it he r t he fir st or the se co n d ce ssio n fo r t he r e

te n ti o n of t he R o m a n D u t ch L a w 3
I t s c on t in u a n c e i s t he
-
.
e xp r e ssi o n of t he se t t le d p r in c ipl e of E n gli sh la w a n d poli c y
t h a t c olo ni e s a c qu ir e d by ce ssi o n o r by co n qu e st re ta in
t h e ir old law s o lon g a n d so fa r a s i t r e m a i ns u n r e pe a le d
, .
In a syste m d e r ive d fr o m t he R o m a n L a w r e pe a l m ay be
ef fe cte d ta ci to con s ens u a s w e ll a s ali a pos tea lege la ta ; so
1
P er K
o t z e J P , in F i tzger a ld v G r e e n
. . E D L a t p 49 3
. . . . . .
D r B is s cho p ( B u r ge , 2 md e d , v o l i p 9 1 ) dir e c t s a t t e n t io n t o t he
. . .
, .
pre po n de r a t in g in fl u e n ce in t h e a ffa ir s o f t he Co m pa n y o f t he
Cha m b e r s o f A m s te r da m a n d o f M idde lb u r g , a n d t o t he fac t t ha t
“
t he Co m pa n y w as he ld t o b e do m ic il e d w it h in t he u r isdi c t io n o f j
t he Co u r t o f H o lla n d The sa m e w r it e r ha s o b se r v e d e lse w he r e
.
t ha t t he c o lo n ia l c o u r t s in m o s t c a s e s go t t he ir la w , so far as i t
w as n o t c o m pr ise d in lo c a l st a t u t e s a n d cu st o m s fr o m t e x t ,
b o o ks r a t he r t ha n fr o m t he o r igin a l so u r ce s w it h t he r e su lt t ha t ,
t he lo c a l l a w o f t he Ne the r la n ds — a s fa r as i t w as n o t r e fe r r e d
‘ ‘
t o b y w r it e r s o n R o m a n D u t c h L a w — w o u ld b e ign o r e d
-
’
L aw .
Qu a rte r ly R e vi e w , v o l x x iv , p 1 6 9
. . .
2
The de fi n it iv e c e ss io n t o G r e a t B r it a in w a s e ffe c te d b y t he
Co n v e n t io n o f L o n do n , 1 3 A u gu s t 1 81 4 B r i ti sh a n d F or e ign S ta te
P a p er s , 1 81 4—
.
1 5, p 37 . .
3
B u t The Ca pe A r t ic le s o f Ca pit u la t io n da te d t he 1 8t h Jan u
‘
a r y , 1 80 6 , st i u l a t e d t ha t t he r i ht s a n d
p g pr iv ile ge s w h ic h t he
j
in h a b it a n t s ha d t he r e t o fo r e e n o y e d sho u ld b e pr e se r v e d t o t he m .
A m o n g t ho se pr iv ile ge s t he r e t e n t io n o f t h e ir e x ist in g sy s t e m o f
la w w as u n dou b t e dl y in c lu de d ’
Rex H a r r i s on , u bi su p
. V . .
10 GENE RAL INT RODUCTI ON
that g ar d s t he C a p e Pr ovin ce w e m ay st a te t he
a s re
p r e su m p tio n t o b e t h a t e xce p t so fa r a s t h e y h a v e b e e n ,
a b r og a t e d by le gi sl a t io n o r by t he gr ow t h of a c u st o m
i n co n siste n t th e r ewi t h o r by m e r e di su se t he l a ws whi ch , ,
ob t ain e d u n de r the D u t ch Gove r n m e n t r e m a in in fo r ce a t

t he p r e se n t da y 1
Cu st o m how e ve r ha s m a de sho rt wo r k
.
, ,
wi t h t he pr e B r iti sh st a tu t e la w The e ar lie st colle c te d

-
.
e di t io n of t he C a p e st a t u t e s ( 1 86 2 ) c o n t a in s n i n e e n a ct
m e n t s p r ior t o 1 80 6 t he l a t e st e d it i on ( 1 89 5 ) fiv e a n d n o w
, ,
2
t h e re i s a p a r t ia l r e te n t ion of t w o The r e m ain d e r of t he .
D u t ch p la ca ten ( wh e the r e m a n a t in g fr o m B at a vi a o r ,
lo ca lly e n a cte d ) h a ve b e e n a b r og a t e d by di su se We a re .
sp e a ki n g of co u r se of st a t u te la w su b se qu e n t t o 1 6 5 2 t he
, , ,
da te of t he D u t ch o c cu p a t ion of t he C a p e The ho m e le gi s .
l a tion p r io r t o t h a t d a t e u n le ss in a pplic a ble o r a b r og a te d ,
by di su se m ay b e r e ga r d e d a s for m in g p a r t of t he co m m o n
,
law of t he Colon y .
In C e ylon t he c o n t in u a n c e of t he R o m a n D u t ch L aw -
w a s gu a r a n te e d by t he P r o cl a m a t i on of Gove r n or t he
H on ou r a ble Fr a n cis Nor t h of Se p t e m b e r 2 3 1 7 9 9 whi c h , ,
de cl a r e d t h a t t he a dm ini st r a t i o n of j u st i ce a n d poli c e
sho u ld b e h e n ce fo rt h a n d d u r in g His Ma j e st y s ple asu re
’
e x e r ci se d by a ll co u r t s of j u dic a t u r e civil a n d cr i m in a l , ,
‘
a c cor di n g t o t he l a w s a n d i n st i t u t i on s t h a t su b si ste d
1
P er de V illie r s C J in S ea vi lle v C o lley ( 1 89 1 ) 9 S C a t p 44:
. . . . . .
Th e c o n c lu sio n a t w hic h I ha v e ar r iv e d a s t o t h e o b liga t or y n a t u r e

o f t he b o dy o f la w s in fo r ce in t h is Co lo n y a t t he d a t e o f t h e B r it is h
o c c u pa t io n in 1 80 6 m a y b e b r ie fl y st a t e d The pr e su m pt io n is t ha t .
e v e r y o n e o f t he se l a w s , if n o t r e pe a le d b y t he lo c a l L e gis la t u r e , is
s t ill in fo r c e This pr e su m pt io n w ill n o t , ho w e v e r , pr e v a il in r e ga r d
.
t o a n y r u le o f la w w hich is in co n s is t e n t w i t h S o u t h Afr ic an u s a ge s
This pr in c iple a pplie s a like t o t h e st a t u t e la w a n d t o t he c o m m o n
la w o f H o llan d S e e P a r ke r v R e e d ( 1 9 0 4) 2 1 S C 49 6 ; M acha tti e . . .
V V K
.
. F i lm er ( 1 89 4) 1 O R 3 0 5 ; Na ta l B a n k u r a n da [ 1 9 0 7 ] T H
. . . .
V
.
1 5 5 ; G r een F i tzge r a ld [ 1 9 1 4] A D 88 I n t he la st n a m e d cas e

. . . .
-
Inn e s J A sa id ( a t p
. .
‘
I do n o t t hink , ho w e v e r , t ha t t he
fi
.
do c t r in e o f t he R o m a n D u t c h L a w c a n b e c o n n e d t o c a se s w he r e
-
c o n t r a r y u sa ge ha s b e e n e st a b lishe d ; b o t h in pr in c iple a n d o n
a u t ho r it y m e r e de su e t u de m u st in c e r t a in c ir c u m st a n c e s b e
su fii c ie n t
’
Se e a ls o Rex
. V
D etody [ 1 9 2 6 ] A D a t p 2 2 3 ; O Ca l
.
’
. . .
la gha n N O v Chap li n [ 1 9 2 7 ] A D a t p 3 2 8; Tu tt
. . . Tu tt [ 1 9 2 9 ]
. . . V .
C P D at p 5 3
. . . . .
3
A c t No 2 5 o f 1 9 3 4 . .
ROMAN -
DUTCH LA W 11
un de r t he a n cie n t gove r n m e n t of t he Un ite d P r ovin ce s ’
su bj e ct t o su ch d e v i a t i o n s a n d a l t e r a ti o n s a s h a v e b e e n o r
1
sh a ll b e by l a wfu l a u t hor i t y or d a in e d a n d p u bli sh e d The .
'
ce n t r a l po r t io n of t he i sla n d di d n o t p a ss u n d e r B r iti sh
-
ru l e u n t i l 1 81 5 b u t t he D u t c h L a w w a s a ppli e d t o t hi s
,
r e gi o n a l s o by Or d No 5 of In G u i a n a t he e x i st in g ( CU P
. .
l a ws a n d u sa ge s we r e e xp r e ssly r e ta in e d in t he a rt i cle s of 31 1212

1
c a p i t u l a t i on of E sse qu i bo a n d D e m e r a r a d a t e d Se p t e m b e r
1 8 1 80 3 a n d Be r b i ce su r r e n d e r e d o n t he sa m e t e r m s a fe w
, ,
d a ys la t e r A sim ila r p r ovi si o n w a s co n t a in e d in t he L e tte r s

.
P a t e n t of Mar ch 4 1 83 1 by whi ch t he t hr e e se tt le m e n t s
, ,
we r e con st it u te d a sin gle c olo n y u nde r t he n a m e of B r itish

3
G u ia n a .
It r e su l t s fr o m wh a t ha s b e e n s a i d t h a t t he fou n d a ti o n G e ne r al
m m"
of t he la w of C a p e Colon y w a s t he D u t ch la w a s it e x iste d
i n t h a t se tt le m e n t in t he ye a r 1 80 6 ; t h a t t he la w of Ce ylo n
b a se d u po n t he syst e m a d m ini ste r e d i n t he i sl a n d in
4
1 7 9 6 ; a n d t h a t t he la w of B r it ish G u ia n a r e ste d u po n a
su b str u c t u r e of D u t c h l a w s a n d u sa g e s h a v in g a u t hor i t y
i n t he se t t le m e n t s of E sse qu ibo D e m e r a r a a n d B e r b i ce , ,
i n t he ye a r 1 803 .
I t r e m a in s t o sp e a k of t he g e ogr a ph i c a l e x te n si o n of t he
R o m a n D u t c h L a w i n So u t h Afri c a
-
.
1
I t ha s b e e n do u b t e d w h e t he r t he D u t c h e v e r a ppl ie d t he ir la w
t o t h e n a t iv e r a c e s o f t he lo w c o u n t r y B u t s in c e t he B r it ish o cc u
.
pa t io u t he lo w c o u n t r y S in h a le se ha v e h a d n o dist in c t iv e la w o f
-
t he ir o w n , a n d ha v e a lw a y s b e e n t r e a t e d a s su b e c t t o t he R o m a n j
D u t c h la w .
2
T his O r din a n ce e x t e n ds t o t he K
a n dy a n pr o v in c e s c e r t a in
fi
s e c i e d b r a n c he s o f t he la w
p o f t h e M a r it im e Pr o v in c e s , a n d
fu r t he r e n ac t s t h a t if t he K
a n dy a n L a w i s sil e n t o n a n y m a t t e r
t h e l a w o f t he M a r it im e Pr o v in ce s i s t o b e a pplie d I t sa y s n o th in g .
a s t o t h e ge n e r a l la w a ppli c a b le t o E u r o p e a n s o r l o w c ou n t r
y
-
S in ha le se r e s id in g in t he K
a n dy a n pr o v in ce s Th e e x t e n s io n t o .
t h e m o f t he R o m a n D u t c h L a w in ge n e r a l se e m s t o b e t he w o r k o f
-
ju dic ia l de c isi o n s ( se e Wi lli a ms

2
R o ber tson ( 1 886 ) 8 S C C V . . . .
L a w s of B G e d 1 9 0 5 , v o l i , p 1 2 F o r t he h is t o r y o f t he
. . . . . .
R o m a n D u t c h L a w in B r it ish G u i a n a se e R ep or t of the C om m on
-
L a w Co m m i ss i on ( G e o r ge t o w n D e m e r a r a , 1 9 1 4) a n d R o m a n‘
,
D u t c h L a w in B r it is h G u ia n a ( J ou r n C omp L eg , N S , v o l x iv ,
’
. . . . . .
p . b y t he pr e se n t w r it e r .
The ca pit u la t io n o f Co lo m b o t o t he B r i t ish is da t e d F e b r u a r y

4
1 5 o f t ha t y e ar .
GENE RAL INTR ODUCTI ON
G e ogr a ph So lo n g a s t he bou n d a r ie s of C a p e Colo n y e n lar ge d t h e m
;igll é fgé
e t
se lv e s by gr a d u a l a n d i n e vi t a ble a dv a n c e so lo n g t he D u t c h
’
‘
,
m an la w e x te n d e d i t s sph e r e by t he sa m e n a t u r a l p r o ce ss of e x
fig
L aw . pa n sio n wi t hou t e xpr e ss e n a ct m e n t B u t b e fo r e t he m iddle .
of t he la st ce n tu r y t he e r a of a n n e x a tio n ha d b e gu n .
N a t a l w a s a n n e x e d t o t he C a p e by Le t te r s P a te n t of
Ma y 3 1 1 844 a n d thi s w a s follow e d by Ca p e Or d in a n c e
, ,
No 1 2 of 1 845 e st a b li shin g t he R o m a n D u t c h L a w in a n d
.
,
-
fo r t he d ist r i ct of N a t a l Thi s r e m a in e d t he c o m m on la w of .
t he Colon y wh i c h w a s ca ll e d in t o e x iste n c e a s a se p a r a te
,
e n t i t y by R oy a l Ch a rt e r of Ju ly 1 5 1 85 6 ; a n d n o w t he ,
‘
N at a l A ct No 3 9 of 1 89 6 p r ovide s ( se c 2 1 ) t h a t : The
. .
syste m c od e o r body of l a w s c o m m o n ly ca ll e d t he R o m a n
, ,
D u t c h la w a s a cc e pt e d an d a dm ini ste r e d by t he le ga l t r i
b u n a ls of t he Colo n y of t he C a p e of Good H op e u p t o
A u g u st 2 7 a n d a s m odifie d by t he Or d in a n ce s
, ,
L a ws a n d A ct s n o w in for ce he r e t ofor e m a de o r p asse d

, ,
in thi s Colon y by t he Gove r n o r o r L e gisl a tu r e t h e r e of is ,
t he la w for t he t i m e b e in g of t he Colo n y of N a t a l a n d of ,
His Ma j e st y s su bj e ct s a n d a ll o t he r s wit hi n t he sa id
’
’
Colon y .
Zul uland The law of N at a l wit h som e r e se r va t io n s ob t a in s a lso

. , ,
in Zu l u l a n d whi c h b e c a m e p a r t of N a t a l o n D e ce m b e r 3 0
, ,
In B a su t ola n d ,
Co m m is
by Pr oclam a t io n of t he High
si o n e r d a te d Ma y 2 9 1 884 t he la w t o be a d m in iste r e d
, , ,
( s a v e b e t w e e n n a t iv e s ) i s a s n e a r ly a s t he c ir cu m st a n c
,
e s
of t he c ou n t r y p e r m it t he sa m e a s t he la w for t he t i m e
,
b e i n g in for ce in t he Colon y of t he C a p e of Good H op e ;

b u t Ac t s of t he C a p e Le gi sl a t u r e p a sse d a fte r t he d a te of
t he P r ocl a m a ti o n do n o t a pply .
B e chu a n a By P ro cl a m a t i o n of t he H igh Co m mi ssion e r No 3 6 of ,

.
la n d P2 0
1 9 0 9 t he la w of C a p e Colon y is t o b e a d m i ni ste r e d a s fa r
“
, ,
a s p r a c t ic a bl e in t he B e chu a n a l a n d P r o t e ct o r a t e t o t he
, ,
e x c l u si o n howe ve r of Ca p e st a tu te s p r o m ul g a t e d a ft e r
, ,
Ju n e 1 0 , 1 89 1 .
2
Th is is t he da t e fr o m w hic h t he Ca pe O r din a n c e t o o k ef
fe c t .
2
Na t a l A c t No 3 7 , 1 9 0 3 . .
t he of C a pe of Good H op e N a t a l Tr a nsv a a l a n d
n am e s , , ,
Or a n ge Fr e e St a te r e sp e ct ive ly Su bj e ct t o t he p r o v is io n s .
1
of t he A ct a ll l a ws in fo r ce in t he se ve r a l Colon i e s a t
,
t he e st a blis h m e n t of t he U n io n a r e co n t in u e d in fo r ce in
t he r e sp e ct i ve p r ovi n ce s u n t il re p e a le d o r a m e n d e d by t he
P ar li a m e n t of t he Un io n or by t he p r ovin ci a l co u n cils in ,
m a t te r s in r e sp e ct of wh i ch t he powe r t o m a k e o r di n a n ce s
i s r e se r v e d o r d e l e g a t e d t o t h e m ( s .
The l a te st e x te n sio n of R o m a n D u t ch L a w is t o t he -
Ma n d a te d Te rr i t or y kn own a s t he Pr ote ct o r a te of So u t h
,
We st Afr i ca B y t he Adm in i st r at ion of Ju st ice Pr o cla m a

.
t i o n ( No 2 1 of 1 9 1 9 i ssu e d by t he Ad m in ist r a t o r of t he
.
,
P r o t e ct o r a te by vir t u e of powe r s d e le ga te d t o him by t he

Gove r n o r G e n e r a l of t he Un io n t he R o m a n D u t ch L a w a s
-
,
-
e x ist in g a n d a ppli e d in t he p r ovin c e of t he C a p e of Good
H op e a t t he d a te of t he c om in g in t o e ffe c t of t h is Pr o
c l a m a t io n ( Ja n u a r y 1 1 9 2 0 ) sh a ll fr o m t he sa i d d a t e b e
,
t he Co m m o n L a w of t he P r o te ct o r a te a n d a ll L a w s wi t hi n ,
t he P r o t e ct o r a te in c on fli ct t h e r e w i t h sh a ll t o t he e x te n t
2
of su ch co n fli ct b e r e p e a le d .
The l a st por t i o n of t hi s in t r odu c t or y ch a p te r r e l a t e s t o

t he a u t h e n t i c so u r ce s of t he R o m a n D u t c h L a w wh i ch a r e -
a ls o t he p r i m a r y s o u r c e s of o u r kn owl e dg e of t h a t syst e m .
Th e se a r e
1 Tr e a t i se s
. . 4 Opi n io ns of Jur ists . .
2 St a t u t e L a w
. 5 C u st o m
. . .
3 D e c ision s of t he Cour t s
. .
I . Tr e a I Tr ea ti ses The n u m e r ou s wor k s of t he D u t ch j u r ist s

.
3
.
,
1 ‘
B y t he w o r d L a w s in t ha t se c t io n t he L e gis la t u r e m e a n t
S t a t u t e s , a n d n e v e r in t e n de d t ha t t he se c t io n s h o u ld a pply t o
Ju dge m a de L a w We bs ter
-
’
. V
E llis on [ 1 9 1 1 ] A D a t p 9 9 p er
. . . .
S o lo m o n J .
2
O ff G a z o f t he Pr o te c t o r a te o f S W A fr ic a 1 9 1 9 , No 2 5
. . .
-
.
, . .
S e e a ls o U
n i on o f S A A c t No 49 o f 1 9 1 9 a n d
. . n i o n P r o c l No 1
. U . .
of 192 1 A c t No 1 2 o f 1 9 2 0 giv e s u r is di c t io n t o t he A ppe ll a te

. . j
D iv is io n t o he a r a ppe a ls fr o m t he H igh C o ur t o f t he Pr o t e c t o r a te .
Al l r e le v an t do c u m e n t s a r e c o lle c te d in Th e L a w s o f S o u t h We st
‘
-
Afr ic a , 1 9 1 5— 1 9 22 The c o n s t it u t io n a l a n d in te r n a t io n a l st a t u s o f
t he m an d a t e d te r r it o r y r a is e d dif c u l t u e st io n s S e e R e x fi Chr is q . V .
ti a n [ 1 9 2 4]
2
F o r a b ib lio gr a phy o f t he pr in c ipa l Ro m a n D u t c h la w b o o ks -
ROMAN -
DUTCH LAW 15
wr itte n in Du t ch an d La tin
v a r iou s d a te s fr o m t he six at
tee n t h t o t he n in e t e e n t h ce n t ur i e s ar e ci te d to day as ,
-
a u t ho r i t a t ive st a te m e n t s of t he la w w it h which t h e y d e a l .
A m ode rn te x t book ha s n o su ch a u t ho ri t y The ru le s .
t he r e in e xp r e sse d a r e m e r e ly op ini on s w hi ch c o u n se l in
a ddr e ssin g t he Cou r t m a y if he pl e a se s in c o r por a t e in hi s , ,
a r gu m e n t b u t w hi c h h a ve n o in d e p e n de n t c l a im t o a t te n
,
ti o n how e v e r e m in e n t t h e ir a u t hor
, The w o r k s of t he .
olde r wr ite r s o n t he co n tr a r y h a ve a we igh t c o m p a r a ble

, ,
t o t h a t of t he d e ci sio n s of t he Co u r t s o r of t he li m ite d ,
n u m b e r of book s of a u t ho r i t y in E n gli s h L a w
‘ ’
The y a re .
a u t h e n t i c st a te m e n t s of t he la w i t se lf a n d as su ch hold , , ,
t h e ir gr o u n d u n t il shown t o b e wr on g Of c our se t he .
op inio n s of t he se wr ite r s a re ofte n a t va r ia n ce a m on gst

t h e m se l ve s o r b e a r a n a r ch a i c sta m p In su ch e ve n t t he .
Co u r ts wi ll a dop t t he V ie w w h i ch is b e st su ppo rt e d by a u
t ho ri ty o r m o st co n so n an t w it h re as on ; o r w i ll d e clin e t o
follow a n y if a ll t he c o m p e t in g do ctri n e s see m t o be o u t of
,
h arm on y wi t h the c o n d it io n s of m ode rn life ; o r a ga in wi ll , ,
t a ke a r u l e of t he old la w a n d e xp la in o r m odify i t in t he ,
se nse d e m a n d e d by co n ve ni e n ce .
The p r in c ip a l wr ite r s o n t he old la w a n d t h e ir p r in cip a l Wr ite r s o f

wor ks ar e t he followin g se v e n _
tee nt h
2 2 11 2 1 1 5"
S E V E NTE E NTH C E NTU R Y
H . DE G Ro or
( 1 5 83 I n lei di ng to t de Holla nds che
'
Rechts geleer theyd ( s G r a v e n h a ge 1 63 1 ) t he sa m e wit h n o te s

’
by G r oe n e w e ge n t he sa m e wi t h a dde d a n d m or e
e x te n s iv e n o te s by W S cho r e r Thi s is t he b e st old
.
se e T he C om me r ci a l L a w s o
f the W or ld v o l x v — S o u t h A fr ic a , .
pp . 1 411Th e S o u th Afr i ca n L ega l B i bli ogr ap hy o f Mr A A

.
K
. . .
R o b e rt s , C ( Pr e t or ia , 1 9 42 ) is a m in e o f in for m a t io n a n d a
. .
m o n u m e n t o f in du s t r y .
1
I n t he e a r ly e di t i o n s o f G r o t iu s t he pa r a gr a phs a r e n o t n u m
be r e d V a n L e e u w e n c it e s G r o t iu s b y b o o k , c ha pte r , a n d t he
.
in i t ia l w o r ds o f t he pa r a gr a phs , e g G r ot , I n tr od , li b I , cap 5 , . . . . . .
v er s A lle M on d i e n V o e t m a ke s t he n u m e r a t i o n o f G r o e n e w e ge n 8
’
.
g
n o t es d o du t y fo r
pa r a gr a phs Th u s : H u go G r o ti u s m a n udu c t a d
. .
J u r isp r u d H o ll I/ibr I , ca p 5 , n u m
. . . Gr I 5 . Th e di v is io n
.
fi
. . .
o f t he c ha t e r s in t o a r a gra phs w as r s t e m plo y e d 111 a n e di t io n o f

‘
p p
t he Inl e y di n ge pu b lis he d a t A m st e r da m b y Jan B oo m m 1 7 2 7
’
.
edi ti o n The b e st m ode rn e di t ion is t h a t with hi st o r i ca l
.
n o t e s by F o cke m a A n dre a e a n d ( 3r d e d ) v a n Ap e ldoo r n . .
The r e a r e t r a n sla tio n s by Ch a r l e s H e r b e r t Sir

A F S Ma a sdo r p ( 3r d e d
. . . a nd R W L e e . . .
AB NO L D U S VINNI U S ( 1 5 88—1 6 5 7 I n I V li br os I ns ti tu ti o
n u m I mp er i a li u m Com m en ta r i u s Thi s we ll kn own -
wo r k co n t a in s copiou s r e fe r e n ces t o t he ju s hodi ern u m .
The b e st e dit i on i s t h a t wi t h n o te s by t he P ru ssi a n j ur ist

He in e c ciu s
—
.
S . VA N G R O E NE W E G E N V AN DER MA D E ( 1 61 3 52)
e di te d t he I n lei di ng of G r o t iu s in 1 6 44 .In 1 6 49 he pr o
du ce d his w e ll kn own Tracta tu s
-
de legi bus a br oga ti s e t
i n us i ta ti s i n Holla ndi a vi ci n i squ e r egi on i bu s , in whi ch he
go e s t hr ou gh t he Cor p u s Ju r is by book a n d t itle a n d con
si d e r s how fa r i t ha s b e e n r e c e ive d o r di su se d in t he
m ode rn la w .
SI M O N V A N L E E UW E N ( 1 6 2 5—82 ) p u blis h e d hi s Cen su ra

F or en si s in 1 6 6 2 and hi s Room sch Holla ndsch Recht in
l a st n a m e d wor k w a s a n a m pli fic a t io n of a
The -
s ligh te r t re a t is e c a ll e d P a r a ti tla Ju r i s No vi ssi m i pu b ,
li she d in 1 6 5 2 a n d a ga in in 1 6 5 6 The be st e dit i on of t he .
Censu r a F or en si s is t he e dit ion of 1 7 41 wit h n o te s by ,
G e r ar du s de H a a s The b e st e di t ion of t he Roomsch Hol

.
la ndsch Recht i s t h at wit h n ote s by C W D e cke r i ssu e d in . .
1 7 80 Thi s ha s b e e n tr a n sla te d wit h a ddi t ion a l n o te s by

.
t he l a te Sir Joh n K o t z e s
.
U L R IK H U B E R ( 1 6 3 6—9 4) issu e d t he fir st volu m e of his

P r a electi on es Ju r i s Ci vili s c on t a in i n g his com m e n t ar y o n
,
t he I n st it u te s of Ju st in i a n in t he ye ar 1 6 7 8 Thi s w a s ,
.
followe d a fte r a c o nside r a ble in te r va l by hi s co mm e n t ar y

1
We ss e ls H is tor y of the
, Rom a n D u tch L a w , p 2 9 4
-
. .
2
The t it le pa ge s o f t his w o r k a n d o f it s pr e cu r so r , t he P a r a ti tla ,
-
af fo r d a n in t e r e st in g in di c a t io n o f t he u n c e r t a in t y o f se v e n te e n t h
c e n t u r y s pe llin g . fi
Th e r st e dit io n o f t he P a r a ti tla h as for i t s su b “
t it le E en kar t begr ip va n he t R oom s H o lla ndts Reght In t he se c o n d

- -
.
e di t io n t h is b e co m e s E e n K
or t begr i p va n he t R o om s H o lla n ds R ec ht - -
.
fi
Th e r st e dit io n o f t he la t e r w o r k is de scr ib e d a s H e t R oom s H ol -
la nds R egt L as t ly , in D e c ke r s e dit io n ( 1 7 80 ) w e ha v e Ro oms ch

’
-
.
H o lla nds ch R echt, a n d t his I ha v e fo llo w e d .
2
Se c on d e di t io n , 1 9 2 1 —3 .
ROMAN -
DUTCH LAW 17
on t heDige st in t w o a d di t ion a l volu m e s The b e st e dit ion .
is t h a t of J L e Pl a t of L ou va in issu e d in 1 7 6 6 The sam e

. .
.
au t hor p u bli she d in 1 6 86 his t r e a t ise e n t it e l d He edens
da egse Rechtsgeleer theyt, soo elder s als i n F r i eslandt gebr u i
kelyk The . la st —n a m e d wor k t ho u gh , p r in cip all y c on ce rn e d
wit h t he la w of Fr ie sl a n d n o t of H oll a n d is a v a lu a ble
, ,
c o n tr i b u t io n t o t he st u dy of t he R o m a n D u t ch L a w It -
.
w a s e di te d a fte r t he a u t ho r s d e a t h by his so n Z A CHAR IA S

’
H UB E R who li ke his fat he r w as a Ju dge of t he Fr isia n

, , ,
Hi gh Cou rt 1
.
JO HA NNE S V O E T ( 1 6 47 Comm en ta ri u s ad P a n
docta s T hi s wor k w as p u bli she d a t The H a gu e an d a t
.
Le yde n in 1 6 9 8a n d 1 7 0 4 in t w o volu m e s folio It has gon e

‘
t hr ou gh ve r y m a n y e di t ions The b e st i s t he P a r i s e di t i on
.
of A Ma u r i ce of 1 82 9 whi c h is fr ee fr o m so m e of the m is
.
,
p r in t s whi ch di s figu r e t he folio e di t ions The whole of V oe t .
ha s n o t b e e n syste m a ti ca ll y t r a n sl a te d in t o E n gli sh b u t ,
t r a n sl a t ions v ar yin g in m e r i t a r e p r o cu r a ble of m an y of t he

se p a r a te t i t le s
2
I n 1 7 9 3 V a n de r L in d e n p u blish e d in
.
,
fo lio a Su pple m e n t t o Voe t s Co m m e n tar y I t e x te n d s

,
’
.
o nly t o B ook xi of the P a n de cts A m on gst t he le sse r wo r ks .
of V o e t m ay b e m e n t io n e d hi s Co m p e n di u m of t he Pan
de cts whi ch t hou gh i ssu e d b e for e t he l ar ge r wo r k se r ves
, , ,
t he p ur po se of a n a n a lysis of i t A li t t le book i n D u t ch .
p u bli she d in t he e ighte e n t h ce n tu r y u n de r t he n a m e of D e

begi ns e len des r echts i s a t r a n sl a t i o n fr o m t he L a t in of
Voe t s a n a lysis of t he In st itu te s ( E lemen ta Ju r i s ) su pple
’
,
m e n te d wit h a t r ansl at ion of t ho se p assa ge s in Vinni u s

’
Co mm e nt ar y in whi ch re fe re n c e is m a d e to t he m ode rn law .
E I G HT E E NTH C E NTUR Y
C ORNE LI S VA N BI JNK E RSH OE K ( 1 6 7 3—1 7 43 ) is b e yon d Write rs
of the
con tr ove rsy t he m o st e m m e n t D u t ch juri st of t he o1 gh e i h
g .
te e n t h c e n tu r y He w as P r e side n t of t he Su p re m e Cou rt te e n t h
.
1
Tr an sla te d in t o E n glis h b y Mr Ju st ice G a n e o f t he Su pr e m e
.
Co u r t o f S o u t h Afr ic a ( B u t te r w o r t h Cc , .
2
Th e r e is a n I t a li a n t r a n s la t io n pr in t e d in pa r a ll e l c o lu m n s
w it h t he L a t in te x t ( V en e z ia , I t is u n de r s t o o d t ha t Mr .
Ju s t ic e G ane is m a kin g a t r an s la t io n in t o E n glish o f t he w ho le w o rk,

490 1
Q
18 GENE RAL I NTR ODUCTI ON
of H ollan d ,
Ze e l an d , an d We st Fr ie slan d
fr o m 1 7 2 4 u n t il
hi s d e at h Fo r o u r pr e se n t pu r pose t he m o st u s e fu l of his
.
.
wo r ks is the Qua esti on es Ju r i s P r i va ti p u blis h e d in L at in ,
i n 1 7 44 a n d in a D u t ch t r ansl a t io n in 1 7 47 Of hi s n ote s
, .
o n d e cid e d c a se s e n t it le d Obs er va ti on es T u m u ltu a r i a e t w o

1
volu m e s h a ve b e e n p u blish e d .
Me n t i o n has b e e n m a d e of SCH OB E R S e dit i on of G r o t iu s ’
( 1 7 6 7 ) a n d of D E C K E R S e di t io n of V an L e e u w e n
’
( 1 7
A D u t ch t r an sla t io n of S cho r e r s n ote s o n G r o t iu s wh i ch ’
,
con t a in s a d di t ion a l m a tte r su ppli e d t o t he t ran sla t or by

t he a u t hor a pp e a r e d fr o m t he h an d of J E A U S TE N i n
, . .
1 7 84— 6 This is t he e di t io n r e fe rr e d t o in t he m ar gin of

.
P r ofe ssor Fo cke m a An dr e a e s e di ti on of G r o t iu s ’

.
A u se fu l w or k w a s p u bli sh e d by Va n de r Lin de n a n d
o t he r j u r ists in 1 7 7 6 u n de r t he n a m e of Honder d Rechtsge
leer de Obser va ti en di en ende to t Op helder i n g va n ver scheide
,
du i ste r e ,
en tot n og to e voor het gr oo ts te gedeelte on bew ezen e
p a ssa i en
g n yt de I n lei di nge to t de Holla n ds che Rechtsge
leer hei d va n wylen M r Hu go de G r oot
. .
D . G . VA N D ER KE E SSE L ( 1 7 3 8 a Pr ofe ssor at
Le yde n ,
i ssu e d in t he ye a r 1 80 0 hi s Theses S electa e ju r i s
Holla ndi ci et Z ela ndi ci ad su pp len da m Hngon i s G r oti i I n
tr odu cti on em ad Ju r i sp ru den ti a m Holla ndi ca m . The wor k
w as re p r in te d i n 1 86 0
Th e r e i s a tr an sla tio n . by C A . .
L or e n z The D i cta ta in whi c h t he au t hor of t he Thes es

.
e xp a n d e d a n d su pport e d t h e m stil l cir c ul a te in m a n u s cr ip t ,
b u t h a ve n o t b e e n p r in te d Th e r e i s a fin e MS c opy i n t he . .
Uni ve r sit y L ib r ar y a t Le yde n corr e cte d by Va n de r Kee s

se l a n d a n o t h e r wi t h e x t e n sive a d di t io n s fr o m t he a u t ho r s
’
,
h an d in t he Uni ve r sit y L ib r ar y a t Utr e cht A t yp e s cr ip t .

-
of t he Le yde n MS w a s p r e se n t e d t o t he Su p re m e Cou rt
.
L ib r a r y at Cap e Town by t he la te Dr C H v an Zyl . . . .
JO ANNE s VA N D E R LI ND E N ( 1 7 5 6— 1 83 5 ) i s t he l a st of t he
old t e x t wr ite r s In 1 7 81 he p u blish e d hi s Ver ha ndeli ng
-
.
over de ju di ci eele p ractijcq whi c h i s st ill c on su lte d Bu t

, .
1
Se e 39 p 2 9 1 The r st v o lu m e , e d it e d b y
. . fi
j
Pr o fe sso rs Me i e r s a n d de B lé c ou r t o f L e y de n a n d B o de n ste in o f
S t e ll e n b o sc h, w a s pu b lis he d in 1 9 2 6 A se c o n d v o lu m e a ppe ar e d .
in 1 93 4 .
ROMAN -
DUTCH LAW 19
hi s b e st kn own wor k is his in t r odu c t ion t o Ro m an D u t ch

- -
L aw i ssu e d in 1 80 6 u n de r t he n a m e of Regtsgeleer d P r ac
, ,
ti caa l en K oop ma ns Ha ndbo ek The book i s e l e m e n t a r y

,
,
,
bu t has e n j oye d fa vou r a m o n g st u de n t s p a rt i cul ar ly in ,
t he t r a ns l a t i o n s of Sir H e n r y Ju t a a n d G T Mor i ce . . .
Th e r e is a n olde r t r a n sla ti on by Ja b e z H e nr y
A n ot he r wor k by t he sa m e a u t ho r w hi ch m a y b e m e n
t io n e d ( b e side s his su pple m e n t t o V o e t r e fe rr e d t o a bov e )
i s hi s D u t c h t r a n sl a t io n of P O T HI E R o n Obli ga ti on s w it h ,
sho rt n o te s fr o m his o w n h a n d ( 1 80 4
If t he stu d e n t w i sh e s t o su pple m e n t the a bove m e n -
t io n e d li st of book s wi t h a h a n dy la w di ct io n a r y he wi ll
fin d B O E Y s Woor den to llc s o m e t i m e s u se fu l K E R S T E M A N s
’ ’
-
.
l ar ge r w or k Holla n ds ch Rechtsgeleer t Woor den B oe h 1 7 6 8

,
-
a n d t he su ppl e m e n t a r y vol u m e s by L u ca s W ill e m Kr a m p

1
e n j oy a r e p u t a t i o n whi c h i s s c ar ce ly m e r i te d The co ll e c .
t i o n of ple a di n g s by WILL E M V A N AL PH E N k n o w n by t he
qu a in t n a m e of Pap ega y ( or igin a lly p u bli sh e d in 1 6 42 ) is
d e se r v e dly fa m ou s If Va n de r L in d e n s w or k o n Pr o ce
.
’
d u r e p r ove s in a de qu a te re fe re n ce m ay b e m a de to PA UL
,
ME R UL A s M a n i er va n P r o ceder en t he l a st a n d b e st e di tio n
’
,
of whi ch u n d e r t he n a m e s of Dide r i cu s L u li u s a n d Jo a nn e s
,
v a n de r L in d e n w a s i ssu e d i n t he ye a r s 1 7 81 —3
, .
II S ta tu te L a w The e n a ct m e n t s of t he St a te s Ge n e r a l II Sta tu te
. .
-
.
a n d of t he St a te s of H oll a n d a n d W e st Fri e sl a n d a r e t o
2 L2 “
b e fou n d in t he t e n folio volu m e s of t he G r oo t P lacaa t B oelc .
The st a tu te s of B a t a vi a a re p r i n te d in VA N D E R CHI J S ,
Neder la nds ch I ndi sch P la ha a t B o ek The pro Br i t i sh st a t

-
.
-
u t e s of t he C a p e e x i st b u t h a v e n o t b e e n p r in te d .
III D eci si on s of the Cou r ts Ma n y p u bli sh e d volu m e s ITI De ci

. . .
Of
o f D e c i si o n s h a v e c o m e down t o u s a n d a re a v a l u a bl e
if?
s o u r ce of la w P a r t i cu l a r m e n t ion m ay b e m a de of t he Co ur t8
.
~
S en te n ti en en gew ezen Z a ken va n den Hcogen en P r ovi n ci ale n

1
A s to t he a u t ho r s hip o f t he A a nha ngs e l t o K e r s te m a n s ’
Woor de n B oe k se e J ou r n C omp L eg , N S , v o l x ii , p 5 49 It
-
. . . . . . . .
c o n s is ts lar ge ly o f t r a n sla t io n s fr o m V o e t s Co m m e n t a r
’
y
fi
.
2
Th is is t he o f c ia l de sc r ipt io n o f t he le gisla t u r e o f t he Pr o v in c e
o f H o lla n d We st Fr ie sla n d w as a nn e x e d t o H o lla n d in t he
.
t hir t ee n t h c e n t ur y .
Raa d i n Holla n d, Z eela nd en Wes t Vr i esla n d ,
p u bli she d by
JOA NNE s N A E R A NU S at Ro tte r d a m in 1 6 6 2 ; of t he Utr i u s
qu e Holla n di a e Zela ndi a e F r i si a equ e

, , Cu r i a e D eci si on es of
C O R NE LI U S NE O S TA D I U S p r i n t e d a t t he ,
H a gue in 1 6 67 ;
an d of t he D eci s i on es F r i s i ca e s i ve r er u m in S u p r e ma
F r i si or u m Cu r i a ju di ca ta r u m libr i V of JO HA NNE S A SA ND E ,
hi m se lf a of t he Cou r t who se de cisi o n s he r e port s

Ju dge .
The L a t in or igin a l of t hi s wo r k i s d a te d 1 6 3 4 Th e r e is a l s o .
a D u t c h t r a n sl a t io n Th e se t hr e e volu m e s of Re port s a r e
.
ofte n cite d by V o e t Va n de r Ke e sse l fre qu e n t ly r e fe r s t o

.
a vol u m e e n t it l e d D eci si en en Resolu ti en va n den Ho ve va n
Holla nd p u bli sh e d a t The H a gu e in

, b u t t his a n d
V a n de r L in d e n s Ver za m elin g va n m er kw aa r di ge G ewijsden
’
der G er echts hoven i n Ho lla nd p u bli sh e d a t L e yd e n in

-
2
,
1 80 3 a re r a r e ly ob t a in a ble
, .
IV Op i n i on s of Ju r i sts
. The n u m e r ou s volu m e s of .
Con su lta ti en A dvys en &c ,

a r e a v e r y in t e r e st i n g a n d
,
.
,
ch ar a c te r i sti c fe a t u r e of t he Ro m an D u t ch syste m of j u r is -
p r u de n ce I t is e n ou gh h e r e t o r e fe r m or e p a rt icu l ar ly t o
.
t he w e ll kn own c oll e ct ion e n t it le d Co nsu lta ti en A dvys en

-
,
en A dver ti ssem en ten gegeven en de geschr e ven by ver scheijden

tr effelijhe Rechtsgeleer den i n Holla n t en d elder s ( co m m o nl y
kn own a s t he Holla ndsche Consu lta ti en ) fir st p u bli sh e d by ,
Na e r a n u s a t Ro tt e r d a m fr om 1 6 45 t o co n t a in in g
1
T he a u t ho r o f has b e e n ide n t i e d b y Pr o fe sso r
t h is c o lle c t io n fi
j
M e i e r s a s A n t ho n y D u y c k, w ho w a s su c c e ssiv e ly R e gist r a r o f t he
Co u r t o f H o lla n d ( 1 60 2—1 6 ) a n d Me m b e r o f t he H o o ge R aa d
( 1 62 0 ( T ijds chr ift voor R e chtsges chi eden i s , v o l i , p Ma n y . .
o f t he d e c is io n s h a d pr e v io u sly b e e n pu b lis he d in H o l l C on s , . .
v o l iii , pa r t 2 ( A m s te r da m s che D e r de D ee l ) a n d H o l l C on s , v o l V i
. . . . .
2
The In t r o du c t io n t o t his v o lu m e c o n t a in s s o m e v a lu a b le
o b se r v a t io n s b y t h e c o m pile r o n t he a u t ho r it y o f d e c id e d c as e s .
I n t he sa me c o n n e x io n r e fe r e n c e m a y b e m a de t o S ir J o hn otz e s
’
K
a r t i c le o n
‘
J u dic ia l Pr e c e de n t in 3 4 2 80 a n d t o
K
,
o t z e, Va n L e eu w e n , v o l i , p 484 S e e a l so M oti ( 12 C o v C a ss i m s
’
. . . . .
Tru s te e [ 1 9 2 4] A D a t p 7 41 . . . .
2
We sse ls , p 2 43 The r e a r e t w o se pa r a t e t hir d v o lu m e s o f t he
. .
H olla nds che Con su lta ti e n , kn o w n r e spe c t iv e ly a s t he R otter da ms che

der de de e l a n d t he A ms te r da ms che de r de de el ( t he w o r k o f a n in t e r
lo pin g pu b lishe r ) , c o mm o n l y d ist in gu ishe d a s iii ( 1 ) a n d iii 2 )
( b u t V o e t in v e rt s t he o r de r ) The a dd it io n a l consu lta ti en c o n t a in e d
.
in t he Am s t e r da m v o lu m e w e r e in c lu de d b y Na e r a n us in v o l V i
‘
. .
22 GENE RAL INTR ODUCTI ON
L aw f
o S ou th Afrby Dr MA NFR E D NA THA N The I ne ti
i ca , .
tu tes of S ou th A fr i ca n L a w by Sir A F S MAA S D OR F ; , . . .
E n gli sh a nd Roma n D u tch L a w by G E O R G E T Mo R Ic E -
, .
The L a w of Con tr a ct i n S ou th Afr i ca by Chi e f Ju st ic e S ir ,
JO HN WE S S E L S e di t e d by Mr Advo c a te A A R O B E R TS ;
, . . .
P r i n cip les of S ou th Afr i ca n L a w by P r ofe ssor G E O R G E ,
WILL E In re ce n t ye a r s t he r e ha s b e e n a n in cr e a sin g
.
n u m b e r of m o n ogr a ph s o n v a r io u s b r a n ch e s O f t he la w ,
m an y of whi c h ar e cite d in t hi s book .
Fo r t he L a w of C e ylo n t he st u d e n t m ay r e fe r t o The
L a w s of Ceylon by Mr Ju st ic e P E R E IRA ( 2 n d cd Colo m bo
, . .
, ,
1 9 1 3 ) The L a w s of Ceylon by K B A L A S I NG HA M ( 1 9 2 9 .
3 7 ) in c o u r se of p u bli ca t i on ; a n d t o t he e a r li e r wor k e n t i t le d
I n sti tu tes of the L a w s of Ceylon by H E NR Y B Y E RL E Y ,
TH OM S O N a P u isn e Ju dge O f t he Su p r e m e Cou r t O f Ce ylo n

, ,
p u bli sh e d in 1 866 Sir CHA RL E S MA R S HA LL S Ju dgm en ts

.
’
( ha of the S u p r em e Cou r t of the I sla n d of Ceylon p u bli sh e d

, ,
a t P a r i s in 1 839 fu r ni sh e s a c o n sp e c t u s O f t he la w O f t he
,
Colo n y a s it e xi ste d in t he fir st h a lf of t he l a st ce n tu r y .
Re ce pt io n The de r who m a y u se t hi s book o r o n e Of the O lde r

rea
te x t book s m e n t i on e d a b ove a s a n in t r odu ct io n t o hi s

-
L w i s t he st u dy of t he m od e r n la w in S o u t h Afr i ca or Ce ylo n m u st
e
co m
b e ar in m i n d t h a t j u st a s t he R o m a n —
m a“
D u t ch law O f H olla n d
w a s d r a wn fr o m d iffe r e n t s o u r ce s so t he la w of t h e se ,
c o u n t r ie s Ro m a n D u t c h in o r igin ha s b e e n a ffe cte d in

,
-
,
a l m o st e v e r y d e p a r t m e n t by t he i n fl u e n ce O f E n gli sh L a w .
Thi s ha s b e e n t he r e su lt p a r t ly O f e xp r e ss e n a ct m e n t ,
p a rt ly Of j u di cia l de cisi on s p ar tly of t a cit a cc e p t a n ce , .
A s e x a m ple s Of st atu t or y in t r odu ct i o n of t he la w O f

E n gla n d m e n t io n m a y b e m a de O f the C e ylo n Or di n a n ce
,
NO 5 of 1 85 2 which e n a cts t h a t t he la w of E n gl a n d is t o
.
,
b e O b se r v e d in m ar it im e m at t e r s a n d in r e sp e ct O f a ll c o n
tr a ct s a n d qu e st io n s r e l a t in g t o b i lls O f e xch a n ge p r o mi s ,
1
s or y n o te s a n d c h e qu e s ; a n d O f t he C e ylo n Or di n a n c e N O
,
.
1
Bu t se e n ow . No .
‘
2 5 o f 1 9 2 7 , A n O r din a n c e t o de c la r e
Or d
t he L aw r e la t in g t o B il ls o f E x chan ge , Ch e u es , an d Pr o m iss o r y q
No t e s w hic h r e pe a ls O r d No 5 o f 1 85 2 pr o ta n to
’
. . .
,
ROMAN -
DUTCH LAW 23
22 of whi ch m a ke s sim il a r p r ovi si ons wi t h r e sp e c t t o

1 86 6 ,
t he la w Of p a r tn e r ship s j oin t st ock co m p ani e s co r por a
,
-
t io ns b a nks a n d b a n kin g p r in cip a ls a n d a ge n t s c a rr ie r s

, , ,
by la n d life a n d fir e in su r an ce
,
.
A t t he C a p e t he G e n e r a l L aw A m e n dm e n t A ct N O 8 of .
1 87 9 in tr odu ce d t he E n glis h la w : ( S 1 ) in a ll qu e st io ns r e .
la t in g to m a ri t im e a n d shi pp in g law ; a n d ( s 2 ) in a ll .
qu e st ion s Of fir e life a n d m ar in e a ssu r a n ce stopp a ge i n

, , ,
1
tr a nsi tu a n d bills of l a di n g
,
B u t ( S 3 ) E n gli sh st a t u t e s . .
p a sse d su b se qu e n t ly t o t he d a te of t he A ct do n o t a pply .
It wo ul d oc cu py t o o m u ch sp a ce to spe a k O f t he n u m e r or imi ta
o u s st a t u te s which follow m or e or le ss clo se ly t he l a n gu a ge
$ 2121
of E n glis h Acts O f P a r li a m e n t a n d t hr o u gh t hi s ch ann e l sta t u te ,
la w
a dmi t ru l e s a n d p r in ciple s of t he la w of E n gl a n d As
’
.
e x a m pl e s m a y b e c i te d t he Ce ylo n Sa l e of Goods Or din a n c e
N 0 1 1 of 1 89 6 t he C e ylo n Ma rr i e d W o m e n s Pr ope rt y Or di
.
,
’
n a n ce NO 1 8 of 1 9 2 3 a n d t he S o u t h Afri c a n le gisl a t i o n o n
.
,
B il ls O f Ex ch a n ge a n d Co m p a n ie s The n u m e r o u s ch a n ge s .
p r odu ce d by t he st atu t or y a boli tio n of ins titu tio ns Of t he

R o m a n D u t c h co m m on la w wi ll be ill u st r a te d in t he
-
cou r se of thi s book .
Ju di cia l d e c is ions wh e t h e r O f t he loca l Co u r t s or O f t he ( b) ju di cial

,
dec m om ‘
.
Ju di ci a l Co mm i t te e of t he P r ivy Co u n c il h a ve don e m u c h ,
t o a ffe c t t he d e ve lop m e n t of t he R o m a n D u t c h c o m m o n -
la w T hi s is an ot h e r ch a n n e l t hr ou gh w h i ch t he E n gli s h
.
la w has m a de it s in fl u e n ce fe lt— a n in flu e n c e n o t di r e c te d
by a n y de lib e r a te p u r pose b u t n o n e t he le ss pr ofou n d a n d
,
fa r r e a chin g in i ts e ffe c t s
-
.
L a st ly m u ch of t he E n glish la w has fou n d its w ay in ( c) ta cit

,
“ "
by a p r o ce ss O f sile n t a n d ofte n u n n o t i ce d a c ce p t a n c e a? .
It wo u ld b e e asy t o a ccu m u l a te inst a n c e s in e ve r y b r an ch

2
of t he law Bu t t he stu de n t m a y b e t te r b e le ft t o dr a w
.
1
Thi s se c t i o n w as m a de a ppli c a b le t o t he O . F S b y Or d NO 5
. . . .
of 1902 .
2
R e fe r e n ce m a y b e m a de t o Sir J ohn We ss e ls , H is tor y of the
R om a n D u tch L a w , P ar t I , cha p x x x v ; t o Pr o fe ss o r H D J
-
. . . .
B o de n st e in , E n glish Infl u e n ce s o n t he Co m m o n L a w o f S o u t h
‘
p 3 3 7 ; an d t o C G r ah a m B o t ha ,
’
Afr ic a , 3 2 . .
E ar ly In fl u e n c e o f t he E n glish L a w u po n t he Ro m a n D u tc h L a w
‘
-
’
in S ou t h Afr ica , 40 p 39 6 . .
his own co n clu sion s fr o m t he p a ge s O f t he law re por ts an d ,
in cou r se of t i m e fr o m t he p r a ct i ce of his p r ofe ssi on

, .
I n co n cl u sion a fe w wo r d s w i ll b e p e r m it te d wi t h r e g ar d
” t o t he p a st hi st or y p re se n t con dition a n d fu tu r e pr ospe cts
The ,
13
1
3221 , ,
L aw
,
O f t he R o m a n D u t ch syst e m wi t hi n t he B r i t i sh E m pir e
-
.
133 33, In Sou t h Afr i ca in Ce ylon an d in Br itish G u i an a its for

111
, ,
E m pire t u n e s h a v e b e e n wi de ly di ffe r e n t I sol ate d fr o m o n e .
a n o t h e r a n d wholly di s c o nn e cte d fr o m t h e ir c o m m o n
s o u r c e in t he N e t h e r l a n d s t he le g a l sysmm s O f S ou t h ,
Afr ic a C e ylo n a n d B r i ti sh G u i a n a h a ve p u r su e d e a ch i ts
, ,
se p a r a te c o u r se wi t h v e r y diffe re n t re su l ts I n So u t h .
Afr i ca the O ld law ha s m a in t a in e d a n u n b r oke n t r a di t ion .
If it has b e e n p r ofou n dly m o di fie d by t he i n flu e n c e of

E n glish L a w it r e t a in s a n in di vidu a l c h ar a cte r Not so in
, .
Br it ish G u i a n a Th e re t he R o m a n D u t ch L aw a fte r lan

.
-
,
gu i shin g fo r r at h e r m or e t h an a c e n tu r y u n d e r t he Br i t ish
Cr ow n ha s a t l a st for m ost p u r pose s b e en r e pl a ce d by
, , , ,
t he Co m m on L a w O f E n gl a n d This i s t he e ffe c t of t he .
Ci vil L a w of B r i ti sh G u i a na Or di na n ce Ce ylon has ,
occu pie d a n in te r m e di a te po sition H e r e t he r e are law .
re po rt s a lm o st co n t in u o u s S in ce 1 82 1 a n d t he la w ha s be e n ,
e xpo u n d e d by w r it e r s of a b i li t y B u t t he D u t c h l a n g u a g e .
i s n o lon ge r spoke n i n t he i sl an d a n d t he D u t ch e le m e n t ,
in t he law has p a sse d in t o O blivion V oe t is t he au t hor i t y .
m o st fr e qu e n t ly cite d E n gli sh L a w has e x e r ci se d a pr e

.
pon de r a t in g in fl u e n ce e ve n in de p artm e n t s whe r e in S ou t h

2
Afr ic a t he old law has m a int a in e d it s gr ou n d Thou gh .
Ce ylon S hows n o di spo sit ion t o follow t he e x am ple of

B r it ish G u ia n a it will n o t be de ni e d t h a t t he fu tur e of
,
R o m a n D u t ch L aw li e s p r in cip a lly in S ou t h Afr i ca

-
.
The fu Wh a t will t h at fu t u r e be At pr e se nt w e ge t ou r kn ow
11 53222 1
11 2
e dge of t he la w fr o m st a t u te s fr o m t he d e c ision s of t he
11
l ,
D u tch E dit e d w it h n o t e s b y Mr Ju st ic e D a lto n o f t he Su pr e m e Co u r t

.
,
B S tO
Y m of B r it ish G u ia n a ( G e o r ge t o wn , Se e a lso The Pass in g o f
‘
O f L aw .
R o m an D u t c h L a w in B r it ish G u i a n a b y t he sa m e w r ite r ,
’
-
p 4 ; a n d R o m an D u t c h L a w in B r it is h
‘
36 .
-
G u i a n a b y J E L e dl ie , J ou r n C omp L eg , N S , v o l x v ii , p 2 1 0
’
. . . . . . . . . .
2
R e fe re n ce m a y b e m a de t o The R o m a n Du t c h L a w in Ce y lo n
‘
-
u n de r t he B r it is h R égim e b y t he la t e Sir A Woo d Re n to n , in

’
.
49 p 1 61 . .
A PP END IX
H O W F A R TH E S TA TU T E L A W O F H O L L A ND O B TA INS
IN S O U T H A FR I CA A ND C E Y L O N
IN I n re f L ou don D iscou nt B a n k v D awes

I nsolvent E sta te . o , .
1 Me n z a t p 3 88 t he Co u r t O b se rv e d : Wh e n t hi s
‘
. .
,
Co lo n y w a s se t tle d by t he Du t ch t he ge n e r a l pr in ciple s an d ,
ru le s o f t he la w O f H o ll a n d w e r e in t r o du c e d he r e bu t by su ch ,
in t r o du ct io n o f t he law O f H oll a n d i t did n o t fo llo w t ha t spe cia l

a n d l o ca l r e gu la t io n s shou l d a l so b e in tr odu ce d ; a ccor din gly
t he pr o v i sio ns Of t he Pla caat Of 5 t h F e bru a r y 1 665 a s t o t he , ,
p a ym e n t o f t he 40 th pe nn y [3 G P B ha v e n e v e r b e e n . . .
par t o f t he la w of this Colo n y be cau se t his t a x has n e v e r b e en ,
im pose d o n t he inha bit a n t s of t his Co lon y by a n y la w pr o

m u lgat e d by t he l e gisla t iv e au tho r itie s w i thin this Co lo n y In .
like m ann e r u n t il a law ha d be e n pa sse d he r e cr e a tin g a pu bli c

r e gist er t he p r o v isi on s o f t he Pla ca a t o f 1st F e bru ar y
, 1 5 80
1 st Apr il —
,
1 CPR w e r e n ot in fo r c e o r O b se r va n ce
. . .
’
he r e .
In Her ber t v A nder son 2 Me nz 1 66 , the foll ow in g

m
. .
Pla ca a t s w e r e sa i d to be ly fisca l an d r e ve n u e la w s of
ere
Holl a n d w hich ha d n e v e r
, be co m e o r b e e n m a de law in Cape
Co lon y viz Pla ca a ts &c o f Ju n e 1 1 1 452 ( 3 G B R
, .
, .
, , . . .
Jan u ar y 22 1 5 1 5 ( 1 G P B , Apr il 1 1 580 Ar t 3 1 . . .

, , .
(1 C P R . . Ma r ch 2 9 1 677 ( 3 G P B
. Apr il 3 1 67 7 , . . .
,
(3 G P B . . This de cision w a s qu ote d wi th appr ov a l by

.
K o t z e C J in E ckha r dt v Nolte ( 1 885 ) 2 S A R 48 w ho a dde d

. . . . . .
,
( at p . Fr o m t hi s it fo llow s t hat t he Pla caat s of [Se pte m

‘
b e r 26] 1 65 8 ( 2 G P B 2 5 1 5 ) a n d [Fe br u ar y 2 4] 1 69 6 ( 4 G P B
. . . . . .
465 ) a n d o t he r s i n p a r i ma ter i a m e re ly r e n e w in g t he e ar lier ,
P la caa ts a r e like w i se of n o appli ca tion a t t he pr e se n t day

’
, .
On the o the r ha n d in D e Vr i es v A lexa nder ( 1 880 ) F oo r d a t

, .
p 47 de Villiers C J r e fe rr ing t o Her bert v A nderson said :

.
, . .
,
The Co u r t co uld o nl y ha ve in t e n de d t o con fin e t he ir de cisi on

‘
t o t hose p ort ion s o f t he E di ct s [of 1 5 1 5 a n d 1 580 ] w hi ch ar e of

a fi sca l o r of a p u r e ly l o ca l n a t u r e SO far a s the y ha d b e e n .
in co r por ate d in t he ge n e r a l la w of Holl an d an d w e r e n o t ,
inappli ca ble he r e th e y w e re e qu ally in cor p or a te d in t he law

,
’
of thi s Colony Applying thi s pr in ciple the le arn e d Chie f
.
,
APPENDIX 27
Ju sti ce he ld t ha t the 9 th A rt o f t he Pla caat o f Se pt e m b e r 26 , .
1 658fo rm e d par t o f t he law o f Ca p e Co lo n y In t hi s c o nn e xi o n .
i t sho u l d b eborn e in m in d tha t a se ction o r po r tion o fa pla ca a t ‘
m ay a s ha s o ft e n b e e n de cide d by t he Co u r t s con tin u e t o b e o f

, ,
fo r ce w hile an o the r por tio n m ay hav e ce a se d t o ha v e a n y

,
v a lidi ty o r ha v e b e co m e O b so le t e ( K o tz e Va n L eeu wen v ol i , , .

,
p .
Sin ce Uni on t he App e lla te D iv isio n ha s o n m o r e t ha n o n e

,
o ccasion p r o n o u n ce d a ga in st t he c o n t in u e d v a li di ty o f p a r t s o f
t he Old st a t u t e la w ; n o t a bly in E s t Hei na ma n n v Hei na ma n n . .
[ 1 9 1 9 ] A D 99 in w hi ch the Co ur t by a m a j ori ty de cla r e d the

. .
, , ,
pr o visio n s o f se c 83 o f the E cht Reglem en t Of t he Sta te s G e n e r a l

.
- -
of Ma r ch 1 8, 1 65 6 (2 G P B
. . . a n d Of t he P laca a t va n de
S ta ten va n Holla ndt e nde Wes t Vr i es la ndt Of Ju ly 1 8, 1 67 4
(3 G P B. . pr o hibit in g in t e r m arr iage be t w ee n pe r son s
.
’
w ho ha v e co m m it te d a du lte r y t o ge t he r t o b e n o lo n ge r in ,
for ce t hou gh it se e m s b o t h o f t he se e n a ct m e n t s m ay fa ir ly
‘
, , ,
b e sa id t o ha ve b ee n in co r p o r a t e d in t o t he co m m o n law o f
Sou t h Afr ica p er de Vil lie r s A J A a t p 1 14 In Sp ence r v
’
. . . .
, . .
G ostelow [ 1 9 2 0 ] A D 6 1 7 a like c o n clu sio n w as co m e to wi th

. .
r e ga r d t o t he Pl a k a te n o f Ma y 1 1 608 ( 2 C P R a nd , . . .
No v e m b e r 2 9 1 679 ( 3 C P R ,
r e la t in g t o do m e st i c se r
. . .
van t s ; an d in Rex v Ha rr ison [ 1 9 2 2] A D 32 0 it w as he ld t ha t

. . .
t he Pla ca at o f t he St a t e s o f H o ll a n d Of Mar ch 7 1 7 5 4 ( teegen

~
het dr u kken en di vu lge eren va n P as qu ille n &c , .

, 8C P R . . .
w a s n ot a n d n e v er Re fe r e n ce m ay
had bee n la w at t he Ca pe .
a l so b e m a de t o M u ller v Cha dw i ck a nd Co [ 1 90 6] T S a t p 40
. . . .
( Pla ca a t o f De ce m b e r 9 , 1 66 1 , Ar t 5 1 , 2 C P R 2 775 , he ld . . . .
i n appli ca ble ) a n d t o E x pa rte Ker kho [ 1 9 2 4] T P D 7 1 1 a s t o

,
f . . .
t he qu e stio n w he t he r se c . 90 of t he E cht Regleme nt -

fo r m s p ar t
of t he la w Of Sou t h Africa .
In Rex v . S a cks [ 1 9 43] A D . . at p . 422 Tin da ll J A . . sa id :

‘
The
qu e stion w he t he r t he Pla caa t Of 1715 ( P laca a t te egens nee m en
va n gi ten f en ga ve n , de n 1 0 D ece m ber 1 71 5 , 5 G P B 6 86 ) , . . .
for m s par t Of t he Ro m an Du t ch la w in So u t h Afr i c a w as n ot

-
r a ise d b e fo re u s ; c ou n se l o n b o th side s a ssu m e d t ha t i t doe s
t he Pla ca at o f 1 7 1 5 w a s p asse d by t he St a t e s G e n e ra l a n d it is -
O bvi ou sly o n e o f ge n e r a l a n d n o t m e re ly lo ca l a ppli ca t ion It .
will be n o t e d t ha t it m a ke s spe cia l m e n t io n Of t he D u t ch E a st

In di a Co m pan y H o w e ve r [in a n y e v e n t ]
. t he Pla caa t o f
1 Ju ly 1 6 5 1 o f t he St at e s Ge n e r al ( 1 G P B 402 ) ha vin g
-
. . .
28 APPENDIX
be e n pr o m u lgate d be fo re 1 65 2 w a s p art of t he la w o f the Ca pe
of G o o d H ope
’
.
Fo r Ce ylon L a w se e K a r on chiha my v A ngoha my ( 1 9 04) .
8 N L R 1 in w hi ch Middl e to n J an d S am p ayo A J ( Mon

. . .
, . . .
c r e ifl A C J dis se n t in g ) he ld t ha t t he Pla caa t O f Jul y 1 8 1 6 7 4

'
. . .
, ,
w a s n o t in fo r ce in Ce ylo n a n d t ha t it fo r t ho se w ho a sse rt
,
a n d r e ly u p o n t he O pe r a t i o n O f a law e n a cte d sin c e t he da te
of t he D u t ch o c cu p at ion O f t he isla n d in 1 656 t o Sho w be yon d

a ll qu e stion t ha t it o p e r a t e s a n d a ppli e s Se e a lso Rabot v
. .
de S i lva [ 1 909 ] A O 3 7 6 a n d a u t ho r it ie s cit e d ; S ilva v

. .
, .
B ala s u r iya ( 19 1 1 ) 1 4 N L R 452 ; S a med v S egu ta mby ( 1 9 24)

. . . .
2 5 N L R 481 Pe r e ir a L a w s of Ceylon p 1 2
. . .
, , . .
B OOK I
INT ROD U CTI ON
TH E la w l g t o p e r s o ns oc cu pie s t he fir st book of t he
r e a t in
I n st it u te s of G a in s a n d Ju stini a n The s cop e a n d m e a n in g

.
of t he phr a se h a ve b e e n m u ch di s c u sse d wi t h li tt le re su lt ,
sa v e t o s how t h a t t he di st r i b u t io n of t op i cs m a d e i n t h e se
t r e a tise s b e t w e e n t he la w O f p e r s on s a n d t he la w of t hin g s
i s n o t logi c a ll y d e fe n s ibl e o r a t le a st i s n o t r e a dil y u n d e r
, , ,
st ood In thi s vol u m e w e in cl u d e u n de r t he la w of p e r son s

.
t he a lli e d t op i cs of ( 1 ) t he la w of st a t u s ; ( 2 ) t he la w O f t he
c o n se qu e n ce s of st a t u s ; a n d ( 3 ) fa m ily la w The m e t hod .
a dop te d w i ll b e t o t r a c e t he l e g a l li fe h i st o r y O f h u m a n
-
b e in gs fr o m con ce p t i on t o t he gr a ve a n d t o se e how t h e ir
r igh t s a n d d u t i e s a r e a f fe ct e d by ce rt a in c o n dit i o n s o r
a ccid e n t s O f h u m a n life su c h as bir t h m in o r it y m a rr i a g e
, , , ,
m e n t a l di se a se To t hi s will b e a dd e d s o m e r e m a r k s o n
.
a rt i fi ci a l o r j u r i st i c p e r s o n s The su bj e ct will b e t r e a t e d
.
in c h a p t e r s d e a lin g wi t h
1 . B irt h , Se x , Le git im a cy .
N P ar e n t a ge
)
w Mi n or i t y .
F
b Marr i a ge
e
.
O G u a r di a n shi p
I
Uns oun dn e ss O f m in d— Pr o dig a lit y

ls Ju r istic p e r son s
.
.
B I R T H , SE X ,
L E GITIMAC Y
SE CTI O N 1 —
BI RTH
L E G A L p e r son a lit y wit h it ca p a cit y t o h a ve r i ght s a n d Bir t h , an d .
t o b e su bj e ct t o d u t i e s b e gi ns wit h t he c o m ple ti on of ,
b ir t h su bj e ct howe ve r t o the qu a li fi ca t i on th a t a child in

,
t he wo m b i s d e e m e d a lr e a dy bo r n wh e n su ch a fi ct i o n is fo r
1
i ts a dv a n t a g e Thu s a n u n bor n c hild m a y t a ke u n d e r a .
2
will i n h e r it s a b i n testa to a n d m a y h a ve a r igh t of a cti o n
, ,
2 ’
in re sp e ct of hi s fat h e r s d e a t h .
SE CTI O N 2 .
—S E x
Se x ,
fa ct o r of i m por t a n ce in the sph e re Se x
a s su c h ,
is n ot a .
of p r iva te la w Th e r e is a di ffe r e nce ho w e ve r in t he a ge O f .

, ,
p u b e r t y whi ch for m a le s is fix e d a t fou rte e n ye ars fo r

, ,
fe m a le s a t t we lve F ur t h e r t h ere is a sp e ci a l ru le of la w by .
,
which a wo m an ca nn o t b in d h e rse lf as sur e ty u nl e ss she

1
e xp r e ssly r e n o u n ce s t he b e n e fit s w h i c h t he la w a llow s he r
‘
SE CTI ON 3 .
—L E G ITIM A CY
A ch ild is p r e su m e d t o be le gi ti m a te if c o n ce ive d d u r i n g L e giti ,
“ 2 2 5“
m a rr ia g e o r bo rn d u r in g m a rr i a ge (n o m a t te r how soo n
1
,
a fte r i t s ce l e b r a t i o n ) o r i f t he m o t he r w a s p r e gn a n t of t he ,
c hild a t a n y t i m e d u r in g m a rr i a ge
5
Thi s p r e su m p t io n is .
e xp r e sse d in t he m a x im P a ter i s es t qu em n u p ti a e dem on Pate r is

6 7 2 2 2 qu e m
s tra n t The p re su m p t i o n O f l e g it im a cy i s n o t irr e b u t t a bl e
.
,
1
D ig 1 5 7 ; G r 1 3 4 ; V oe t , 1 5 5 ; E lli o t
. . . L or d J oi ce y de m o n
. . . . . V .
[ 1 9 3 5 ] A O 2 0 9 ; 5 3 L Q .R p. 1 9 ( n o t e b y M c G r e go r st r a n t
. . . .
.
2
G r 2 1 6 2 ; V o e t , 2 8 5 1 2 ; H all C on s i 9 8 O r b y gift , as in
. . . . . . . . .
Fr e n c h la w ( C C A r t . . .
2
C hi s ho lm E as t R a nd M i n es [ 1 9 0 9 ] T H 2 9 7 V . . . .
I nfr a , p 3 1 5 . .
2
G r 1 1 2 3 Van L e e u w en , 1 7 2 Vo e t , l 6 5 an d 7 V d K 1 69
. . . . . .
V
. . . . .
D ig 2 4 5 ; V o e t , 1 6 6 ; R i chte r
. . . Wagen a a r . . .
1 M e n z 2 6 2 ; S u r m on . S u r m on [ 1 9 2 6 ] A D 47 ; S tig li n g v M e lc k V
[ 1 9 3 5 ] C P D 22 8; ( Ce y lo n ) A m i n a Um m a V
. . . .
. . . Nu hu L ebbe ( 1 9 2 6 ) .
30 N L R 2 2 0. . . .
7
Th e pr e su m pt io n in fa v o u r o f le git im ac y m a y b e r e b u t te d b y
F i tzge r a ld v G r ee n [ 1 9 1 1 ]
‘
c le a r a n d u n i rn e a c h a b le e v id e n ce
’
p .
V
.
E D L a t p 46 2 ; L ou w
. . . L ou w [ 1 9 3 3] C P D 40 7
. . . . . .
32 THE LAW OF PE RSON S
b u t if, in t he cir cu m st an ce s con ce p t io n cou ld h a ve t a ke n ,
pla c e du r in g m ar r i a ge it will bo t h in fa c t a n d in la w be , , ,
m o r e diffi cu lt to dis pl a ce t he p r e su m p t ion t h a n wh e n t he

fa cts po in t t o co n ce p t ion b e for e m a rr i a ge In t he fir st .
ca se n e i t h e r h u s b a n d n o r wife w ill b e h e a r d t o sa t h a t t he
y
h u sb a n d w a s n o t t he fa t he r u n le ss ( t o qu o te G r o t iu s ) ,
t h e r e is e vid e n ce of i n c a p a cit y t o g e n e r a te or O f a n a b se n c e
1
in co n siste n t wit h t he p e r iod O f ge st a t ion In t he se co n d .
’
c ase t he h u sb a n d s e vide n c e i s a d m i ssi ble t o p r ove n o n

’
a cc e ss be fo r e m a rr i a ge
2
Whe t he r c on ce p t ion t ook pla ce .
du r in g m a rr i a ge o r n o t is de cide d wit h a vie w t o all t he

cir c u m st a n ce s O f the c ase a n d in p art i cu l ar t o t he po ssible , ,
or p r ob a bl e p e ri od Of ge st at ion The O ld books foll ow

, .
,
in g t he Ro m a n L a w say t h a t a ch ild will b e su ppo se d t o ,
h a ve b e e n con ce ive d d u r in g m a rr i a ge if bor n b e t wee n t he

b e ginn in g of t he se v e n t h m o n t h a fte r it s c e le b r a t ion a n d
t he b e ginni n g O f t he e le v e n t h m on t h a fte r its dissolu t ion
by d e a t h o r di vo r ce Re cko n e d in d a ys thi s m e a ns b orn
3
.
n o t l e ss t h a n 1 80 d a y s a fte r t he c e l e b r a t io n of t he m a rr i a g e
a n d n o t m o re t h a n 3 00 d a y s a fte r i t s di ssol u t io n t he ,
m o n t h b e in g a r bit r a r ily t a k e n t o b e e qu iv a l e n t t o t hir t y

2
d a ys B u t t he te n d e n cy of m od e r n c a se s a t le a st a s
‘
.
,
1
G r 1 1 2 3 ; S u r m on v S u r m on [ 1 9 2 6 ] A D a t p 5 3 This is
. . . . . . . .
w ha t is m ea n t w h e n i t is sa id t ha t n e it he r spo u se m a y b as t a r diz e
t he iss u e B u t , n o w , t he G e n e r a l L a w Am e n dm e n t A c t , 1 9 3 5 ,
.
se c 1 0 1 , su b se c 3 , pr o v ide s t h a t fo r t he pu r p o se o f r e b u tt in g t he
‘
. .
p re su m p t i o n t h a t a c hild t o w hi c h a m a rr i e d w o m a n has giv e n
b ir t h is t h e o ffspr in g o f he r hu s b a n d e it he r sp o u s e m a y giv e
’
e v ide n c e o f n o n a cce ss in a n y pr o ce e din gs c iv il o r c r im in a l

-
Th is .
a b r o ga t e s S u r m on V
S u r m on , in w hic h t he Co u r t r e lu c t an t ly
.
fo llo w e d R us s e ll V
Ru s s e ll [ 1 9 2 4] A O 687 o w in g t o a sta t u t o r y
. . .
pr o v isio n in c o r po r a t in g b y r e fe r e n ce E n glis h r ul e s o f e v ide n c e .
The S o u t he r n R ho de s ia s t a t u t e ( Ma t r im o n ia l Ca us e s A c t , No 2 0 .
’
sa y s in a n y pr o c ee din gs fo r div o r c e
‘
o f 1 9 43 , s e e . .
2
V oe t , 1 6 5 The r u le is t he sa m e in E n glis h la w : T he P ou lett
. . .
P ee r age Cas e [ 1 90 3 ] A O 3 9 5 Ru s se ll v Ru ss e ll [ 1 9 2 4] A O a t p 7 2 3
. . . . . . .
2
D ig 1 5 1 2 ; 3 8 1 6 3 , 1 2 ; G r 1 1 2 3 ; V o e t , 1 6 4; de H aas ,
. . . . . . . . . .
Ni e u w e H o ll Con s , No s 3 5 , 3 6 ; G ir ar d , p 1 85
. . . . .
S a v ign y , S ys te m , iv 3 40 ; Win ds che id , i 1 0 3 ( c ) V d K 1 70

.
. . . . .
( L e e , C omme nta r y , p These pe r io ds a r e a do pt e d b y t he

.
Fre n ch Co de ( A r t s 3 1 2 , 3 1 5 ) a n d t he D u t c h Co de ( A r t s 3 0 5 ff )
. . .
The G e r m a n Co de , Ar t 1 5 9 2 , de n e s t he pe r iod o f c o n ce pt io n . fi
as e x te n di n g fr o m t he 1 81 8t t o t he 3 0 2n d da in e a c h case ih
y (
clus iv e ) b e fo r e t he da y o f b ir t h .
e ithe r fa th e r it is p r e su m e d t o b e t he child of t he se con d
,
1
hu sb a n d .
A b ast ar d ha s n o la wfu l fa t he r a n d t h e r e for e n o r igh ts

of su c ce ssion ex p a r te p a ter na B u t wi t h t he m ot h e r it i s .
di ffe re nt fo r e e n e m o e de r ( a li ter e e n e w ijf) m a akt ge e n‘
b a st a a r d a n d t h e r e for e he r i lle git im a te i ssu e su cc e e ds t o

2
he r a n d t o he r blood r e l a t i o n s Su c h w a s t he O pin io n of .
G r ot iu s t ho u gh as r e gar ds t h e se l a st Va n de r L in de n
,
2
i n cline s t o a con tr ar y vie w .
Ille gi t im at e i ssu e m a y b e l e gi ti m a t e d : ( 1 ) by su b se qu e n t
m at ion
m arr i a ge ; ( 2 ) by a n a ct O f gr a ce o n t he p art Of t he S ove
.
4
r e ign The fir st Of t h e se m ode s a lon e ob t a in s a t t he pre
.
se n t day .
In t he Ro m an L a w
l e gitim at io n by su b se qu e n t m arr i a g e
w a s lim ite d t o t he i ssu e O f co n cu bi n a g e The C a n o n L aw .
a ll ow e d it in t he c a se of a ll ill e gi ti m a t e childre n o t h e r t h a n
t he i ssu e of a du lt e r y a n d in ce st a n d t hi s w a s followe d by ,
t he R o m a n D u t ch L a w 5 -
.
V oe t , 1 6 9 ; w ho giv e s a m o n gst o t he r r e aso n s b e c a u se ips e

1 ‘
. .
in ce r t it u d ini s a u c t o r e t c a u sa est Ge r m a n L a w
’
A rt . .
1 6 0 0 ) a ssign s t he c hild t o t he r st hu sb a n d , if b o r n w it hin 2 7 0 fi

da y s o f t he dis so lu t i on o f t he r st m a rr i a ge fi .
2
G r 2 2 7 2 8; V a n L e e u w e n , 1 7 4; A n t on M a t t ha e u s , P a r o s
. . . . . .
m i a e , NO 1 I t is u e st i o n a b le w he t he r t he R o m a n L a w m ade an y
. . q
dis t in ct io n b e t w e e n sim ple b asta r ds a n d a du l t e r in e o r in c e st u ou s
b a st a r ds ( An t o n Ma t t h , u bi su p , se c n o r w a s a n y su ch di s
. . . .
t in c t io n m a de b y t he l a w O f So u t h H o lla n d an d
s in c e t he de c is io n O f t he A ppe lla t e D iv isi o n in G r een F i tzger a ld V .
[ 1 9 1 4] A D 88 t his m a y b e t a ke n t o b e t he law o f S o u t h Afr ic a

. . .
Se e L o r d de V illie r s C J a t pp 1 0 0 1 . . .
-
.
2
V d L 1 1 0 3 The u e st io n w as m u c h de b a t e d Se e aga i ns t
. . . . . . q .
G r o t iu s , B ijn ke rsho e k, Qu a es t J u r P r i v lib iii, c a p x i an d . . . . .
O T ii 2 0 1 7 ; for G r o t ius V a n de r V o r m ( Ver ste rfr e cht, e d

. . .
, .
B lo n de e l , pp an d V d K 3 42—5 The Ca pe Co u r t has

. . . . .
a d o pt e d t he m o r e l ib e r a l ie w M oga m a t J ass i em The M as ter V . V .
( 1 89 1 ) 8 S C 2 59 I n r e R u ss o ( 1 89 6 ) 1 3 S C 1 85 A s t o su c c e ssio n
. . . . .
to b as t ar ds se e V a n de r V o r m , u bi su p , p 2 3 7 . . .
G r 1 1 2 9 ; V a n L e e u w e n , 1 7 5 ; V o e t , 2 5 7 6 an d 1 3
. . . . . . .
V d K 1 7 1 —2
. . . .
5
G r 1 1 2 5 ; V a n L e e u w e n , 1 7 7 ; V o e t , 2 5 7 8; V d L
. . . . . . . . . .
1 4 2 Wr it e r s o n t he m o de r n Civ il L a w a r e n o t a gr e e d in r e fu sin g
. . .
l g
e it im a t io n t t he iss e o
o u f a n a d u l t e r ou s u n io n ( W in d s c h e i d , i i i
.
5 22 ; V a n ge r o w , i a n d if s u c h a n e x c e pt io n e xis t s , t he
.
q u e st i o n fu r t he r ar ise s w he t he r t he la w r e u ir e s t ha t m a r r ia ge q
b e tw e e n t he pa r e n t s m u st h av e b e e n possib le a t t he t im e o f
B I RTH , SE X, LEGITIMACY 35
c o n cep ti o n o r a t t he t im e bi r th The On tw e rp va n he t B u r ge r lij k
Of .
l/Ve tboe k v oo r he t K o n i n gr ij k der Ne der la n d en o f 1 82 0 ( Ar t .
a n d t h e D u t c h Civ il Co d e ( Ar t . a d o pt t h e fo r m e r o f t he se
a l t e r n a t iv e sK o tz e J in F i tzger a ld v G r ee n [ 1 9 1 1 ] B D L a t
.
V
. . . .
p 47 2 a n d V a n Zy l J , in H ofl m a n
.
, . E s t M e cha u [ 1 9 2 2 ] C P D a t
. . . . .
1 8 5 a do pt t he la t t e r a n d t he E n glis h L e it ir n a c
g y A ct , 1 9 2 6
p .
, , ,
c o n t a in s t he pr o v is o ( s e c .1 , su b s e c .
‘
No t hin g in t his A c t S ha ll
o pe r a t e t o le git im a t e a p e r s o n w h o se fa t he r o r m o t h e r w as m a rr i e d
t o a t hir d pe r so n w he n t he ille git im a t e pe r s o n w a s b o r n

’
. B u t the
U
( n io n o f S o u t h A fr ic a ) B ir ths , M a rr ia ge s a n d D e a t hs R e gi st r a
t io n A m e n dm e n t A c t , se c. 4, a llo w s a c h ild t o b e r e gi st e r e d
as q
t he le git im a t e c hild o f pa r e n t s w ho su b se u e n t ly m a r r y
w h e th e r [t h e par e n t s ] c o u ld o r c o u ld n o t h a v e le ga lly m a r r ie d
‘
e a c h o t he r a t t h e t im e O f h is b ir t h I n Ce y lo n ille git im a t e
’
.
c h ildr e n pr o c r e a t e d b e t w e e n t h e sa m e pa r t i e s a r e le git im a t e d b y
q
s u b s e u e n t m a rr ia ge u n le ss pr o c r e a t e d in a du lt e r y ( Or d 1 9 of
.
1 9 0 7 , se c
. In ce st is n o t m e n t io n e d , n o do u b t b e ca u se m a rr ia ge
q
i s o u t o f t he u e st io n .
II
PA R E NTAG E
BIR TH i m p lie s p a r e n t a ge a n d t he r e cipr o ca l d u t i e s of
p a r e nt a n d c hild Th e se m ay b e co ns ide re d u n de r t w o
.
h e a ds : ( A ) The p a r e n t a l po w e r a n d it s co ns e qu e n ce s ;
( B ) The r e cip r o ca l d u t y of su pport .
A . The p a r en ta l p ow er a nd i ts con s equ ences
The P ar e n t al powe r o r a s it i s ca ll e d n a t u r a l gu ar di a n ship

, , , ,
pa re n t a l ha s li tt le in c o m m o n wi t h t he pa tr i a p otes ta s O f R om a n
“
po w e a n d
r
its cou se L aw V a n de r Li n de n wr i te s
.
qu e n ces .
The p o w e r Of p a r e n t s o v e r t he ir c hil dr e n diffe r s ve r y m u ch

‘
a m on g u s fr om t he e x t e n siv e p a t e r n a l p o w e r a m o n g t he
R o m a n s It b e lo n gs n o t o nly t o t he fa t he r b u t a lso t o t he
.
,
m o t he r a n d a fte r t he de a t h o f t he fat he r t o t he m o t he r a lon e

, .
It co n sist s i n a g e n e r a l su pe r vi sio n o f t he m a in t e n a n ce a n d
e d u c a t io n o f t he ir c hildr e n a n d in t he a dm ini st r a t io n o f t he ir
p r o pe r t y . It giv e s t he par e n t s t he r ight o f de m a n din g fr o m
t he ir c hil dr e n du e r e v e r e n ce a n d o b e die n ce t o t he ir o r de r s , a n d
l
a so in c ase be ha v io u r t o infli ct su ch m ode r a t e
of im pr o pe r
c ha st ise m e n t a s m a y t e n d t o im p r o v e m e n t Pa re n t s m a y n o t .
b e su e d by t he ir c hildr e n w i t hou t le a v e O f t he Co ur t t e r m e d ,
ven i a a gendi
1
NO m arr i a ge ca n be co n t r a ct e d by childr e n
.
w i t ho u t t he co n se n t Of t he ir p ar e n t s The p a r e n t s a r e e n t it le d .
o n t he ir de ce ase t o p r ovi de fo r t he gu a r dia n ship O f t he ir

2
chi ldr e n
’
.
Wh a te ve r is h e r e sa id of c hildr e n m u st b e u n de r st ood
t o re fe r t o mi n or chil dr e n fo r in t he R o m a n D u t c h L a w ,
-
2
p are n t a l pow e r c e a se s wh e n t he child a tt a in s fu ll a ge .
The i n cide n t s of t he p a re n t a l powe r d e s cr ib e d by V a n

de r Li n d e n m a y b e de v e lop e d a s follow s :
1 .
1 Cu s tody a nd Con tr ol
. The cu st ody c o n t r ol a n d .
, ,
t ody a n d
e d u c a t io n of c h ildr e n b e lo n g t o t he fa t h e r a n d a fte r hi s
c o n t ro l
,
1
In t he Ca pe Pr o v in c e ve n ia a gen di is a b r o ga t e d b y di su s e .
M a r e v M a r e [ 1 9 1 0 ] C P D 43 7
. . . . .
2
V d L 1 4 1 ( Ju t a s t r a ns la t io n )
’
. . . . . .
2
V d L 1 4 3 F u l l a ge is n o w x e d b y la w a t t he t w e n t y fir s t
. . . . . . fi -
b ir t hda y I nfr a , p 44 . . .
a pply in c o m e of p r op e r t y b e lo n gin g t o t he ch ild fo r
t he
his m a in t e n a n ce e d u ca t i o n a n d o t h e r lik e p u r po se s in , , ,
ve st t he su r plu s a n d c o n cl u d e c o n t r a ct s in du e c ou r se O f
,
a d m i n i st r a t i on
1
If t he fa t h e r is d e a d a n d ha s n o t a ppo in t
.
e d a t e st a m e n t a r y g u a r d i a n t he m o t h e r n or m a lly t a k e s ,
2
his pl a ce a s n a t u r a l g u a r di a n a n d t he m o t h e r i s n a t u r a l ,
3
g u a r di a n of he r ill e g it im a te ch ild A m in or ch ild whi le .
,
u n e m a n ci p a te d i s u n a bl e t o c o n t r a ct w it ho u t h i s fa t h e r s
’
4
co n se n t An y c o n t r a ct c o n clu d e d by hi m wi t ho u t su ch
.
c o n se n t i s ip so ju r e vo i d a n d w i ll n o t bin d e it h e r t he ch i ld ,
5
o r t he fa t h e r e x c e p t S O far a s e it h e r O f t h e m ha s b e e n
e n r i c h e d t h e r e by a n d i f a n y p a ym e n t ha s b e e n m a d e by ,
t he m in o r u n d e r su c h c o n t r a ct it is r e c ov e r a ble by t he ,
c o n di c t io i n d e b i t i If howe ve r t he fa t h e r a llows t he m in o r .
, ,
t o m a k e a c on t r a ct in t he fa t h e r s n a m e o r r a t i fie s a c o n
’
t r a ct so m a de t he fa t h e r i s bo u n d Th i s i s sim ply a qu e s
,
.
t io n of t he ge n e r a l la w of p r in cip a l a n d a g e n t SO fa r a n d .
s o fa r o nl y m a y a m in o r s o n b i n d hi s fa t h e r by hi s co n
5
t r a ct s .
A fat he r m a y in de e d b e h e ld li a ble fo r n e ce ssa r ie s su p

p li e d t o his ch ild a n d t hi s li a b ilit y is n o t a ffe ct e d by
di vo r ce B u t it i s a li a b i li t y i m po se d by la w a n d do e s n o t
.
7
i m ply a co n t r a ctu a l O blig a t i on e ith e r of chi ld o r p ar e n t .
A fa t h e r m a y r e pr e se n t his so n in Co u r t a n d su e a n d
2
d e fe n d in t he s on s n a m e b u t if he do e s so wit ho u t le a ve ’
fr o m t he Co u rt he w ill b e p e r so n a lly li a ble fo r co st s if t he

su c h su m ha s b e e n se c u r e d b y b o n d t o t h e sa t isfa c t io n o f t he
M a st e r A dm in ist r a t i o n O f E st a t e s A c t , 1 9 1 3 , se e 5 4
’
. . .
1
Va n L e e u w e n , 1 1 3 2 ; Va n de r B yl ob C o v S o lo m o n [ 1 87 7 ] . . . .
B u c h a t p 2 7 ; Wood
. D a vi es [ 1 9 3 4] C P D a t p 2 5 6
. V . . . . . .
2
E x p a r te F i tzger a ld [ 1 9 2 3 ] W L D 1 87 . . . .
2
D ha n a ba ki u m v S u br a m a n i a n [ 1 9 43 ] A D a t p 1 66
'
. . . . .
2
V d L 1 4 1
. . . . . .
5
G r 3 1 3 4 B u t a s t o ip so ju r e v o id se e b e lo w p 48 No r is
. . . . . .
a fa th e r lia b le fo r h is s o n s de lic t s u n le ss m a de S O b y s t a t u t e
’
.
V d K D i cta t a d l o c L e e , C om m e n ta r y , p 2 2 6
. . . . . . .
5
V o e t , 1 5 1 1 1 Th is c a se m u s t b e c a r e fu lly dist in gu ishe d fr o m
. . .
t he c a se in w hic h t h e fa t he r a u t h o r i z e s ( in t he t e c hn ic a l s e n se ) o r
‘
q
s u b se u e n t ly r a t ifi e s t he m in o r s c o n t r a c t ( i nfr a , pp 46 ,
’
.
7
F i llis v J c u ber t P a r k P r i va te H osp i ta l [ 1 9 3 9 ] T P D 2 3 4 . . . .
V
.
2
G r , 1 6 1 ; 3 48 1 0 ; Va n R o o ye n
. . Wern e r , u bi su p a t p 43 0 ;
. . . . .
T r a u b v B loom ber g [ 1 9 1 7 ] T P D 2 7 6
. . . . .
PAR ENTAGE 39
1
su i t p r ove s u n su cce ssfu l Eve n t he le a ve O f t he Cou rt .
a fa ci e p r o t e c t i o n
m
2
a ffo r d s n o m o r e t h a n a p r i .
3 Con s en t to ma rr i a ge of m i n or chi ldr en The c on se n t 3 Con
m
. . .
O f p ar e n t s o r of a su r vi vi n g p a re n t i s n e ce ssa r y t o t he
, fig ge ,
m arr ia ge of m in or c hildr e n a n d w it ho u t i t t he m a rr i a ge of min or ,

Childr e n
1
i s n u ll a n d voi d Con se n t m ay b e e it he r e xp r e ss o r im
.
‘ ’
pli e d It is im plie d if t he fa t h e r kn ows t h a t t he m arr i a ge

.
of t he m in or is a bo u t t o t a ke pla ce a n d do e s n o t fo r b i d it 5
.
Str i ct ly t he m o t h e r s c on se n t i s a l so n e ce ssa ry b u t in ca se
’
, ,
5
O f di sa gr ee m e n t t he fa t h e r s w ill p re v a ils
’
P u blic a tion of .
b a n ns is p r e su m p t ive e vide n ce O f c onse n t ,a n d a m a rr i a ge

c e le b r a te d a ft e r p u blic a tio n of b a nn s wi t ho u t O bj e cti on by
t he fa t h e r i s in g e n e r a l n e i t h e r voi d n or vo i d a ble
,
Bu t a , .
m a rr i a ge c e l e b r a te d a ft e r sp e ci a l li ce n ce wi t ho u t t he
fa t h e r s c on se nt m a y b e se t a side a t his i n st a n ce pe r
’ 7
,
h a p s o n ly b e for e t he mi n o r spo u se a tt a ins m aj or it y The 2

.
2
c on se n t of gr a n dp a r e n t s i s i n n o case n e ce ssar y n or i s ,
a n y c o ns e n t n e ce ssar y t o a se c o n d m arr i a g e u n d e r t he a e
g
10
of m a j or it y The m a rr i a g e ca nn o t b e i m p e a ch e d by a
.
m in or spou se o n t he gr o u n d of a b se n ce of p are n ta l c o n
11
se n t .
4 Ri ght to pr ovide te sta m en ta r y gu a r di a n s

. . This ha s 4
2°
b e e n m e n t io n e d a bove , a n d will b e furt h e r co n side re d 2
.
P
un de r t he h e a d of G u a r dia n ship .
1
B a yn e N O . . V p a r te
. K a n tha c k [ 1 9 3 4] WL . . D . 13 ; Ex
B lo emfon tei n T o w n C ou n ci l [ 1 9 3 4] O P D 1 1 ; B e lls tedt v S ou th . . . .
Afri c a n R a i lw a ys [ 1 9 3 6 ] C P D a t p 41 2
‘
B u t a fa t he r w ho . . . . .
ass is t s hi s m in o r c h ild t o b r in g a n a c t i o n is n o t a pa r t y t o t h e
ac t i o n , a n d , if i t fa ils , he c a n n o t b e o r de r e d t o
pa y t he c o st s
’
.
S ha rp v D a les [ 1 9 3 5 ] N P D 3 9 2
. . . . .
2
T a ylor N O I/uc as N O [ 1 9 3 7 ] T P D 40 5
. . V . . . . . . .
2
G r 1 5 1 5 , a n d S cho r e r , a d lo c V a n L e e u w e n , 1 1 4 6
. . . . . . .
2
V o e t , 2 3 2 1 1 ; V d K 7 5 ; V d L 1 3 6 M o r e pr e c is e ly it is
. . . . . . . . . . .
v o ida b le a t t he su it O f t he a ggr ie v e d pa r e n t I nfr a , p 5 8 . . .
5
Voe t, 23 2 8 . . .
5
V o e t , 2 3 2 1 3 ; S c ho r e r , u bi su p A t t he Ca pe : H e a l o n e ca n
‘
. . .
c o n se n t t o t he ir m arr ia ge
’
Va n R o oy e n Wern e r , u bi su p a t . V . .
p 42 9
. .
7
J
o hns on V
M cI n tyr e ( 1 89 3 ) 1 0 S C 3 1 8
. . . .
8
28 p 47 8 . .
Vo e t , 2 3 2 . 1 3 6 . . . .
1°
V an L e e u w e n , 1 1 4 9 ; V d L 1 4 3 . . . . . . .
11
Wi lle nbu r g v . W
i lle nbu r g ( 1 90 9 ) 3 B u c h A O 40 9 . . . .
THE LAW OF PE RSON S
Rights i n f m i nor
’
5 . r esp e ct o chi ldr en s p p r ty
r o e . V oe t
an d o the r wri te r s t he R o m a n L a w dist i n gu is h
,
followi n g ,
p e cul i u m pr ofe cti ciu m a n d p e cu li u m a dve n t i ci u m The .
fir st in clu de d p r op e rt y d e r ive d fr o m t he fa t h e r o r give n t o

t he so n wi t h t he in te n ti on of co n fe rr in g a b e n e fit o n t he
fa t h e r The se c o n d in clu de d a n y o t he r p r op e rt y w hich
.
c a m e t o t he so n fr o m a n e x te rn a l so u r c e B y t he Ro m a n .
L a w t he first b e lo n g e d wholly t o t he fa t he r ; Of t he se c on d ,
whi ch b e lo n ge d t o t he so n t he fa t he r ha d t he u su fr u ct ,
.
B u t t o day c on t r a r y t o t he R o m a n L aw a fa t h e r m ay
-
m a k e a n e ffe ct i ve g ift Of p r op e r t y t o hi s u n e m an cip ate d

so n t h u s p u tt i n g i t ou t O f t he r e a c h O f t he fa t h e r s c r e di
’
1
t o r s a n d t he fa t h e r ha s n o u su fru ct O f t he a dv e n t i ci ou s
,
p r op e rt y u n l e ss t hi s ha s b e e n give n t o hi m by t he p e r son
fr o m who m t he p r op e rt y is de r ive d or u nl e ss i t is n e ce ssar y
to u se t he p r op e rt y a n d a pply it s p r o cee ds fo r t he m a in
2
t e n a n ce a n d u pb r in gin g O f t he c hil d Vo e t r e fe r s t o t he .
h e a d of p e cu li u m pr ofe cti ciu m a n yt hin g a cqu i re d by

c hil dr e n r e sidi n g a t ho m e a n d su ppor t e d by t h e ir p are n t s ,
wh e t he r a c qu ir e d su is O p e r is o r e x r e p a tr is Scho r e r is .
t o t he sa m e e ffe ct : W h a t childr e n a c qu ir e by t h e ir
‘
l a b ou r a n d in du str y whil e su ppor te d by t h e ir p a re n ts is

, ,
’
a c qu i r e d for t h e ir p a r e n t s b e in g se t Off a g a ins t the c o st ,
2
of m a in t e n an ce Thi s m ay b e st ill law. .
The di st in ct i o n of p e cu liu m pr o fe cti ciu m an d p e cu liu m

a dve n t iciu m i s n o t wholly u ni m po r t an t I t ha s b ee n sa id .
t h a t t he Cou rt ha s a lw a ys a ssu m e d gr e a t e r pow e rs in

‘
d e a lin g wi t h t he pr ofe cti ciou s p r op e rt y of m i n or s t h a n i n

t he c a se O f p r op e r t y a c cr u in g t o a m in or fr o m so m e
st r a n g e r o r for v a l u e A cc or di n gly in t he ca se fr o m which
’
.
,
t hi s di ctu m i s t a k e n t he Co u r t a u t hor i z e d a r e se t t le m e n t -
O f p r op e rt y v ar yi n g t he t e r m s O f a d e e d of do n a t i o n m a d e
4
by p a r e n t s in fa vou r O f m in o r c hildr e n .
1
I nfr a , p 2 88 . .
2
V an L e e u w e n , 1 1 3 2 ; V o e t , 1 5 1 6 ; V d K 1 0 5
. . . . . . . .
2
G r 1 6 1 a n d S ch o r e r a d lo c ; V a n L e e u w e n , 2 7 7 ; V oe t ,
. . . . . .
V
.
1 5 1 4 ; 2 5 3 1 4; V d K 1 0 4; Chi n n i a
. . . . D u n n a [ 1 9 40 ] N P D
. . . . . . .
3 84 B u t se e G r o e n , de leg a br a d In s t 2 9 2
. . . . . . . .
2
E x p a rte E s t G a tes [ 1 9 1 9 ] C P D 1 6 2
‘
. . . . .
42 THE LAW OF PE RSONS
a ppoi n te d by t he Co u r t The sa m e a ppli e s if t he p ar e n t is .
se n t e n c e d t o a lo n g te r m O f i m p r i s o n m e n t I n te r di ct io n .
fo r p r o di g a lit y t e r m i n a te s o r su sp e n d s t he fa t h e r s n at ur a l
’
g u ar di a n sh ip for m o st p u r po se s b u t he r e m a i n s c o m p e te n t ,
t o give a n e ffe ct i ve c o n se n t t o t he m a rr ia g e of m in o r
c hi ldr e n A n ins a n e p a r e n t i s r e pl a ce d for t hi s p u r po se
.
1
by the Co u r t .
B f supp or t
. The r ecip r oca l du ty o
A fat h e r m u st su ppor t his childr e n i e m u st su pply ,

. .
t h e m wit h n e c e ssar y food c lo t hin g sh e lt e r m e dicin e a n d , , ,
2
i n st r u c t ion .
3
The d u t y e x t e n d s t o ill e git im a t e a s w e ll a s t o le giti
m a t e c h ild r e n The fa t h e r do e s n o t e s ca p e li a bili t y by t he
.
fa c t t h a t he ha s m a d e o t he r p r ovi si o n for a son w hi ch t he ,
4
so n ha s lo st o r s qu a n d e r e d .
The m ot h e r lik e wise i s l ia ble t oge t h e r wit h t he fa th e r

5
d u r in g his life t im e a n d sol e ly a ft e r hi s d e a t h In c ase O f .
divo r ce bo t h p a r e n t s m a y b e r e qu ir e d t o m a in t a in the
,
5
childr e n a cc or di n g t o t h e ir m e an s The O blig a t i on of .
su ppo r t c e a se s if t he c hildr e n a r e a bl e by t h e ir i n d u st r y or
fr o m t h e ir o w n m e a n s t o su ppo r t t he m se lve s b u t m a y ,
r e vi v e e v e n a ft e r fu ll a ge if t h e ir m e a n s a g a in b e co m e ,
7
in su ffi cie n t The b u r de n of p r ovin g t h a t t he chi ld c a nn o t
.
su ppo r t hi m self a n d t h a t t he p a r e n t ha s su ffi c i e n t m e a n s
2
lie s u pon t he child The old wr ite r s di ffe r o n t he qu e s .
t i on wh e t h e r t he d u t y O f m a in t e n a n ce e n ds wit h t he d e a t h
5 ; V d K D i cta t a d lo c L e e , C om m e n ta r y , p 3 7 ;
1
Gr . 1 . 6 . . . . . . .
i nfr a , p 5 9 , n 5
. . .
2
G r 1 9 9 ; V a n L e e u w e n , 1 1 3 7 a n d 8; V o e t , 2 5 3 4 a n d 5
. . . . . . . .
2
V o e t , 2 5 3 5 ; Va n de r Wes thu i ze n
. . R e x [ 1 9 2 4] T P D a t V . . . .
p 3 7 3 , in clu din g in c e s t u o u s a n d a du lt e r in e iss u e

. A s t o a ss e s s .
m e n t o f m a in t e n a n ce se e A v M [ 1 9 3 0 ] 292 Is a . . . . .
hu s b a n d b ou n d t o m a in t a in a n ille git im a t e c hil d b o r n t o his w ife

b e fo r e m a rr ia ge ? R ex
2
F i tzger a ld [ 1 92 6 ] N P D 445 V . . . . .
Voet , 25 3 5
U V
. . .
5
Voet , 25 3 6 ; n i on G o vt
. Wa r n e ke [ 1 9 1 1 ] A D a t p 6 68 . . . . . .
V
.
5
V a n L e e u w e n , 1 1 5 6 ; V o e t , 2 5 3 6 ; F a rr e ll H a n key
. . . . .
[ 1 9 2 1 ] T P D 5 90 . . .
K
.
7
Voe t , 25 3 1 4 an d 1 5 ; I n r e . n o op [ 1 89 3 ] 1 0 S C
. 1 9 8; E x . .
p a r te J or da a n s Cu r a tor [ 1 9 2 9 ] O P D 1 6 8
’
. . . .
2
Gr Oble r V U
n i on G o vt [ 1 9 2 3 ] T P D
. 42 9 . . . . .
PAR ENTAGE 43
1
Of p a r e n t or i s t r a n sm it te d t o t he h e ir s The S ou t h
t he .
Afri ca n Co u rt s h a ve pr e fe rr e d t he la tte r vi e w holdi ng t h a t ,
t he d u t y of e du ca t in g a n d m a in t a in in g m in or chi ldr e n i s
’
‘
a d e b t r e st in g u po n t he e st a t e of e it h e r p a r e n t po st
2
po n e d t o o th e r de b t s b u t p r e fe rr e d t o le g a cie s If p a r e n t s .
h a ve n o t a d e qu a t e m e a n s t he b u r de n of m a in t e n a n ce
p a sse s t o gr a n dp ar e n ts b u t if t he gr a n d chi ld i s ill e git i ,
3
m a te t o m a t e r n a l gr a n dp a r e n t s a lon e
,
.
The d u t y O f su ppor t is r e cip r o ca l Chi l dr e n m u st m a in .
a n d if t h e y a r e m i n o r s o r
2
t a in t h e ir in di ge n t p a r e n t s ,
i ns a n e t he Co u r t m a y c h a r ge t he c o st of m a in te n a n ce u po n
5
t h e ir e st a te All t his m u st b e u n de r st ood t o b e su bj e ct
.
to t he p r im ar y d u t y of a h u sb a n d t o su pport hi s w ife .
‘
P r im a r ily t he du t y fa lls u po n t he h u sb a n d a n d it is o n ly ,
whe n he is de a d o r u n a ble t o p r ovid e su ppo rt t h a t a r igh t

to cl a im su pport fr o m a p ar e n t gr a n dp ar e n t chi ld o r , ,
5 ’
br o the r a r ise s .
1
V o e t , 2 5 3 1 8; G r o e n , de leg a br a d D ig 3 4 1 1 5
. . . . . . . .
V V
.
2
R itchke n s E x o r s Ri tchken [ 1 9 2 4] W L D 1 7 ; D a vi s T u to r
’ ’
. . . . . .
E s t D a vi s [ 1 9 2 5 ] W L D 1 68; G o lda
. N O v E s t G o ldma n
. . . . . . .
[ 1 9 3 7 ] W L D 6 4 The de c isio n s se e m t o b e lim it e d ( so fa r ) t o

. . . .
W L D In Ce y lo n it w as he ld b y t he fu ll b e n c h in L a m a ha m y v
. . . .
K a r u n a r a tn a ( 1 9 2 1 ) 2 2 N L R 2 89 t ha t a n a c t io n w ill n o t l ie H .
a a in st t he a dm in is t r a t r ix o f a d e c e as e d pe r so n s e s t a te fo r
’
g
m a in t e n a n ce o f su c h pe r so n s ille git im a t e c h ild
’
.
2
V o e t , 2 5 3 7 ; M o ta n v J o os u b [ 1 9 3 0 ] A D 6 1
. . . . . .
2
V o e t , 2 5 3 8 ; O os thu i z e n . S ta n le y [ 1 9 3 8] A D a t pp
. V . . . .
3 2 7 —8 A st e pm o t he r is n o t e n t it le d t o b e s u ppo r t e d b y a s t e pso n
. .
Ja cobs v Cap e T ow n M u n i c [ 1 9 3 5 ] C P D 47 4 I s a hu sb a n d
. . . . .
V
.
b ou n d t o su ppo r t his w ife s in di ge n t par e n t s ? F o r d

’
A lle n .
[ 1 9 25] T P D 5 . A s t o su ppo r t o f b r o t he r s a n d s is t e r s se e
. . .
V
O os thu i z en S ta n le y a t p 3 3 1 a n d M i lle r
. M i lle r [ 1 9 40 ] C P D . V . . . .
a t p 46 9 . .
5
I K n re n o op , u bi su p .
2
M i lle r v . M i ller , u bi su p .
III
MI NORIT Y
Min ority . A M INO R by Ro m a n D u t ch L a w is a p e r so n of e i t h e r se x -
who ha s n o t c o m ple te d the t we n t y fifth ye ar Fo r t hi s 1 -

.
2
t he t w e n t y fir st ye a r ha s b e e n su b st i tu t e d by st a t u te
-
As .
t o t he p r e cise m o m e n t a t whi c h m in o r i t y e n d s V o e t m a ke s
t he fo llowin g di st in ct i o n The l a st day of m i n or i t y is .
r e g ar d e d a s c o m pl e te d a t t he m o m e n t O f it s in ce p t i o n ,
w h e n it i s t o t he m in o r s a dv a n t a ge t h a t it sho u ld b e S O
’
3
co n side r e d ; b u t wh e n t he a dva n t a ge li e s t he o t h e r w a y ,
SO as e g t o p r olo n g t he b e n e fi t Of r e st i t u t i o in i n te gru m
,
. .
, ,
m a j o r it y is n o t d e e m e d t o b e a tt a in e d u n t il t he v e r y
2
m in u t e arr i v e s c orr e spo n di n g wi t h t he t im e of b ir t h .
Ma j or it y m a y b e a cc e le r a te d by : ( 1 ) Ve n ia ae t a t is ;
( 2 ) Marr ia ge .
Ve ni a ae t a t is i s a n a n t icip at io n O f fu ll a ge g r a n te d t o a
5
p e t iti on e r by t he Sove r e i gn a u t hori t y in t he St a te The .
e ffe ct of v e n i a a e t a t is ( whi c h i s n o t g i v e n t o m a le s u n d e r
2
t w e n t y o r t o fe m a l e s u n d e r e igh te e n y e a r s O f a ge ) i s t o
1
D ig 4 4 1 ; G r 1 7 3 ; V o e t , 4 4 l
. . . . . . . . .
2
Ca pe O r d 6 2 , 1 82 9 , s e c 1 ; Na t a l O r d No 4 o f 1 846 , se c 2
. . . . .
Tr a n sv V o lks r aa d R e so lu t io n o f D e c e m b e r , 1 85 3 , A r t
. 1 23 .
O F S L a w B o o k o f 1 9 0 1 , c ha p 89 , se c 1 4; S ou t he r n R ho des ia ,
. . . . .
R S c a p 2 6 ; Ce y lo n O r d NO 7 o f 1 86 5 , s e c 1
. . . . . . .
2
V o et , 4 4 1 . . .
2
D ig 4 4 3 , 3 ; G r 3 48 9 ; Ce n s F o r 1 4 43 1 1 ; V o e t 4 4 1 ;
. . . . . . . . . . . . .
44 3 1 I n E n glish L a w fu ll a ge is r e ac he d a t t he b e gin n in g o f t he
. . .
da y b e fo r e t he t w e n t y first b ir t hda y ( 1 B la c ks t C om m 46 3 a n d -
. .
Chr is t ian s n o te ) n o t so in R o m a n L a w S a v ign y , S ys te m , iv

’
. .
,
1 84 As t o c a lcu l a t io n o f t im e in ge n e r a l a n d pa r t icu la r ly in c o n
.
t r ac t s se e J ou ber t v E n s li n [ 1 9 1 0 ] A D 6 ; Ti op a i zi v B u la w a yo . . . .
M u n i c [ 1 9 2 3 ] A D 3 1 7 ; S ta nda r d B ldg S oci e ty

. C a r tou li s
. . . V .
[ 1 9 3 9 ] A D 5 1 0 F o r Fr e n c h L a w se e Pla n i o l, i 1 6 1 6 , fo r G e r m an
. . . .
L a w , B G B A r t 1 87 . . . .
5
V o e t 4 4 4; V d L 1 4 3 . . . . . . . .
2
Co d 2 44 2; . u bi su p
. B u t se e V an L e e u w e n , .
1 1 6 1 1 B y t he O F S L a w B o o k o f 1 90 1 , c ha p lx x x ix , s e c 7 ,
. . . . . . . .
The Co u r t s ha ll in n o c a se r e c o mm e n d t he gr a n t in g o f v e n ia ae ta t is
‘
if t he pe t it i o n e r is u n de r t he a ge o f e ighte e n y e a r s A s t o t he
’
.
c ir cu m s t a n c es in w hic h t h e Co ur t w il l r e c o mm e n d a gr an t , se e
E x p a rte A ki ki [ 1 9 2 5 ] O P D 2 1 1 . . . .
wi t h or wi t hou t ys
a ss st a n c e , i fo r ,
as Va n Le e u we n sa
All O bli ga t i o n s m u st a r i se o u t O f a fr ee a n d fu ll e x e r c ise

O f t he wi ll I t c a n n o t t h e r e fo r e t a k e pl a ce w h e r e t h e r e
.
is a h in dr a n ce t o t he e x e r cise O f t he will a s in t he ca se O f ,
lu n a ti c s a n d m a dm e n a n d yo u n g ch ildr e n who a r e b o u n d , ,
n e i t h e r by a p r o mi se n o r a cc e p t a n ce
1 ’
.
2 If t he child is Old e n o u gh t o u n de r st a n d t he n a t ur e
.
of t he t r a n sa ction he ha s i n tellec tus b u t i s still w a n t in g ,
in ju di ci u m a n d t h e r e for e c a n n o t i n cu r a v a lid O blig a t i o n

,
Mu ni cip a l ’ ’ ‘
t hou t his p ar e n t s o r gu a r di a n s c on se n t .
2 2
c o ns id e r s a ll O blig a t i o n s O f m i n ors
‘
sa y s G r o t i u s
’
la w , ,
in va lid u nl e ss i n cu rr e d t hr o u gh d e li ct o r i n S O far a s t h e y
’
m a y h a v e b e e n b e n e fit e d .
Su c h O bl iga t io n s a r e sa id t o b e ip so ju r e vo id a n d t h e r e ,
fo r e m in o r s a r e ipso ju r e se cur e fr o m an y cl a i m s in r e sp e ct
of t he m w i t hou t t he n e e d O f in voki n g t he e x tr a or di n a r y
2
r e m e dy O f r e st i t u t i o in i n te g r u m
‘
The phr a se ipso ju re .
void m u st n o t howe ve r b e t a ke n t oo li te r a lly for a s w ill

’
, , ,
b e se e n su c h oblig a t i o n s a r e n o t so m u ch void a s vo id a bl e
,
5
a t t he m i n or s O p t io n
’
.
3 A m in or i s bou n d by co n t r a ct s d ul y m a de wi t h t he
.
5
con se n t O f his p ar e n t or gu ar di a n su bj e ct t o hi s r igh t in ,
1
V a n L e e u w e n , 4 2 2 ( o t z e s Tr a n s l , v o l i i , p . Voet . K ’
. . .
si in fa ns s e u s e pt e nn i o m in o r s it s i c u t n ul lu m
‘
sa y s ( 2 6 8 . .
o rnn in o qu e a t c o ns e ns u m a dh ib e r e A r g D ig 2 3 1 1 4 . . . . . .
2 2
G r 3 1 26 . . . . i e u n assis t e d . .
V
.
C en s F o r , 1 4 43 2 ; D e B ee r
2
. E s t D e B e er [ 1 9 1 6 ] C P D
. . . . .
q V
. . .
125 Pr o o f o f le sio n is n o t r e u ir e d G a n tz
. Wagena a r ( 1 82 8) . .
1 M e n z 9 2 F o r t he S ena tu s co n s u ltu m M a cedo n i a n u m fo r b iddin g

. .
lo ans o f m o n e y t o fi lii fa m il ias se e b e lo w , p 3 1 4 n 4 -

.
, . .
5
F o r Ce y lo n l a w he r e in se e P e r e ir a , T he L a w s of C e y lo n , p .
1 85 , a n d F ern a n do v F e rn a n do ( 1 9 1 6 ) 1 9 N L R 1 9 3
‘
. . . . .
2
V d K 1 2 8 an d D i cta t a d lo c ; L e e , C o mm e n ta r y p 45 ;
. . . . .
V
.
,
M c o lma n E r as m u s [ 1 9 1 0 ] C P D 7 9 ; S kea d v C o lo n ia l B a n ki ng
. . . . .
d: T r u s t C o [ 1 9 2 4] T P D 49 7 I t m a ke s n o difi e r e n c e , sa y s V o e t
. . . . .
( 26 8 1 in
. . w he t he r t he t u to r s au t ho r it y is n o t giv e n a t a ll ,
o r is w r o n gly giv e n , c it in g D ig 2 6 8 2 Nu lla difi e r e n t ia e st n o n . . .
in te r v e ni a t a u c t o r it as t u t o r is a n pe r pe r arn a dhib e a t u r Th is .
po in t s t o t he ru l e in r e m su a m a u c t o r e m t u t o r e m fi e r i n o n po sse
‘
D ig 2 6 8 1 pr Wh at if a gu ar dian u nr e aso n a bly w i t hh o lds his

. . . .
c o n s e n t I V oe t s a y s ( 2 6 8 8) t ha t h e ca n b e c o m pe ll e d t o giv e i t
‘
. . .
Pe r ha ps t h is m e a n s t o d a y t ha t t he Co u r t as u ppe r gu a r dia n w ill

a u t ho r i z e t he c on t r ac t .
MIN ORITY 47
a fit li e f by w ay of r e stit u ti o in i n te gr u m
ca se to c aim r e
l .
R a ti fic a t i on is e qu i v a l e n t t o c on se n t 1
F ur t h er a fa th e r .
,
a n d gu a r di a n a s w e h a v e se e n o r sh a ll se e h e r e a ft e r m a y
, ,
i n du e c o u r se O f a d m in i st r a t i o n c o n tr a ct i n t he n a m e O f
t he m in or a n d b in d him by su ch c o n t r a ct su bj e c t howe v e r ,
2
t o t he sa m e re li e f .
4 A m in o r is bo u n d a s m e n t io n e d by G r o t iu s i n t he
.
,
p a ssa ge a bove cite d S O far as he ha s b e e n e nr i c h e d o r ,
3
b en e fi te d by his co n tr a c t To t his h e a d m a y b e r e fe r r e d .
a m in or s li a b il it y for n e ce ssa r ie s or fo r m o n e y bo r r owe d

’
4
a n d e xp e n d e d o n n e ce ssa r i e s The li a bili t y i s qu asi c o n .
-
5
tr a ct u a l a n d r e st s u po n t he p r in ciple st a te d by Po m po ni u s
,
‘
Na m hoc n a t u r a a e qu u m e st n e m in e m cu m a lte r iu s de
’5
tr im e n t o fie r i lo cu ple t i or e m .
A c on tr a ct e n t e r e d in t o by a m in or is good w ithou t
5 .
’
t he t u t or s c o n se n t if t he a dv a n t a ge i s a ll o n hi s sid e a n d , ,
t h e r e is n o c or r e spon d in g d isa dv a n ta g e or b u r d e n Thi s .
r e su l t s fr o m t he p r i n c ipl e t h a t w i t ho u t t he a u tho r i t y O f
hi s t u t or a m in or m a y i m p r ove his po sit i o n b u t c a n n o t ,
m a ke i t wor se 7
By a n e x te n sion O f t hi s p r in cipl e o r of .
t he p r in ciple of e n r i ch m e n t m in o rs h a v e s o m e tim e s b e e n
h e ld li a ble ex con tr a ctu wh e n t he c o n tr a c t w a s pla i nly
2
b e n e fi ci a l e g a c on t r a ct of e m ploym e n t B u t it is pe r
,
. . .
2
h a p s sa fe r t o say t h a t w it h o n e st a tu t o r y e x ce p t i on a
10
m in or ca n n e ve r u n a ssiste d bin d hi m se lf by co n tr a ct .
1
Voet, 2 6 8 1 ad fin F ou c he B a tten ha u s en (2 Co [ 1 9 39]
‘
. . .
; v . .
C P D 22 8
. . . .
2
G r 3 1 2 8; . . . 1 8 8; 3 1 3 3 ; Va n der B yl ( E C o v . .
V
. . .
S o lom o n [ 1 87 7 ] Bu ch 2 5 ; . Wood . D a vi es [ 1 9 3 4] C P D 2 5 0 ; . . .
i nfr a , p 1 1 3 . .
2
Gr 1 8 3 6 9 3 3 0 3 V o e t 2 6 8 2 V a nL e e u w e n ,
. . . 1 26 . .
V
. . . . .
,
1 1 6 8;
. . C o ( 1 89 0 ) 8 S C 1 6 ; D e B ee r E st D e . . .
V
. .
B e er [ 1 9 1 6 ] C P D a t p 1 2 7 ; Ta n n e F oggi tt [ 1 9 3 8] T P D 43
. . . . . . . .
q
.
2
D ig 46 3 47 , 1 : S i n c c e ssa r ia m sib i r e m e m it , u a m n e c e ssa r io
. . .
5
de su O e r a t e m pt u r u s G r 3 30 3 . . . . .
2
D ig 1 2 6 1 4 ; 2 3 3 6 2 ; 5 0 1 7 2 0 6
. . . . .
, . . .
7
I n st 1 2 1 pr ; G r 1 8 5 ; V o e t , 2 6 8 2
. . . .
V K V
. . . . .
1 7 S C 5 41 ; F i ck
2
Qu een on i n g ( 1 9 0 0 ) . R ex [ 1 9 0 4] .
V
. .
O R C 2 5 ; S i lber m a n
. . . H odki ns on [ 1 9 2 7 ] T P D a t p 5 7 0 . . . . . .
2
B y t he In su r a n ce A c t , 1 9 2 3, s e c 2 0 ( a ) , a m in o r w ho ha s .
a t t a in e d t h e a ge O f e i ht e e n
g y e a r s m a y e ffe c t a po lic y o n h is
1°
o vvn life T a n n e v F o ggi tt, u bi sup
‘
. . .
THE LAW OF PE RSONS
6 . I t ha s id a bove t h a t t he phr a se i pso ju r e
b ee n sa
vo i d m u st n o t be t a ke n t o o li te r a lly Thi s a ppe a r s fr o m

’
.
t he fa ct t h a t t he o t h e r p a r t y t o t he c o n t r a ct i s bo u n d if ,
t he mi n or t hr o u gh hi s t u t o r o r t he l a te m i n or a fte r ,
m a j o r it y o n hi s o w n m o t io n t a k e s ste p s t o e nfor ce t he ,
1
co n tr a ct In o t h e r w or ds a c o n tr a ct e n te r e d i n t o by a
.
,
m i n o r u n a ssist e d m a y b e r a t i fie d e it h e r d u r in g his m in or
, ,
2 2
it y w it h hi s t u t o r s a ssist a n c e o r a fte r it s d e t e r m in a t ion
’
, .
V o e t a dd s t h a t if a m in o r se e k s t o e n for c e a c on t r act
m a de by him wit ho u t his t u t o r s a u t hor it y he m ay do so
’
o nl y o n co n di t i o n t h a t he hi m se lf p e rform s hi s p a rt 2
.
He fu rt h e r poin t s o u t t h a t a n u n a ssiste d c o n tr a ct of a
5
m in o r a lwa ys cr e a t e s a n a t u r a l O bliga t i o n a n d t h e r e fore ,
su ppor t s t he c oll a te r a l u n d e r t a kin g of a su r e t y p r ovid e d ,
t h a t t he m i n o r b e u p w a r d s O f se ve n ye ar s O f a ge Bu t .
,
c o n t r ar y t o t he ru l e u su a lly a ppli c a ble t o su c h O blig a t io ns ,
t he n a t u r a l O blig a t ion of a m in or do e s n o t e x cl u de t he
5
c o n di ct io i n d e b it i A cc or din gly if t he m in or ha s m a de .
,
a p a ym e n t i n p u r su a n ce O f a n u n a u t ho r i z e d co n t r a c t he
c a n ge t t he m o n e y b a ck B u t i f he r a t i fie s a ft e r fu ll a ge .
, ,
his O blig a t io n is n o lo n g e r m e re ly n a t u r a l b u t civil a n d , ,
7
he m u st p e r for m hi s p a r t of t he c o n tr a ct .
7 A m in o r a bove t he a ge of se v e n ye a r s i s li a bl e fo r his
.
d e li ct s a n d cr i m e s Wit h r e g ar d t o de hct s V o e t sa ys t h a t
2
.
if t he r e i s wr on gfu l in t e n ti o n t he m in o r is a lwa ys li a ble .
If o n t he ot h e r h a n d he ha s do n e in j u r y t hr o u gh sligh t
, ,
o r v e r y S li gh t fa u l t ( le vi vel levi ss i ma cu lp a ) wit ho u t ,
wr on gfu l p u r po se he sho u ld b e e x cu se d o r a t le ast r e ,
2
li e v e d fr o m p u n i sh m e n t by r e stitu t io in i n te gr u m .
1
G r 3 6 9 ; V o e t , 2 6 8 3 Co n v e r se ly a fa t h e r o r gu ar dia n has
. . . . . .
t he r ight t o r e pu di a t e a c o n t r a c t e n te r e d in t o b y a m in o r w it ho u t
his kn o w le dge o r c o n s e n t , Rhode M i n is ter of D efe nc e [ 1 9 43 ]
'
V .
C P D 40
. . . .
2
2 6 8 4 a d fi n a n d 4 4 44 ; Va n de r B yl cf C o
V oe t, S o lom o n . . .
:
. V .
fi
. .
[ 1 87 7 ] B u ch 2 5 R a t i c a t io n m a y b e in fe r r e d fr o m c o n du c t
. . .
S tu ttafor d dc C o v Ober holz er [ 1 9 2 1 ] C P D 85 5 . . . . . .
2
Voe t , 26 8 3 5
Win dsche id, ii 2 89 ; G ir a r d, p 6 82
. . . . . .
5 7
D ig 1 2 6 2 9 a n d 41 . . . Voe t, 26 8 4 . . . .
2
G r 1 4 1 ; 3 1 2 6 ; 3 32 1 9 ( an d G r o e n , a d
. . . . 3 48 1 1
. . . . . . .
2
V o e t 4 4 45 . . . .
t h e m se lve s a s su r e t e s i for a mi n o r , t h e r e in diffe r i n g fr o m
o t he r c ase s O f r e stit u t ion Re st itu t io n is .
1
r e fu se d wh e n a
2
m in o r ha s fr a u du le n t ly m i sr e p r e se n te d his a ge It is .
w a ive d by r a ti fi ca t ion a fte r fu ll a ge whi ch m a y b e e x ,
2
p r e ss or i m pli e d It i s b arr e d by t he l a p se of four “
.
5
( n o w t h r e e ) y e ar s a ft e r m a j o r i t y o r fr o m t he t i m e a ft e r ,
fu ll a ge wh e n t he l a te m in or kn e w or mi gh t h a ve kn own , ,
2
O f t he l ae s1 o whi c h e n t i t l e d hi m t o r e li e f A m in o r c a n .
n o t ob t a in r e st i t u t i o n a g a in st m a rr i a g e o n t he gr o u n d of
7
m in or i t y a lon e n or a g a in st li a bili t y fo r c r i m e o r se r io u s
,
2
d e lict s .
1
V o e t , 4 4 39 . . .
2
C o d 2 42 . V o e t , 4 4 43 F ou c he
. B a tte n ha u s en dc C o
. . . V. .
[ 1 9 3 9 ] C P D 2 2 8; ( Ce ylo n ) Wij es oor ia

. . . I br ahi ms a ( 1 9 1 0 ) V .
1 3 N L R 1 9 5 I n t his c as e t he Co u r t r e fu s e d t o se t as i de a sa le
. . . .
o f im m o v a b le pr o pe r t y , t h ou gh m ad e w i t ho u t s an c t io n o f t he
c o u rt S e e S ho r ter dc C o v M oha m ed ( 1 9 3 7 ) 3 9 N L R 1 1 3
. . . . . . .
2
V o e t , 4 4 44 ; Va n der B y l dc Co v S o lom on [ 1 87 7 ] B u c h 2 5
. . . . . .
2
G r 3 48 1 3 V d K 9 0 0
. . . . . . .
( Ce y lo n ) Or d NO 2 2 o f
5
Pr e scr ipt io n A c t , 1 9 43 , se c 3 . . .
s e c 1 1 , S ilva. V
M a ha m m a du ( 1 9 1 6 ) 1 9 N L R 42 6
. . . . .
2
Voet , 4 1 20 . . .
2
V o e t , 4 4 45 ; H a u p t . Ha u p t ( 1 89 7 ) 1 4 S C 3 9
. V . . . .
V o e t , ib i d .
IV
MARR IAGE
IN t his h a p ter w e sh a ll co n side r : ( 1 ) t he c o n tr a ct t o
c
m a rr y ; ( 2 ) t he l e g a l re qu isit e s O f m a rr ia ge ; ( 3 ) t he le g a l
c o n se qu e n ce s of m ar r i a ge ; ( 4) a n t e n u p t i a l c o n t r a c t s ; ( 5 )
t he di ssol u t io n O f m a rr i a g e ( 6 ) so m e m isce ll a n e o u s m a t t e r s
r e l a t in g t o m arr i a ge .
S E CTI O N l — TH E C ONTRA CT TO MA RR Y
Mar r i a ge is co m m on ly p r e ce de d by e spou sa ls ( sp on sa li a
1 The Pr o
tr ou w belofte n ) , wh i ch c o n st itu te a bin di n g c on tr a ct b e 3

t w e e n t he p art ie s N 0 fo r m is p r e scri b e d for t he co n tr a ct
.
2
.
m
A n y p e r s o n s c o m p e te n t t o m arr y m a y v a lidly e n g a g e
3
t h e m se lve s Co n ve r se ly p e r so n s n o t c o m p e t e n t t o m a rr y
.
2
c a nn ot co n tr a ct a v a lid e n g a ge m e n t This e x cl u de s boys .
5
a n d g ir ls b e low t he a ge of m ar r i a ge If t h e y h a ve r e a che d .
t h a t a ge b u t h a v e n o t a tt a in e d t he a ge O f m a j or it y t h e y
m a y e n g a ge t h e m se lve s wi t h t he c on se n t of p a r e n ts or
gu ar dia n s 5
F a ilin g su ch con se n t t he e n ga ge m e n t is
.
in v a lid Wit h i t t he e n g a ge m e n t is v a lid su bj e ct howe ve r

.
7
, ,
i n t his c a se a s in o t h e r con tr a ct s of m in or s t o r e st it u t io i n
, ,
2
i n te gr u m o n t he gr o u n d of l e si on ; fr o m whi ch it follows
t h a t t he e n g a ge m e n t s of m in or s a r e in n o c a se co n
9
e lu siv e ly b in di n g u n l e ss a n d u n t i l r a t i fi e d a fte r fu l l a ge .
B y t he co m m o n la w of H oll a n d t he co n se n t O f t u t o r s w as
n o t r e qu ir e d t he pl a ce Of t he d e ce a se d p ar e n ts i n t hi s
,
1
j
O n t he w ho le o f t his s u b e c t V a n A pe ldo o r n , G es chi ede n i s va n
he t Nede r la n ds che H u w e lij ksr e cht ( Am st e r dam 1 9 2 5 ) m a y b e u se
fu lly c o n su lt e d , a s w e ll as F o c ke m a An dr e a e , H e t O u d Nede r la nds ch -
B u r ger lijk R e cht , v o l i i , c ha p iv , a n d B ijdr agen , Pa r t s 1 an d 2 ;

.
K
.
d e B lé c o u r t , or t R egr i p va n he t Ou d Va d er la nds ch R e cht, c ha

p ii ;
-
.
We sse ls , Hi stor y of the Roma n D u tch L a w , Pa r t ii , c ha p iii -

. .
2
V o e t , 2 3 1 1 In Ce yl o n w r it in g is r e u ir e d O r d No 1 9 o f
. . . q . . .
2
1 9 0 7 , se c 2 1
. . V dL 1 3 2 . . . . . .
2
Voe t , 2 3 1 2 . . .
5
V d K 52 .
V
. . .
2
G r eef Ve r r a u x ( 1 82 9 ) 1 M e n z 1 5 1
. . .
7
V o e t , 2 3 1 2 0 ; B ijnk , O T i 3 48
. . . . . . .
2
V o e t , 2 3 1 1 7 ; V d K 6 1 ; su p r a , p 49
.
. . . . . . .
9
C e n s F or 1 1 1 1 1 3
. . . . . .
m at te r b e i n g t a k e n by t he r e l a t ive s of the fou r qu art e rs ; ‘ ’ 1
bu t i n t he l at e r la w t he w a n t O f co n se n t of t u t o r s n o le ss ,
t h a n O f pa r e n t s w a s a su ffi ci e n t g r o u n d for r e p u di a t io n
'
2
of t he co n tr a c t by e i th e r p ar t y .
A n e n g a g e m e n t la w q y c o n tr a c te d w i t h t he n e c e ssar y
c o n se n t s ca n n o t b e b r ok e n o f f wi t ho u t j u st cau se 2
Un d e r .
t he R o m a n D u t c h L a w t he Co u rt s wo u ld d e cr e e sp e cifi c
-
p e r fo r m a n ce of t he m a rr i a g e co n tr a c t a n d e ve n de cl a r e
4
,
5
a r e l u ct a n t p a r t y m ar r i e d i n a b se n c e Thi s p r a cti ce is .
5
di su se d in t he m od e r n la w b u t a n a ct io n li e s fo r d a m a g e s ,
7
fo r b r e a ch O f t he c o n t r a ct t o m a r r y The O ld book s .
e n u m e r a te t he gr o u n ds w h i c h j u st ify a r e p u di a t io n of a
p r o m ise t o m arr y In t he m ode r n la w t he ple a of j u st i .
fi ca t io n for r e silin g fr o m t he c o n tr a c t is n o t S O r e a dily

2
a d m itt e d si n c e p e r fo r m a n c e i s n o lo n g e r d e cr e e d
, .
SE CTI O N 2 — TH E LE G AL R E Q UI SI T E S or MA RRIA G E
A ssu m i n g t he co n se n t O f t he p a r t i e s t o b e a n e ce ssa r y
c o n d it i o n of m ar r i a ge a s of co n t r a c t s i n g e n e r a l w e m a y
st a te t he e sse n t i a l s of a v a li d m ar r i a ge t o b e : ( A ) C a p a c i t y
t o m a rr y a n d t o in te r m a rr y ; ( B ) Co n se n t of p a r e n t s ;
C
( ) D u e O b s e r v a n ce of c e r e m o n ie s W e d e a l w i t h t h e se .
in o r d e r .
1
I nfr a p 1 0 2 , . .
2
L o e ni u s , D eci s 4 ; V d K 5 3 . . . . .
2
V d K 60 ; V d L 1 3 2
. . . . . . . . .
2
The l a w w as t he sa m e in E n gla n d b e fo r e L o r d H a r dw icke ’
s
A ct
V o e t , 2 3 1 1 2 ; V d K 5 7 ; ( Ca pe ) R i chter v Wa gen a a r ( 1 82 9 )
5
. . . . . .
1 M e n z 2 6 2 ; ( Ce y l o n ) D or m i u x
. K r i e ke n be e k ( 1 82 1 ) R a m a n a V .
t ha n , 1 82 0 —33 , p 2 3 T he Co u r t w o u ld a ppo in t a pr o x y t o go
. .
t hr o u gh t he c e r e m o n y F o c ke m a A n dr e a e , Ou d Ned er la nd s ch B u r .
-
ger lij k R echt, v o l ii , p 1 46 ; t h is w a s c a lle d m e t de h a n ds cho e n

‘
. .
( Ca pe ) M a r r ia ge O r de r in Co u n c il o f 7 Se pt 1 83 8, se e 1 9 in
2 - -
. .
,
fo r c e in t he Co l o n y fr o m F e b 1 , 1 83 9 I n Ce y lo n t he a c t io n t o . .
c o m pe l m a rr ia ge w a s a b o l ishe d b y O r d No 6 o f 1 847 , se c 30 . . . .
7
Ra dlof V
Ra lp h [ 1 9 1 7 ] B D L
. 1 6 8; S m i t Ja co bs [ 1 9 1 8] . . . V .
O P D 30 ; M c Ca lma n
. . . T ho rn e [ 1 9 3 4] N P D 86 ( m e a su r e O f V . . . .
da m a ge s ) If t he de fe n da n t w a s m a r r ie d a t t h e t im e o f t he pr o m is e
.
t he in n o c e n t pa r t y h as a n ac t io n n o t fo r b r e a c h o f c o n t r ac t b u t for
j
in u r ia , Vi lj o en V
Vi lj oen [ 1 9 44] C P D 1 3 7 . . . . .
2
S chn aa r V
Ja ns en [ 1 9 2 4] N P D 2 1 8
. . . . .
THE LAW OF PE RSONS
Ca ac it y
p I n te r m arr i a ge is fo r bidde n b e t w e e n p e r son s re l a te d t o
o n e a n o t h e r wi t h i n t he p r ohibi te d d e gr e e s B y t he la w of .
H oll a n d a s by t he Ca n on L a w p e r s on s who ha d p r e viou sly

, ,
co m m i tte d a d u lte r y t oge t h e r m igh t n o t i n te rm arr y b u t 1

,
in t he m od e r n la w t hi s r u le i s a b r og a t e d by di su se 2
.
The b ook s m e n t i o n o t h e r i m p e di m e n t s t o m arr i a g e

wh i ch sca r c e ly for m p ar t of t he m ode rn la w Fo r i nst a n ce .
,
t he R o m a n L a w p r oh ib ite d m a rr i a ge b e t w e e n a fe m a l e
3
wa r d a n d he r t u t o r o r cu r a t or o r hi s so n ; a n d t hi s pr o ,
hi b itio n t hou gh c o n sid e r e d t o b e O b s ole te by V a n Le e u

,
2 1 4
G r o e n e w e ge n V o e t a n d o t h e r s w a s a c c e p te d a s
‘
w en , , , ,
e xi st in g la w by B ijn ke r sho e k
5
V a n de r K e e sse l a n d Va n
5
, ,
de r Lin de n
,
5
In So u t h Afr i ca t he m a rr i a g e O f a gu ar di a n
.
5
wi t h hi s fe m a le w a r d r e qu ir e s t he sa n ct i o n O f t he Cou r t .
B y t he R o m a n a n d R o m a n D u t ch L aw a r a vi sh e r m ight -
n o t m a rr y t he wo m a n who m he ha d r a vis h e d
7
The Old .
2
di s qu ali fic at i o ns o n t he g r o u n d O f diffe re n ce s of re ligi o n
a r e O b s ol e te .
Ma r ria ge The la w of p r oh ibite d d e gr e e s w a s de fin e d for H oll an d

by t he Poli t i c a l Or din a n ce O f Ap ri l 1 whi c h fo r ,
ig
W 10
bi ds m a rri a ge b e t we e n : ( 1 ) a sce n da n t s a n d de sce n d a n t s ,
Sg
e rees wh e t h e r r e l a te d by le git i m a te or ille gi t im ate bir t h ; ( 2 ) c o l
11
1
V d K 70 ; V d L 1 3 6
. . . . . . . . .
2
( Ce y lo n ) R a bot de S i lva [ 1 9 0 9 ] A O 3 7 6 ; ( S o u t h Afr ic a ) V . . .
E s t H ein a m a n n
. H e i n a ma n n [ 1 9 1 9 ] A D 9 9 V . . . .
2
D ig 2 3 2 62 a n d 6 4 ; Co d lib 5 , t it 6 B u t a t u t o r m i ght
. . . . . . .
giv e hi s da u ght e r in m a r r ia ge t o h is w a r d D ig 2 3 2 6 4, 2 . . . . .
2
V a n L e e u w e n , 1 1 4 1 3 a n d C e n s F o r 1 1 1 3 2 5 ; G r o e n de . . . . . . . .
leg abr a d Co d u bi su p ; V o e t 2 3 2 2 5
. . . .
, . . .
5
B ijn ke rs ho e k, Qu a es t J u r P r i v l ib ii , c a p ii i , p 2 1 9 ; V d K . . . . . . . .
7 4; V d L 1 3 6 . . . .
2
1 M a as do rp , p 2 2
. . . .
7
Co d 9 1 3 1 , 2 ; V o e t , 2 3 2 2 6 ; E cht Regle m e n t va n de
. . . . .
-
S ta te n G e n e r a e l, Ma r ch 1 8, 1 65 6 , A r t 85 ( 2 G P B
-
P lacaa t . . . .
va n de S ta a te n va n H olla nd , F e b 2 5 , 1 7 5 1 ( 8 G P B . . . .
G r o e n e w e ge n , w ho se b o o k r s t a ppe a r e d in 1 6 49 , i e b e fo r e t he fi . .
Pla c aa t s , sa y s ( ad Co d 9 1 3 J u r e Ca n o ni co r a pt ae r a pt or i . . .
n u b e r e lic e t , e t ho c u r e u t irn u r No t s o n o w b y c a no n la w j . .
C od ju r C a n 0 1 0 7 4
. . . . .
2
V o e t , 2 3 2 26 V d K 7 3 ; V d L 1 3 6 . . . . . . . . . . .
2
1 C P R 3 30 Th e r e le v an t a r t ic le s o f t he P 0 ar e t r a n sla te d
. . . . . .
b y Maa sdo rp, I ns ti tu tes of S ou th Afr i ca n L a w , v o l 1, A ppe n di x . .
1°
P O , A r t 5 ; G r 1 5 6 ; V o e t , 2 3 2 30
. . . . . . . . .
11
G r oe n de leg a br ad D ig 3 8 1 0 8; V d K D icta t ad G r 1 5 6
. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
MARRIAGE 55
l a te r a ls of whom e it he r is r e l a te d t o t he co m m on an ce st or
i n t he fir st d e gr e e O f d e sce n t e g br o t h e r a n d S i ste r u n cle ,
. .
,
1
a n d n i e ce u n cl e a n d gr e a t n i e ce
,
n e ph e w a n d a u n t In -
, .
t he l a t te r c l a ss n o di st in ct i o n i s m a de b e t we e n t he whole
a n d t he h a lf blood a n d i n bo t h cl asse s t he p r o hi b i ti o n
,
e x t e n d s t o r e l a t i on s by m ar r i a ge a s w e ll a s t o r e l a t i o n s
2
by blood an d wit hi n t he sa m e d e gr e e s ; t h a t is t o say ,
sin ce a m an m a y n o t m a rr y hi s siste r o r si ste r s d a u gh te r

’
n e it h e r m ay he m a rr y hi s siste r i n la w o r sist e r in l a w s
’
- - - -
dau ghte r ; a n d so wi th a ll t he o the r p r ohi b ite d de gr e e s O f

r e l a t i o ns hi p It m u st b e ob se r ve d t h a t t hou gh r e l a t ion
.
shi p by m arr i a g e is a di s qu a lifi ca t i o n wi th in t he p r o b i
b it e d de gr e e s t hi s r u le ha s n o a pplic a t ion wh e n m or e t h a n
,
2
o n e m a rr i a g e in te r v e n e s b e t we e n t he in t e n di n g spo u se s .
Th u s by t he D u t ch la w a m a n m ight n o t m a rr y his de
4
b u t t h e r e w a s n o r e a son why he sho ul d
’
c e a se d wife s si st e r ,
n o t m arr y hi s de ce ase d wi fe s b r o t h e r s wi dow I n S ou t h

’ ’
.
Afr i ca a n d Ce ylon t he m a t t e r of p r ohi b ite d de gr e e s ha s in

5
p art o r in w hole b e e n re gu l a te d by st a t u te .
B Con s en t of p a r en ts I n t he O lde st G e r m a ni c la w t he B Co n
se n t O f
. .
.
con se n t n o t a lon e of p ar e n t s b u t a lso O f ot he r n e ar r e l a

t iVe s w a s a n e ce ssa r y o r a t a ll e ve n t s u su a l p r e li m in a r y, , , ,
of m arr i a ge In te r su n t p a r e n te s e t p r opin qu i sa ys Ta ci
.
‘
,
’
5
t u s a c m u n e r a p r ob a n t In H oll a n d a ca se i s cite d a s
‘ ’
.
,
l a t e a s t he ye ar 1 42 2 in whi ch t he p ar e n t s in cu rr e d a
p e n alty for h a vin g g ive n t h e ir mi n or d a u gh t e r in m a rri a ge
w it ho u t t he co n se n t of r e l a t ive s a n d O f t he a u t horitie s O f
1
P O , A r.t s. 6 7 ; G r 1 5 7 —8
.
; V —
o e t , 2 3 2 3 1 —2 In t he
. . . . . .
Tr a n sv aa l o nl y if t he pa r t ie s a r e w i t h in t h e t h ir d de gr e e o f r e la
t io n s hip L a w NO 3 o f
. se c 4 T his c o in c ide s wi t h E n glish
. . .
B la ckst Com m i 43 5 ( Chr ist ia n s n o te ) B u t it is b e lie v e d

’
L aw . . . . .
t ha t m e n do n o t o ft e n m a rr y t h e ir gr e a t a u n t s -
.
2
P O , A r t 8; G r 1 5 9 Se e o n t he w ho le su b e c t , L o e n iu s ,
. . . . . . . j
D e cis , Cas 7 , pp 3 9 6 2 ; R e chts Obs , pt 4, n o 3 ; F u chs v
. . .
-
. . . . .
Whi ley N O [ 1 9 3 4] C P D 1 3 0
. . . . . .
2
In o t he r w or ds , m y w ife s afiin es a r e no t m y afiin es so as t o
’ ‘
b r in g t he m w i t hi n t he pr o hib ite d d e gr e e s V o e t , 2 3 2 3 3 Th e se . . . .
i mp edi me n ta s ecu n di ge n e ri s , as t he y w e r e c a ll e d , w e r e a b o li s he d
as e a r ly as 1 2 1 5 b y t he fo u r t h L a t e r a n Co u n c il .
2 5
P O Art . 1 0 . Se e A ppe n dix C
. .
2
Ta c it u s, G er ma n i a , c a p 1 8 . .
1
the t own . I n t he si x te e n t h c e n tur y t he m a t te r w a s re gu
l a te d by tw o e n a ctm e n ts : v iz the P e r p e t u a l Edi ct O f .
Ch ar le s V Of Oct ob e r 4 1 5 40 a n d the Poli t i ca l Or din a n c e

, ,
O f t he St a te s of H oll a n d a n d We st Fri e sl a n d O f Ap r il 1 , ,
1 5 80 .
The P e r p e tu a l E di ct (Ar t 1 7 ru n s a s foll ows .
An d w he r e a s da ily m a n y in c o n ve ni e n ce s a r e c a u se d in o ur
‘
The pr o , ,
v isi o ns o f
r e a lm in co n se qu e n c e O f se c r e t m arr ia ge s w hi ch a r e co n t r a ct e d ,
t he Pe r
pe t u a l
be t w e e n yo u n g pe r so n s w it ho u t t he a dv i ce co u n se l an d c on se n t
Edi ct Of o f fr ie n ds a n d r e l a t iv e s o f b o t h side s w e O b se r v in g t ha t a cc or d ,
Oct ob er 4,
1 540 ,
in g t o t he pr e ce p t s O f t he w r it t e n law su ch m a rr ia ge s a r e n o t
Ar t 1 7
. in a c c or da n c e w it h ho n ou r a n d du e O b e di e n ce an d ge n e r a lly ,
c o m e t o a b itt e r e n d Will Or da in a n d D e cr e e t ha t in ca se a n y
, ,
o n e sha ll t a ke u po n him se lf t o so li cit o r i ndu ce a n

y you n g gir l ,
n o t e x ce e di n g t he a ge o f t w e n t y ye ar s by pr o m i se or o the r w ise , ,
c on t r a ct m a rr i a ge w i t h he r ( s i c) o r i n fa c t co n t r a ct m ar r i a ge
,
w it ho u t t he co n se n t O f t he fa t he r o r m o t he r o f t he said gir l or ,
o f t he m a j o ri t y O f t he fr ie n ds a n d r e la t ive s
2
in case she ha d n o ,
fa t he r o r m o t her o r O f t he j u di cia l a u t hor i t i e s Of t he pla ce su ch

, ,
m an shall a t n o t im e b e e n t itle d t o t a ke or r e ce iv e a n y dou a r i e

or o t he r b e n e fit ( w he t he r by w a y O f co n t r a ct b e fo re m a rr i a ge ,
by t he cu st o m Of t he co u n tr y by t est a m e n t gift t r a n sfe r , , , ,
ce ssio n o r o t he r w i se in w ha t m a nn e r so e v e r ) o u t o f t he go o ds
,
w hi ch t he sa id gi r l m a y l e a v e b e hin d e v e n t ho u gh he m a y , ,
a ft e r t he m a r r ia ge ha s b e e n c o m pl e t e d ( na
’
t hou w elijck vol
br acht sijnde ) o bt ain t he c o n se n t o f t he fa t he r a n d m o t he r o f
, ,
t he afo r e said fri e n ds a n d r e l at iv e s or o f t he Cour t ; o f w hi ch ,
cir cu m st a n c e w e w ill t ha t n o r e gar d shoul d b e ha d in t his
m a t t e r In like m ann e r if a n y gir l o r w o m a n t a ke u p o n he r se lf

.
t o c o n t r a ct m arr ia ge w it h a yo u n g m a n n o t e x ce e din g t he a ge
O f t w e n t y fiv e ye ar s w it ho u t co n se n t o f fa t he r or m o t he r or o f
-
, ,
t he n e ar e st fr ie n ds a n d r e l at iv e s o r Of t he j u di cial a u t hor i t ie s o f
,
t he pla ce su ch w o m an sha ll n e v e r b e e n t it le d t o t ake o r a cqu i r e

,
1
V a n M ie r is , G r oo t C ha r ter bo e k, v o l iv , p 6 6 0 . . .
1 G P B 3 1 9 ; 1 M a a sdo r p , p 3 63
2
. . . . .
The o r igin a l t e x t r e a ds V an de m e e st e V r i e n de n e n de M a ge n
2 ‘
M ces te se e m s t o b e a m i st a ke fo r n a es te , w hich o ccu r s lo w e r do w n .
Th e w o r ds V r ie n de n e n de M a ge n t a ke n t o ge t he r m e an r e la
‘ ‘
t iv e s ( so in E n glish la w a n in fa n t su e s b y his n e x t The

‘
r e fe r e n c e is t o t he n e a r e s t r e la t iv e s o f t h e
‘
fo u r u a r t e r s ( i nfr a ,
’
q
p . Th q
e r e u ir e m e n t o f c o n se n t o f r e l a t iv e s st r ik e s a n a r c ha i c
n ote . E v e n a s e a r ly as t he s ix t e e n t h c e n t u r y t he ir plac e w as b e in g
t a ke n b y t u t or s t e st am e n t a r y o r da t iv e .
The co m t o t he i n t e r p r e t a tion Of t h e se t w o e n a ct m e n t s a n d t h e ir
bin ed
ef fe ct o f c o m bi n e d e ffe c t di ve r ge n t vie w s h a ve b e e n e n te rt a in e d .
t he se A s r e g ar d s m in o r s who h a ve p ar e n t s or p a r e n t y e t livin g
‘
e n ac t
m e n ts t he la w se e m s pl a in Su ch yo u n g p e r son s ca n n e it h e r
.
e n g a ge t h e m se lv e s n or co n t r a c t a v a li d m a rr i a ge wi t ho u t
1 2
( a ) As te
gar ds con
2
se n t o f
t he c o n se n t of p ar e n t s o r p ar e n t If bo t h p a r e n t s a r e .
pare n ts ; livi n g t he co n se n t of b ot h is r e qu ir e d b u t in c a se of diffe r ,
e n ce b e t w e e n t h e m t he w i ll of t he fa t h e r a s t he h e a d of
2
t he fa m ily p r e v a il s ov e r t h a t of t he m ot h e r If t he fat he r .
5
i s d e a d t he m ot h e r s c o nse n t i s n e ce ssa r y a n d su fficie n t
’
, ,
5
e v e n t ho u gh she ha s c o n t r a ct e d a se c o n d m a r r i a g e Co n .
s e n t m a y b e e xp r e ss O r t a ci t t he l a t t e r wh e n a p a r e n t ,
7
kn o ws of t he in t e n d e d m ar r i a g e a n d do e s n o t fo r bid i t .
I n de e d in t he a b se n ce O f fr au d o n t he p ar t of o n e o r bo t h
,
of t he spo u se s p u blic a t io n Of b an n s i s de e m e d t o b e n o ti ce
,
t o t he p a r e n t s a n d a m arr i a g e t h e r e a fte r co n clu de d i s

,
v a li d ev e n t ho u gh thr o u gh car e le ssn e ss o n t he p ar t O f the

, ,
m ar r i a ge Offi ce r o r ot h e r p e r s o n r e spon sibl e t he p a r e n t s

-
m a y in fa ct n o t h a v e c o n se n te d t o t he m arr i a ge or e v e n
2
h a ve kn own O f it In a n y e ve n t r a t ifi ca ti on by the
.
,
p ar e n ts o r p ar e n t a ft e r m ar r i a g e so fa r as co n ce r n s t he ,
v a lidi t y of t he m ar r i a ge a n d t he le git im a c y Of the childr e n ,
ha s t he sa m e e ffe c t a s a p r e vi o u s co n se n t ; b u t n o r a tifi ca
2
t ion a fte r m a rr ia ge c a n re li e v e fr o m t he p e n a lt ie s i m po se d
by t he P e r p e tu a l E di ct t hi s b e in g e xpr e ssly e x clu de d by ,
1°
t he te r m s Of t he E di ct I n t he a b se n ce of c on se n t o r r a t i
.
fi ca t io n t he m arr i a g e will b e d e c l ar e d voi d at t he in st an c e

O f t he a ggr ie v e d p ar e n t if he choo se s t o in si st u pon hi s ,
1
Voet, 23 1 20 ; V d L 1 3 2
. . . . . . . .
2
V an L e e u w e n , 1 1 4 6 ; V d K 7 5 ; Wi lle n bu r g
. . Wi llenbu rg . . . V .
( 2 ) ( 1 9 0 8) 2 5 S C a t p 9 1 0 ; ( 19 0 9 ) 3 B u c h A O 40 9
. . . . . . .
2
G r a n dpa r e n t s a r e n o t in c lu de d V d K 7 7 . . . . .
2
Voet , 23 2 1 3 . .
5
.Ib i d 2
Voet, 2 3 2 1 4 . . . .
7
F oy v M or he l [ 1 9 2 9 ] W L D 1 7 4 . . . .
V
.
2
V o e t , 2 3 2 1 8 a d fin
. . J ohn s on M cI n tyr e ( 1 89 3 ) 1 0 S C 3 1 8
. . . . .
Th e pr e su m pt io n is n o t ir r e b u t t a b le S ec u s , w he n b a n n s ha v e .
b e e n pr o c la im e d b y a m a gist r a t e u n de r ( Ca pe ) A c t 1 6 O f 1 86 0 .
V
S i ki ti . F o ley [ 1 9 2 9 ] E D L 2 86 . . . .
2
Aft er c o n su m m a t io n o f t he m arr ia ge ? P erp et E d A r t 1 7 . . .
su pr a , p 5 7 .
1°
Vo e t, 2 3 2 1 9 ; V d K 7 5
. . . . . .
MARRIAGE 59
1
ri gh t . B u t t he m arr i a ge i s
voi d a b i n i ti o a n d ca n n ot a ,
n o t b e a void e d by t he spo u se s o r e i t h e r of t h e m m e r e ly
o n t he g r ou n d of t he w a n t of p a r e n t a l c o n se n t n o r ( pe r ,
2
h a p s) by a p a r e n t a fte r t he c hild ha s r e a ch e d fu ll a ge .
P ar e n t a l c o n se n t o n ce give n m a y b e wit hdr a wn b e for e

2
m a rr i a ge .
If p a r e n t s fooli shl y fr ivolo u sly or in b a d fa it h wi t hhold , , ,
t h e ir c o n se n t i t wo u ld se e m j u st t h a t t he Cou r t sho u ld
,
h a ve pow e r t o ove rr i de t he ir ve t o B u t onl y v e r y pe cu .
li a r c ir cu m st a n ce s wo u ld j u stify ove rr i din g t he p a r e n t a l

2
a u t ho r it y An ins a n e p a r e n t so fa r a s co n c e rn s c o n se n t
.
, ,
is t r e a te d a s n o n e xiste n t a n d t he s a m e c o n se n t if a n y -
, , ,
i s r e qu ir e d a n d su ffi cie n t a s w ou ld b e su ffi cie n t i f he o r
5
she w e r e a lr e a dy d e a d .
A m in o r who ha s m a r r i e d wi t h c o n se n t a n d w ho b e ,
c o m e s widow e d b e fo r e r e a c hi n g t he u su a l li m it O f fu ll a ge ,
m ay r e m arr y wit ho u t c o n se n t Su ch a
-
t l e a st w as t he .
la w in t he p r ovin c e of H oll an d wi t h r e g ar d t o m a l e s a n d
5
fe m a le s a like .
Thu s far w e h a ve spoke n of t he c o nse n t of p a re n ts o r Of

1
Si r igido j ur e u ti v e l it , Vo e t , 2 3 2 1 1 ; . . J ohns on v . M cI n tyr e ,
u bi su p ; S o lomon dc S o lom on
. H a n n a [ 1 9 0 3] T S 46 0 V . . .
( a c t io n b y
m o t he r a s n a t u r a l gu a r d ian t he fa t he r b e in g a b se n t fr o m t he ,
c o u n t r y ) ; Wi lle n bu r g Wi lle n bu r g ( 1 9 0 9 ) 3 B u ch A O a t p 42 3 V . . . . .
M a n to n v IlI a n ton ( 1 90 9 ) 30 N L R 3 87 ; G e r ber

. G er ber [ 1 9 2 8] . . . V .
W L D 300 ; F oy M or ke l [ 1 9 2 9 ] W L D 1 7 4 ( a c t io n b y w ido w e d
. . . V . . . .
m o t he r as n a t u r a l gu a r dian ) Ow en v F i n e , 1 9 43 ( 1 ) P H , B 3 4 . . . . .
Va n de r Wes thu i z e n
2
E n ge lbr e cht [ 1 9 42 ] O P D 1 9 1 , disse n t V . . . .
in g fr o m M cK a be M oor e [ 1 9 09 ] E D C 1 6 1 V . . . . .
2
j
Su b e c t t o a ppe a l t o t he Co ur t S choema n v R affer ty [ 1 9 1 8]
'
. .
C P D 485 ; S ip on do v Non ga u za [ 1 9 2 7 ] B D L 2 5 5
. . . . . . . .
2
V o e t , 2 3 2 2 2 ; S c ho r e r ad G r 1 5 1 6 ; V d K 7 6 H i ldebr a nd
. . . . . . . .
V Hi lde br a nd [ 1 9 2 3] W L D 1 5 1 ; P a ton P a ton [ 1 9 2 9 ] T P D . V .
V
. . . . . .
7 7 6 ; M ofu ken M te mbu [ 1 9 2 9 ] W L D 82 . . . . .
5
V d K 82 A t t he Ca pe a n y pe r so n d e s ir o u s O f m a rr ia ge t o
. . . .
w h o se m a rr i a ge c o n se n t is n e c e ssa r y , b u t c a nn o t b e giv e n o r i s
w it hh e ld , m a y a pply b y pe t it io n t o t he Ch ie f Ju s t ic e M a r r O in
V
. . .
C 1 83 8, se e 1 7
. F or Tr a n sv aa l s e e A
. B [ 1 9 0 6] T S 9 5 8;
. . .
K
. . .
E x p a r te r opf [ 1 9 3 6 ] W L D 28 . . . .
5
V o e t , 2 3 2 1 7 ; V d K D i cta t a d G r 1 5 1 5 ; L e e , C o m m e n
. . . . . . . . .
t a r y , p 1 5 ; su pr a , p 45 , n 9
. The E cht Re gle m e n t o f M ar c h 1 8, . . .
-
1 6 5 6 ( 2 G P B 2 43 9 ) co n t a ins a n e x pr e ss pr o v is io n t o t hi s e ffe c t
. . .
for t he G e n e r alit e y t s L an de n .
a su r vivin g p are n t B u t wh a t if bo t h p a r e n t s a re de a d ?
.
The Po lit i c a l Or di n a n ce ( A r t 3 ) do e s n o t r e qu i r e t he c o n .
1
se n t O f r e l a t i v e s I n a sm u ch howe ve r a s Ar t 1 7 sa ve s t he
‘
.
, , .
op e r a ti o n of t he p e n a l c lau se s of t he P e r p e t u a l E di ct it ,
se e m s t h a t a m ar r i a ge of m in o r s who se p a r e n t s a r e d e a d ,
if c o n tr a cte d witho u t t he co nse n t of fr ie n ds a n d r e la t ive s ,
o r if t h e se di sa gr e e a m o n g st t h e m se lve s o r u nr e a s o n a bly
,
wi thhold t h e ir co n se n t of t he Co u rt t ho u gh n o t vo id is , , ,
p e n a li z e d Th is is t he vi e w of G r o t iu s who t r e at s t he c o n
.
,
se n t of t he n e a re st r e l a t iv e s a s n e ce ssa r y if t he p e n a l t y i s ,
t o b e a vo i d e d t hou gh he sa ys t h a t t he m arr ia g e O f m in o r s
,
is n o t voi d by r e a so n of it s b e in g p r o hi b it e d by t h e ir gu ar
2
di a n s o r r e l a t ive s In the m od e rn la w r e l at iv e s h a ve n o
.
lo cu s s ta n di in t he m a tt e r e x ce p t S O fa r as t h e y m a y hap ,
pe n t o b e gu a r di a n s .
The a r g u m e n t fo u n d e d u po n t he l a n g u a ge O f t he Pe r
'
p e t u a l E di c t c l e a r ly f a ils a s r e g ar d s t h e co n se n t of gu ar
di a n s for t he E dict do e s n o t p e n a liz e m arr i a g e s c on t r a ct e d

,
wit hou t su ch co n se n t In vie w O f t hi s fa ct it c an n o t b e .
sa id t h a t t he c o m m o n la w of H oll a n d m a d e t he co n se n t O f
gu ar di a n s a n e ce ssar y co n di t ion of a v a lid m arr i a ge of a

2
m in o r who se p a r e n t s w e r e d e a d n or a p a r t fr o m ge n e r a l , ,
o r lo c a l l e g isl a t i o n o r cu st o m h a v in g t he fo r c e O f la w ca n ,
t he p e n a lt y Of t he E dic t b e e x te n de d t o a c a se t o whi ch it
1
do e s n o t in te r m s a pply I t is pl a in how e ve r fr o m V a n .
‘
, ,
de r K e e sse l t h a t t he conse n t of gu ar di a ns o r r e l a t ive s a n d

, ,
O fte n of b o t h w a s v e r y g e n e r a lly r e qu ir e d by t he lo c a l
,
st a t u te s if n o t for t he v a lidi t y of t he m arr i a ge a t a ll

, ,
e v e n t s for t he a vo i d a n c e O f t he p e n a lt y On t he o t he r .
h a n d t he la w O f Ze e l an d which p e n a liz e d a n d a ls o a n
, ,
n u lle d m a rr i a ge s co n t r a c te d wi t ho u t su c h co n se n t s se e m s ,
5
t o b e m e n t ion e d a s e xc e p t io n a l In Sou t h Afri c a a m a r .
Voe t , 2 3 2 1 6 ; V d K 7 7
2
1
. . .Gr 1 8 3
. . . . . . .
2
G r u bi su p a n d S c ho r e r a d lo c ; V a n L e e u w e n , l 1 4 9
. . . . .
°
G r o e n de leg a br a d Co d 5 4 8; V o e t , 2 3 2 1 6 ; V d L 1 3 6 ,
. . . . . . . . . . . . .
B ijnk O T i 46
. . . . .
2
V a n L e e u w e n ( u bi su p ) a pplie s it , b u t w it h h e s it a t io n In a n y
. .
e v e n t c o ns e n t o f gu a r di an s w ill b e e as il y in fe r r e d Ib id
—
. .
5
V d K 1 25 6
. . . .
t hi s onn e xio n te r m in a te s fo r t he m a le a t t wen t y o n e a n d
c -
fo r t he fe m a le a pp a r e n t ly a t t he sa m e a ge
,
1
If bo t h p ar t ie s
, .
a r e mi n o r s p r e su m a bly t he Co u rt will t r y t o fin d o u t
,
whi ch of t he t w o w a s t he m or e gu ilty F a ili n g t h is t he .
co m m u ni t y w ill st a n d .
By t he L a w of H oll a n d co n se n t of p a re n t s w a s r e qu ire d
e ve n wh e n t he spo u se s w e r e of fu l l a e b u t su c h c o n se n t
g ,
w a s e a sily p r e su m e d a n d m igh t n o t b e u n r e a s o n a bly wi t h

h e ld If c o n se n t w a s wit hh e ld t he Co u rt d e te r m in e d
.
2
wh e t h e r t he gr o u n d s of r e fu sa l we r e su ffi cie n t I n t he .
m ode rn la w t he c o n se n t O f p ar e n t s is n o t n e ce ss ar y wh e n
t he p a rt ie s t o t he m arr i a ge a r e of fu ll a ge .
C The
. C The form a l r equ i r em en ts of ma r r i age Un t il t he six
. .
fo r m a l
t e e n t h ce n t u r y t he C a n on L a w a dop t in g t he R o m a n rul e
r e qu ir e ,
m e n ts of Co n se n su s fa cit n u pt ia s di d n o t r e qu ir e a n y for m a l ce le b r a
,
2
t i o n O f t he m arr i a g e It w a s e n ou gh t h a t t he p a rt ie s p er
.
ver ba de p r a es en ti d e cl ar e d t h e ir i n te n t i o n h e r e a n d n o w t o
b e h u sb a n d a n d wife The law O f t he Ch u r c h w a s c h a n g e d

.
by t he Co u n cil O f Tr e n t ( 1 5 45 w h i c h r e qu i r e d t h a t
m a r r i a ge shou l d b e co n t r a cte d i n t he p r e se n c e of a p ar i sh
p r ie st a n d a t le a st t w o witn e sse s Thi s d e cr e e ha d n o .
a u t ho r i t y i n H oll a n d a ft e r t he a dop t io n O f t he r e fo r m e d
1 ‘
r e li gi o n b u t t he l e gi sl at u r e follow e d t he e x a m pl e se t by
,
t he Ch ur ch The Polit i c a l Or din a n c e of 1 5 80 by Ar t

. .
b e side s givin g st a t u t or y a u t ho r it y t o the ca n oni c a l pr a c

t ic e O f p u blic a t i on O f b a n n s ( fir st e n j oin e d by t he fo u rt h
L a te r an Cou n cil in 1 2 1 r e qu ir e d fu r t he r t h a t t he m arr ia ge
shou ld b e c e l e b r a t e d by a Mi ni st e r O f r e li gio n o r by t he ,
Ma gistr a te .
The t e x t O f t he Polit ic a l Or di n a n ce ru n s a s follow s

Po lit ica l
‘
Those w ho a fte r t he pu bli ca t io n o f t he se pr e se n t s sha ll
Ordi nan 0 3 :
_
de sir e t o e n t er u p o n m ar r ia ge shall be b ou n d t o a pp e ar b e for e

A rt 3. .
1
If t his is so , i t is a s in gu lar in s t a n ce o f e x t e n s iv e in te r pr e t a t io n
o f a pe n a l e n a c t m e n t B u t pe r ha ps w e m u s t r e ga r d t h e l a w o f
.
S o u t h Afr ica a s r e st in g r a t he r o n c u s t o m t ha n o n t he st a t u t e Th e .
pr e B r it ish l aw o f t he Ca pe x e d t h e a ge s a t 2 1 a n d 1 8 J de V
-
fi . . .
R o o s in 2 3 p 2 49 . .
2
P O Ar t 3 ; 1 M aa s d , p 3 5 6
. . . . .
2
G r 1 5 1 6 ; Van L e e u w en , 1 1 4 3
. . . . . .
2
F o ck A n d , v o l ii , p 1 3 7
. . .
5
1 C P R 33 1
. . . . . .
MARRIAGE 63
the Ma gistr at e s or Mini ste r s of Re ligio n Of t he t o w n s an d
pla ce s of t he ir r e side n ce , a n d t he r e ap ply fo r t he gr a n t in g to

t he m Su n da y o r Mar ke t da y b a nn s , t o b e m a de in t he
O f t hr e e -
Chu r che s o r fr om t he Co u n cil H o u se o r o t he r pla ce s w he r e -
ju st ic e is a dm ini st e re d, o n t hr e e su cce ssiv e Su n da ys o r Mar k e t
days : w hi ch b a nn s Shall b e gr an te d a n d m a de t o t he e n d t hat

a n y o n e w ho w i she s t o a dv a n ce a n y le t o r hin dr a n ce w he t he r ,
o f bloo d affin it y o r pr e c o n t ra ct O f m a r r ia ge by r e a son O f

,
-
,
w hi ch t he m arr ia ge Sho ul d n o t go for w a r d, m a y do so Pr o .
v ide d, ho w e v e r , t ha t t he sa id b a nn s sha ll n o t b e gra n t e d o r
m a de , if t ho se w ho de sir e t he m a r e u n de r age t ha t i s t o sa y ,
you n g m e n b e n e at h t he a ge O f t w e n ty fiv e , a n d yo u n g w o m e n -
be n e a t h t he age Of t w e n t y, u nle ss t he y sho w t o the Ma gi st r a te s

or Mini st e r s t he con se n t O f t he ir pa r e n t s o r O f t he su rv i v o r o f
t he m ( if t he y ha v e a n y ) The sa id b a nn s b e in g m a de , if n o.
j
la w fu l O b e ct io n ha s b e e n o ffe r e d t o t he m t he p a rt ie s sha ll ,
be m a rr i e d by t he m a gist r ate s o r Min ist e r s a cco r ding to t he

o r din a n ce s in u se in t he Chu r che s a n d w hi ch sha ll b e co m m u n i
ca t e d t o t he Ma gist r a te s by t he St a te s a fo r e sa id .
’ 1
The l a te r D u t ch L a w follow in g t he e x a m ple of t he The ,

216 5 21
Fr e n ch m a de a civil m a rr ia ge in disp e n sa ble a r e ligiou s 123
, ,
5
ce r e m o n y b e in g le ft t o t he O p ti o n of t he p a r t ie s The 2
.
p ri n ci ple t h a t m a rr i a ge is co n clu de d by m e r e c o n se n t st ill

p e r sists in m a n y O f t he St ate s O f t he Am e r i ca n U nio n a n d ,
3
p e r siste d u n t il 1 9 40 in S c o tl a n d .
Wit h r e ga r d t o t he sole m ni z at io n of m arri a ge a t t he pre

se n t da y t he r e a d e r i s r e fe rr e d t o t he st a t u te la w O f t he
4
se v e r a l P r ov in c e s o r Colo ni e s .
It m ay h a pp e n t h a t t w o p e r so n s c o n t r a ct m arr i a ge Pu ta ti e v
111 2 1 1 1 g 2 2
u n de r t he b e li e f t h a t t h e y a r e fr e e t o do SO wh il e in fa c t
'
o n e o r bo t h of t h e m i s m a rri e d a lr e a dy o r fo r s o m e o t h e r ,
r e as o n su c h a s n e a r r e l a t i o n sh i p t he c o n di t i on s r e qu ir e d
, ,
1
i . e . t he Pr o v in c i a l l e gisla t u r e , t he S t a te s of H o lla n d an d We st
F r i e s la n d .
2
V d K 84; V d L 1 3 6 ( a d
. . . . . . . .
2
Ma rr ia ge ( Sc o t la n d ) A c t , 1 9 3 9 .
2
S o u t h A fr ic a , 1 M a as do r p , cha p iv ; Ce y lo n O r d No 1 9 o f .
, . .
1 907 A s t o pr e su m pt io n O f m a r r ia ge fr o m c o ha b it a t io n a n d
.
r e pu t e se e F i tzger a ld V
G r e e n [ 1 9 1 1 ] E D L a t pp 449 , 45 4—
. 9; . . . .
Ha i r ma n V
C r a w ley [ 1 9 2 3 ] O P D 3 ; Nyoka n a
. Nyoka n a [ 1 9 2 5 ] V .
V
. . .
N P D 2 2 7 E x p a r te A za r [ 1 9 3 2 ] O P D 1 0 7 ; G a ven a s
. . . G a ven as
V
. . . .
[ 1 9 3 6] C P D 1 3 2 ; L e vi n e . L evi n e [ 1 9 3 9 ] C P D 2 46
. . . . . . .
fo r v a lid m a rr i a g e do n o t e xi st Su ch a m arr i a ge is
a .
t e r m e d a p u t a t ive m a rri a g e whi c h by t he la w of So u t h , ,
Afr i ca a n d of m an y o th e r cou n trie s b u t n o t of E n gla n d , ,
ha s so m e O f t he e ffe ct s O f a v a lid m a rr ia ge a n d in pa r , ,
t i cu la r t he c o n se qu e n c e t h a t c hildr e n born O f t he m a rr i a g e
,
a r e d e e m e d t o b e l e g it i m a t e If t h e r e is good fa it h o n t he .
p a rt Of o n e of t he p a rt ie s o n ly t he co n se qu e n ce s of a ,
p u t a t ive m a rr i a ge e n ur e fo r t he b e n e fit Of t h a t p art y o n ly
1
a n d O f t he i ssu e of t he m arr i a g e Th u s if p e r son s wi t hin .
,
t he p r ohi bi te d de gr e e s inn oc e n t ly i n t e r m a rr y wi t ho u t a n
a n t e n u p t i a l c o n t r a ct t h e y ar e d e e m e d t o b e m a rr i e d i n ,
co m m u ni t y wi t h t he u su a l c on se qu e n ce s so lo n g a s t h e y
a r e ign o r a n t of t h e ir r e l a t io n shi p If i t is kn own t o o n e .
,
u n kn own t o t he o t h e r co m m u ni ty co n t i n u e s so far a s it ,
2
is a dv a n t a ge ou s t o t he i n n o ce n t p a rt y .
SE C TI O N 3— TH E L E G A L C O NS E Q U E NC E S OF MA RRIA G E
32583 72 1 le ga l c o n se qu e n ce s of m arr ia ge m a y b e c o ns ide r e d

The
1
5
,
f fi r s t i n r e l a t i o n t o t he p e r s o n a l st a t u s a n d ca p a cit y O f
q u e n c e s o ,
111 1 1 1 g2
t he w i fe ; se c o n dl y in r e sp e ct O f t he p r op e r t y of t he
2 2 ‘
,
spo u se s .
A E ffe ct A Efi ect of ma r r i age on the p er son a l s ta tu s a nd cap a ci ty

.
3 23 35
2
3 8r e of the w ife
. Th1 s co n s1 st s p r i n ci p a ll y i n t he m ar i t a l powe r
.
82 1 2 2 t he of t he h u sb a n d ove r t he w i fe 3 wi t h i t s co n se qu e n ce s , ,
st a t s a n d whi ch a r e a s follo w s :
u
0 3 1555 t
1 . qu ir e s t he r a nk or d ign it y O f the h u sb a n d
The wi fe ac ,
whi ch a fte r t he h u sb a n d s de a t h she r e t a in s d u r a n te v idu i ’
1
t a te She a c qu ir e s a ls o he r h u sb a n d s fo ru m a n d do m i cil e
’ ‘
. .
V d K 64, L e e , C om m en ta r y , p 1 1 ; I n r e B oo ys e n ( 1 880 )
1
.
V
. . .
F o o r d a t p 1 9 0 ; B er thi a u m e Dus ton s [ 1 9 3 0 ] A O 7 9 , a ppe a le d

. . . .
t o P C fr o m t he P r o v in c e O f Q u e b e c
. F o r S c o t s L a w se e G l o a g .
a n d H e n de r so n p 5 2 9 A s t o t he le git im ac y o f t he c hildr e n
. .
se e H ( w r on gly ca lled C ) v C [ 1 9 2 9 ] T P D 9 9 2 I n la te r c as e s
. . . . . . . .
t he Co u r t has de c lin e d t o m a ke a d e c la ra t io n o f le git im a c y w he n

t he c h ildr e n w e r e n o t r e pr e se n te d I/io n e l v H epw o rth [ 1 9 3 3 ] . .
C P D 481 ; Cla r ke v S ofi a n ti n i , 1 9 3 9 ( 1 ) P H , B 3 0
. . . . . . .
P o tgi e te r v B e lli ng a n [ 1 9 40 ] B D L 2 6 4
. . . . .
2
Ma t t ha e u s P a r aem ii , se c 7 3 V o e t , 2 3 2 89
, . . . . .
2
V d L 1 3 7 . . . . . .
2
V o e t , 2 3 2 40 . . .
( b) Hu sb a n d and
wife a r e re n de r e d li a ble by t he w ife s ’
co n tr a ct s t hou gh m a d e wit hou t t he hu sb a n d s a u t hor i t y

,
’
o r r a t i fic a t io n t o t he e x te n t O f t h e ir e nri ch m e n t t h a t is
, ,
t o t he e x te n t t o wh i ch he o r she ha s t a k e n a b e n e fit u n de r
1
t he con tr a ct .
( c ) A wife who is au t hor i z e d o r p e r m itte d by he r hu s

b a n d t o c arr y o n the b u sin e ss of a p u blic tra de r bin d s he r
se lf a n d ( wh e r e t h e r e i s c o m m u n i t y of goods o r a t l e a st
, , ,
of p r ofit a n d lo ss ) he r hu sb a n d by he r tr a de c on tr a ct s 2
, .
It m a k e s n o diffe r e n ce wh e t h e r S he i s a bov e or b e low t he

2
n o r m a l li m it of fu ll a ge
’
The wife s a u t ho r i t y t o bin d he r .
se lf o r he r h u sb a n d ce a se s if t he h u sb a n d ha s r e vok e d his
c o n se n t Su ch r e vo c a t io n m u st b e co m m u n i ca te d t o t hi r d
.
p a r tie s a n d c a nn o t b e m a de t o t h e ir p r e j u di ce in r e sp e ct
4
of tr a n sa ct ion s a lr e a dy b e gu n .
( d) A wife m a y bin d h e rse lf a n d he r h u sb a n d by co n

5
t r a ct s in cid e n t a l t o t he hou se hold Thi s a u t hor i t y r e su lt s .
fr o m t he wife s po sit ion a s do m e st i c m a n a ge r a n d ca n

’
n ot
b e t a k e n fr o m he r e x ce p t by j u di ci a l de cr e e a n d p u blic n ot i
fi ca ti o n 2
U n de r t he d e sign a ti on Of n e ce ssar i e s ( whi ch
.
‘ ’
doe s n o t by a n y m e a n s i m ply m e r e ly t he b a r e n e ce s
si t ie s O f life ) t he m od e r n la w ha s e nl ar g e d t he c o n c e p t i o n
O f c o n t r a c t s i n ci d e n t a l t o t he ho u se hold t o c ov e r a n y
r e a s o n a ble e xp e nse s o r li a bili t ie s It i s for t he j u dg e t o s a y .
wh e t h e r a p ar t i cu la r co n tr a ct fa lls wi t hin t he p e r mi tte d

1
Gr . 1 . 5 V o e t , 2 3 2 43 ( a d
. 2 3 ( ad V d L 1 3 7 . . . . . . .
J o hn s ton v ( 1 9 0 9 ) 2 6 S C 3 5 ; F o r s te r v B ecker [ 1 9 1 4]
. P o w e ll . . .
B D L 193 ;
. . . a r s te n K
F os ter [ 1 9 1 4] C P D 9 1 9 V . . . . .
2
G r 1 5 2 3 ; v a n L e e u w e n , 1 6 8 a n d 2 7 8; V o e t , 2 3 2 44
. . . . . . . . .
( ad V d L u bi su p A s t o w ha t c o n st it u te s a pu b li c t r ade
. . . .
se e G r o ble r v S chm i lg a n d F r e edm a n [ 1 9 2 3] A D 49 6

. . . .
2 2
V o e t , l o c c it . . V o e t , l o c c it . .
5
G r u bi su p ; v an L e e u w e n , u bi su p ; V oe t , 2 3 2 46 S ee
. . . . . .
A ppe n dix D This is a n O ld G e r m an ic in st it u t io n — S chliis se lgew a lt

. .
S t o bb e , D eu ts ches P r i va tr e cht, iv 1 88 . .
5
G r u bi su p ; t w e lck e e n m a n n ie t e n ka n b e le tte n , O fte b y
’
. .
j
m o st s i n v r o u w o o c k da t b e w in t r e chte l ic k v e r b ie de n , e n de t se lv e
’
d o e n afko n di ghe n The m e a n in g o f r e c ht e lic k a ppe a r s fr o m V o e t

‘
.
( 23 2 . .w ho sa y s : n is i hu ju s c e m o di r e i do m e st ic a e cur a , a c c ir ca
e arn c o n t r a he n di li c e n t ia , a d m a r it i d e si de r iu m u x o r i pu b l ic a m a gi
s t r a t us a u c to r it a t e u s t as O b c a u sa s in te r di c t a s it j
D o e s t his ho ld .
o o d to d a
g y
MARRIAGE 67
l
c a ss Mu c h d e p e n d s u pon t he cu st o m O f t he c o u n t r y t he
.
1
,
hu sb a n d s c on di tio n a n d r e sou r ce s a n d t he p re vi o u s co u r se
’
of de a lin g It is a ll o n e w h e t he r t he wife ha s p u r ch a se d
.
goods for do m e stic u se o r borr owe d m on e y fo r t he p u r po se

2
of doin g S O .
If h h b d ha s d e se rt e d his w ife a n d is a b se n t
( )
e t e u s a n
fr o m t he j u r i sdi ct ion she m a y a pply to t he Cou rt fo r le a ve

t o a c qu ir e a n d hold p r op e rt y a n d t o c o n tr a ct in he r o w n
2
nam e .
( f ) In m a tr i m o n i a l cau se s a wife m ay in he r o w n n a m e
t a ke p r o ce e din g s a g a in st he r h u sb a n d o r d e fe n d p r oce e d
i n gs t a ke n by him a g a in st he r She m ay i n cur li a b i li t y .
fo r t he c o st O f su ch p r o c e e di n gs a n d fo r in cide n t a l e xp e n se s ,
a n d m a y d e fe n d in he r o w n n a m e a n a ct i o n b r o u gh t a g a i n st
2
he r t o e n for ce su c h li a bilit y .
( g) La st ly a s will b e se e n l a te r a wo m an m a y by a pt
, ,
wor d s in he r m a rr i a ge co n t r a ct r e t a in t he fr e e do m of c o n
5
t r a ctin g whi ch S he e n j oye d b e fo r e m a rr ia ge .
5 D u r in g t he m a rr i a ge t he h u sb a n d ( if t he m a r i t a l
.
powe r is n o t e xclu de d by a n te n u p tia l co n tr a ct ) a dm in i ste rs

t he j oi n t p r op e r t y a n d p r op e rt y O f t he wife w h i ch ha s be e n
ke p t o u t O f co m m u n it y He m a y a li e n a te it e ve n by w a y .
5
O f gift or e n c u m b e r it a s he pl e a se s The o n ly li m it a t i o n , .
whi ch t he law pla ce s u po n his a d m i n istr at ion is t h a t gifts

m a de in frau d O f t he wife or he r e st a te m a y b e c a ll e d in
qu e sti on He is no t a ccou n t a ble fo r hi s m a r it a l a dm in i
7
.
st r a tio n n o r ca n he b e r e qu ir e d t o i n d e m ni fy hi s w i fe o r
,
Re loom e l v Ra ms a y [ 1 9 2 0 ] T P D 3 7 1
1
. . . . .
2
V o e t u bi su p , .
2
S a n de D ecis F r is 2 4 4 ; E x p a r te Ha ge m a n n ( 1 9 0 9 ) 2 6 S C
, . . . . . .
5 0 3 ; E x p a r te M a le ( 1 9 1 0 ) 20 C T R 9 41 ; I n r e B ea r t [ 1 9 1 2 ] . . .
N P D 6 5 ; E x p a r te A bbott [ 1 9 1 5 ] C P D 5 44 Th e c ase s r e la t e
. . . . . . .
pr in c ipa lly t o pe r m i ssio n t o t a ke t r a n sfe r o f im m o v a b le pr o pe r t y

V K K V
.
2
Va n E ede n i r s tei n 1 880 ) o t z e, a t p 1 84; B a r n e tt
. . .
M i ln es [ 1 9 2 8] N P D 1 . . . .
2
Gr 1 5 2 2 ; S c ho r e r a d G r 2 48 2 ; V a n L e e u w e n 1 6 7 ;
. . . . . . . .
V oe t , 2 3 5 7 ; V d K 9 2 ; B i u k O T i 7 2 7 ; po w e r t o le ase ,
. . . . . j . . .
Voet , 1 9 2 1 7 . . .
.
7
V o e t , 2 3 2 5 4; V a n L e e u w e n , u bi su p ; K e ms ley
. K e msley
. . V .
[ 1 9 3 6] C P D 5 1 8 . . . .
1
he r h e irs for his n e glige n ce The wife o n t he o the r h a n d .
, ,
m a y n o t a li e n a te or e n cu m b e r he r p r ope r t y wit ho u t he r
’
h u sb a n d s co nse n t u nl e ss in du e co ur se of t r a de o r for
2
hou se hold e xpe n se s .
6 Whe r e t h e r e is co mm u ni t y of good s o r a t le a st of
.
,
p r ofit a n d lo ss t he hu sb a n d s c o n tr a ct s fa ll in t o t he co m
,
’
2
m u n it y a n d so far b e n e fit or b u r d e n t he wife Afte r t he .
di ss olu t io n O f t he m arri a ge she is e n t it le d p r o sem i sse a n d ,
li able p r o semi sse a ft e r re c our se fir st ha d t o the c o m m o n

e st a te a n d if t he c o m m o n e st a te ha s b e e n di st r ib u t e d t o
, , ,
2
t he e st a te Of t he h u sb a n d Si m il ar ly t he wife s con t r a c ts
’
.
, ,
so far a s she ca n v a lidl y co n t r a c t b e n e fi t a n d b u r d e n t he ,
c o m m u n i ty In t hi s c a se i t will b e t he h u sb a n d who is
.
5
li a ble pr o s emi ss e a fte r t he di ssol u t io n of t he m ar r i a ge .
7 Tho u gh in g e n e r a l a m a rr ie d wo m a n i s in t he po si
.
, ,
t io n O f a m in or in so m e r e sp e ct s she i s n o t so fa vou r a bly

,
s i t u a te d Thu s a s r e m ar ke d a bove she ca nn o t hold he r

.
, ,
h u sb a n d t o a ccou n t o r cl a im r e st it u t io in i n te gru m fr o m
c o n t r a c t s c o n cl u d e d by h e r se lf or by he r h u sb a n d i n he r
5
n am e .
B . Effect
f f the op r op er tma rr i age i n
y of the r esp ect o
sp ou s es By t he law of H oll a n d in t he a b se n ce O f c o n t r a c t
.
,
t o t he con tr ar y m a rr i a ge cr e a te d ip so ju r e a c omm u n i t y
,
of good s ( comm u ni o bon or u m—g em eenschap va n goeder en )

7
b e twe e n t he p art ie s The books de s cr ib e it a s a st a tu t o r y .
co m m u ni t y which m e a ns in e ffe ct t h a t it w as a n in stitu

, , ,
t ion of n a t i ve o r igin n o t d e r ive d fr o m R o m a n L a w

2
It is .
S an de , D e cis F r is 2 4 1 ; V d K 9 1
1
. . . . . . . .
2
G r 1 5 2 3 ; V an L e e u w en , 2 7 8
. . . . . .
2
I nfr a , pp 7 7 ff . .
2
G r 2 1 1 1 7 ; 3 1 3 8, V d K D i cta t ad loc
. . . . . . . . . .
, L e e , C om/me n ta ry ,
p 2 2 7 ; S teve ns on v A lber ts [ 1 9 1 2 ] C P D 6 9 8
. . . . . .
5
V d K D i c ta t a d G r 1 5 2 1 ( c it in g V oe t 4 4 5 1 ; 2 3 2
. . . . . . . . . . .
L e e , C omme nta ry , p 2 2 . .
7
G r 2 1 1 8; V o e t , 2 3 4 1 ; V d K 2 1 6 ; M ogr abi v M ogr abi
. . . . . . . . .
[1 92 1] A D 274 . . .
2
The m e di e v a l la w y e rs w e r e in t he ha b it o f desc r ib in g t he
pa r t icu la r la w o f a t o w n a s i ts st a t u t e H e n c e t he in t r i c a t e t he o r y .
‘
o f s t a t u t e s in t he Co nflic t o f L a w s E xpan di n g t his u sa ge , B y .
s ta t u t e s t h e c iv ilia n s m e a n t he w ho le m u n ic ipa l la w o f t he
par t ic u l ar s t a te fr o m w ha t e v e r c a u se ar isin g in c o n t r a di c t io n
su m . pr op e rt y it se lf do e s n ot fa ll in t o c o m m u ni t y
The
1
t hou gh t he r e n t s a n d p r ofit s a c cru in g fr o m it do S O The .
2
sa m e a ppli e s t o p r op e r t y h e ld in u su fru ct ( iii ) It ha s .
b e e n sa id t h a t j e we ls a n d o t h e r su ch t hin g s give n by a
3
b r id e gr oo m t o t he b r ide o n m arr i a ge a n d t he clo t h e s of
"
t he spou se s a r e ( wit h in lim it s ) e x e m p t fr o m co m m u n i t y ,
b u t howe ve r r e a son a bl e t h is p r opo sit i on m ay b e t h e r e is

, ,
li tt le if a n y a u t ho r it y for i t ( iv ) F in a lly a n y pe rs o n
, ,
.
,
who gi ve s o r b e qu e a t h s p r op e r t y t o e it he r spou se m a y e x
5
pr e ssly e xclu de it fr o m c o m m u n i t y Sim il ar ly a n y sp e cific .
,
p r op e r t y m ay b e k e p t o u t of co mm u ni t y by a n t e n u p t i a l
c o n t r a c t b u t in t he a b se n c e O f st ip u l a t io n t o t he c o n t r ar y
,
t he p r o ce e d s of t he sa le of su ch p r op e r t y fa ll in t o c o m
5
m u nit y .
Wit h t he se e xce ption s t he c o m m u ni t y com pr i se s all the

7
pr op e rt y of t he S pou se s p r e se n t a n d fu tu r e m ova ble a n d , ,
2
i m m ov a ble wh e r e ve r Si tu a te j u r a i n pe r son a m a s we ll
, ,
a s j u r a in r e m The whol e is u n d e r t he a d m ini str a t ion O f

.
t he h u sb a n d who i s d e s cr i b e d a s h e a d of t he co m m u ni t y
, .
Co n v e r se ly t he li a bili tie s Of t he spou se s whe t h e r a n t e

, ,
n u p t i a l Or po st n u p t ia l a r e c h ar ge d u po n t he c o m m u n i t y ,
1
G r 2 1 1 1 0 ; V o e t , 2 3 2 7 1 ; V d K 2 2 1 ; B a r n e tt
. . . Ru dm a n . . . . . V .
[ 1 9 3 4] A D 2 0 3 . . .
2
Va n der M erw e v Va n Wyk N O [ 1 9 2 1 ] E D L 2 9 8 . . . . . . .
2
V a n L e e u w e n , 4 2 4 1 3 ; V o e t , 2 3 2 7 8; b u t se e R eddy v . . . . .
C hi n a s a m y [ 1 9 3 2 ] N P D 46 1 . . . .
2
Ar n t z e n iu s , I n s t J u r Ci vi l B e lg pt 2 , t it 4, se c 1 8, r e fe r s
. . . . . . .
o nl y t o l o ca l st a t u t e s V a n L e e u w e n ( 4 2 4 1 4) c it e s C os tu m va n
. . . .
A n tw e rp en , x li 5 3—4 ; L e e , C omm e n ta r y , p 1 0 0
. . .
5
E r asm u s v E r as m u s [ 1 9 42 ] A D 2 6 5 ; G u m i n g C u m i n g, V
—
. . . .
1 9 45 ( 1 ) P H , G 1 3 a gift t o t he w ife
‘
a b so lu te ly he ld
’
. . .
in t he c ir c u m s t a n ce s t o e x c lu de c o m m u n i t y .
2
V o e t 2 3 2 7 9 ; C le m e n t N O v B a n ks [ 1 9 2 0 ] B D L 3 6 2
, . . . . . . . . .
A n o t he r c a se o f r e la t iv e ly sm a ll im po rt a n ce is t ha t in a n a c t io n
j
b y t he w ife fo r u dic ia l s e pa r a t io n a n d in pr o c e e din gs t o e n for ce
t he o r d e r t he hu s b an d s m a r it a l po w e r is in a b e y a n c e an d c o s ts
’
a w a r de d t o t he w ife fa ll o u t o f c o mm u n i t y C om er m a C om er m a . V .
[ 1 9 3 8] T P D 2 2 0 . . . .
7
Voe t , 2 3 4 30 ; V d L 1 3 8 The pr o v e r b sa y s :
. .
‘
Ma n . . . . . .
e n de Wijf h e bb e n ge e n v e r s c he y de n go e t Ma t t hae u s , P a r aem ,

’
.
no 2 .
q
.
2
V o e t , 2 3 2 85 ; u n le s s t he lex si tu s r e u ir e s a fo r m a l m o de O f
. .
t r a n sfe r in w hich c as e a pe r s o n a l a c t io n li e s t o c o m pe l t r a n sfe r

a cc o r d in gly Chi w e ll Ca r lyon ( 1 89 7 ) 1 4 S C a t p 66
. V . . . . .
MARRIAGE 71
1
and j oin t e st a t e a n d an an t e n u p ti a l stip u la
di mi ni sh the ,
t ion t o t he c on t r a r y is voi d in la w u n l e ss co m m u ni t y of
2
goods is a l so e x clu de d A m arr ie d wo m a n t he r e fore m ay .
, ,
b e u tte r ly ru in e d by he r h u sb a n d s e x tr a v a g a n ce b u t t he
’
r e m e dy i s in he r o w n h a n ds vi z t o a sk t he Cour t t o in te r Boe de l ,
.
S Che idm g
di e t t he h u sb a n d fr o m t he a d mi n i str a t i o n of t he e st a te 2
.
Co m m u ni ty b e gi n s whe n m a rr i a ge b e gin s i e so soon as ,

. .
t he n e c e ssar y r it e s o r c e r e m oni e s h a ve b e e n p e r form e d ; Whe n

2
it p e r sist s d u r in g it s con t in u a n ce a n d e n ds u po n it s di ssolu figl t

'
y
t i on The r e u po n t he c o m m o n fu n d is di vide d ip so ju r e be gins
.
an d e n ds
i n t o t w o e qu a l sh are s o n e of wh i c h v e st s in t he sur vivi n g
“
spo u se wit ho u t r e g ar d t o t he a m o u n t which su ch spo u se

,
m a y h a ve c o n t r ib u te d t he ot h e r of w hi c h ve st s in t he ,
5
t e st a m e n t a r y o r i n te st a te su cc e s sor s O f t he d e ce a se d On .
t he d iss olu t io n O f t he c om m u ni t y ou t st a n di n g po st n u p t ia l
lia bili tie s a t t a ch t o the e x te n t of o n e h a lf t o e a ch m oie t y -
5
O f t he n o w di vide d e st a te An t e n u p tia l li a bili t ie s o n t he .
,
1
D ie de n m a n O f de v r ou w t r o u w t , t r o u w t o o k de sc hu lde n .
G r 2 1 1 12 ; V d K 222
. . .
2
V oe t , 2 3 2 80
. . . . . . .
2
G r 1 5 2 4 ; V o e t , 2 3 2 5 2 ; Re chts Obs , pt 4, n o 8; V d L
. . . . . . . . . . . .
1 3 7 (in
. . E x p a r te P ap e ndor p [ 1 9 3 2 ] C P D 1 6 7 G r o t iu s . . . .
spe a ks o f b o e de lsc h e id in g, b u t it i s n o t n o w t h e pr a c t ice t o de cr e e
a fo r m a l se par a t io n o f go o ds I n t he e v e n t o f in s a n it y t he m ar it a l .
po w e r is sus pe n de d , n o t de te r m in e d V d K 1 0 1 In su c h c ase t he . . . . .
w ife m a y pe r m i t t he hu s b a n d s c u r a t o r t o a dm i n iste r he r pr o pe r t y ,
’
o r a pply t o t h e Co u r t fo r po w e r t o a dm in is t e r it he r se lf, o r ge t
he r se lf a ppo in te d c u r a t r ix b o n is t o h e r hu sb an d V d K D i cta t . . . . .
ad G r 1 5 2 7 ; I n r e D e J age r [ 1 87 6] B u ch 2 2 8 She m a y n o t b e
. . . . .
a ppo in t e d c u r a t r ix o f t he pe r so n o f h e r hu sb a n d Ib id . .
2
G r 1 5 1 7 ; 2 1 2 5 ; Ne o st a d , de p a ct a n ten u p t Ob s : 1 5 —1 7 ;
. . . . . . . .
Va n L e e u w e n , 4 2 3 3 ; V d K 87 . . . . . .
5
G r 2 1 1 1 3 Chil dr e n w h o ha v e r e c e iv e d a dv a n c e s m u st b r in g
. . . .
t he m in t o c o lla t io n fo r t he b e n e t o f t he o in t e s t a t e b e fo r e div is i on fi j .
G r ib id ; P O A r t 2 9 ( 1 G P B
. . V d K 2 2 3 ; J o os te
. . . . . . . . . V
J ooste s E x or s ( 1 89 1 ) 8 S C 2 88; 1 Maa sdo rp, c hap x ix ; i nfr a ,
’
. . . .
p 35 8
. .
5
G r 1 5 22 ; V d K 9 3 an d 223
. . Cr e di t or s m a y su e t he
. . . . .
hu sb an d o r h is he ir s for t he w h o le de b t , t he w ife o r he r he ir s fo r
ha lf L a i ng
. V
L e R ou x [ 1 9 2 1 ] C P D a t p 7 48 B u t pr oc e e di n gs
. . . . . .
m a y n o t b e t a ke n b y c r e dit or s o f t he hu sb a n d a ga ins t t he w ife

u n t il t h e y ha v e e n de a v ou r e d t o re c o v e r w ha t i s du e t o t he m fr o m
t he hu sb a n d o r hi s r e pr e se n t a t iv e s S te ven s on v A lber ts [ 1 9 1 2 ] . .
C P D 69 8 The hu sb a n d ( or his he ir s ) m a y r e co v e r fr o m t h e w ife

. . . .
( or he r he ir s ) t o t he e x t e n t o f o n e ha lf G r 2 1 1 1 7 V o e t , 2 3 2 . . . . . .
5 2 a n d 80 .
o t h e r h a n d whi ch h a ve n o t b ee n di sch a r ge d d u r in g t he
,
m a r r i a ge r e v e r t t o t he sid e fr o m w hi ch t h e y c a m e
,
1
.
Ap art fr o m t he e ve n ts whi ch pu t a n e n d t o t he m arr i a ge ,
co m m u ni ty m ay b e de te r m i n e d in N a t al a n d S ou th e r n
R hode si a by post n u p t ia l con t r a c t
,
2
I n m a n y pla ce s in .
H oll an d a s in G e r m an y a m a rr i e d wom a n w a s a llowe d o n

,
2
,
he r h u sb a n d s de a t h t o r e n ou n ce t he co m m u ni t y a n d t h e r e
’
by t o e s c a p e fur the r lia b ili t y for his d e b t s It w as c u st o m .
a r y fo r he r t o la y he r k e ys o n t he co f fi n a n d t o go ou t b e for e
t he bie r wit h n o t hin g a bou t he r b u t he r e ve r yd a y clot h e s
2
( so m e sa y in borr owe d clo t h e s ) Thi s w as s o m e thi n g like .
t he b e n e fi ciu m se par a t i o ni s a llowe d t o t he n e ce ssa r i u s

h e r e s in R o m a n L aw Re ft of it s c e r e m on i a l thi s r e p u di a
5
.
t ion O f t he c o m m u n it y ha s b e e n r e cogni z e d a s a n e xist in g

5
inst it u t io n in S o u t h Afri ca .
SE CTI O N 4— ANT E NU PTIA L C ONTRA CT S

NO p e r son s n e e d m a rr y in c om m u n i t y u nl e ss t h e y wi sh
t o do so I t i s a lw a ys O p e n t o t he spou se s t o e x clu d e or
.
7
m o di fy t he c o m m o n law by a n te n u p t i a l c on tr a ct
‘
An te .
1
G r 2 1 1 1 5 ; V a n L e e u w e n , 4 2 3 6 ; V d K 2 2 4 A c c o r din g
. . . . . . . . .
to Voet ( 2 3 2 if t he hu s b a n d ( o r his h e ir s ) has dis c har ge d

. .
t he w ho le o f a n a n t e n u pt ia l de b t , he ( o r t he y ) has ( ha v e ) r egr essu s

a ga in s t th e w ife o r he r he ir s in r e spe c t o f o n e ha lf S cho r e r ( ad -
.
G r o t 2 1 1 1 2 ) t a ke s t he sa m e ie w V a n de r K e e ss e l ( u bi su p )
. . . V . .
dis s e n ts S e e Ne o st a d , Obs er v de p a ct a n te n u p t , n o s 1 2 a n d 1 3 ;
. . . . . .
L o e ni u s , D eci s , c as e 9 9 , a n d B o e l s E x cu r su s F o r S o u t h A fr i ca n
’
. .
L a w s e e Rei s
’
V
G illo w a y s E x or e ( 1 83 4) 1 Me n z 1 86 B la tchfor d v
. . . .
B lat chfor d s E x or s ( 1 86 1 ) 1 E D O 3 6 5 ; L i qu ida tor s of

’
. n i on . . . U
Bank v . K
i ve r ( 1 89 1 ) 8 S C a t p 1 5 0 . . . .
2
I n Na t a l ( b y L a w NO 2 2 o f 1 86 3 , s e c 7 , as e x pla in e d a n d . .
e x t e n de d b y L a w 1 4 o f 1 882 ) t he spo u se s m a y de pa r t fr o m t he
c o m m u n i t y b y po s t n u pt ia l c o n t r a c t d u ly e x e cu t e d an d r e gis t e r e d ,
B u ller N 0 v L i nde r [ 1 9 2 5 ] N P D 9 ; b u t t his doe s n o t pe r m it a

. . . . . .
p os t n u p t i a l e x c lu s i o n o f t he ju s m a r i t i , H o ldga te v M oodle y [ 1 9 3 4] .
N P D 3 5 6 S im il a r pr o v is io n in S o u t he r n R ho de sia M a r r ie d
. . . . .
P e r so n s Pr o pe r ty A c t , 1 9 2 8, se c 2 ; R S c a p 1 5 1 , sec 3
’
. . . . . .
2
G r im m , D eu ts che R echts a ltertu m e r i 2 43 . .
2
G r 2 1 1 1 8an d V d K D i c ta t ad loc ; L ee , C omm e n ta r y , p 1 0 5
. . . . . . . . . .
5
In st 2 1 9 1 . . . .
2
B r i n k v L ou w ( 1 842 ) 1 Me n z 2 1 0 ; H er n ck Co
. D e B eer . . V .
[ 1 9 1 3] T P D a t p 7 2 6 . . . . .
7
G r 2 1 1 8; V d K 2 2 7 R C E llio t t , A n te n u p ti a l C on tr ac ts ,
. . . . . . . .
45 pp 1 81 a n d 3 2 0 . .
THE L AW OF PE RSONS
by o t ar y p u bli c o r ha s b e e n o t h e r wi se e n te r e d in t o
a n
i n a c c o r d a n c e wi t h t he la w O f t he pl a ce O f e x e cu t i o n
a n d un l e ss i t ha s b e e n t e n de r e d fo r re gi st r a t io n i n a
dee ds r e gis tr y wi th in S ix m on t h s a fte r t he d a te of its

e x e cu t io n o r wi t hi n su c h e x te n d e d p e r iod as t he
Co u rt m ay o n a pp li ca t io n a llow .
Se c . 88 . Not wi t h st a n di n g
pr ovision s of se ct io n s t he
e i ghty s i x a n d ei ght
y seven t he c o u r t m a y su bj e c t t o
- -
su c h c o n di t i o n s a s i t m a d e e m d e sir a bl e a u t ho r iz e
y ,
po stn u p t i a l e x e cu tio n of a n ot ar i a l c o n tr a ct h a vin g

t he e ffe c t O f a n a n te n u p t i a l c o n t r a c t if t he te r m s ,
t h e r e of we r e a gr e e d u po n b e t we e n t he i n te n d e d
s po u se s b e fo r e t he m a rr i a ge a n d m a
y o r de r t he r e gis ,
t r a t io n wi t hin a sp e ci fie d p e r i od O f a n y c o n t r a ct S O
, ,
1
e x e c u te d .
The p r ovis ion s of se cs 86 a n d 87 ( sup r a ) mu ta ti s m u ta ndi s.
a pply i n r e sp e ct O f t he r e g ist r a t i o n O f po st n u p t i a l co n t r a ct s
in t he p r ovin ce of N a t a l ( se c .
I t is t o b e n ote d t h a t t he a b se n ce O f r e gi st r a t io n o nl y
a ffe c t s t he v a li di t y of a n a n te n u p t i a l co n t r a c t as r e g ar d s
cr e di t o r s A n u nr e g iste r e d c o n t r a ct ca nn o t O p e r a te t o
.
t h e ir p r e j u dice S O a s t o de p ri ve t h e m Of a n y r igh t s w hi ch
t h e y wo u ld h a ve in t he a b se n ce of c on t r a c t by t he c o m
m o n la w A s r e g ar ds t he p a rt ie s ho w e v e r a n d pe r s o ns
.
, ,
c l a im in g t hr o u gh t h e m a s w e ll a s o t h e r s t a kin g a b e n e fi t
,
u n d e r i t t he c o n t r a c t hold s good i n t he a b se n ce O f re g i st r a
,
2
t io n a n d e v e n ( semble ) t ho u gh n o t r e d u c e d t o wr i t in g .
In t his co n n e xion it shoul d b e ob se r v e d t h at t he p art ie s to

a n a n te n u p t i a l c o n t r a c t m a y b e n o t o nl y t he S po u se s b u t
a ls o a n y r e l a t iv e s or o t h e r s who m a y b e di spo se d t o e x e r
c i se a n y lib e r a li t y t ow a r d s t h e m
3
In fa ct t he c on t r a ct .
1
E x p a r te Orfor d [ 1 9 2 0 ] C P D 3 6 7 R e c e n t c a se s E x p a rte
. . . . .
You ng [ 1 9 3 8] B D L 30 0 ( le a v e r e fu se d ) ; E x p a r te K a r be [ 1 9 3 9 ]
. . .
W . L D 3 5 1 ( gr an te d ) ; E x p a r te Wi tz [ 1 9 41 ] W L D 7 4 ( gr a n te d ) ;
. . . . .
E x p a rte B aji e , 1 9 41 R H B 66 ( gr a n te d ) ; E x p a r te
. .
E va ns , 1 9 42 R H B 73 ( gr a n t e d ) ; E x p a rte Cha ter

. .
[ 1 9 42 ] O P D 1 0 6 ( r e fu se d ) ; E x p a r te affa r , 1 9 44
. . . R H B 30 J . .
2
( gr a n t e d ) Vo e t , 2 3 4 2 a n d 4
V o e t , 2 3 4 1 0—
. . . .
2
11 . . .
MARRIAGE 75
ofte n se r v e s a dou ble p u r po se : fir st it s O bviou s o n e t o , ,
e x cl u de o r m odify t he in cid e n t s of m a rr i a g e a t t he co m m on
la w ; a n d se con dly t o r e gul a te t he de vol u ti on a fte r t he ,
de a t h of on e or bot h of t he spo u se s of t he p r op e r t y c o n
t r i b u te d t o t he m a rr i a g e In t hi s l a t te r e ve n t t he c on t r a ct .
pla ys t he p a rt of wh a t in E n glis h L aw is c a lle d a m a rr i a ge

se t t le m e n t .
G e n e r ally sp e a kin g a n y c on di ti on m a y be in tr od u ce d What ,
i n t o a m a rr i a ge c on t r a c t p r ovide d t h a t it is n o t c o n t rar y 5 5“
3
1 15
5
1
t o la w o r good m or a l s S o m e st ip u l a t i ons a r e di sa llowe d inse rte d .
.
a s c o n t r a r y t o t he l e g a l n a t u r e of m a rr i a g e ; fo r e x a m ple a
p r ovisi o n t h a t do n a ti ons sh a ll be pe r m itte d or le g a cie s n o t Cert a in

l
p e rm itte d b e t we e n t he spou se s P r ovi si on s to t he e ffe ct : fig
2
fi zm .
t h a t t he h u sb a n d sh a ll n o t c h a n ge his do m i cile wi t hou t hi s n o t pe r

’ 2
wife s c on se n t ; or t h a t t he h u sb a n d S h a ll n o t r e p re se n t
m ”
hi s w ife in Co u r t b u t t h a t she s h a ll h a ve a pe r so n a st a n di
,
4
O f he r o w n t hou gh c o n d e m n e d by V oe t are a llowe d by
, ,
Va n de r K e e sse l 5
The l a st of t h e se in d e e d is so far fr o m
.
b e in g Ope n to O bj e cti o n a t t he p re se n t day t ha t w he re ,
t h e r e is e x c lu sio n of c om m u n i t y a n d Of t he m ar it a l powe r ,
t he wi fe ha s a s fu ll c a p a cit y t o a ppe a r in Co u r t wh e t he r ,
5
a s pl a in t iff o r d e fe n d a n t a s if n o m a rr i a ge ha d t a k e n pl a ce ,
.
A stipu l ati o n t h a t a wife sh a ll sh ar e in pr ofits b u t n o t

7
in lo sse s t ho u gh co n de mn e d by G r o t iu s i s i n Va n de r
, ,
K e e sse l s O p in i on fr e e fr om O bj e c ti on
2 ’
.
TO u n d e rt a k e a de t a ile d discu ssi o n O f t he v ar io u s a n te Pe m it ted r
1
n u p t i a l st ip u l a t io n s which m a
y b e m a d e i s b e yo n d ou r
335331, 1
s cop e We S h a ll in di ca te how e ve r t he pr in ciple s wh i ch in t o c e r

.
, ,
de
gove m the in te r p r e t a ti o n O f su ch a gree m e n t s a n d m e n t ion fin g
l .
d ,
classes ,
1
V o e t , 2 3 4 1 9 ; V d K 2 2 8; V d L 1 3 4
. . . . . . . . . . .
2
V o e t , u bi su p ; Ha ll H a ll s Tr u s te e ( 1 884) 3 S C 3
. V .
’
. . .
2
V oe t , u bi su p an d 5 1 1 0 1 S ee We bber v Webber [ 1 9 1 5 ] A D
. . . . . . .
at p 2 41
—
. .
2
V oe t , u bi su p . an d 5 . 1 . 14 15 .
5
V dK . . . 228 an d D i cta t . ad Gr . 2 . 12 . 3 ; L e e , C om m e n ta r y ,
p . 107 .
2
B oy es v Ve r si gm a n [ 1 87 9 ] B u c h 2 2 9 I nfr a , p 81
. . . . .
7
G r 2 1 2 9 ; Ne o st a d , de p a c t a n te n u p t O b s 2 1 ( i n n o tis )
. . . . . . . .
2
V d K 2 49 ; fo r , a s h e sa y s : c re dit o r ib u s e t iam n ih il n o c e t ,
. . .
c u m lu c r u m in t e lligi n e qu e a t , n is i d a m n o pr iu s d e du c t o .
t he bj e ct s a i m e d a t a n d t he e ffe ct p r odu c e d So fa r a s
O .
t h e y a r e di re cte d t o t he m o difi ca t ion or e x clu sio n of t he

c o m m o n la w t h e y fa ll in t o w e ll de fin e d gr ou p s a cc o r din g -
a s t he e x cl u s io n i s m or e or l e ss c o m pl e te ; a n d in t hi s co n
n e x io n it m u st b e r e m e m b e r e d t h a t a n te n u p t i a l c o n t r a ct s
a r e st r ict ly co n st r u e d a n d t h a t t he p r e su m p t io n i s in
,
fa vo u r O f t he c on t in u an ce O f t he c o m m o n law in all c ase s

1
wh e r e it s e xclu sio n is n o t cle ar ly e xpr e sse d o r i m pli e d .
The co n se qu e n ce s O f m a rr ia ge in c o m m u n it y h a v e b e e n
se e n t o b e m a inl y t w o : vi z co m m u ni t y of goods ( which .
e x t e n d s n o t o n ly t o goods b r o u gh t i n t o t he m a rr i a ge b u t ,
a lso t o su b se qu e n t a cqu i sit ions a n d p r ofit s ) a n d t he m a r i

2
,
t a l powe r A n y o r a ll of t h e se con se qu e n ce s m a y b e e x
.
c lu d e d by a n te n u p t i a l co n t r a ct Thu s t he p art ie s m a y : .
1 E xclu de ( a ) co mm u ni t y in r e sp e ct of good s b r o u gh t
.
int o the m a rr i a ge l e a vi n g it u n i m p a ir e d a s re ga r d s ( b)
,
po stnu p t ia l a cqu i sit i o n s ( c) p r ofit a n d lo ss a n d ( d) t he , ,
m a r it a l powe r Su ch i s t he e ffe c t of a st ip u l at ion which

.
do e s n o t e x clu d e c om m u ni t y O f goods i n te r m s bu t pr o ,
vide s t h at t he goods b r o u ght in t o t he m arr ia ge sh a ll r e

‘
2
tu r n t o t he sid e wh e n ce t h e y c a m e
’
2 Ex cl u de com m u ni t y O f good s wh e t h e r (a ) b r ou ght

.
,
in t o t he m a rr ia ge o r ( b) a fte r a cqu ir e d ( o t h e r t h an pro

,
-
‘
fit s le a vin g u ni m p a ir e d ( 0 ) co m m u n it y of p r ofit an d lo ss ,
a n d ( d) t he m a r it a l pow e r .
3 E x clu de c o m m u n it y O f good s wh e t h e r ( a ) b r o u gh t
.
in t o t he m arr i a ge o r ( b) a fte r a cqu ir e d ( n o t b e in g p r ofit s )

,
-
a n d ( c ) co m m u n i t y O f p r ofi t a n d lo ss l e a vin g o n ly ( d) t he ,
m a r it a l powe r .
4 Ex cl u de a ll c o m m u n i t y ( a ) ( b) a n d ( c ) a n d t he m a r i
.
, ,
2
t a l powe r ( d) a s we ll .
1
Gr . 11 ; V d . . K . 25 1 V a n de r L in de n ( 1 3 4) giv e s
. . .
t he c lau se s in com m on u se in his t im e S e e B u r ge , v o l iii , pp 443 ff

. . . .
( 1 st ed . V Ol
i , pp 32 1 ff )
. . .
2
By
‘
S u b se u e n t qa c u is it i o n s
’
q
is h e r e m e a n t
‘
S u b se u e n t q
q
a c u is it i o n s
’
n o t r e fe r a b le t o t he h e a d o f pr o t s Th is w ill b e fi .
e x pla in e d b e lo w .
2
V o e t , 2 3 4 46 . . .
2
A w r it e r in 2 9 ( 1 9 1 2 ) 3 7 cr it ic i z e s t he phr as e
e x c lu s io n O f t he m a r it a l
‘
po w e r , a n d sa y s I t is c e r t a in t ha t t he
’ ‘
78 THE L AW OF PE RSONS
one of the spou se s ; e xce p t t h a t in t he la st c a se t he m a tte r
m u st b e a dj u st e d b e t we e n t he spou se s o n t he di ssol u t ion
1
of t he m arr ia ge .
On t he ot he r h a n d t he te r m p r ofit s do e s n o t in clu d e
‘
,
( )
a p r op e rt y whi ch b e ca m e du e t o on e o r o th e r of the
2
spo u se s b e fo r e m ar r i a g e ; ( b) a cc e ssio n s ( e
g by a ll u vio n . .
o r in cr e a se d v a l u e or o t h e r wi se ) t o t he se p a r a te p r op e r t y
of h u sb a n d or wife ; ( 0 ) in h e r i t a n ce s le g a cie s o r gift s , ,
a cc ru i n g a ft e r t he m a rr i a ge t o e i t h e r spo u s
3
e Wi t h r e ga r d .
t o t hi s l a st g r ou p diffe r e n ce of opin ion exi st e d wh e t he r i t

fe ll wit hin t he de fini t ion of pr o fit s or n o t Mo st j u r i st s -
‘ ’
.
a n sw e re d t he qu e st io n i n t he n e g a t iv e V o e t di st in gu i sh e s .
a cc o r di n g a s su c h a c qu i sit io n s a re d e r iv e d fr o m st r a n ge r s
o r fr o m p a r e n t s or r e l a t i v e s t o who m t h e re i s a r igh t of
in te sta te su cce ssi on In hi s vie w in t he fir st ca se t he y are .

,
’
‘
p r ofit s in t he se c on d n ot ,
It i s wi t h re g a r d m or e ,
e sp e c i a ll y t o su ch a cqu i sit io n s a s t h e se t h a t it b e co m e s
,
i m port a nt t o de te r m i n e whe t he r a n a n te n u p ti a l c o n tr a c t
fa lls w it hi n t he se con d o r t he t hir d of t he fo u r cla sse s
m e n t io n e d a bove .
Com m u ni t y of p r ofit s in volve s a ls o c o m m u n i t y of lo ss ,
so t h a t if e i t h e r of t h e se i s n a m e d t he o t h e r is t a k e n t o b e
5
i m plie d As b e t we e n t h e m se lve s in de e d the spou se s m a y
.
, ,
m a k e a n y t e r m s t h e y ple a se e g t o sh ar e t he p r ofit s b u t , . .
,
’
t o t h r ow a ll t he losse s o n t he h u sb a n d s e st a te B u t su ch .
V o e t , 2 3 4 3 5 ; i e t he t hin g pu r cha se d is o w n e d in c o m m o n ,
1
. . . .
b u t t he spo u s e w it h w ho se m o n e y i t w a s pu r cha se d is c r e di t e d as
a ga in st t he o t he r spo u se w it h t he m o n e y so e x pe n de d Ho w e v e r , .
pr o pe r t y pu r chas e d st a n t e m a t r im o n io w ill n o t b e c o m e c o m m o n if
t he hu s b a n d in t e n de d t o a c u ir e it e x c lu siv e ly for him s e lf o r fo r q
his w ife V d K 2 5 4 Clo t he s a r e a c a se in po in t V a n L e e u w e n , . .
q
. . . .
. . . j
4 2 4 1 4 Se e B i u k O T i 7 2 7 , w he r e t he u e s t io n is di s cu sse d . . . .
u t r u m r es st a n te m a t r im o n io pe c u n ia d o t a li e m pt a c e n se n da s it
d o t a lis n e on e .
V o e t , 2 3 4 39 ; e g b o u ght b e fo r e m a r r ia ge , de liv e r e d a ft e r
. . . .
m ar r ia ge V d K 2 5 4 . . . . .
3
A n t o n M a t t hae u s , P a r oem i ac , n o 3 ( E r fn is is ge e n w in s t e )
. .
V d K 2 5 2 ; L e e , C om m en ta ry , p 1 1 3
. . . . .
V o e t , 2 3 4 43 Ma t t ha e u s ( u bi su p , s e c s 4—7 ) is o f t he sa m e
. . . . .
o pin i o n wi t h r e ga r d t o le ga c ie s , b u t ho lds t ha t an in h e r it a n c e n e v e r
‘
c o m e s u n de r t h e he a d o f pr o t
’
fi .
5
C en s F or 1 l 1 2 1 8; V o e t , 2 3 4 48
. . . . . . . .
MARRIAGE 79
a c au se l w ill n o t
vail a g a in st cr e d it or s who whe re t h e r e a ,
i s c o m m u n i t y of p r ofit s a r e e n t it le d a t a ll e ve n t s t o , , ,
e n for ce h a lf t he a m o u n t of t h e ir c l a i m a g a in st t he wife s
’
e st a t e .
1
What is
1 ded
The wor d lo sse s 1 s n o le ss Wl de 1 n 1 ts a ppli c a ti on th an $331
‘
.
t he wo r d p r ofit s Wi t hou t a tte m p t in g a c o m ple te e n u m 10 889 8

‘ ’
.
“ ’
cr a t io n of po ssi bl e ca se s of lo ss i t i s e n o u gh t o sa y t h a t it ,
i n clu de s c o m m e r cia l lo sse s which do n o t a tta c h t o t he

2
se p ar a te p r op e r t y of o n e of t he spo u se s o nl y ; a n d l ia bilit ie s
3
a r i sin g o u t of t he po st n u p t i a l c o n tr a c t s of t he h u sb a n d ,
a n d of t he wi fe so fa r as she i s c o m p e te n t t o co n tr a c t 4 .
B u t t he t e r m lo sse s do e s n o t c ov e r t he a n te n u p t ia l d e b t s
‘ ’
5
o r li a b ili t ie s of e i t h e r spo u se n o r li a bili t i e s e x d e li ct o 6 , ,
n o r lo ss or d e te r i o r a t io n of t he se p a r a te p r ope r t y of e i t h e r
7 8
spo u se ; n o r n e ce ssar y e xp e n se s of a n u n u su a l c h a r a c te r Va rio us .
“ m m
The a bove e xpl a n a t io n wi ll e n a ble t he r e a d e r to di s
t in gu i sh t he e ffe ct of a cl au se e x clu di n g co m m u n i t y of
1
C en s F or 1 l 1 2 l l. . . . . .
V o e t , 2 3 4 49 . . . V d K 93 . . . .
A r n t z e n i u s , I n s t J u r C i v B e lg 2 4 2 6 . . . . . . .
5
Voe t 23 4 5 0 , . . .
I n o t he r w o r ds , t he o in t e st a t e i s n o t c ha r ge a b le , a s b e t w e e n j
t he spo u se s , w it h pe c u n ia ry lia b ilit ie s a r isin g e x de lic t o See B o e l .
a d L o e n , n o 1 0 3 , p 67 0 ; V d K 9 4, 22 5 , a n d L o r e n z a d V d K 9 4;
. . . . . . . . .
Na t ha n , C om mo n L a w of S A , v o l iii , pp 1 5 47 —8; i nfr a , p 33 9 . . . . . .
S e e a ls o S a n de , D ec i s F r is 2 5 8; V o e t , 2 3 2 5 6 I t is n o t . . .
fi
. . . .
c le a r t ha t t he e x c lu s i o n o f lia b ilit
y go e s b e y o n d n e s , fo r fe it u r e s ,
& c , o f a pe na l c ha r ac t e r , an d e x te n ds t o w ha t w e n o w ca ll de lic t s
. .
7
V o e t , 2 3 4 49 ; V d K 2 5 7 ; Ver vo lg op de H a ll C on s v o l ii ,
. . . . . . . .
no . 1 9 ( con tr a , n o 3 3 , in spe c ia l c ir c u m sta n c e s ) ; u n l e ss t he l o ss o r

.
de t e r i o r a t io n in p q
u e st io n i s im u t a b le t o t he fa u lt o f t h e o t he r
spo u s e Voe t , 24 3 2 1
. se fu l a n d v o lu pt u a r y e x pe n se s in c u r r e d
. . . U
b y o n e spo u s e in r e spe c t o f t he o t he r s pr o pe r t y m u st b e m a de go o d
’
s o fa r a s t he
pr o pe r t y is fo u n d a t t he dis so lu t io n o f t he m ar r ia ge t o
ha v e b e e n t he r e b y in cr e ase d in v a lu e V o e t , 2 5 1 3—4 ; V d K . . . . . .
2 5 7 , n on o bs ta n te G r 2 1 2 1 5 An y e x c e ss o f v a lu e o v e r o u t la y
. . . .
fi
i s r e c ko n e d as pr o t a n d a c cr u e s t o t he o in t a c c o u n t o f t he spou se s , j
if c o m m u n it y o f pr o t s is n o t e x c lu de d V o e t , ib id
8
fi . .
I m pe n sa e n e c e ssar ia e gr a v io r e s V o e t 2 5 1 2 ; u bi . .
q
.
,
su p Ne c e ssa ry e x pe n s e s ar e su c h a s a r e r e u ir e d t o pr ese r v e
.
pr o pe r t y fr o m de pr e c ia t i o n se fu l e x pe n se s in c r e ase t he v a lu e o f . U
t he pr o pe r t y , t hou gh t he ir o m i ssion w o u ld n o t r e n de r it le ss v a lu
a b le V o lu pt u a r y e xpe n s e s a dd t o i t s a m e ni t y , b u t do n o t r e n de r
.
i t m o r e pr o fi ta b le spe c ie m o m an t n o n fru c t u m a u e n t-
g V oe t ,
2 5 1 1—
.
. 4; L echoana v C lo ete [ 1 9 2 5 ] A D a t p 5 47
. . . . . .
an te n u p goods o n ly ( cla ss 2 su p r a ) a n d of a c la u se e xclu ding bo t h
, ,
t ia l c o n
c o mm u ni t y of goods a n d a l s o co m m u ni t y of p r ofit a n d
t r a c ts dis
lo ss ( cla ss 3 su pr a ) The e ffe ct of a cl a u se e x cl u din g c o m
as r e ga ig
t in gu i sl .
,
t he ir m u n i t y of goo ds o nl y is t h a t t he spo u se s a r e n o t li a ble

ef fe c ts 1
t o c r e di to r s fo r e a c h o t h e r s a n te n u p t i a l d e b t s
’
.
On di s .
( a ) Ex
c lu sio n o f s olu t io n o f m a rr i a g e e a c h of t h e m is cre di te d a s b e t wee n
c om
‘
t h e m se lv e s w i t h wh a t he or she b r ou gh t in t o t he m a rr i a ge 2
,
plu s hi s o r he r su b se qu e n t a c qu i siti o n s n o t be in g p r ofits

‘ ’
,
p l u s h a lf t he n e t b a l a n c e if a n y of p r ofi ts ov e r lo sse s , , .
E a ch of t h e m is de bite d wit h h a lf t he n e t b a l an ce if ,
3
a n y of lo sse s ov e r pr o fit s
,
a n d by co n se qu e n ce wi t h h alf ,
t he ou t st a n di n g po stn u p ti a l d e b t s All t hi s a s b e t w e e n t he .
spou se s The cre dit or s m a y if t h e y pl e a se r e c ov e r t he

.
, ,
whole of t h e ir cl a im fr o m t he hu sb an d in whi ch ca se he ha s ,
t he r igh t of r e co u r se a g a in st hi s wi fe t o t he e x te n t of h a lf .
Th e y m a y a ls o if t h e y c hoo se a fte r t he hu sb a n d s d e a t h
, ,
’
4
re c ove r o n e h a lf b u t n o t m o r e dir e c t ly fr o m t he wife
-
, , .
B u t a cr e di t o r who p r oc e e ds a g a in st t he wife m u st a ve r
a n d p r ov e t h a t t he cl a im ha s b e e n d u ly lodg e d wi t h t he
pe r son c h a r ge d wit h t he a d min i str a ti on a n d di st r ib u t io n

5
of t he c o m m o n e sta te a n d has n o t b e e n sa tisfie d .
If dur in g t he m arr i a ge t he h u sb a n d ha s a ppli e d hi s

wife s p r op e rt y in p a yin g hi s o w n a n te n u p ti a l de b ts t he
’
m on e y so a pplie d c on st itu te s a s b e t w e e n t he spou se s a fir st

6
c h a r ge u po n t he n e t b a l a n ce if a n y of p r ofit s ov e r lo sse s ; , ,
t h a t i s t o sa y t he wife i s fir st cre di te d wi t h it a n d t he
, ,
r e m a in d e r of su ch b a la n c e i s t h e n di vid e d b e t w e e n t he
spo u se s The wife c ann ot cl a im r e p a ym e n t u n t il a ll po st

.
7
n u p t i a l cr e di t o r s h a ve b e e n fu lly sa t is fie d .
1
V o e t , 2 3 4 5 0 ( b e ca u s e po st n u pt ia l de b t s c o u n t as da m n u m ,
‘ ’
. .
a n t e n u pt ia l n o t ) ; V d K 2 5 5 . . . .
2
G r 2 1 2 1 4; V o e t , 2 3 4 3 1 ; V d K 2 5 6
. . . . . . . . .
3
V o e t , 2 3 4 48 . . . G r 1 5 22 . . . .
5
F a u r e v Tu lbagh D i vi s i ona l C ou n ci l ( 1 89 0 ) 8 S C 7 2 ; a n d see
. . .
S ic he l v D e We t ( 1 885 ) 5 E D O 5 8
. . . . .
V o e t , 2 3 4 5 0 V o e t sa y s t ha t in t he a b se n ce o f pr o v is io n
. . .
t o t he c o n t r a r y , t he w ife s pr ope r t y m a y s t a n te m a t r im o n io b e
’
t ake n in e x e c u t io n fo r t he hu s b a n d s a n te n u pt ia l de b t s V a n de r
’
.
K ee sse l ( Th 2 5 5 ) diss e n t s B u t if do n e b y t he hu sb an d s dir e c t io n

’
. .
i t s e e m s t o b e a lo gic a l c o nse u e n c e o f t he m ar it a l po w e r q .
7
V o e t , 2 4 3 2 1 B u t she m a y r e su m e su c h o f he r pr o pe r t y as
. . .
la w c on se qu e n ce s of m ar ri a ge It r e m a in s t o spe a k of .
st ip u l a t i o n s of a n o t h e r kin d n a m e ly t ho se whi c h m a b e
m e nt s .
y , ,
d e scri b e d a s se tt le m e n t s Un de r t his h e a d m ay b e in
‘ ’
.
c l u d e d : ( 1 ) gift s m a d e t o o n e o r o t h e r of t he spo u se s b u t ,
m o r e e sp e c i all y t o t he wife e it h e r by t he h u sb an d or by ,
so m e t hir d p a rt y a n d t a kin g e f fe ct i m m e di a te ly u pon t he

,
c o n c l u sio n of t he m a rri a g e ; ( 2 ) co n t r a ct s wh e r e by t he wife
o r h u sb a n d i s t o re c e i v e s o m e t hi n g by w a y of gift a t s o m e
fu tur e d ate u su a lly u pon t he de a t h of t he o t he r spo u se ;

,
( 3 ) p r ovi sion s r e gu la t in g t he d e volu t ion of t he p r op e rt y '
b r ou gh t in t o t he m arr ia ge ( or p a rt of it ) u po n the di ssolu

t io n of t he m arr i a g e by d e a t h .
To gifts of t he fir st kin d the D u t ch L a w ga ve t he n a m e

ga v e
.
of m or ge n gav e a te r m a pplie d or i gin a lly t o a gift by t he

‘ ’
1
h u sb a n d t o t he wife o n t he m o rn in g a fte r m a rr i a ge A .
p r ovi si o n which t ook e ffe ct o n t he de a th of t he hu sb a n d o r

2
P r i ma faci e t h e r e i s n o l e g a l
‘
wife w a s kn own a s dou ar ie ’
.
obj e ct ion t o a n y su ch gift The a n t e n u p t i a l p a ct w hi ch .
cr e a te s it i s a t a ll e ve n ts b in din g u po n t he spo u se s If
, , .
m a de by t hi r d p a rt ie s t o e i t h e r spo u se o r by t he wi fe t o ,
t he h u sb a n d o r by t he h u sb a n d so a s t o c o n fe r r igh t s o n
, .
t he i ssu e of t he m a rr i a ge i t wou ld by t he D u t ch co m m o n ,
law b e good a g a in st cr e di t or s B u t wh e n a h u sb a n d m a d e .
a gift o r p r o m i se d a do u a r ie t o his wife t he la w w a s o t h e r
wise ; fo r by st atu t or y e n a ctm e n t he r cla im in t his r e gar d

’
w a s o nl y a ll owe d t o t a ke e ffe c t wh e n he r h u sb an d s c re di
t or s ha d b e e n sa t isfie d The la w o n t hi s su bj e c t w a s co n .
Pr o vi sion s t ain e d in t he P e r p e t u a l Edi ct of Ch ar l e s V of O c t ob e r 4 ,
2
1 5 40 Ar t 6 whi ch ru n s a s follows :
,
.
,
I tem , w he r e a s m an y m e r cha n t s t ake u p o n t he m se l v e s t o

‘
c on st it u t e in fa v ou r o f t he ir w i v e s l a r ge do w e r s a n d e x ce ssiv e
gift s and pr o fit on t he ir goo ds a s w e ll in or de r t o con tr a ct a

,
m arr ia ge as to se c u r e t he ir g o ods wi th t he ir a fo r e said w i v e s
2
We sse ls , p 4 6 3 .B o ey .
( Wo or den to lk) sa y s :
‘
M o r ge n gaa v is
a a n d e B r u id ge w o o n is t e d oe n de s
de B r u i de go m
een gift die
a n de r e n da a gs n aa t v o lt r o kk e hu w e ly k a ls e e n b e lo o n in g v a n
’
hae r Ma a gdo m V d K 258

’
. . . . .
2
V d K 25 9 ; V d L
. . . 4 ; We sse ls , u bi su p
. . . .
2
1 G P B 316 . . . .
MARRIAGE 83
a n d c hi l r e n , d and t he r e a ft e r a re fo u n d u na ble
t o pa y a n d
sa t isfy t he ir cr e di t o r s a n d wish t he ir w iv e s
,
a n d wi do w s t o be
pr e fe rr e d be fo re a ll cr e di t o r s t o t he gr e a t in j ur y o f t he
, co u r se
o f co mm e r c e : We w ill a n d o r da in t hat t he a fo r e sa id wi v e s , w ho
he n ce fo rt h sha l l co n t r a ct m a rr i a ge w ith m e r chan t s hall
s n ot
r e ce iv e a n y do w r y ( dou a r i e ) o t he r
pr e t e n d t o , ha v e , o r or
pr o fit o n t he go ods o f t he ir hu sba n ds , or t a ke pa r t po r t io n
or
in t he pr ofits m ade by t he said hu sba n ds o r du r ing t he ir

m arr ia ge [si c] a lt hou gh t he y m ay ha v e b e e n inhe r it e d o r giv e n
,
1
in fe u d u nt il su ch t im e a s a ll t he cr e dit o r s o f t he ir a fo re sa id
,
hu sb an ds sha ll ha v e b e e n p a id o r sa tisfie d ; w ho m w e w ill in

t hi s m atte r t o b e pr e fe rr e d b e fo re t he a fo r e sa id w i v e s a n d
w i do w s sa v in g t o t he l at t e r t he ir r ight o f pr e fe r e n ce t o w hi ch
, ,
t he y a r e e n t itle d by r e a so n o f t he ir m a rr i a ge p o r t io n br o u ght
’
by t he m int o t he m arr iage or giv e n t o t he m or co m in g t o t he m

2
by su cce ssion fr o m t he ir frie n ds a n d r e lat iv e s .
’
The of t he Pla ca a t w a s : ( 1 ) t h a t in ge n e r a l n o
e ffe c t , , e fi e ct .
a n te n u p t i a l c o n t r a ct co u ld se cu r e to a wife a n y p r op e rt y
of t he hu sb a n d in co m p e t it io n wi t h cr e di t or s ; b u t ( 2 ) t h at ,
if she w a s con te nt by a n te n u p t i a l c o n tr a ct t o fo r go a ll
, ,
a dv a n t a ge fr o m t he h u sb a n d s e st a te s he m igh t k ee p he r
’
,
o w n p r op e r t y se cu r e a n d u n i m p a i r e d a n d e n j oy i n re sp e ct
of i t a p r e fe r e n ce ove r cre di t o r s a n d a hyp o the c ove r he r

’ 3
hu sb a n d s goo ds B u t she c o u ld n o t h a ve it bo t h w a ys If
. .
she c l a i m e d t o b e n e fi t fin a n ci a lly by t he m a rr i a ge s he ,
m u st a l so t a k e he r sh a r e in it s b u r de n s In o r de r t o se cu r e .
he r p r op e rt y a g a in st cr e di t or s i t w a s n e ce ssa r y t h a t she
sho ul d b e c o n te n t t o k ee p he r e st a t e e n t ir e ly di st in c t fr o m
t h a t of he r hu sb a n d .
It m u st b e ob se r v e d t h at t hou gh t he Pla ca a t sp e a k s of
,
m e r ch a n t s it w as n e ve r h e ld t o be so li m ite d i n it s
‘ ’
,
4
a pp lic a t io n .
If the pr a cti ce be for e t he p a ssin g of t hi s m e a su r e op e r

a te d i n p r e j u di ce of cr e di t o r s t he e n a ct m e n t ha s in m od e r n
,
t im e s b e e n t hou ght t o b e u n du ly opp r e ssive t o m a rr ie d

5
wom e n Ac cor din gly the la w w a s in so m e of t he coloni e s
.
,
1
Al w ae r t so o da t sy ghe e r ft o ft b e le e n t w a r e n
’
-
.
2
S e e I n r e I n s o lven t E sta te Chi app i n i [ 1 86 9 ] B u ch 1 43 w he r e .
,
2
t he D u t ch te x t is giv e n . I nfr a , p 1 9 7 . .
V d K 2 62
. . . .
5
We sse ls , His tor y , p 46 4 . .
L e gisla a lte r e d by le gisl at io n in the di r e ctio n of se cur in g t he
t i on o n
m a rr ia ge v a lidi t y of se t t l e m e n t s Th u s in t he C a pe Colo n y t he six t h
.
se tt le
a r t icle of t he P e r p e t u a l E di c t w a s r e p e a l e d by A ct 2 1 of
m e n ts in
1
S ou t h 1 87 5 whi c h su b st itu te d o t h e r p r ovi sio n s in i t s pl a ce
, It .
Afri ca
w as wi t hd r a wn fr o m op e r a t io n in a ll t he P r ovi n ce s of t he
.
Un ion by se c 1 of t he I n solve n cy A ct 1 9 1 6 a n d n o w t he
.
, ,
I n solve n cy A ct 1 9 3 6 p r ovi de s ,
Se c 2 7 No i m m e di a te b e n e fi t u n d e r a d u ly re gi ste re d
. .
a n te n u p ti a l co n t r a c t giv e n i n go o d fa i t h by a m a n t o
his wife o r a n y c hild t o b e bo rn of t he m a r r i a ge sh all

b e se t a sid e as a di spo sit ion wi t ho u t v a l u e u n l e ss t h a t ,
m a n s e st a te w a s se qu e str a te d wi t hin t w o ye ars of

’
t he r e gi st r a t io n of t h a t a n t e n u p t i a l co n t r a ct .
A n i m m e di ate b e n e fit s h a ll m e a n a b e n e fit give n by a
‘ ’
t r a n sfe r d e li ve r y p a ym e n t ce ssion ple dge or spe cia l

, , , , ,
m ort ga ge of p r op e r t y c o m ple te d b e for e t he e xp ir a t ion

of a p e r iod of t hr e e m o nt h s a s fr o m t he d a te of t he
ma rr i a ge 2
.
Se c 2 8 ( 2 ) e x c lu d e s fr o m a m a n s i n solve n t e st a te a n y
’
.
poli cy o r poli cie s of life in sur a n ce n ot b e in g a n i m m e ,
di a te b e n e fit a s a bove d e fin e d which a p e r son b e for e ,
o r d u r in g m arr i a ge ha s in good fa i t h e f fe cte d in fa vo u r

of o r c e de d t o or fo r t he b e n e fi t of hi s wife o r c hi ld o r
bot h a t a n y t im e m or e t h a n t w o ye a r s b e fore t he
,
se qu e st r a t io n of hi s e st ate b u t n o t b e yo n d t he a m o u n t ,
of t w o t hou san d pou n d s t oge t he r wi t h a n y bon u s ,
3
c l a i m a bl e i n r e sp e c t t h e r e of .
St ipu l a Clo se ly a ki n wit h a n d som e t im e s i n di stin gu ish a ble fr o m

, ,
t io ns w it h
t h e se t t le m e n t s d e s c r ib e d in t he p r e ce di n g p ar a gr a ph s a r e
r e ga rd t o
‘
r ights o f p a ct s r e l a t in g t o fu tu r e su cc e ssi o n The se a s poi n te d o u t .
,
s u c ce ssi on
u po n
by V oe t m a y r e l a te e it h e r : ( 1 ) t o t he su cce ssion of t he
,
de at h
I t w as r e pe a le d in O F S b y L a w No 2 3 o f 1 89 9 , se c 4, b u t
.
2
. . . . .
r e m a in e d in fo r c e in t h e Tr an s v aa l a n d Na ta l D e c la r e d t o ha v e .
n o o pe r a t io n in Ce y l o n b y O r d No 1 5 o f 1 87 6 , se c 2 3 . . . .
2
S e e M a rs , T he L a w of I ns o lven c y , pp 1 9 9 ff . .
2
S e e a lso t he I nsu r a nce A ct, n o 3 7 of 1 923 , se c s 2 3 ff a n d . . .
45 1 9 0 w h e r e t he e ff e c t o f t hese s t a t u te s is
p , .
co n s i de r e d .
V o e t , 2 3 4 5 7 ( se c 5 8 in t he P ar is e d I n t he fo lio e d se c 5 7 is
. . . . . .
du pl ic a t e d ) .
t r a c t ha s p r ovid e d for the su c ce ssion of o n e t o t he o th e r ,
a l t e r a t io n o r r e voc a t io n by will is p e r m i t te d b u t i t m u st ,
b e a m u tu a l will of t he spo u se s Fu r t h e r su ch a will is .

,
m e r e ly a m b u l a t o r y in e ffe ct i e r e vo c a ble a t a n y t i m e
‘ ’
. .
,
b e fo r e de a t h Th e r e fore e it h e r spo u se m a y by a su b se
.
, .
qu e nt will wi t hou t the con cur r e n c e or e ve n kn owle dge of

,
t he o t h e r r e voke s o m u ch of t he j oin t will a s co n c e rn s

,
hi m se lf or h e r se lf a lon e a n d r e v e rt t o t he di spo sit ion s c o n

t a in e d in t he o r igin a l co n tr a ct I n de e d e ve n a ft e r t he .
,
d e a t h of t he fir st spou se t he su r vivor ha s t he sa m e r ight ,
of r e p u di atin g t he j oin t te st a m e nt con di t ion a lly howe ve r , , ,
u po n d e cli n in g a ll b e n e fi t u n d e r i t
1
Wh e n t he spou se s .
h a ve by a n t e n u p t ia l co n tr a c t p r ovide d t h a t som e t hir d

p e r son o r p e r s o n s sh a ll su cce e d t o t he se ve r a l sh are s o n t he
di ssolu t io n of t he m arr i a ge bo t h spo u se s by m u t u a l will ,
or e i t h e r spo u se by hi s o r he r se p a r a te will m a y fr e e ly
2
d e p art fr o m t hi s a gr e e m e n t Bu t t he law is o t he r wise if .
t he in t e n d e d su c c e ssor w a s a p ar t y t o t he a n te n u p t i a l
s
c o n t r a ct a n d a c qu ir e d a con tr a ctu a l r ight u n de r it .
Wh e n t he fu tur e su cce ssion t o c hildr e n w a s the su bj e c t of

t he a n te n u p t ia l p a ct in H oll a n d n o t onl y m igh t t he ,
spo u se s ( o r t he su r vivo r of t h e m ) a l te r t he a rr a n g e m e n t by
te st a m e n t b u t t he child r e n h a vi n g r e a ch e d t he a ge of
, ,
t e st a m e n t ar y c a p a cit y m igh t do t he like a fte r t h e ir ,
p ar e n ts de at h Th e y m igh t a lso fr e e ly a li en ate the pr o

’
.
p e r t y by a ct i n ter vi vos Thi s m u st b e u n de r st ood of .

,
c o u rse o n ly wh e r e t h e r e w a s n o fide i c o m m issu m in fa vo u r

,
1
Voe t, 2 3 4 62 Va n L e e u w e n , 4 2 4 1 2 ; V d K 2 65
. . . . . . .
B ijn k O T i 3 41 ; Ver vo lg op de H o ll C on s ii 80 ; i nfr a , p 3 9 2

. . . . . . . . .
2
Vo e t , 2 3 4 6 3 No t e t he di s t in c t io n b e t w e e n t his c ase ,
. .
a n d t he c as e m e n t i o n e d a b o v e , pr o v idi n g fo r t h e s u c c e ssio n o f
t he spo u s e s i n ter s e This is b in din g as a c o n t r ac t , r e v o c a b le

.
o n ly b y m u t u a l c o n se n t ( E x p a r te E x or s E s t E ve r a r d [ 1 9 3 8] . .
T P D 1 9 0 ; B u ll v E x ecu tr i x E s t B u ll [ 1 9 40 ] W L D
. . . . Bu t . . . .
a c la u s e pr o v i din g for t h e su c ce ss io n o f a t hir d pa r t y ha s m e r e ly
t he e fi e c t o f a t e s t a m e n t a r y di spo sit i o n , cu m in o r din a n dis

‘
s u cc e ss io ni b u s pa c t i n o n s it m a o r v is u am t e sta m e n t i , B i n k
’
j j q .
O T u bi su p
. . .
2
Voe t , 23 4 64 A t e n de n c y has r e ce n t ly de v e lo pe d t o
. .
re gar d t he in t e n de d s u c c e ssor s , e g c hil dr e n , b o r n o r u n b or n , as . .
q
ac u ir in g r ight s as b e n e c ia r ie s o f a s tip u la ti o a lte ri fi
E x p a r te .
B a ls i lli e [ 1 9 2 8] C P D 2 1 8; E x p a r te S ills [ 1 9 2 8] E D O 2 7 8
. . . . . . .
MARRIAGE 87
of u lte r io r su c c e ssor s Wh e n a t hir d p er son ha s b e c o m e .

1
a p a r t y t o t he co n t ra c t a n d ha s u n d e r t a ke n t o l e a ve hi s
o w n p r op e rt y in a p a r t i cu l ar w a y su ch u n de rt a ki n g ha s ,
t he for ce of a c o n tr a c t a n d c a n on ly b e r e vok e d wi t h t he ,
2
c o n se n t of t he o t h e r p a r t ie s t o t he a gr e e m e n t .
SE C TI O N 5 — D I S S O L UTI O N or MAR RIA G E — N ULLI TY

D ivor ce vin cu lo m a t r im o n u is de cr e e d by t he Co u r t Div or ce
a a
10
a t t he su it of o n e o r o t h e r spo u se o n t he gr ou n d of : £ 233
4 m onii
( )
1 a d u l te r y ;
2
o r ( )
2 m a li c i o u s d e se r t i o n ; t o which s o m e
a u t ho r it ie s by a n e x te n sive in te r p r e t a t i o n a dd ( 3 ) sodo
, ,
m y ; a n d ( 4) p e r p e t u a l im p r i so n m e n t
5 6
Re li e f will b e .
r e fu se d i f t he Co u r t fin d s t h a t : ( a ) t he p e t it i o n e r ha s d u r in g
t he m a rri a ge b e e n a cce ssor y t o or conn ive d a t t he a du l te r y

7
c o m pl a in e d of ; or ( b) t he p e t it i o n e r ha s co n do n e d t he
8
a d u l te r y c o m pl a in e d of ; o r ( c ) t he pe t it io n i s p r e se n te d o r
2
p r o se cu te d in c oll u sio n wit h e ith er of t he re spon de n t s ;
a n d i s u su a lly r e fu se d ( d) i f t he Co u rt fin d s t h a t t he p e t i
10
t io n e r ha s b e e n gu ilt y of a d u lte r y d u ri n g t he m a rr i a ge .
2
Gr 2
2 9 3 ; V o e t , 2 3 4 66
. . . . .
2
2 3 4 67
Voe t , . .
3
5 1 8; V a n L e e u w e n , 1 1 5 1 ; V o e t 2 4 2 5
Gr 1 . . . . . . . . .
2 4 2 9 ; We bber v We bber [ 1 9 1 5 ] A D 2 3 9 ; M or ton v

Voe t , . . . . . .
M or ton [ 1 9 3 4] C P D 5 1 ; L edi m o v L edi m o [ 1 9 40 ] O P D 6 5 ;

. . . . . . .
( Ce y lon ) Ra m a li n ga m v Ra ma li n ga m ( 1 9 3 3 ) 3 5 N L R 1 7 4 . . . . .
5
S c hor e r a d G r u bi s u p ; V d K 88; V d L 1 3 9 ; M cG i ll v. . . . . . . . . . .
M cG i ll [ 1 9 2 6 ] N P D 39 8 . . . .
V d K 89 ; V d L lo c c it
. . . oos te v o os te ( 1 90 7 ) 2 4 S C 3 2 9 ;
. . . . . J . J . .
S m i th v S m i th [ 1 9 43 ] C P D 5 0 ; b u t n o t o n t he gr ou n d o f a n
. . . .
in de t e r m in a t e se n t e n c e ( Vo eges v Vo eges [ 1 9 2 2 ] T P D or . . . .
o f a se n t e n c e o f t e n y e ar s im pr is o n m e n t , fi v e y e ar s o f w h ic h h a d
’
e x pir e d , I n r e G ibs on [ 1 9 1 2 ] N P D 2 0 4 ; w he r e se e c o m m e n t o n . . .
’
J oos te s case .
7
H as ler v Has ler ( 1 89 6 ) 1 3 S C 3 7 7 ; B eva n v B eva n [ 1 9 0 8]
. . . .
T H 1 93
. . .
2
B e ll v B e ll [ 1 9 0 9 ] T S 5 0 0 ; R ow e v R ow e [ 1 9 2 2 ] W L D 43 ;
. . . . . . .
E lli o tt v E lli ott [ 1 9 2 5 ] C P D 2 86 ; C v C , 1 9 43 ( 1 ) P H , B 2 6

. . . . . . . . . .
H end e r s on v H ender s on [ 1 9 44] A O 49 . . . .
2
M a lc olm v M a lco lm [ 1 9 2 6 ] C P D 2 3 5 . . . . .
2°
V oe t , 2 4 2 6 ; New ood v New o od [ 1 9 3 9 ] C P D 41 4 ; M u ller
. . . . . . V .
M u lle r [ 1 9 41 ] C P D 33 2 T he Co u r t has discr e t io n t o c o n do n e

. . . .
pla in t iff s a dul t e r y , b u t pla in t iff m u st pr e se n t a v e r y s t r o n g c as e ,

’
Chon g v C han g [ 1 9 42 ] C P D 1 9 2 ; F er n a n dez v F e rn a nd ez [ 1 9 43 ]

. . . . .
C P D 3 6 3 B r o w nj ohn v B r ow njohn 1 9 44 ( 1 ) P H , B 1 5
. . . . .
Z Z
. .
e li e v e li e [ 1 9 44] C P D 2 0 9
. . . . .
Un du e d e l a y in t a kin g p r oc e e di n gs m a y j u st ify t he
in fe re n c e t h at t he a du lte r y ha s b e e n c o n do n e d b u t i s n ot ,
1
in i t se lf a gr ou n d for wi t hholdi n g r e lie f .
The D ivo r ce L a w s A m e n d m e n t A c t 1 9 3 5 a dd s t w o , ,
fur t h e r gr o u n ds of di vo r ce v iz ( 5 ) in c u r a ble in s a ni ty ,
.
wh i ch ha s co n t i n u e d fo r a p e r i od of n o t le ss t ha n se ve n
2
ye ar s ; a n d ( 6 ) i m p r i so n m e n t fo r n o t le ss t h a n fiv e ye a rs
a fte r t he p r i so n e r ha s b e e n d e cl ar e d a n h a bi t u a l c ri m in a l
u n d e r A c t No 3 1 of 1 9 1 7 se e .
, .
It m u st b e n o t e d t h a t cru e l t y i s n o t in S ou t h Afr i ca ( as
4
it n o w i s in E n gl a n d ) a gr o u n d fo r a d e cr e e of divor ce b u t ,
i s a n e le m e n t t o b e t a k e n in t o a cc ou n t i n d e te rm ini n g
wh e t h e r t he con du ct of the de fe n d an t a m o u n t s t o wh at is
5
c a ll e d co n s tru c t iv e d e se r t io n .
Wh e n a n a ction is b r ou ght for divo r ce o n t he gr ou n d of

m a lici ou s d e se rt ion t he p r a ct ic e i s t o a sk fo r a n o r d e r fo r
r e st itu t io n of co n j u g a l r igh t s fa ilin g which fo r divo r c e
6
.
,
The Co u rt ha s n o powe r t o dis p e n se wi t h t he p r e li m i n ar y

7
or de r .
2
C a r ey v Ca r ey [ 1 9 3 1 ] C P D 465 . . . . .
2
In E n glish L a w fi v e y e a r s M a t r im o n ia l Ca u se s A c t , 1 9 3 7 , .
se c 2 . I n S R ho de s ia fi v e y e a rs w it h in t he t e n y e a rs im m e dia t e l y
. .
pr e ce di n g t he c o m m e n c e m e n t o f t he a c t io n for di v o r c e Ma t r i .
m o n ia l Cau s e s A c t , 1 9 43 , se c 4 . .
2
S R ho de s i a fo r fi v e y e a r s w it h in t he la st t e n y e a r s Ib id
. . .
2
A n d in S R ho de sia I b id . . .
i e c o n du c t o n t he pa r t o f e it he r spo u s e c o m pe llin g t he o t he r
. .
t o go a w a y 44 .
p 3 2 ; Whe la n v Whe la n [ 1 9 2 5 ] . .
W L D 1 6 2 ; S olom on v S olom on [ 1 9 2 7 ] W L D 3 30 ; Otto v Otto

. . . . . . . .
[ 1 9 3 0 ] W L D 2 5 1 ; O B r i e n v O B r i en [ 1 9 3 8] W L D 2 2 1 ;
’ ’
. . . . . . .
C o lli n s v Co lli ns [ 1 9 39 ] W L D 48; P os t v P os t [ 1 9 3 1 ] N P D 1 1 7

. . . . . . . . .
P e r sist e n t r e fu sa l t o c o ha b i t Qu a dli ng v Qu a dli n g [ 1 9 3 7 ] N P D . . . . .
319 .
Ca pe R u le s o f Co u r t , 3 7 1 ( In gr a m a n d de Villi e r s , p .
7
A ldr ed v A ldr ed [ 1 9 2 9 ] A D 3 5 6 Th e o r de r w il l b e m a d e e v e n
. . . .
t h o u gh de fe n da n t 1 s de t a in e d i n pr is o n o r in an in e b r ia te r e fo rm a
t o r y ( Con i n gs by v C on i n gs by [ 1 9 2 3 ] C P D 443 ; Va n de r Nes t . . . .
v . Va n der Nes t [ 1 9 2 5 ] W L D 1 2 ; S a u erm a n v S a u e r m a n [ 1 9 2 8] . . . .
C P D
. . b u t w ill n o t n e c e s sa r ily b e fo llo w e d b y a de c ree o f
.
di v o r c e ( Ha yes v Ha yes [ 1 9 2 8] T P D A st a te m e n t b y a
. . . .
l a in t iff w h o a sks fo r a n o r de r o f r e st it u t io n , t h a t e v e n if t he
p ,
de fe n da n t c o m pli e s w i t h t he o r de r he [she ] w ill n o t r e c e iv e b ac k,

o r go b a ck t o , t he d e fe n da n t i s n o t in i t se lf a gr o u n d for r e fu s in g
t he o r de r I t is a c ase in w hic h t he Co u r t w ill e x e r c ise it s dis

.
c r e t io n M i tche ll v M i tche ll [ 1 9 22 ] C P D 43 5 ; Va n Rooye n v Va n

. . . . . .
B u t t he Co u r t wi ll n ot de p r ive t he g u il t y p ar t y of the sh ar e
of the j oin t e sta te whi ch he o r she m a y h a ve con tr ib u t e d 1
.
The inn oc e n t spou se i s a s a g e n e r a l ru le e n t it le d t o t he

c u st ody of m in or chi ldr e n b u t t he Co u r t ha s a wi de di s ,
cr e t ion a n d m a y gr a n t the cu st ody t o t he gu ilt y p a rt y if

2
t he w e lfar e of t he childr e n r e qu ir e s it The spo u se who .
3
is n o t a wa r d e d t he c u st ody ha s a r igh t of r e a so n a ble a cce ss
a n d m ay i n vok e t he Co u r t s i n te r v e n t i o n if i t i s a ll e g e d
’
t h a t t he r i gh t of co n t r ol is n o t b e in g ex e r ci se d in t he
4
in te re st of t he ch ildr e n .
The Co u r t ( sem ble ) ha s n o powe r t o o r d e r a g u il t y hu sb a n d

t o m a i n t a in a n in n oce n t wife who ha s ob t a in e d a d e cr e e
5
of divor c e a ga in st hi m .
D ivor ce d p e r son s ar e fr e e t o m arr y a ga in su bj e ct on ly

t o st a t u t or y r e st r ict io n s o n m a rr i a g e wit h a divor ce d wife s
’
5 ’
si ste r a n d a divo r ce d h u sb a n d s b r o t h e r .
In g e n e r a l n o a b se n ce of o n e of t he spou se s how e ve r
, ,
p r olo n ge d e n t it le s t he o t he r spo u se t o co n tr a c t a n o t he r
,
m a rr i a ge e ve n t ho u gh fo r p ur po se s of a dmi n i st r a t io n t he
,
7
Co u r t m a y h a ve p r e su m e d t he a b se n t spo u se s d e at h ’
.
If t he o t h e r spou se r e m a rr i e s t he r e is a lwa ys t he r i sk -
t h a t t he m a rr ia g e m ay b e p r on ou n ce d in v alid in t he e ve n t
1
C e lli e r s v C e l li e r s [ 1 9 0 4] T S 9 2 6 ; ( Ce y lo n ) D e S i lva v
. . . .
D e S i lva ( 1 9 2 5 ) 2 7 N L R 2 89 . . . .
2
Cr onj e v Cr onj e [ 1 90 7 ] T S 87 1 ; . la s s v lass [ 1 9 2 4] . . K . K
W L D 1 3 6 ; Cook v C ook [ 1 9 3 7 ] A D 1 5 4
. . . . . . .
5
L e e le r v G r os sm a n [ 1 9 3 9 ] W L D a t p 44 p er S c hr e in e r J
. . . . . .
S i m le i t v C u n lifi e [ 1 9 40 ] T P D 6 7
. . . .
S chu ltz v S chu ltz [ 1 9 2 8] O P D 1 5 5 ; T a ylor v T a ylor [ 1 9 2 8]

5
. . . . .
W L D 2 1 5 ; ( Ce y lo n ) E ber t v E ber t ( 1 9 39 ) 40 N L R 3 88;

. . . . . . .
1 M aa sdo rp , p 1 2 8 Th e o r de r ha s , h o w e v e r , b e e n m a de o n s e v e r a l
. .
o cc a s io n s T om s v T oms [ 1 9 2 0 ] C P D 45 5 M i lle r v M i lle r [ 1 9 2 5 ]

. . . . . .
E D L a t p 1 2 6 The la w o f S R h pe rm it s it M a t r im o n ia l Cau se s
. . . . . . . .
A c t , 1 9 43 , se c 9 . .
5
A ppe n d i x C .
7
I n r e B ooys en ( 1 880 ) F o o r d 1 87 As t o t he c ir cu m st a n c e s in .
w hic h t he Co ur t w ill m a ke a n o r de r pr e su m in g d e a t h se e I n r e
Widdi com be [ 1 9 2 9 ] N P D 3 1 1 In I n r e Cu thbert [ 1 9 3 2 ] N P D . . . . . . .
6 1 5 a pe r so n ha d n o t b e e n he a r d o f fo r t h ir ty y e ar s The Co u r t .
de c lin e d t o pr e su m e his de a t h , b u t a u t ho r iz e d t he M as t e r t o pa y
t he c hildr e n t he shar e s w hic h w o u ld ha v e c o m e t o t he m a b
i nt es ta to , c o n dit io n a lly u po n t he ir giv in g se cu r it y de r es ti tu en do .
F o r com mor i e n tes se e Win ds c he id, i 5 3 ; E x p a r te M a r tie ns sen .
[ 1 9 44] C P D 1 3 9 . . . .
MARRIAGE 91
of t he a b se n t spou se s re tur n This w a s t he la w in H oll a n d ’

.
,
wit h t he qu a lific a t io n t h a t t he Co u r t mi ght wit h t he co n

se n t o f a ll t he p a r t ie s c o n ce r ne d d e cl a r e t he fir st m a r r i a ge
di ssolve d a n d p e r m i t t he fir st h u sb a n d t o c on t r a ct an o t h e r
m a rr i a ge 1
B u t fo r t he G en era li tei ts la nden ( t h a t i s t he
.
la n ds u n de r t he con t r ol of t he St a te s G e n e r a l a n d n o t of -
a n y o n e of t he P r ovi n c e s ) t he E cht Reglem en t of Mar ch 1 8 -
1 6 5 6 se e 90 a llowe d a spou se who se h u sb an d o r wife ha d

, .
,
b e e n a b se n t fo r fiv e ye ars t o a pply t o t he Cour t for le a ve _
to re m a rr y
2
It ha s b e e n sa i d t h at t hi s e n a ct m e n t m a y
-
.
fa ir ly b e sa id t o h a ve b ee n in corp or a te d in t o t he co m m on
la w of Sou t h b u t wh e t h e r t hi s a rt icle in p art i c ul ar
4
has b e e n so in c or por a te d re m a ins u n d e cide d It w ill be .
re m ar k e d t h a t t hi s li ce n ce t o r e m arr y do es n o t p r o ce e d -
u po n a p r e su m p t io n of d e a t h a n d i s di st i n ct fr o m a d e cree
5
of divo r ce o n t he gr o u n d of m a li ci o u s d e se rt i o n .
Ju dicia l se p a r at ion a m e n sa e t t ho r o is d e c re e d by the Ju di cial

ps “ .
Co u r t o n t he gr o u n d of cr u e lt y o r o t he r u nl a w fu l c o n du ct ti
of the de fe n d a n t r e n de rin g c o n t in u e d c oh a b it a t i on dan
“
ge r c u s o r in t ole ra ble o r of m a licio u s d e se r t ion 7
The , .
1
Vo e t i n fin ; K e r st e m a n , Wo or de n b oe k su b voce .
D is s o lut i e ; L e e , C om me nta r y , p 1 1 . .
2
2 G P B 2 444 . . . .
2
S u pr a , p 2 7 . .
See E s t H e i n a ma n n v E s t H ei n a m a n n [ 1 9 1 9 ] A D a t p 1 1 4
. . . . . .
Ex p a r te K
e r khof [ 1 9 2 4] T P D 7 1 1 ; 1 2 Ca p e L a w J ou r n a l . . .
p 1 65 ; B u r ge , l st c d , v o l i , p 1 5 1
. . . . .
5
This a ppe ars c le ar ly fr o m t he On tw erp o f 1 9 2 0 , se e 422 , .
w hic h sa y s t ha t a m a rr i a ge is de t e r m in e d b y 1 T he a b se n ce o f . .
o n e o f t he spo u se s dur in g t e n y e a r s fo llo w e d b y a n o t he r m a rr ia ge
o f t h e o t he r spo u se c o n se u e n t u po n a u d ic ia l dec r e e q
2 D iv o r ce j . . .
3 D e a th
. B u t in E n glis h L a w t he Co u r t is n o w e m po w e r e d
.
( Ma t r im o ni a l Ca u s e s A c t 1 9 3 7 , se e 8) in su c h c ir cu m s ta n c e s t o .
m a ke a de c r e e o f pres u m pt io n o f de a t h a n d o f di ss o lu t io n o f t he
m a rr ia ge .
5
G r 1 5 2 0 ; Van L e e u w e n , 1 1 5 3 ; V o e t , 2 4 2 1 6 ; V d L
. . . . . . . . . .
1 3 9 ; Wen tze l v Wen tze l [ 1 9 1 3 ] A D 5 5 ; T he r on v The r on

. . . . . .
[ 1 9 2 4] A D 2 44 ( pr e n u pt ia l m i sc o n du c t o f su c h a c har ac t e r as
. .
-
t o r e n de r c o ha b it a t io n u n b e a r a b le ) ; A i n s bu r y v A i n s bu r y [ 1 9 2 9 ] .
A D 1 0 9 ; Che e k v Chee k [ 1 9 3 5 ] A D 33 6 ; H e n ry
. . . H en r y [ 1 9 3 5 ] . . V .
C P D 2 2 4 ; A lle n v A lle n [ 1 9 3 5 ] C P D 5 5 7
. . . . . . . .
7
Co n t r ar y t o t he pr ac t ice w he n di v o r c e is c la im e d o n t his
gr ou n d, t he de cr e e m a y b e gr an t e d a b so lu t e ly , w it h o u t a pr e
lim in ar y o r de r fo r t he r e st it u t io n o f c o n u ga l r ight s J ohn s ton e j . V .
r e sul t is t o li e ve t he p art ie s fr o m the p e r son al co nse
re
qu e n ce s of m arr i a g e b u t n o t t o di ssolve t he m a rri a g e , .
A s r e g a r ds t he e ffe c t of su ch a d e cr e e u po n t he p r op r i e t a r y
r igh t s of t he spo u se s t he D u t ch a u t ho r i t ie s a re by n o
m e a n s a gr e e d 2
In t he m ode r n p r a ct i c e t he m a t te r is v e r y
.
m u ch in t he dis cr e t io n of t he Cou r t The m a rr i a g e r e

‘
.
m a ins in fo r ce wit h a ll it s con se qu e n ce s e xce p t in so far a s

an
y of t h e m m ay b e m o di fie d by t he d e cre e The .
Co u rt m a y d e te r m in e a s m an y of t he in cide n t s of t he
2
m a rr i a ge con t r a ct a s t he j u st i ce of t he ca se r e qu ir e s An
’
.
o r de r is u su a lly m a de if a sk e d for dir e ct in g a di vi sio n , ,
“
of the co m m o n e st a te or a r e scissi o n of a n y a n te n u p tia l ,
p r o m i se which t he inn oce n t spo u se m a y h a ve m a de of a

gift t o t a ke e ffe ct o n his or he r de at h or a t s o m e ot h e r ,
fu t u r e d a te con di tion a lly howe ve r o n r e n u n ci a t io n by

, , ,
2
t he in n o ce n t spou se of an y c o rr e spo n din g a dv a n t a g e
‘
The e ffe ct of su ch a n o r de r i s t o su spe n d t he co m m u ni t y ,
a n d t o fr e e e it h e r spou se fr o m li a bili t y fo r t he o t h e r s d e b t s
’
“
su b se qu e n t ly co n t r a cte d F urt h e r if t he h u sb an d b e .
,
c o m e s in s olve n t t he wife r a n k s a s a p r e fe rre d c r e di t o r fo r

,
“
h a lf of t he co m m on e st ate A de cr e e of a li m on y for t he .
7
wife li e s in t he di scr e t io n of t he Co u rt .
J ohns ton e [ 1 9 1 7 ] A D 2 9 2 ; A ldr ed v A ldr ed [ 1 9 2 9 ] A D 3 5 6 ;

. . . . .
D u n ca n v D u n ca n [ 1 9 3 7 ] A D 3 1 0
. . . .
2
Sch o re r a d G r 1 5 2 0 ; V oe t , 2 4 2 1 7 V d K 9 0 ; 1 Maas do r p,
. . . . . . . .
p 88
—
.
2
Wesse ls v Wesse ls ( 1 89 5 ) 1 2 S C a t pp 47 0 1
. . . . .
2
B u t se e G er i ke v G e r i ke ( 1 9 00 ) 1 4 E D C 1 1 3 ; S w a r t v S w a r t
. . . . .
[ 1 9 2 4] N P D 1 0 4
. . . .
Wess e ls v Wess els , u bi su p a t p 46 9 ; 1 M aa s do r p, p 89

. . . . .
F o r fe it u r e w i ll b e de cr ee d o f b e n e t s n o t y e t a c cru e d , b u t n o t o f fi
fi
b e n e t s a lr e a dy a c cr u e d su ch a s a c o m ple t e d gift Wes se ls v . .
Wesse ls , a t p 47 0 ; M u lle r v M u ller [ 1 9 2 9 ] W L D 1 6 1 ; e v e n

. . . . .
t ho u gh t he c o n t r ac t ha s pr o v i de d fo r t he fo r fe it ur e o f all b e n e t s fi
in t he e v e n t o f t he spou se s b e c o m in g se pa r a t e d o r liv in g a pa r t .
G or don v G or don [ 1 9 2 9 ] W L D 1 65
. . . . .
5
Ne a le v Nea le ( 1 9 0 3 ) 2 0 S C 1 9 8 L e vi n v L e vi n [ 1 9 1 1 ] C P D
. . . . . . .
1 0 2 6 ; Vi nc en t v Vi n ce n t [ 1 9 1 4] A D 3 7 9 ; B a n ks v C le m en t N D
. . . . .
[192 1] C P D 1 9 7
. . . .
I /a zm oor v I/u zmo or [ 1 90 5 ] T H 7 4

‘
2
. To as ce r t a in w ha t t his . . .
ha lf s ha r e a m o u n t s t o , t he de b ts o f t he c o m m o n e st a t e u p t o t he
da t e o f t he o r de r o f t he Co ur t m u s t , o f co u r se , b e r st de du c t e d , fi
a n d she w ill b e e n t i t le d t o ha lf o f w ha t re m a in s P e r Sm i t h J
’
. .
7
Vo et , 2 4 2 1 5 ; 2 4 4 1 8
. . . . .
of good s o r the r e ve rse fix e d as a t t he t i m e of m a rr i a ge
B u t i t c a nn ot b e sa id t h a t a n y c o n si ste n t do ct r in e is ye t
e st a bli sh e d by t he d e ci sion s
“
.
P e r h a p s t he b e tter vi e w is th a t a j u di ci a l o r de r of se p a r a
t io n m u st b e se t a sid e by t he Co u r t b e fo re e it h e r p a rt y
c a n su e fo r ar e st it u t io n of c o n j u g a l r igh t s ; t h a t n o o r d e r
3
fo r r e st itu t io n m a y b e m a d e d u r in g t he su b si ste n ce of a n
e x t r a j u di ci a l a gre e m e n t of se p ar a t i o n a n d t h a t c l a i m s fo r
-
ca n ce ll a t io n of t he a gr e e m e n t a n d fo r r e st i t u t io n c a n n o t
2
b e e n te rt a in e d i n t he s a m e a ct io n
‘
A d e cre e of se p a ra t io n wit h or wi t hou t di v isio n of pr o

pe rt y i s a lwa ys p r ovi sion a l b e in g m a de a s t he phr ase is , , ,
su b spe r e c o n cili a t io nis in t he hop e t h a t t he p a r t ie s will ,
“
b e r e c o n c il e d a n d c o m e t oge t h e r a ga in Thi s is w hy a .
Sou t h Afri c a n Co u r t r e fu se d t o r e c ogn i z e a S co t t i sh d e cr e e

of se p ar a t io n e xp re sse d t o t a k e e ffe ct in all t im e ‘
If t he spo u se s r e su m e coh a bit a t io n t he d e cr e e c e a se s to

7
op e r a te .
The Cou rt m u st r e ca ll a d e cree of se p ar a t io n if t he

“
p ar t ie s d e sir e it a n d m a y do so in it s d iscr e t ion fo r a n y
,
su fficie n t c a u se Th u s if o n e of t he spo u se s ha s c o m m itte d

.
,
a d u l t e r y a n d t he i nn o ce n t p a r t y d e sir e s a di vo r ce t he ,
Co u r t ha s powe r t o se t a side a p r e vi o u s d e cr e e of se p a r a
t i o n t og e t h e r wi t h a n y o r d e r a s t o t he divi sio n of t he j oin t
e st a te Thi s m a y b e m o re a dva n t a ge ou s t o t he i nn o ce n t
.
2
P e r Mu r r a y J D e B eer v D e B eer a t p 2 3 3 ; V d K D icta t ad . . . . . .
Gr 3 21 11
. . . .
2
D a n o vi c h v D a n o vi ch s E x or s [ 1 9 1 9 ] T P D 1 9 8 is in c o n
’
. . . . .
c lus iv e D e B e er v D e B e er t o so m e e x t e n t l e a v e s t h e
. u e st io n o pe n q .
2
De ock v K
De o ck [ 1 9 42 ] O P D
. K
1 40 ( Ye ld v Ye ld [ 1 9 1 9 ] . . . .
C P D 1 0 3 n o t fo ll o w e d )
—j
. . . .
2
G r o ble r v G r o ble r [ 1 9 43 ] O P D 1 9 2 See a lso
. u di c ia l se par a . . . .
t io n , S m i t v S m i t [ 1 9 0 9 ] T S 1 0 6 7 ; S le z v S le z [ 1 9 1 3 ] W L D
1 0 9 ; G r i n ke r v G r i n ker [ 1 9 40 ] W L D 2 3 6 —v o lu n t a r y se pa r a t io n ,
. . . . . . .
. . . .
S to n e v S ton e [ 1 9 1 7 ] C P D 1 43 ; Cr isp v Cr isp [ 1 9 3 4] W L D

. . . . . . . .
2 6 ; M os es v M o ses [ 1 9 3 5 ] C P D 2 4
. . . . .
5
S c ho r e r a d G r 1 5 2 0 ; L e e , C om m e n ta r y , p 2 0 ; B a n ks v
. . . . .
C le m e n t N O [ 1 9 2 1 ] C P D 1 9 7 ; Vi n ce nt v Vi n ce n t [ 1 9 1 4] A D
. . . . . . . .
3 7 9 ; L e vi n e v L e vi n e [ 1 9 3 9 ] C P D 9 7
. . . . .
5
M cNa u ght v M cNa u ght [ 1 9 3 7 ] W L D 1 0 3 . . . . .
7
D e Vi lli er s v D e Vi lli e r s [ 1 9 3 8] C P D 5 6 5
. . . . .
5
Va n Z yl v Va n Z yl [ 1 9 2 5 ] T P D 1 3 0 . . . . .
MARRIAGE 95
s pou se who is e n title d t o a sk fo r a n o r de r of for fe itu r e

,
by t he gu ilty spo u se of a n y p r opr ie t a r y b e n e fit s de r ive d

1
fr o m t he m arr i a ge .
The Cou rt w il l m a ke a d e cre e of n u lli t y wh e n t he e sse n

t i a l c o n dit io n s of a v a lid m a rr i a g e a r e w a n tin g a n d t he
a pp a r e n t m a rr i a g e w a s t h e r e fo re vo i d a b i n i ti o o r wh e n
‘ ’
, , ,
t he m a rr i a g e is vo id a bl e a t t he su i t of o n e of t he p art ie s
t o it o r of a t hi r d p a rt y .
I n p a rt ic u l ar t he followin g gr o u n d s of n u ll it y m ay b e
sp e cifie d : ( 1 ) m ist a k e a s t o t he n a t u r e of t he c e r e m o n y a s ,
for e x a m ple wh e n o n e of t he p a r t ie s su ppo se d it t o b e a

2
c e r e m o n y of e spou sa l s n o t of m arr i a ge ; ( 2 ) m ist a ke a s ,
2
t o t he i d e n t it y of t he o t h e r p ar t y t o t he c on t r a ct ; ( 3)
fr a u d o r d u r e ss if of a ch ar a cte r t o e xclu de ge nu i ne a n d
,
fr e e co n se n t ( 4) in sani t y or arr e ste d m e n t a l de ve lop

5
m e n t e x ist in g a t t he t i m e of t he ce re m on y ; ( 5 ) i m m a t u r i t y
( o n e o r o t h e r p a r tie s b e low t he a ge of m a rr i a ge ) ; ( 6 ) re l a
t io n shi p wit hin the p r ohi b ite d d e g re e s ; ( 7 ) se r i ou s ir r e gu
la r ity i n t he p u bli c a t ion of b a nn s t he issu e of a li c e n ce o r , ,
t he ce le b r a tio n of t he m ar r i a ge ( 8) if t he m a rri a ge w as
7
biga m o u s .
In t he a bove c a se s t he m a rr i a g e is void a b i n i ti o Th e re .
a r e o t h e r c a se s i n w h i c h t he m a rr i a ge i s n o t void bu t ,
void a ble v iz ( 9 ) in c a se of i m po te n cy e xi stin g a n te ce

, .
~
de n t ly t o t he m arr ia ge a n d sin ce c o n t inu in g ( 1 0 ) in c a se

2
Ye ld v Ye ld [ 1 9 1 9 ] C P D 1 0 3 ; L e vi n e v
. L e vi n e , u bi su p . . . . .
2
B enja m i n v S a lki nde r ( 1 9 0 8) 2 5 S C 5 1 2
. Ru be ns v Ru ben s . . .
( 1 9 0 9 ) 2 6 S C 6 1 7 ; K a na top s ky
2
. . K a n a top sky [ 1 9 3 5 ] B D L 30 8 V . . . . .
V o e t , 2 3 2 6 C od j u r ca n 0 1 0 83
. . . . . . . .
C o d ju r ca n 0 1 0 87 F o r E n gl is h L a w se e S cott v S e br i ght
. . . . . .
( 1 886 ) 1 2 R D 2 1 ; C o op e r v C r a n e [ 1 89 1 ] P 3 6 9
. . . .
5
P r i n s loo s Cu r a tor s v Cr afi or d [ 1 9 0 5 ] T S 6 6 9 ; Cow a n v
’ ’
. . . .
B eckw o r th, 1 9 3 2 ( 1 ) P H , B l ( D . v L a n ge ,
. . .
q
.
1 9 45 ( l ) P H , B 8
. . V o e t a dds ( 2 3 2 6 ) si u is du m n u pt ias
. . .
c o n t r a h it pe r e b r i e t a t e m
pla n e m e n t is irn po s sit Cf S u lli va n v . . .
S u lli va n ( 1 81 8) 2 H a gg Co n a t p 2 46 p e r L o r d S t o w e ll . . . .
2
F oy v M or ke l [ 1 9 2 9 ] W L D 1 7 4
. . . . .
7
We lls v D ea n Wi llcocks [ 1 9 2 4] C P D a t p 9 0
.
-
. . .
V
. .
5
V o e t 2 4 2 1 5 an d 1 6 ; We lls
. . D ea n Wi llco cks [ 1 9 2 4] C P D .
-
. . .
89 ; H u n t v Hu n t [ 1 9 40 ] W L D 5 5 ; ( Ce y lon ) G u n a ti leke v
. . . . .
M i lle Non a ( 1 9 3 6 ) 2 9 1 r e fu sa l t o c o n su m m a t e , B u r ger s

v . K
n i ght [ 1 9 1 6 ] N P D 39 9 . . . .
of a nte n u p ti a l stu pru m followe d by p r e gna n cy of t he wi fe
u n k n own t o t he h u sb a n d a t t he t i m e of m a rr i a g e a n d n o t
1
su b se qu e n t ly c o n do n e d ; ( 1 1 ) a t t he su it of a p ar e n t wh e n
a m i n o r ha s m a rr ie d wi t ho u t p ar e n t a l co n se n t
2
.
SE C TI O N 6—MI S C E LL AN E O U S MA TT E R S R E L A TI NG To
MA RRIA G E
In t his d e a l wit h v ar io u s m a tte r s re l a tin g
se c tion we
t o m a rr i a ge n o t sp e ci a lly c o n n e c te d wi t h o n e a n o t h e r
, .
Th e se ar e : ( A ) D o n a t io ns b e t we e n spo u se s ( B ) Roe d e l °
ho u de r scha p a n d c on t in u a t ion of c o m m u m ty a fte r t he

d e a th of o n e spo u se ; ( C ) Se c o n d m arr i a ge s .
A
( ) D o n a ti o n s b e tw e en sp ou ses I n t he R o m a n L aw .
su ch gift s w e r e p r ohibi te d by c u st o m a n d w e r e r e gu l a t e d ,
by a se n a t u scon su ltu m of A D The ru l e p a sse d . .
in t o t he Ro m a n D u t c h L a w 4
It follow s t h a t a S pou se -
.
do n e e ha s n o do min i u m a n d c ann o t gi ve a va li d t it le t o
5
t hir d p a r t ie s B u t t he p r ohib it i o n doe s n o t a ffe c t r e c i
.
“
pr o ca l o r r e m u n e r a t o r y gi ft s a n d m u st n o t b e h ar shl y
a n d u nr e a so n a bly c o n st r u e d so a s t o a pply t o si m pl e
7
o ffi ce s of a ffe ct ion ; a n d a n y gift b e tw e e n spo u se s if v a lidly
V o e t , 2 4 2 1 5 H or a k v H o r a k ( 1 860 ) 3 S e a r le 3 89 R e yn e ke v
2
. . . .
Reyn e ke [ 1 9 2 7 ] O P D 1 30 ; S ta n der v S ta nde r [ 1 9 2 9 ] A D 3 49 . . . . . .
s u p r a , p 33 . .
S u p r a , p 5 8 F o r t he gr o u n ds o f a de cr ee o f n u llit y in S R h
2
. . . .
s e e M a t r im o n i a l Caus e s A c t , 1 9 43 , se c 12 . .
2
D ig 2 4 1 1 a n d 3 2 pr. . . .
G r 3 2 9 ; V a n L e e u w e n , 4 2 4 1 4; V oe t , 2 4 l 1 7 ; V d K
. . . . . . . . . .
486 ; H a ll
’
V
Ha ll s T ru s tee ck M i tche ll ( 1 884) 3 S C 3 ; Va n de r
. . .
B yl s A ss i gn ees v Va n de r B y l ( 1 886 ) 5 S C a t p 1 7 6 ; C ou ltha r d v

’
. . . .
V
.
C o u ltha r d [ 1 9 2 2 ] W L D 1 3 ; H en le y s T r u s te e H en le y [ 1 9 2 6 ]
’
. . . .
N P D 1 1 9 B u t t he r e is n o r u le o f la w pr o hi b it in g c o n t r a c t s
. . . .
b e t w e e n hu sb an d a n d w ife n o t a m o u n t in g t o do n a t io n s Z i ede ma n .
v Z i e de m a n ( 1 83 8) 1 Me n z 2 3 8 A lbe r tu s
.
’
A lber tu s E x or s ( 1 85 9 ) . V . .
3 S e a r le 2 0 2 S ee The v a lidit y o f pa c t s b e t w e e n hu s b a n d a n d
‘
.
w ife b y Pr o f H D J B o de n s te in , 3 4
’
.
p 11
. . . .
( c o mm e n te d u po n 46 p D o n a t io n s b e t w e e n .
5
S po us e s a r e pe r m itt e d in Ce y lo n V oe t , 24 l 3 . . . .
2
V o e t , 2 4 1 1 0 ; S c ho r e r a d G r 3 2 9 ; E x p a rte B r u ton [ 1 9 38]
. . . . .
C P D 5 48
. . . .
7
D ig 2 4 l 2 8, 2 : n o n a m a r e n e c ta n u a m in t e r in fe s to s jus
. . . q
pr o hi b it ae do n a t io nis t r a c t a n du m e s t , se d u t in t e r c o n ju n c t o s
m a x im o a ffe c t u e t so la m in o pia m t im e n t e s ; V o e t , 2 4 1 1 1 ; . .
Wagena a r v Wage na a r [ 1 9 2 8] W L D 3 0 6 . . . . .
t im e s occu rr e d It w a s p e n a l in ch a r a cte r a n d o n e S ide d
.
-
in op e r a t ion an d t ook pl a c e if t he sur vivi n g p ar e n t b e in g

,
a t t he sa m e t i m e gu a r di a n of t he chil dr e n fa il e d t o dr a w
u p a n in v e n t o r y or m a k e t o t h e m a n a ssign m e n t o r b u o u t
y
t h e ir in te r e st ( n och a a n de z e lv e n b e w ijs v e r t igt in g of u it ,
koop do e t ) The con se qu e n ce w a s t h a t t he co m m u n i t y

.
con t in u e d b e tw e e n t he su r vivo r an d the childr e n fo r t he

a dv a n t a g e of t he l a t te r who sh are d in p r ofit wh il e a ll lo ss ,
2
fe ll u pon t he su r vivin g p ar en t .
Thi s p e n a l b oe de lhou de r schap i s u n kn own t o t he la w of

Sou t h Afr ic a .
C Se co n d
.
( C ) S econ d ma r r i a ges I n t he Ro m a n L aw se c o n d m a r .
m arr ia ges
r i a ge s e n t a ile d n u m e r o u s p e n a l t ie s which sa ys V a n de r
.
, ,
Lin de n h a ve n ot b e e n a dop te d by u s He e xce p t s fr om

,
2
.
t hi s st a t e m e n t le x 6 of t he re le v a n t t it le in t he Code ,
which is c a lle d fr o m i t s op e n i n g wo r d s t he lex ha c edi cta li “ .
I t is a n e n a c t m e n t of L e o an d A n t he m iu s of t he ye a r
A D 47 2 p r ovidi n g t h a t n o m a n or wo m a n who r e m arr ie s
. .
, ,
h avi n g childr e n by a for m e r m a r r i a ge m ay by gi ft i n te r ,
vi vos o r by wi ll se tt l e o n t he se c on d spo u se m o re t h an t he
a m ou n t of t he sm a ll e st po r t io n b e qu e a t h e d t o a n y of t he
2
c hildr e n of t he fo r m e r m arr i a ge A gift co n t r ar y t o thi s ‘
.
law is void t o t he e x t e n t of t he e xce ss a n d t he e xce ss m u st ,
b e e qu a lly divid e d a m on g t he c hild r e n of t he p r ior m ar

r i a ge o r m a rr i a ge s a lon e .
Thi s e n a ct m e nt n ee d n o t de t a in u s fur t h e r S in ce in the ,
m ode r n law it ha s e it h e r n e v e r b e e n re ce ive d or ha s b ee n

“
r e p e a l e d by st a t u te .
The p e n a l b o e de lhou de r schap m e n t ion e d a bov e w a s o n e

2
V d L 1 5 4; M a xw e ll cf: E a rp v E s t D r eyer ( 1 90 8) 2 5 S C
. . . . . . . . .
a t p 7 3 0 ; Ve r m a a k s E x or v Ver ma a k s H e i r s [ 1 9 09 ] T S 67 9
’ ’
. . . . . .
2
V d L 1 3 1 0 ; a n d se e B i u k O T i 3 2 5
. . . . . j . . . . .
2
Co d 5 9 6 ( dc s ecu n dis n u p ti i s )
. . . .
2
V a n L e e u w e n , 4 2 4 8 I n t he D u t c h la w t he pe r m i t t e d
. . .
po r t io n w a s t e r m e d fi lia le p or ti e ( o r ki nds gede e lte ) B oe y , Wo or de n .
to lk, su b voce .
Q
5
R e pe a le d in t he Ca pe Pr o v in ce b y A c t 2 6 o f 1 87 3 , se c 2 ; in t he .
Tr a n s v aa l b y Pr oc l 2 8 o f 1 90 2 , s e e 1 2 7 in t he Fr ee S t a te b y t he
. .
L a w B o o k o f 1 9 0 1 , c ha p x c ii , s e c 1 ; in Na ta l b y L a w s No 2 2 ,
. . .
1 86 3 , se c 3 ( A ) ; No 7 , 1 885 , se e 3 In Ce y lo n t he le x hac e di c t a li
. . . .
has , a ppar e n t ly , n e v e r b e e n r e c o gn iz e d .
MARR IAGE 99
a pplic a t ion of a ge n e r a l r u le whi ch i m po se s u po n t he su r

v iv in p ar e n t b e fo r e co n t r a ct in g a n o t h e r m a rr i a g e t he
g , ,
du t y of p ayin g or se cu r in g t o t he m in or chi ldr e n of t he

fi r st m arr i age t he sh a re s du e t o t h e m ou t of t he e st ate of
2
t he d e c e a se d .
In Sou t h Afri c a t hi s se c u r it y t ook t he fo r m of a n o t a ri a l

ge n e r a l bo n d ove r m ova ble s kn own a s a ki nder bewijs 2
,
b u t n o w t hi s is o n ly u se d wh e n t he su r vivin g p ar e n t i s ,
u n a bl e t o fu rn i sh t he sp e ci a l hypo t h e ca t io n of i m m ov a bl e
3
p r op e rt y r e qu ir e d by st atu te A d e fau lt in g p a r e n t for .
fe it s fo r t he b e n e fit of t he mi n or ch ildr e n a su m e qu a l t o
o n e fo u rt h of hi s o r he r sh ar e in t he j o in t e st a te b e side s ,
i n cu rr in g a sta tu t or y p e n a lty of fin e o r i m p r i so n m e n t 2
.
G r 1 9 6—
2
7 ; V o e t 2 3 2 1 00 ; V d K 1 42 if ; V d L 1 5 4
. . .
, . . . . . . . . . . .
Rec hts Obs pa r t 1 n o 1 5 ; B o e y Wo or de n to lk a d ver b Vertigti ng

. .
, , .
, , . .
2
2 M a as do rp p , . 29 1 M ax w e ll
E s t D r eyer , u bi s u p
dc E a rp v . . .
2
H o w ar d , A dm i n is tr a ti on of E sta tes p 127 . .
2
A dm in is t r a t io n o f E s t a t e s A c t , 1 9 1 3 , se e 5 6 Pa ym e n t o r . .
q
s e c u r it y is n o t r e u ir e d if t h e e s t a te is o f le ss v a lu e t ha n o n e
hu n dr e d po u n ds The du t y o f giv in g s e c u r it y c a nn o t b e r e m it te d
.
b y t he w ill o f t he de c e as e d spo u se E x p a r te P r e wr i u s [ 1 9 2 0 ]
.
T P D 297
. . . .
V
G UA RD IANSH IP
IN t he I n st i tu t e s of Ju st ini an u n de r t he t i tle s O f t u te la
a n d cur a a r e c o n sid e r e d t w o i n st i t u t io n s d e sig n e d by t he
la w fo r t he p r o te ct i o n of p e r so n s who t ho u gh n o t su bj e c t ,
t o p a r e n t a l co n tr ol are n e ve rt h e l e ss o n a cco u n t of i m m a
,
t ur i ty of y e ar s o r fo r o t h e r c a u se in c o m p e te n t t o be in a ll
r e sp e c t s t h e i r o w n m a ste r s The fir st of t h e se t u te l a re
.
, ,
la te d t o yo u n g p e r so n s a lo n e a n d e n de d wit h p u b e rt y , .
The se c on d i n t he c a se O f yo u n g p e r s on s e x te n de d fr o m
, ,
t he fo u r te e n t h ( o r t w e lft h ) t o t he t w e n t y fift h bir t hd a y -
a n d w a s a l s o a pp li ca bl e t o t he c a se of i n sa n e p e rs o n s a n d
p r o di g a l s .
I n R o m a n D u t c h L a w t h e r e i s o n e kin d O f mi n o r it y
-
o n ly wh i ch a s w e h a ve se e n n o w e n ds by sta tu te a t
, , ,
t we n t y o n e -
The di st in c t ion b e t w e e n tu t e l a a n d cu r a of
.
mi n or s ha s t h e r e for e di sa ppe re d B u t t he te r m s tu tor a n d

1
L
.
cu r a t o r a r e sti ll r e t a in e d t o ( e n o t e v a r iou s c a se s Of co n tr ol .
In t hi s ch a p te r w e c on sid e r : ( 1 ) t he di ffe r e n t kin d s O f

g u a r di a n ship a n d ho w gu a r di a n s a r e a ppoin te d ; ( 2 ) w ho
m a y b e gu ar di an s ; ( 3 ) t he pow e r s r ight s a n d d u t ie s of , ,
gu a r di a n s ; ( 4) a ct io n s a r i sin g o u t O f gu ar di a n shi p ; ( 5 ) how

gu a r di a n shi p e n ds .
SE C TI O N l — TH E KI ND S G UA R D IANS AN D TH E OE
A PP OI NTM E NT O E G UAR D IA NS
In t he R o m an L a w t h r ee p r in cip a l kin d s O f g u a r di a n
e r e r e c ogn i z e d : ( 1 ) T u t o r e s t e st a m e n t a r ii i e gu a r di a n s
. w ,
. .
a ppoin t e d t o m in o r s in po w e r by t he fa t h e r o r o t h e r m a l e
a sce n d a n t ; ( 2 ) Tu t o r e s le giti m i i e t he n e a r e st a g n a t i c ,
. .
( a fte r w ar ds cogn a t ic ) r e l a t ive s of t he m in o r who a c te d

2
,
in de fa u lt O f t e st a m e n t a r y a ppoin t m e n t ( 3 ) Tu t o r e s da
t ivi i e g u ar di a n s a ppoin t e d by t he m a gi str a te in d e fau lt
,
. .
of e it he r of t he first t w o cla sse s .
2
Gr 1 7 3 a n d S cho r e r ad lo c ; V o e t , 2 7 10 1; V d K 111
—
. . . . . . . . . .
2
No v . 1 1 8, c a pp 4 5 ( A
. . D .
1 02 THE LAW OF PE RSONS
The gu a r Fa ilin g te st a m e n t a r y
gu ar di an s t he gu a r di a nshi p o r ,
di a nshi p
o f b lo od
t he a ppoin t m e n t of g u a r di a n s de volv e d u po n t he n e a re st
r e la t io ns ,
r e l a t iv e s O f t he mi n o r a n d in p a rt icul a r a s G r o t i u s t e lls, ,
u s w e n t t o t he fo u r qu a r t e r s
‘ ’
, ( vi er vi er en dee len ) i e t o -
, . .
t he n e a r e st of kin o n t he si de of e a ch of t he fou r gr a n d
2 ‘
pare nts Aft e r w ar d s howe ve r he c o n t in u e s it w a s
.
, ,
’
,
‘
t ho u gh t b e t te r t h a t gu a r di a n s sho u ld b e a ppo in te d by
t he a u t ho r i tie s t h a t i s by t he Cou r t of H oll a n d by the
, , ,
t own a n d cou n t r y Co ur ts or by t he Or ph a n Ch a m b e rs , ,
whi ch ar e in se ve r a l pl a c e s c h ar g e d wit h t h a t du t y t he ,
u ppe r gu ar di a n shi p of o r ph a ns r e m a in in g howe v e r in t he , ,
Co u rt Th e se au t ho r i tie s a r e a ccu st o m e d a n d bou n d in

.
a ppoin t in g gu ar di a ns t o c o n su lt t he n e ar e st r e la t iv e s a n d ,
t o c hoo se t he gu a r di a n fr o m a m on g t h e m so far a s t hi s
c a n b e do n e wi t h a dv a n t a ge t o t he w ar ds
’
.
The co ns e qu e n ce of t he ch a n ge de scr ib e d by G r o t iu s
w a s t o e x t in g u i sh t he l a st su r viv a ls of t he old gu a r di a n ship
O f blood re l a t io n s a s a se p a r a te in st i t u t io n so t h a t G r o t i u s
-
a n d V o e t a r e a bl e t o sp e a k of bo rn or l a wful gu ar di a n s
‘ ’ ‘ ’
as n o lo n ge r r e cogn iz e d by t he c o m m o n la w of H oll a n d
2
All .
Tu t o r s gu ar di a n s t h e n ce fo r wa r d we r e e i t h e r te st a m e n t a r y ;
“ a n d t he in te r m e di a te c l a ss O f le git im i
‘
o r ( 2 ) a ppoin t e d ,
t u t or e s disa pp e a r s Ove r bo t h of t h e se cl a sse s it i s i m

’
.
,
po rt a n t t o r e m e m b e r su b sist s the u pp e r gu a r di ans hip of

,
2
t he S ove r e ig n e x e r ci se d t hr o u gh t he Co u r t s O f Ju sti ce .
A t t hi s poin t so m e t hin g m ay c o n v e ni e n t ly b e sa id
a bo u t t he Or ph a n Ch a m b e r s Th e se w e r e o fficia l bo ar ds .
“
c h a r g e d wi t h t he su p e r vi si o n of o r ph a n c hildr e n whi c h ,
so e a r ly a s t he m i ddl e O f t he fifte e n t h c e n t u r y w e r e a lr e a dy
“
in e x i ste n c e in m o st of t he t own s of H oll an d Th e ir .
2
Gr 10
. 1 Si c v o c a n t u r
. 7 . . q
u ia e x qu a t t u o r a v is e t a v ia b u s
de sc e n du n t V d K B is ta t a d 10 0 B u t a n c ie n t ly t he vi e r vi e r e n
. . . . . .
de e len w e r e t he gr ou ps c o ns t it u te d b y t h e fo u r pa ir s o f gr e a t
gr a n dpa r e n t s a n d t he ir de s ce n da n t s ; d e B léco u r t , p 47 5 . .
2
G r 1 7 8; V o e t , 2 6 4 4 ; V d K 1 1 7
. . . . . . . . .
2
G r 1 7 7 ; Vo e t ,
. . . 5 5; V d L 1 5 2 . . . . . . .
2
Va n Ro oy en v Wer n er ( 1 89 2 ) 9 S C a t p 42 8
. . . . .
5
i e o f m in or c hildr e n w ho ha d lo st o n e or b o t h pa r e n ts ( G r
. . .
7 s o m e t im e s a lso o f on bes tor ve n ki n der e n ( G r 1 6

i
ny . . . .
5
F o ck A n d . ii , 2 42 ; de B lec o u r t , p 1 2 8
. . .
GUAR DIAN SHIP 1 03
fu n c tio n s we r e v a r iou sly de fin e d by t he keu r en of t he

t own s Str i ct ly sp e a kin g t h e ir a u t hor it y w a s cO or din a te
.
,
-
m e r e ly wi t h t h a t of t he te st a m e n t ar y gu ar di an bu t t h e y ,
2
c o n st a n t ly t e n de d t o su p e r vi se an d so m e t i m e s t o e n ,
c r o a ch u po n
2
hi s fu n ctions Th u s i n t he t own of Alkm a ar
, .
,
te sta m e n t ar y gu a r di a ns m u st b e confir m e d by t he Or ph a n
Ch a m b e r t hou gh a s a ru le su ch gu a r di an s di d n o t re qu ire
,
“
con fir m a t ion Co n se qu e n t ly it w a s t he c o m m on pr a c t ice
.
of te st a t ors wh e n a ppoin tin g gu ar di an s to e xp re ss in cle ar

t e r m s t h e ir wi sh t o e x c lu d e t he Or ph an Ch a m b e r fr o m
2
in te rfe r e n c e w i t h the e st a te Eve n t hi s di d n o t a lwa ys .
“
p r odu ce t he d e sir e d r e su lt .
The wo r d g u ar di an ship is n o t fr e e fr o m a m bigui t y Is a sur

‘ ’
fo r it im plie s so m e tim e s gu ar di an ship of t he p e r son so m e

rent ,
t i m e s a d m in i str a t ion of t he p r op e rt y so m e t i m e s bo t h i pso j ur e

22 m m“ ?
.
,
Whe r e p r op e rt y a lone is con ce rn e d t he te r m cu r ato r shi p “ ‘ ’
m a y b e e m ploye d B u t i t is n o t a lwa ys e asy t o dist in gui sh

.
t he t w o fu n c ti o ns for con t r ol of t he p r op e rt y te n d s to
,
i m ply c on tr ol O f t he p e r so n G u ar di a n shi p ce rt ai nly doe s .
n o t e xcl u de t he p ar e n t a l pow e r
“ b u t n e it h e r is it e xclu de d ,
by it A su r vivin g p are nt w as n o t a s su ch gu ar di an of
.
, ,
t he p r op e r t y O f his o r he r mi n o r childre n howe ve r m u ch

7
,
p ar e n t a l powe r m ight im ply c on tr ol of t he p e r son Accor d .
in gly su ch p ar e nt u n le ss a ppoin te d by t he de c e ase d ,
2 2
Gr 1 9 2. . . . Van L e eu w e n , 1 1 6 3 . . .
2
This is im plie d b y V a n L e e u w e n , w ho m e n t io n s t he c a se o f
Alkm aa r as e x c e pt io n a l ; b u t in Cen s F or 1 l 1 7 3 he sa y s : ho die . . . . .
o m n e s o m n in o t u t o r e s e x in u i sit io n s da n t u r a u t c o n fir m a n t u r q .
S e e V o e t , 2 6 3 1 a n d 2 6 7 2 ( ad
. . I t a ppe a r s fr o m V an de r
. .
K e e sse l ( Th 1 1 6 ) t ha t t he pr ac t ice v a r ie d I n S o u t h Afr ic a c o n

. .
firm a t io n i s a lw a y s n e ce ssar y ( A dm ini s t r a t io n o f E st a te s A ct ,

1 9 1 3 , se c e x c e pt t ha t a fa t he r o r m o t he r do e s n o t r e u ir e
. q
le tt e r s o f c o nfi rm a t i o n ( se c
V d L l 5 2—
.
3 ; V d K 1 20
2
. . . . . . . . .
5
V an L e e u w e n , u bi su p I n S o u t h Afr ica Or pha n Ch a m b e r s
.
e x is t a t t he pr e se n t da
y an d t he a dm in ist r a t io n O f e st a t e s is O ft e n
le ft t o t he m , b u t t he y a r e n o t o ffi c ia l a n d n o lo n ge r a ppo in t gu a r
d ia n s The y a r e in fa c t m e re ly Tr u st Co m pani e s Th e pla c e o f t he
. .
fi
o f c ia l O r pha n Cha m b e r h as b e e n t a ke n b
y t he M as t e r o f t he
S u pr e m e Co u r t .
2
Gr 1 7 8 . . . .
7
G r u bi su p V o e t , 2 6 4 4 B u t t he pa r e n t s ha d a pr io r c la im
. . . . .
t o b e a ppo in te d , a n d us u ally w e r e a ppo in t e d , t o a c t c o n cu r r e n t ly

w it h o n e o r t w o o t h e r t u t o r s d a t iv e G r 1 7 1 1 12 . . . .
-
.
2 2
s po u se o r by the Or ph a n Ch a m b e r or Cou r t co ul d n o t ,
“
l a wfull y in te rm e ddle wi th t he e sta te Thi s se e m s so m e .
wh a t h a rsh in t he c a se of the fa t h e r who h a vi n g bee n sole ,
a dmi ni st r a t o r of t he m in o r s p r op e r t y d u r in g t he m a rr i a ge
’
m igh t r e a so n a bly e xp e ct t o c on t in u e t o e x e r cise t he sa m e

fu n ct i on s a fte r his wife s de a t h a t a ll e ve n ts a s re gar d s ’
p r op e rt y n ot co m in g t o t he child ex pa r te ma tern a The .
r e a so n a ble n e ss of t hi s cl a i m is re c og n i z e d by t he la w of
So u t h Afri c a which gi ve s t he fa t h e r t he ex cl u sive c o n tr ol

,
of t he p e rs o n a n d a lso of the p r ope rt y of hi s m in o r childr e n ,
d uri n g t he whole O f hi s life a n d e ve n p e r mi t s hi m t o b e ,
st ow e qu a lly e x t e n d e d powe r s u po n gu ar di a n s a ppo in t e d
by hi s will He m ay in t his w a y e xclu de t he su r v i vin g

2
,
, ,
“
m ot h e r fr o m t he gu ar di an shi p du r in g he r li fe t im e a n d
fr o m t he powe r O f a ppoint in g te sta m e n t a r y gu ar di a n s t o
“
a ct a fte r he r d e a t h .
On t he o t h e r h a n d wh e n n o t e st a m e n t ar y gu ar di a n s ,
h a ve b e e n a ppoin te d she is sole ly e n t it le d t o t he gu a r di a n

7
ship t o t he e x cl u si o n of gu a r di a n s d a t iv e .
I n Sou t h Afr i ca t he a ppoin t m e n t of t u t or s d a t ive is

ve ste d in t he Ma ste r of t he Su p r e m e Co u rt su bj e ct t o ,
“
r e vie w by t he Co u rt The s a m e O ffici a l c o nfirm s te st a.
2
Vo e t , 2 6 4 4 . . .
2
G r 1 7 1 0 ; Van L e eu w e n , l 1 6 2
. . . . . .
2
Gr 1 7 8 . . . .
2
Va n R o oyen v We r n er ( 1 89 2 ) 9 S C 42 5 . . . .
5
Ib id , p er de V illie r s C J a t p 43 1 , I t is o n ly o n fa ilu r e b y t he
‘
. . . .
fa t he r t o a ppo in t su c h t u t o r s t ha t t he s u r v iv in g m o t he r a c u ir e s q
B u t a de c e ase d fa t he r c a n n o t e x c lu de t he m o t he r
’
he r fu ll r ight s .
e x ce pt b y a ppo in t in g a t e st a m e n t ar y gu a r d ia n in he r pla ce Vo e t , .
2 6 4 2 The r ight t o t he c u st o dy o f t he c hildr e n ( su pr a , p 3 7 m u s t

. . . .
b e d ist in gui s he d fr o m t he gu a r dia ns hip .
2
A c co r di n g t o V d K ( D i c ta t a d G r o t 1 7 9 a n d T h 1 1 8)
. . . . . . . .
a su r v iv in g m o t he r e v e n t h o u gh n o t a ppo in t e d gu a r dia n b y he r
hu s b an d s w ill m a y b y he r o w n w ill a ppo in t c o gu ar di a n s t o a c t

’
-
w it h t he gu a r dia n s a ppo in t e d b y he r hu s b a n d The A dm in ist r a .
t io n o f E st a te s A c t , 1 9 1 3 ( se c c o n t e m pla t e s t he a ppo in t m e n t.
o f a t u t o r t e s t a m e n t a r y b y t he m o t he r o f a m in o r , w ho se fa t h e r is
’
de a d b u t le a v e s t he po s it io n u n de n e d in c as e t he fa t he r s w ill has fi
m a de pr o v is io n fo r t he gu a r dia n sh ip .
7
Va n Ro oyen v We rn er , u bi su p ; J ofi e ( 2 C o
. H os ki ns [ 1 9 41 ] .
'
. V .
A D 43 1
. . .
2
Adm in i s t r a t io n O f E st a t e s A c t , 1 9 1 3 , se cs 7 6 a n d 1 0 7 . .
Cu r a t ors a d li te m are a ppoin te d to a m in o r o r insa n e
pe rs o n or p r odi ga l fo r t he p u r po se of b r in gin g o r de fe n din g
,
a n a ct io n wh e n su ch min o r has n o o t he r gu ar di a n or
,
“
c ur a t or o r wh e n t he gu ar di a n o r cu r a t o r is a p a rt y to
,
2
t he li t ig a t i o n .
The v a r io u s kin d s O f gu ar di a n t h e n a re : ( 1 ) t u t o r s , ,
te st a m e n t a r y ; ( 2 ) t u t o r s a ssu m e d ; ( 3 ) t u t o r s d a t iv e ;
( ) cu r a t or s n o m in a te ; ( 5 ) cu r a t o r s a ssu m e d ; ( 6 ) cu r a to r s
4
d a t ive ; ( 7 ) cu r a t o r s bonis ; ( 8) c u r at o r s a d lite m ; a n d t he y
a r e a ppoin te d in t he w a ys d e s cri b e d .
SE CTI O N 2 — WH O MA Y
G UA R D IA NS BE
Va n de r Lin de n s a ys t h a t s o m e p e r so ns ar e p r o hi bite d
fr o m b e in g gu ar di a ns o t he r s m ay e x cu se t h e m se lve s 2
,
To t he fir st cl a ss he a ssigns : ( 1 ) p e r so n s who a re t he m
“
se lve s su bj e c t to t u te l a o r c u r a wi t h who m m u st b e ,
V in clu d e d a ll pe r so n s le ss t h a n t we n t y fiv e ( n o w t w e n t y -
O n e ) ye ar s of a ge a l t ho u gh m a j o r i t y m a h a v e b e e n ant i
y ,
2
cipa te d by m arr i a g e o r v e ni a a e t a t is ; ( 2 ) wo m e n e xc e p t ,
a m o t h e r a n d gr a n dm o t h e r a n d t h e y o nl y so lo n g a s t h e y ,
5
h a ve n o t co n tr a cte d a se con d m arr i a ge ; ( 3 ) cr e dit ors a n d
de b t o r s of t he m in o r if t he d e b t is c on side r a ble a n d t he ,
“
Co u rt se e s fit t o e xclu d e t he m .
To t h e se t he m ode rn law a dds : ( 4) a n y p e r so n who as

wi tn e ss ha s a t te ste d t he e x e cu ti o n O f a will whi ch a ppoin ts
2
V a n de r L in de n Ju di e P r a c 1 8 3
,
, . . . . .
2 2
V dL l 5 1
. . . . . . Gr 1 7 6 . . . .
2
V oe t , 2 6 1 5 ; V d K 1 1 2 D ha n a ba ki u m v S u br a m a n i a n
. . . . . . .
[ 1 9 43] A D a t p 1 6 6 Ma y a su r vi v in g S po u se , t ho u gh u n de r a ge ,
. . . .
b e gua r di an t o his o r h e r c hildr e n ? V o e t , 2 6 4 2 ; H all Con s v . . . . .
2 1 3 ; S c ho r e r a d G r 1 7 1 1 . . . .
5
G r 1 7 6 a n d 1 1 ; V oe t , 2 6 1
. . . 1 1 4 I n S o u t h Afr ic a , . . .
b y t he A dm in is t r a t i o n o f E st a t e s A c t , 1 9 1 3 , se c 83 : ( 1 ) The pr o .
v is io n s o f t his A c t in r e gar d t o t h e e le c t io n a n d a ppo in t m e n t s o f

t u to r s a n d cu r a t o r s S ha ll a pply t o m a le s a n d fe m a le s ; 2 ) L e t t e rs
fi
o f c o n r m a t io n S h a ll n o t , w it ho u t t he c o n s e n t in w r it in g O f he r
hu s b an d , b e gr a n t e d t o a w o m an m arr ie d in c o m m u ni t y o fpr o pe r t y
o r t o a w o m a n m a r r ie d o u t o f c o m m u ni t y o f pr o pe r t y w he n t he
m a r it a l po w e r o f t he hu s b a n d is n o t e x c lu de d .
2
G r o t iu s is S il e n t o n t his po in t V o e t ( 2 6 1 G r oe n e w e ge n . . .
( a d Co d 5 3 4 8) a n d v a n L e e u w e n ( Cen s F or 1 1 1 6 1 9 ) a gr e e
. . . . . . . .
t h a t t he re is n o a b so lu te di s u a li ca t io n S e e a lso Sa n de , D eci e q fi . .
Fr is 2 9 l
. . . .
GUAR DIANSHIP 107
su c h p e r son gu ar di a n a n d t he wife or hu sb an d of su ch ,
1
p e r so n .
2
The se c o n d cla ss in clu de s : ( 1 ) s oldi e r s ( 2 ) p e r son s othe rs
°
,
m ay “ 25
a lr e a dy b u r de n e d wi t h t hr e e gu ar di a n shi p s ; ( 3 ) pe r so n s
cwse
u pw a r d s of se v e n t y ye ar s of a e
g ( )
4 p e r s o n s di s q u a lifi e d t he m
b y si ckn e ss o r in fir m i t y Thi s lis t i s n o t e xh au st ive n o r .

,
by t he c om m on law c o ul d a n yo n e cla im e x e m pti o n a s of

r i gh t In fa c t t he whole m a t te r lay in t he di s cre t ion O f
.
,
2
t he Co u r t In S o u t h Afri ca e xcu se s a re u n n e ce ssa r y fo r bu t l n
.
,
2
gu ar di a n shi p is a t the pr e se n t da y a volu n t ar y o ffi ce $ 2; ,
whi ch n o o n e ca n b e com p e ll e d to u n de r t a ke a g ain st hi s gu rdian a
wi ll 2
.Thi s m ar k s a de p ar t u re fr o m t he Ro m a n D u t ch -
co m m on la w a cc or din g t o whi ch a n yo n e who w a s n a m e d

,
g u a r di a n w a s bo u n d t o a c c e p t t he O ffic e u n l e ss e xc u s e d a n d , ,
in ca se of u n willi n gn e ss co u ld b e c o m p e lle d t o u n de r t a ke
it by c ivil i m p r i s on m e n t “
.
SE C TI O N 3— TH E P OWE R S RI G HT S AND D UTI E S , ,
O F G UA R D IA NS
Wit hou t se e kin g t o di st in gu i sh t oo e x a ct ly b e twee n the The

du tie s a n d t he powe r s or r ights O f gu a r di ans w e m a y ,
c l a ssify t h e ir fu n c t io n s of wh a te v e r kin d u n d e r t he fol o f gu a r
lowi n g h e a d s .
1 The du ty to find s ecu r i ty In H oll a n d p r a c t i ce v a r i e d ( 1 ) To fin d

. .
secu rity
i n diffe r e n t loc a li t ie s Va n de r Lin de n sa ys The p r a ct ice
‘
.
of gu ar di ans fin din g se cu r i t y is in o u r law fa ir ly ou t of

u se t ho u gh wh e r e t h e r e a re w e igh t y r e a so n s fo r do in g so
,
2
Ca pe , A c t No 2 2 O f 1 87 6 , se e 4 ; Tr an s v a al , Or d NO 1 4 o f
. . . .
1 9 0 3 , se c 4 ; O F S O r d No 1 1 o f 1 9 0 4, s e c 4 In Na t a l t he r e is
. . . . .
q fi
. . .
n o su c h di s u a li c a t i on ( se e L a w 2 O f 1 86 8, se c I n Ce y lo n .
t h e r e is n o st a t u t o r y pr o v is i o n V oe t a dds t o t he di squ a lifi ca t io n s .
m e n t io n e d in t he t e x t : ( 5 ) a pe r s o n n o t su b e c t t o t he u r isdi ct io n j j
c a nn o t b e t u t o r da t iv e ( 2 6 5 ( 6 ) pe r so n s pr o hib ite d b y t he . .
w ill o f e it h e r par e n t ( 2 6 1 . .
2
G r o t iu s l 7 6 ) sa y s t ha t so ldi e rs c a nn o t b e gu a r di a n s ; s o a ls o
. .
Vo et ( 2 6 1 V a n de r K ee sse l ( T h 1 1 3 ) a n d V an de r L in de n
. . .
( 1 5 1 ) sa y t ha t t he y a r e n o t di s u a li e d , b u t m a y b e e x cu se d
. . q fi .
2
G r 1 7 1 4; V o e t , 2 7 l 1 2 ; V d K 1 2 4
. . . . . . . . .
2
l Maa s do r p , p 3 1 3 A dm in ist r a t io n o f E st a t e s A c t , 1 9 1 3 , se c
. .
73
5
G r 1 7 1 5 ; V an L e e u w e n , 1 1 6 5 ; V d L 1 5 l
. . . . . . . . . . .
5
V d L 1 5 3 Cf G r 1 9 l ; V o e t , 2 6 7 2 ; V d K 1 3 4
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
t he Co u rt m a y de m a n d it B u t in S ou t h Afri ca by the .
’
,
Ad m in i str a t io n of E st ate s A ct 1 9 1 3 se c 82 e ve r y t u to r , , .
,
a n d e v e r y cu r at o r n o w giv e s s e c u r i t y e x ce p t o n ly a ,
t e st a m e n t a r y t u t o r o r a cu r a t o r n o m i n a te wh e n : ( a ) he
i s t he p a r e n t Of t he m in o r ; o r ( b) ha s b ee n n o m in a te d
by will e x e c u te d b e fo r e t he c o m m e n c e m e n t of t he A ct
( O c t ob e r 1 a n d ha s n o t b e e n dir e c te d by t he will
,
t o fin d se cu ri t y ; o r ( c ) ha s b e e n n o m in a te d by will e x e c u te d
a fte r t he c o m m e n ce m e n t of t he A ct a n d t he te st a to r ha s
dir e ct e d t he Ma st e r t o di sp e n se wi t h se cur it y ; or ( d) the

Co u rt o t h e rw i se dir e ct s .
2 I n ven tor y
. G u ar di a ns m u st m a ke a fu ll i n ve n t o r y
.
of t he e st a te wh i ch t h e y are t o a d m i n i ste r Or de m a n d ,
1
a n i n v e n t o r y fr o m a su r vivi n g p ar e n t In Sou t h Afri ca .
e v e r y t u t o r a n d e ve r y c u r a t o r m u st m a k e su c h in ve n t o r y
2
wi thi n t hir ty d a ys O f t he d a te of his e n te r in g o n o ffi ce .
If a gu ar di a n fa il s h e r e in he i s li a bl e ( b e side s o t h e r ,
“
p e n a ltie s ) t o r e m ov a l ; a s he is a l so if he wi lfu lly o m it s , ,
i te m s of cr e dit o r i nse r t s fa lse i te m s of d e b t A sur vivin g

2
.
p ar e n t who in p r e p a r in g the in ve n t o r y fr a u du le n t ly con

, ,
“
ce a ls a n p r op e r t y fo r fe it s his o r he r i n te r e st t h e re in
y .
A sim il ar in ve n t o r y m u st b e m a de by p ar e n t o r gu ar di a n
in t he e ve n t O f a n y p r op e rt y c o m i n g t o a m in or fr o m a n y
s o u r ce wh a t e v e r e g by te st a m e n t e i t h e r d u r in g t he life, . .
,
t im e o f bot h p a r e n t s o r a ft e r t he d e a t h of o n e o r bo t h of
t he m “
The i n v e n t or y wh e n co m pl e te m u st b e d e li ve r e d
.
7
t o t he Or ph a n Ch a m b e r t he pl a ce O f which is t a k e n in ,
S o u t h Afr ic a by t he Ma ste r O f t he Su p r e m e Co u r t .
3 S ecu r i n g m i n or s p or ti on s The n e x t d u t y of t he
’
. .
2
G r 1 9 3 a n d 8; V a n L e e u w e n 1 1 6 6 ; V oe t , 2 6 7 4 ; V d K
. . .
, . . . . . . .
1 3 5 ff ; V d L u bi su p The r st dy in g pa r e n t m a y n o t dis pe n se
. . . . fi
t he su rv iv o r fr o m t he du t y o f pr e pa r in g a n in v e n t o r y V d K 1 3 7 . . . .
2
A dm in ist r a t io n O f E st a t e s A c t , 1 9 1 3 , se c 85 . .
2
Ib id , se c s 1 0 8—9 . . .
2
Voe t , 26 7 5 . . .
5
G r 1 9 4; V d K 1 3 9 A dm in is t r a t io n o f E s t a t e s A c t , 1 9 1 3 ,
. . . . . .
se c . 1 10 .
2
G r 1 6 1 a n d l 9 5 If a cu r a t o r n o m in a te ha s b ee n a p
. . . . . .
po in t e d t o t he pr o pe r t y in u e st io n , t he du t y o f m a kin g a n in v e n q
t o r y fa lls o n h im a n d n o t o n t he pa r e n t V d K 1 40 . . . . .
7
G r 1 9 3 a n d 8; V d K 1 3 5 ff
. . . . . . .
A dmi n i s tr a ti on
’ 2
5 . Thi s in clu de s o f the w a r d s p r op r ty
e .
t he ge n e r a l su p e r visio n a n d m a n a g e m e n t of t he mi n or s
’
Pe t t y e st a te in whi c h t a sk t he gu ar dia n m u st dis pl a y t he

,
di li ge n ce of a bo nu s p ate r fa mi li a s His e xp e n di tu re m u st
2
.
be su c h as i s d e m a n d e d by t he in te re st a n d cr e di t of t he
m in or r e gar d b e in g ha d t o t he v a lu e of t he e st a te a n d
,
t he m in or s po sit ion in life “ He m u st p re se r ve a n d se cu r e

’
.
t he p r op e r t y 2
c a ll i n a n d e nfo r ce d e b t s
“ in ve st in good
, ,
“a
n d m e e t t he mi n o r s li a bili t i e s a s t h e y fa ll
’
se cu r i t ie s ,
du e 7
Whe n t he gu a r di an ship c om e s t o a n e n d t he gu a r
.
,
di a n m u st win d u p t he b u sin e ss of hi s o ffi ce a n d is d e e m e d ,
“
t o r e m a in gu a r di a n for t he p u r p o se Whe r e t h e re a r e .
m or e gu ar di an s t h a n o n e t h e y n e e d n o t a ll a ct ; b u t , ,
wh e t h e r he a c t s o r n o t e a ch is r e spon sible for t he a ct s of ,
“
e ve r y o t h e r .
6 A li en a ti on of p r op er ty
. A gu ar di a n m a y in du e .
,
20
cou r se of a d m in i str a t ion se ll o r m o r t g a ge a n y m ova ble ,
pr op e rt y u n de r hi s ch ar ge B u t t he a li e n a t ion o r hypo .
t he c a t i o n of i m m ov a bl e p r op e r t y e xce p t by le a ve of t he ,
11
Cou rt is p r ohib ite d Su ch le a ve is o nl y gi ve n a fte r fu ll
,
.
2
G r 1 9 1 1 ; V a n L ee u w e n , l 1 6 8; V d L l 5 3
. . . . . . . . . . .
2
G r 3 2 6 8; V o e t , C omp e ndi u m , 2 6 7 3 ; 2 7 3 4 ; V d L
. . . . . . . . . .
1 5 3 I t se e m s t ha t in R L he w as n o t r e u ir e d t o e xh ib it m o r e
. . . . . q
t ha t t he di ligen tia qu a m su i s r e bus B u c klan d T ex tbook, p 1 5 7 .
, .
2
V oe t, 2 6 7 6 ; 27 2 2 . . . . .
5
2
Voet, 26 7 8 . . V o e t , ib id
. .
2
G r 1 9 1 0 ; 3 2 6 7 ; V a n L e e u w e n , 1 1 6 8; V o e t , 2 6 7 1 0
—
. . . . . . . . .
V d K 1 5 3 5 ; Va n der B y l db C o v S o lom on [ 1 87 7 ] B u ch a t
. . . . . .
2 7 p e r d e V illi e r s C J B u t n o w in v e s t m e n t s a r e u s u a ll y m a d e
p . . .
b y t he Pu b l ic D e b t Co mm iss io n e rs u n de r A c t 1 8 o f 1 9 1 1 E x p a r te .
T he M as ter [ 1 9 2 7 ] T P D 1 1 7 ; E x p a r te L or en tz N D [ 1 9 2 8]
. . . .
S W A 1 5 3 Th e po w e r o f in v e s tm e n t O f n a t u r a l gu ar di a n s r e
. . . .
m a in s u n a ffe c te d Wo od v D a vi es [ 1 9 3 4] C P D a t p 2 5 6 . . . . . . .
7
V oe t , 2 6 7 7 . . .
2
Voet, 26 7 1 5 If t he gu ar dian s hip is de te r m in e d b y t he
. . .
m in o r s de a t h , t he gu a r dian m u st r e n de r a c c ou n t s a n d m a ke o v e r
’
t he pr o pe r t y t o his he ir V d K 159 . . . . .
2
G r 1 9 1 1 ; Voet, 26 7 1 ; V d L 1 5 3
. . . Re m u n er a . . . . . . .
t io n o f gu ar di an s , i nfr a , p 1 1 5 . .
G r 1 8 5 ; V o e t , 2 7 9 4 G r o t iu s ad ds : do ch m e t he nn is se
2° ‘
. . . . . .
v a n de w e e ska m e r da e r d e z e lv e n i e t e n is u it ge slo t e n Cf V d K
’
. . . . .
1 29 .
G r 1 8 6 ; V oe t , 2 7 9 1 A pplica t ion m u s t b e m a de in t he
22
. . . . . .
fir s t in s ta n ce t o t he Co ur t o f t he m i n o r s do m ic ile ; if t he pr o pe r t y
’
GUAR DIAN SHIP l 11
1
i n qu i r y ,
and it w a s l ive s u su a l to con su lt t he n e are st r e at .
The m e a su r e s p r opo se d m u st b e n e ce ssa r y fo r p a ym e n t of

de b t s m a in te n an ce or m a rr i a ge of t he w ar d o r o t h e r wi se
, , ,
“ The w r
t o hi s m a n ife st a dv a n t a ge o d im m ov a ble s e x .
'
‘ ’
te n d s t o su ch in cor por e a l r igh t s a s a r e c o m m onl y in clu de d

u n de r t he t e r m i m m ov a bl e p r op e r t y a n d t o t he c e ssi o n ,
“
of r ight s of a ct io n r e l at in g t o su ch p r op e r t y Ali e n a tio n .
i n clu de s an y a ct of the gu a r di an wh e r e by a r e a l r ight of

2
t he w ar d i s in a n y w a y di m ini sh e d lo st o r a b a n do n e d , , .
F ailin g a j u dici a l de cre e (whe r e su ch is n e ce ssa r y ) e ve r y

t hin g t h a t t a k e s pl a ce in t he co u r se O f o r in cid e n t a ll y t o , ,
“
su c h a li e n a t io n i s ip so ju r e n u ll a n d void The sa m e .
a ppli e s if t he d e cr e e i s shown t o h a v e b e e n ob t a in e d fr o m
“
t he Co u r t by fr a u d .
The p r o hi b it ion of t he s ale of i mm ov a ble s is sta te d by

7
G r o tiu s t o e x te n d t o m on e y pu t o u t at in te r e st a n d re n t s .
V a n de r K e e sse l sa ys t h a t t he sa m e ru l e o u gh t t o b e l a id
“
down in r e spe c t of p u blic D u t ch o r for e ign se c u r it ie s .
V oe t goe s fu rt h e r an d a dd s t o t he lis t a ll m ov a ble s whi ch

a r e n o t p e r is h a bl e in t h e ir n a t u r e ( qu a e se r v a n do se r v ar i
2
possu n t ) a s gold S ilve r a n d j e w e ll e r y wh e re a s p e r ish
, , , ,
“
a ble m ov a bl e s t he gu a r di a n n o t o n ly m a y se ll b u t m u st ,
.
B y s o m e loc a l st a t u te s of H oll a n d e ve n m ov a bl e s co u ld n o t
b e s old e xce p t by p u blic a u c ti on a n d a fte r n o ti ce t o t he
22
Or ph a n Ch am b e r ( u nl e ss t hi s we r e e xp r e ssly e xcl u de d ) .
j
is S it u a t e d in a n o t he r u r isdic t io n , i t m a y b e n e c e ssa r y t o a pply to
U
’
t he Co u r t O f t he locu s r e i s i tae a s w e ll V o e t , 2 7 9 5 ; E s: p a r te ys . .
[ 1 9 2 9 ] T P D 443 ; E x p a r te F or d [ 1 9 40 ] W L D 1 5 5 I n Ce y lo n
. . . . . . .
i t has b e e n he ld t ha t a po w e r to m o r t ga ge c a nn o t b e c o nfe rr e d b y
w ill . Gi r i gor i sha m y v L e bbe M a r i ka r ( 1 9 2 8) 30 N L R 2 0 9 . . . . .
2
V o e t , 2 7 9 7 ; a n d t he w e e ska m e r V d K 1 3 1
. . . . . . .
2
V oe t, 2 7 9 7 8 — . .
2
V oe t , 2 7 9 2
. . . .
2
V o e t , 2 7 9 3 ; Sa n de , de pr o hib r er u m a li e n a t l 1 47 This
. . . . . . .
c o v e r s a le a se in lo n gum t e m pu s B r e yte n bac h v F r a n ke l [ 1 9 1 3 ] . .
A D a t p 40 2 B u t sho r t le a se s a r e pe r m i tt e d a n d b in d t he w ar d
. . . .
e v e n a ft e r m a or it y j
Sa n de , D e ci e F r is 2 9 2 2 ; V o e t , 1 9 2 1 7
. . . . . . . .
5 2
Gr 1 8 6 . . . . Voet, 27 9 9 . . .
7
Re n t e n e n de pa c ht e n G r 1 8 6 . . . . .
2
V d K 1 30 . . .
2
Of G o d 5 3 7 2 2 , 6
. . . . . .
2°
V oe t , 2 7 9 l . . .
22
G r 1 8 5 ; V a n L e e u w e n , 1 1 6 8; V d K 1 2 9 ; Re chts Obs
. . . . . . . . . .
ii 1 3
. .
In t he c a se O f i m m ova ble s to o t he l
sa e m u st b e by p u bli c
1
a u ctio n .
So u t h I n S o u t h Afri ca by Ad mi ni str a t io n of E st a te s A ct
t he ,
Afri ca n
L a w as to
1 9 1 3 , se c 87 n b t u to r a n d n o c u r a t o r ( o t h e r t h a n a t u t o r
.
,
te sta m e n t ar y or a c ur a t o r n o m in a te d u ly a u t ho r iz e d
7
t h e re t o by t he will o r d e e d u n d e r wh i ch he has be e n
a ppoin te d ) S h a ll a lie n a te o r m o rt g a g e a n i mm ov bl
y a e
pr op e rt y be lo n gin g t o a m in or u nl e ss t he Co u r t o r whe n ,
t he Ma st e r i s s a t i sfie d t h a t the i m m ov a ble p r op e r ty do e s

n o t e xc e e d t hr e e h u n dr e d po u n d s in v a lu e u nl e ss t he ,
Maste r a u t ho r i z e t he a li e n a t io n o r m o rt g a ge of su ch pr o
p e rt y B u t t he Ma ste r m a y a u t ho ri z e t he m ort ga ge of im
.
m ov a ble p r op e r t y b e lon gin g t o a m in or t o a n e x te n t n o t

e x c e e di n g t hr e e h u n dr e d po u n d s if sa t isfie d t h at t he ,
m ort ga ge i s n e ce ssar y for t he p r e se r v a t i o n o r i m p r ove m e n t

of t he p r op e rt y o r for t he p a ym e n t O f e xpe nse s n e ce ssa r ily
,
in cur r e d in co n n e xio n t he r e wi t h or for t he m a in te n an ce ,
o r e d u c a t io n of t he m in o r The sa m e A ct by se c 86 sa ve s . .
t he c o m m o n la w a s r e g a r d s t he powe r s a n d d u t ie s of
t u t o rs e x ce p t so fa r a s t h e y a r e a ffe c te d by t h a t A ct .
’
The w ar d s r e m e di e s i n r e sp e ct of u n au t hor i z e d a lie n a
t ion a r e t w o : a g a in st t he t u t o r a n d a g a i nst t he a li e n e e .
Aga in st t he fir st he has t he a ct io t u te l ae dir e cta Fr o m the .
se c o n d he m a y vi n di c a te t he p r op e r t y ( t oge t h e r wi t h a ll
frui t s if t he de fe n d a n t s po sse ssi o n is ma la fide ; b u t if

,
’
it is bona fide t oge t h e r w it h fr u i t s e xist in g a t t he t i m e

,
of a ct io n b r o u ght ) If how e ve r t he p u r ch ase — .

,
m o n e y ha s ,
b e e n re ce ive d a n d a pplie d to t he m in o r s u se it m u st be ’
re fu n d e d wi t h i n te r e st a s a co n di t io n p r e c e d e n t of t he
“
r e t u r n of t he p r ope r t y A sa le of im m ov a ble p r ope rt y
.
m a d e by a m in or wit hou t j u di ci a l d e cr ee a n d wit hou t his

gu a r di a n s a u t hor it y c a nn o t b e i m p e a che d o n b e h a lf of
’
su c h m i n o r wh e n t he mi n o r ha s fa lse ly r e p re se n te d hi m
,
“
se lf as O f full a ge .
Rat ifica A n a li e n a t ion void a b i n i ti o m a y b e r a t ifie d o n fu l l a ge .
t io n o f
v o id a lie n
Rat ific a t io n is e xp r e ss or t a cit 2
Whe n r a t ifi cation has .
a tio ns .
2
2
G r 1 8 6 ; V an L ee u w e n , l
. . . . 16 9
. . Voe t , 2 7 . 9 . 10
.
2 2
V oe t , 2 7 9 1 3 . . Voe t, 2 7 . 9 . 14
.
1 14 THE LAW OF PE RSON S
howe ve r t he ir r ight t o r e st it u t io in in te gru m if t h e y h a ve
, ,
b ee n pr e j u di ce d t h e r e by ; whi c h r igh t t h e y m u st p r o se cu te
1
wi thi n fou r ( n o w thr e e ) ye ar s a fte r a t t a inin g m a j or i t y .
It se e m s t h a t a gu a r di a n who ha s c on t r a cte d n o m i ne pu
pi lli is him se lf a lte rn a t ive ly li a bl e t o t he o t h e r c on t r a c t in g
2
p a rt y ; t hou gh if t he c on tr a ct w a s a p r op e r o n e he will ,
be e n t it le d to a n in d e m n it y fr o m t he e st a te A w ar d is .
n o t bo u n d by a don a t io n m a d e by hi s gu a r di an o r by a
“
re le a se of a m a ni fe st r igh t .
1 0 A u thor i zi ng the m i n or s acts

. Fin a lly the gu ar di a n ’
.
,
‘ ’
in te r po se s his a u t hor it y t h a t is a ssi st s a n d re p re se n t s , ,
t he m in or in a ll t r a ns a ct ion s a n d in p a r t i cul a r as ha s , ,
b e e n see n r e pr e se n ts hi m in Co u r t Au t hor i ty in Ro m a n
, .
‘
L a w m e an t a p r e se n t c on se n t to a n d a pp r ova l of wh at i s
don e by t he w ar d b u t in t he m ode r n la w a su b se qu e nt ,
r a t ifi ca t io n wi ll h a v e t he sa m e e ffe ct a s a c o n te m por a n e o u s
au t ho ri t y
2
Wh e r e t he re a re se ve r a l cO t u t ors t he a u t hor
.
-
“
it y of o n e a lon e i s g e n e r a ll y su fficie n t If t he gu a r di an .
wit hholds hi s a u t hori t y t he Cour t will in a fit c a se c o m pe l

it “ A m a le or fe m a le m in or u pwar ds of fo ur te e n or t we lve
.
7
ye ars of a ge r e qui r e s n o a u thor it y t o m a ke a will n or i s ,
a m a r ri a ge co n t r a c te d wi t ho u t a u t ho ri t y O f t he gu ar di a n
in va lid “
.
Thu s far t he powe r s r ight s a n d d u ti e s of t he gu ar di ans , ,
of m in ors Sin c e t he fu n ct ion s of t he c ur a t o r s O f l u n at ic s

.
c ar e le ss ly ? D ig 2 6 7 t he w a r d is n o t lia b le , e x ce pt : ( 1 ) t o
. . .
t he e x te n t o f hi s e n r i chm e n t ; ( 2 ) in t he a b se n ce o f e n r i c hm e n t o nl y
if t he guar di a n is so lv e n t , s o t ha t t he w a r d ha v e r e c o u rse
c an
a lw a y s fr ee him s e lf
’
a ga in st t he gu a r di an s e st a t e ; an d t h e w a r d ca n
b y c e din g h is a c t io ns a ga in s t t he gu a r di a n . G r 3 l 30 ; V oe t ,
. . .
26 9 4
7 pr ; V o e t , 44 3 6—
. . .
2
Co d 2 5 2 . . 7 ; su pr a , p 49 . . . . .
2
V o e t , 2 6 9 3 ; b u t ge n e r a ll y o n ly dur in g t he c on t in u an ce o f
. .
t he gu a r dia ns hip Cf Co d 5 3 9 l . . . . . .
2
G r 3 1 3 0 a n d 3 2 7 u n l e ss i t b e a r e m u n e r a t o r y do n a t io n
. . . . . .
G r 3 2 3 G u a r dia ns m a y m a ke a n o v a t ion in t he n a m e o f t he ir
. . . .
w ar ds , if fo r t he w a r ds b e n e t ( V o e t 46 2 8) a n d m a y c o m
’
fi . . .
pr o mise o n b e ha lf o f t he ir w a r d’s pr o v ide d t h e y d o n o t t he r e b y

effe c t a n a li e n a t io n o f t he w ar ds pr o pe r t y V d K 5 1 7 . . . . .
2 5
Voet, 2 6 8 1 . . . Voet , 26 8 7 . . .
5
V o e t , 2 6 8 8, i e m or ibu s I t w as o t he r w ise ju r e ci vili D ig
. . . . . . .
7 2
26 8 1 7. . Gr 1 8 2
. G r 1 8 3 ; su pr a , p 6 1
. . . . . . . . .
GUAR DIANSHIP 1 15
and in te r di cte d pr o di ga l s are ge n e r a ll y sim il ar it i s ,

2
un
n e ce ssar y in a n e le m e n t ar y t r e a t ise t o m a k e t h e m t he
su bj e ct of sp e c i a l di scu ssio n .
SE CTI O N 4— A CTI O Ns AR I S ING OU T OF G UAR D I A NS HI P

Tw o a ct of gu a r di a n ship the o n e by t he Th a ctio
ion s ar i se ou t , e
war d a g ainst the gu a r di a n ( a ct io t u te la e di r e ct a ) t he o t he r ,
by t he gu ar di a n a ga in st t he w ar d ( a ct io t u te l ae c ontr ar i a ) a n d con .
“ mm
The fir st 1 8 a v a il a ble t o t he w ar d a n d his h e ir s a g a in st
“
t he gu ar di a n a n d hi s h e ir s a n d a g a in st e a c h gu a r di a n i n ,
'
s olidu m ( sa vin g t h a t o n sa t i sfa c t io n by o n e t he o t h e r s a re
r e le a se d ) r e qu ir in g hi m t o r e n d e r a n a cc o u n t O f hi s a dm ini
,
2
st r a t i o n t o t r a ns fe r e ve r yt h in g w hich by vir t u e of t he
‘
“
gu ar di anshi p ha s c o m e u n de r his con tr ol a n d t o m a ke ,
good a ll lo sse s c a u se d t o the mi n o r by hi s b a d m an a ge m e n t .
The c on tr ar y a ction li e s for t he gu ar di a n a n d hi s h e ir s “

“
a g a in st t he w a r d a n d his h e irs t o b e in d e m n ifi e d fo r
7
e xp e n se s a n d lo ss in c ide n t a l t o hi s o ffi ce a n d t o r e c ov e r a ,
r e a s o n a ble re c o m p e nse fo r hi s t i m e a n d t r o u bl e
2
.
In t he R o m a n L a w t h e se a c tio n s la y o n ly a fte r t he
“
t e r m in a t io n of t he gu a r d ia n shi p b u t In t he m ode rn la w ,
20
t h e y m a y b e b r ou gh t d ur in g it s c on t in u a n ce .
The st ate m e n t m a d e a bove t h a t e a ch t u t or i s li a ble i n E x te nt

soli du m m u st b e u n d e r st ood su bj e ct t o t he la w as t o t he
b e n e fit of e xcu ssion an d t he b e n e fit of di vi sion Wh e r e lia bility . .
o n e t u t or a lo n e has a c te d he m u st b e su e d b e fo r e t he
r e st who o t h e r wi se ca n pl e a d t he b e n e fi ciu m e x cu ssio ni s

,
.
2
G r l 1 1 5 ; V o e t , 2 7 1 0 5 ff
. . . . . .
2
V o e t , 2 7 3 4 ; a lso t o t he hu sb a n d o f a m in o r a ga in st he r
. .
fo rm e r gu a r dia n s an d in s o m e c a se s t o c r e d it o r s .
2 2
V o e t , 2 7 3 5 ; o r o t he r su c c e ss or s
. . Vo e t , 2 7 3 7 . . . .
5
V o e t , 2 7 3 8; in c lu din g c la im s ar is in g ea: con tr a ctu G r 3 l 3 8
. . . . . .
B u t t he e m a n c ipa t e d w ar d m a y su e in r e spe c t o f su ch c la im s
w it ho u t c e ss io n o f t he r ight o f ac t io n V d K D i c ta t a d l o c ; . . . . . .
5
D ig 2 6 9 2
. . . . Voet, 2 7 4 2 . . .
7
G r 3 2 6 1 0 ; V o e t , 2 7 4 3—7
. . . . . .
2
V d L l 5 6 In t he R o m an L a w t he o f c e o f t u t or w as
. . . . . . fi
u n pa i d D ig 2 6 7 33 , 3 In R D L a r e a so n a b le r e m u n e r a t io n
. . . . . .
-
. .
w as a ll o w e d e x c e pt t o pa r e n t s G r 1 9 1 1 ; V o e t , 2 7 4 1 2 Th e . . . . . .
a m ou n t w as u su ally x e d b y lo ca l s ta t u t e s V d K 156 fi . . . . .
2
D ig 2 7 3 4 pr a n d 2 7 4 1 3
. . . . . . . .
2“
G r o e n de leg a br a d D ig 2 7 3 4
. . . . . . .
1 16 THE LAW OF PE R S ONS
Whe re m o re t h a n h a ve a c te d a ny o ne of t he one tu t or ,
a c t i n g t u t o r s m a y b e su e d b u t by pl e a di n g t he b e n e fici u m ,
divi sio ni s ca n divide his li a bili t y wit h t he o th e r tu t o r s who

we r e solve n t a t the e a r li e st t i m e a t whi ch t he p u pil c o u ld
p r op e r ly h a ve su e d Wh e r e di ffe r e n t d u t ie s of a dm in i .
st r a t io n h a v e b e e n a ssign e d by t he t e st a t o r o r t he j u di ,
c ia l a u t ho r i t y b e t w e e n se v e r a l t u t o r s e a c h i s ge n e r a lly
, , ,
1
sp e a kin g lia bl e o n ly for hi s o w n p ar t i cu l ar s ph e r e of d u t y
, .
I n a ddi t io n t o t he a bove a ct io n s t he Ro m a n L a w g a ve
v a r io u s o t h e r r e m e di e s o r se cu r i ti e s t o t he m in o r m o r e ,
’
p a r ti cu l a r ly : ( 1 ) a n a ct i o n fo r se p a r a tio n of a cc ou n t s ‘
2
( r a t i o n i b u s di s t r a he n di s ) ( ) a n a ct i o n a g a i n st t he m a gi
; 2
3
st r a te by who m t he gu a r di a n ha d b e e n a ppoi n t e d ; ( 3)
“
t he cri m e n su spe ct i fo r t he r e m ov a l of g u a r di a n s o n t he
g r o u n d of m i s co n du c t a ctu a l o r a n ti cip a te d ; ( 4) a t a cit
5 ’
hypo t h e c u po n t he gu ar di a n s e st a t e .
’
The a ct i on r a t io ni b u s di st r a he n dis which w a s a s old
‘
6
a s t he Tw e lv e T a bl e s a ppli e d o n ly t o t ho se who d u r i n g ,
t h e ir a d m in i st r a t io n ha d c a rr i e d off s o m e t hin g fr o m t he
7
w a r d s e st a t e It lay fo r t w ice t he v a l u e of t he thi n g
’
.
t a k e n V o e t se e m s t o t r e a t t hi s re m e dy a s still e xi st i n g b u t
.
,
8
G r o e n e w e ge n sa ys t h a t t he p e n a l t y of do u ble w a s di su se d .
In t he Ro m a n L a w a su b sidi a r y a ct io n la y in ce rt a i n
c a se s a ga in st t he m a gistr ate s w h e n t he w ar d ha d fa ile d t o ,
9
ob t a in sa t i sfa c tion fr o m t he gu ar dia n a ppoin te d by t h e m .
W he th e r t his a ct ion su b si ste d in t he R o m a n D u t ch L a w -
10
w a s m u c h d e b a te d V o e t a n d o t h e r s a llow e d it in c a se .
1
G r 3 2 6 9 ; Voe t , 2 7 8 6
. . Wit h r e ga r d t o lo sse s o c c a s io n e d
. . . .
‘
b y o m iss io n s , a ll t he gu a r dia n s a r e lia b le i n s o lidu m , a n d , t ho u gh

t he y m a y c la im t he b e n e t o f div is io n a s b e t w e e n t he m se lv e s , a r e fi
n o t e n t it le d t o t h e b e n e t o f e x cu ss io n
’
l M aa s do r p , p 33 4 ; fi . .
Ni e ker k v Ni eker k ( 1 83 0 ) 1 M e n z 45 2
. . .
2
D ig 2 7 3 l 1 9 ; 2 7 3 2
. . . . . . .
3
D ig 2 7 8 1 ; G o d 5 7 5 5
. . . In s t 1 2 6 pr . . . . . . .
5
Co d 5 3 7 2 0 ( Co n st a n t in e , A D
. . . . .
7
D ig 2 6 7 5 5 , 1 . . . D ig 2 7 3 2 . . . . .
8
G r o e n de leg a br a d D ig 2 7 3 2 a n d G o d 9 47 ( r u br i c )
. . . . . . . . .
9
In st . 1 . 24 2 . .
V a n L e e u w e n , 1 1 6 4, a n d D e cke r s n o t e ; Ce ns F or 1 l 1 7
’
1°
. . . . . . .
4 ; V o e t , 2 7 8 5 ; G r o e n de leg a br a d In st 1 2 4 4 V inn iu s , ib id ;
. . . . . . . . .
V d K 7 70
. . . .
t in n e i t he r a b s olu te ly o r wi t h re spe c t to the imm ova ble
e
1 2
p r op e rt y of t he war d ; ( 5 ) ve ni a a e t a tis ; ( 6 ) a rr iva l of
t i m e or c e ssa t ion of p u r po se wh e n t he gu ar di a ns hip w a s ,
c r e ate d fo r a limi te d t im e o r p ur po se ; ( 7 r e m ova l o r r e

3 4
“
l e a se of t he gu ar di a n by t he Cour t ( 8) a b se n ce of t he wa r d
fo r a p r olon ge d p e r iod su c h as fur ni sh e s a p re em p t io n
,
of de at h in which c a se hi s p r ope r t y is di vide d a m on gst

,
t e st a m e n t a r y o r i n te st a te h e ir s se c u r i t y b e in g give n ,
’
fo r it s r e t ur n in t he e ve n t of t he w a r d s r e a pp e ara n c e (9)
7
( in S ou t h Afr ic a ) t he in solve n cy of t he gu a r di a n a n d so ,
“
fa r a s co n ce r ns t he p r op e r t y of t he w a r d , .
1
C r 1 1 0 2 In Vedes ki V Vedes ki [ 1 9 2 3 ] W L D 3 1 Mo r i c e
. . . . . . . .
A J he ld t ha t w he r e a w o m a n ha d a c u r a t o r b o n is , a ppo in t e d t o
. .
m a n a ge he r a ffa irs o n t he gr o u n d o f he r pr o di ga lit y , t he c u r a t o r

s hip w a s n o t d e t e r m in e d b y h e r m a rr i a ge in c o m m u n it y .
G r 1 1 0 3 B u t t his do e s n o t c arr y t he r ight t o a li e n a te im

. . . .
m o v a b le s e x ce pt b y le a v e o f t he Co u r t S u pr a , p 45 A cco r din g . . .
t o t he m o de r n pr a c t ic e t he Co u r t do e s n o t ass u m e t he po w e r t o
j
de c la r e a m in o r t o b e a m a o r in la w , b u t t he Ca pe Co u r t s h a v e
in se v e r a l c a se s m a de an o r de r r e le as in g a m in or fr o m t u te la ge .
S u pr a , p 45 . .
3
Gr 1 10 6
. . . .
G r 1 1 0 4; V o e t 2 6 1 0 l —
. . . 4; V d K 1 6 2 ; T he JV
, . I as te r v
. . . . .
Edgecom be s E x or s [ 1 9 1 0 ] T S 2 6 3
’
. . . .
G r 1 1 0 5 , a n d S ch o r e r s n o t e ; V d K 1 6 3
’
. . . . . . .
S u pr a , p 9 0 , n 7 . . .
7
S u pr a , p 1 1 7 . .
8
l Ma a sdo r p, p 3 40 . .
VI
U N SOUN D NE SS OF MIN D — P ROD IGAL IT Y

IN t he last ch a p te r w e saw t h at cu r a t ors dati ve a r e Uns ou n d
“ 88 ° f
a ppoin t e d by t he Co u r t fo r i n sa n e p e r s on s a n d a ft e r i n
( ,
te r di ct io n ) fo r p r o di g a ls I t is t e m p tin g t o sp e a k of u n .
s o u n dn e ss of m i n d a s co n stit u t in g a st a t u s ; b u t i t wou ld
n o t b e c o rr e c t t o do so fo r m e n t a l u n so u n dn e ss i s n o t ,
n e ce ssa r ily p e r m a n e n t o r c o n st a n t a n d t he qu e st ion which ,
m u st be a n swe r e d i s n o t Ha s t he m an b e e n de cl a r e d ,
‘
m a d ? bu t Wa s he in fa c t in c ap a ble of u n de rst an din g

’ ‘
, , ,
1 ’
t he p ar t i cu l a r t r a n sa ct io n which i s b r o u gh t in issu e If
t he a nswe r i s n e g a t iv e t he t r a n sa ct io n st an d s This ha s .
be e n a pplie d t o a m arr i a ge co n tr a cte d by a m a n a ga in st

who m a lu n a cy or der w as sti ll in fo r ce who w a s fo u n d to ,
h a ve b e en a t t he tim e of m a r r ia ge of so u n d mi n d a n d full
“
u n d e rst a n di n g I n t he con t r ar y e ve n t t he t r a ns a c ti on is
.
“
wholly voi d for fu r i o su s n u ll u m n e got iu m ge r e r e pote st Fur iosus
‘
qu ia n o n in te lli git qu i d a git The sa m e pr in ciple a ppli e s g g g ci

l ll l ’
t ii i m
.
“
t o a n y o t h e r for m of m e n t a l a li e n at ion I t i s im m ate r i a l ge r e re .
po m “
t h a t the ot he r p a rt y t o t he t r a ns a c t ion w a s u n a w a r e of t he
con di tion of t he p e r son wit h who m he w as d e a li n g The .
ru le howe v e r a dmi t s t w o qu a lific a t io n s : ( 1 ) The R o m a n Qu alifica

‘
, ,
D u t ch la w whi le den yin g t he c ap a city of an insan e p e r son a za s;

ae l
,
t o b in d hi m se lf by co n t r a ct r e cogni z e s t he e qu i t y of a llow ,
i ng a p e r son who ha s in good fa it h e xpe n d e d m o n e y o n
1
P r i ns lo o s Cu r a tor s bom s v Cr afi or d cfx: P r i ns loo [ 1 90 5 ] T S
’
’ '
. . .
669 ; P hea s a nt v Wa rn e [ 1 9 2 2 ] A D a t p 488; E s t B ehn e v

. . . . . .
Rehn e [ 1 9 3 0 ] O P D 80 P i en a a r . .
’
P i e n a a r s Cu r ator [ 1 9 3 0 ]
. V .
O P D 171
. . . .
’
P ri ns lo o s Cu r ator s v Cr afi o rd, u bi su p In E n gli sh la w a . .
q
lu n a t ic s o fo u n d b y in u is it io n is in ca pa b le o f m a r r ia ge H a ilsham .
x v i , se c 844 This is
.
pe r ha ps t he o nl y case in w hi c h t he la w r e c o g
.
n i z e s a s t a t us o f ins an it y .
3
Ins t 3 1 9 8; G r 3 1 1 9 ; ( Ce ylo n ) S oysa v S oysa ( 1 9 1 6 ) 1 9
. . . . . . .
N L R 314
. . . .
A s t o dru n ke nn e ss se e G r 3 1 4 5 ; V o e t , 1 8 l 4; M a n n i ng . . . . .
Wax v H ea thco te s Tru s tee [ 1 9 1 5 ] B D L 81 E ssa lcow v G a lbr a i th

.
’
. . . .
[1 9 17] O P D 53 . . . .
b e h a lf of a l u n at ic t o h a ve his e xp e n se s r e co u p e d ( 2) .
’1
‘
Wh e r e a ct s h a ve b ee n don e o n b e h a lf of a n in san e pe rs o n
by vir t u e of a powe r of a tt orn e y [or o th e r m an d a te ] give n
by him b e fo r e he w a s b e re ft of hi s re aso n t he re ar e a u tho
.
,
ri t i e s ( su c h a s D i ge st 46 3 3 2 a n d Po t hi e r o n Oblig a t io n s
. .
, ,
se c 81 ) fr o m w hi c h i t m igh t b e fa ir ly i n fe rr e d t h a t w a n t of
.
’
kn owle dge re g a r din g t he p r in cip a l s ch an ge of co n dit i o n
wo u ld p r o te ct p e r son s d e a lin g wit h t he a ge n t The powe r .
i s r e vok e d by r e as o n of t he in sa n it y ; b u t if t he pow e r h e ld
o u t t he a g e n t a s a p e r so n wi t h who m t hir d p a r t ie s m i gh t
c o n t r a ct a s su ch u n t i l t h e y r e c e iv e n o t i ce of t he re voc a t io n
of t he a u t ho r it y t h e ir kn owle dge of t he in sa ni t y wou ld

,
h a ve a n i m por t a n t b e ar i n g o n t he ir ri ght t o re cove r u po n

a c o n t r a ct t h u s m a d e Th a t wo u ld howe ve r b e a ve r y
.
, ,
di ffe r e n t m a t te r fr o m sa yi n g t h a t a n a g e n t a ppoin te d a fte r

t he i ns a ni t y of t he p r in cip a l c ou ld u n de r t he Ro m a n ,
D u t ch la w va li dly b in d su ch pr in cip al
,
2
.
’
The c on di t i on of t he p r odig a l a fte r i n te r di ct io n a n d

p u blic n o t ific a t io n t he r e of m a y c o rr e ctly be de s cr ib e d a s
a st a t u s Un t il t he in te r dict ha s b e e n r e m ove d a n d t he
.
re m ov a l n o t ifi e d he i s fo r m o st p u r po se s su bj e c t t o t he
sa m e l e g a l in ca p a cit ie s a s a mi n o r a n d lik e t he m i n or , , ,
’
c a n wi t ho u t hi s cur a t or s a u t ho ri t y e n te r in t o a c o n t r a ct
which is sole ly a dva nt a ge o us “ .
1
Na ta l L a nd a nd Co lon i za tion C o [ 1 9 0 5 ] A O 5 5 5
M o lyn e u x v . . . .
in a ppe a l fr o m Na t a l ( 2 4 N L R 2 5 9 ) p er Sir H e n r y de V illie rs a t

. . .
,
p 5 69 .
2
Ib id a t p 5 6 3 The P C u dgm e n t in A ppe a l is r e pr o du ce d in
. . . . j
2 6 N L R 42 3. . . .
G r 1 1 1 4 ; V o e t , 2 7 1 0 6 s eq A s t o m a r r ia ge a n d c o n se n t
. . . . . .
t o t he m a rr ia ge o f t he ir c hildr e n vide su p r a , p 6 1 , n l . . .
of in dividu a ls ( it s gov ern in g b ody ) o r t hr ou gh o t he r pe r
s o ns or gr o u p s of p e r so n s p r op e r ly a u t ho ri ze d wh e t h e r e r
p ,
m an e n t ly or for t he p ar t i cu l ar wor k in h a n d Cor p or a t ion s

'
d e r ive t h e ir e xiste n ce fr om the St at e t hr ou gh b e in g cr e a te d

,
by a sp e ci a l a ct of t he Le gi sla tu r e ( or by t he p r e r og at ive o f
t he Cr own ) o r u n de r t he p r ovisi o n s of a g e n e r a l A ct a s i s ,
t he c a se wi t h m o st t r a di n g co m p a n i e s ; or t h r ou gh b e in g
r e cogn i z e d by t he L e gi sl a t u r e wi t ho u t sp e ci a l cre a t io n
1
.
A co rp or a t i o n ce a se s t o e xist : ( a ) wh e n it ha s b e e n call e d
in t o e xi ste n ce for a lim ite d t i m e an d t h at tim e ha s e xpir e d
( b) wh e n all t he in di vidu als co m pos in g it ( corp ora tor s ) a r e
de a d—if o n ly o n e m e m b e r su r vive s it se e m s t h at t he c or
por at i o n st ill c on t in u e s i n hi s p e r son ( 0 ) wh e n t he m e m
b e r s ( an d in t he a b se n ce of co n t r a r y pr ovisio n t he m a j or i t y
of m e m b e r s vot in g ) r e solve t h a t t he cor por a tio n sh a ll b e
dis solve d p r ovide d t h a t in t he p art icul ar c a se su ch m ode
,
of di ssolu t io n is n o t for bidde n o r e xcl u de d by law o r by

t he con stit u ti on of t he c or por at io n ; ( d) wh e n a n y o t h e r
e v e n t o ccur s w hi ch t he law p r e s c r ib e s fo r t he di ssolu t io n
of t he c or p or a ti o n in qu e st ion Wi t h t h e se fe w wor d s on
.
t he n a t u r e of cor por a t ion s in g e n e r a l w e l e a ve t he stu de n t

t o p u r su e t he su bj e ct a s he m a y fin d d e sir a ble in t he
, ,
syst e m of la w whi c h p a rt ic u l ar ly co n c e r n s hi m .
1
The de c isio n in M orr i s on v S ta nda r d B u ildi ng S oci ety [ 1 9 3 2 ]
.
A D 2 2 9 d o e s n o t go fu r t he r t han t his ( R e gis t e r e d B u ildin g

. . .
S o c ie t ie s a r e n o w in c o rpor a t e d b y t he B u ildin g S o c ie t ie s A c t ,
1 9 3 4, a n d n o u nr e gist e r e d so c ie t y m a y c ar r y o n b u sin e ss ) T he r e .
ar e , n o d ou b t , o t he r c as e s in w h ic h t he Co u r t h as a tt r ib u t e d so m e
q
o f t he co n se u e n c e s o f j
u r ist ic in di v idu a l it y t o u n i n co rpo r a t e d
b o di e s, n o t t o o ha ppily t e rm e d v o lu n t a r y c or por a t io n s ; t hu s ,
‘ ’
l a t e ly , t o The S a le m P a r t y o f S e tt le r s ( E x p a r te G a r dn er [ 1 9 40 ]
‘ ’
B D L 17
. . . In t he pr e se n t s t a t e o f t he la w it is n o t possib le to
’
v o lu n t a r y c o r po r a t io n Pr o f
‘
s a y w h e n a n a s s o c ia t i o n is a . .
Will e sa y s t ha t it b e c o m e s su c h b y v ir t u e o f it s ha v in g e x e r c ise d,
‘
fo r a su b st a n t ia l pe r io d , t he e sse n t ia l c har a c t e r ist ic s o f a co r po r a

B u t I ha v e n o t fo u n d a n y su gge st io n
’
t io n ( P r i n cip les , p .
o f t his in M or r i son s Cas e

’
S e e , fur t he r , L es chi n v
. . K
ovn o S i ck
B en efi t S oci ety [ 1 9 3 6] W L D 9 . . . .
D ig 3 4 7 , 2
. . . .
B OOK I I
LAW OF P R OP E RTY
B OOK II
INT R OD U CTI ON
TH E R o m an in st itu t io n a l wr it e r s m a ke t he L a w of Thi n g s
t he se co n d divi si on of t he Ju s P r iv a t u m Un d e r t hi s h e a d .
a r e in cl u d e d : ( 1 ) O w n e rship a n d Mod e s of A c qu i sit i o n ;

,
( 2 ) P r op r ie t ar y r ight s le ss t h a n own e r ship su ch a s Se r vi ,
t u d e s ; ( 3 ) I n h e r i t a n ce ; ( 4) Oblig a t io n s Wh a t t he co m m o n .
e l e m e n t i s which m a k e s t h e se t opi c s a ll r e fe r a bl e t o o n e
b r an ch of la w is n o t a t o n ce a pp a r e n t Pr ob a bly it is .
own e r shi p The t r u e poin t of c o n t a c t b e twe e n t he v a r iou s

.
r e s se e m s i n r e a li t y t o b e t he fa c t t h a t who e v e r ha s a r e s
is a c t u a ll y o r p r o sp e ct ive ly s o m u ch t he b e tte r o ff 1 ’
G r o t iu s .
d e fin e s t hin g s a s wh a te ve r is e x te r n a l t o m a n a n d in a n y
w a y u se fu l t o Thi s howe ve r is n o t wid e e n ou gh , , ,
fo r t hin g i n i t s l e g a l si gni fi ca n ce i n clu d e s n o t m e r e ly

‘ ’
m a te r i a l t hi n gs b u t a l s o r ight s ove r m a te r i a l t hi n gs ( ju r a
i n r e ) a n d r i gh t s t o se r vi c e s ( ju r a i n p erson a m ) Vo e t s
’
.
‘
d e fini ti on of r e s a s e ve r yt hi n g of whi ch t he Co u r t s t a ke
3 ’
c ogni z a n ce i s p e r h a p s t o b e p re fe rr e d It is how e v e r .
, ,
u n p r ofi t a bl e t o l a bo ur t o d e fin e wh a t i s s c ar ce ly d e fin a bl e .
I n t he followin g p a g e s w e follow m od e r n p r a ct ice a n d

t r e a t a s se p ar a t e a n d p r in cip a l di vi sio n s of t he L a w : t he
L a w of P r op e rt y t he L a w of Oblig a t ions a n d t he L a w
, ,
of Su cc e ssi o n The su bj e ct of thi s B ook is t he L a w of

.
P r op e rt y whi c h wi ll in clu de own e r shi p a n d r e a l r igh t s

,
c o nn e cte d wi t h o r d e ri v e d fr o m own e r s hip We sh a ll spe a k .
of : 1 The m e a ni n g of own e r ship ; 2 The cl a ssific a t io n of

. .
thi n g s ; 3 H ow own e r ship i s a c qu ir e d ; 4 The in ci de n t s

. .
a n d kin d s of own e r sh ip ; 5 Po sse ssio n ; 6 Se rvi tu de s ; . .
7 Mort g a ge o r Hyp o t h e c
. .
1
M o y le Ju st in ia n
, I n s ti tu tes , p 1 87
’
s . .
. . . Z
G r 2 1 3 : a ke n n o e m e n w y h ie r a l w a t da e r is b u it e n de n
m e n s ch , de n m e ns ch e e n ichs in t s n u t z ijn de .
V o e t ( E le m J u r 2 l R e s e st o m n e id de qu o ju s di c it u r
. . . . .
Ju s n a m qu e d ic it u r in t e r pe rso n a s , de r e b u s , a u x ilio a c t io n u m .
1 26 THE LAW OF PR OPE RTY
wo u ld b e m isle a di n g u nl e ss t he de gre e of own e r shi p of
,
e a c h of u s w e r e o n e v e r y occ a sio n e x a ct ly sp e cifie d it is

,
u su a l t o sp e a k of o n e of u s o nl y a s own e r of t he t hi n g a n d
a s h a vin g a r e st r i cte d own e r ship in i t while t he o t h e r ,
is spok e n of a s own e r of t he r igh t a n d a s h a vin g a r ight ,
of po ssession a r i ght of u se a n d e n j oym e n t a r i ght of

, ,
a li e n a t io n in or ov e r t he p r op e rt y of a n o t h e r
, He r e u po n .
t he qu e st ion a r i se s which of t w o or m or e su c h co m p e t it or s
is t o b e r e g ar d e d a s own e r which n o t a s o w n e r The
‘
.
,
a n swe r d e p e n d s n o t so m u ch o n t he e x t e n t of t he r igh t
or of t he p r ofi t d e r iv e d fr o m i t a s o n t he c o n si d e r a t io n
wh e re t he r e sidu e of r ights r e m a in s a fte r t he de d u ct io n

fr o m fu ll own e r shi p of so m e sp e cifi c r igh t o r r igh t s of
gre a te r or le ss e x t e n t Th u s if I give y o u a r ight of w a y
.
,
ove r m y fie ld cle a r ly yo ur r ight is sp e cific a n d li m it e d

, ,
m in e is u nl im ite d a n d r e sid u ar y 1
I t he re for e a m own e r .
,
y o u n o t . T h e s a m e a ppli e s if y o u h a v e t h e u su fr u c t of
p r op e rt y t he r e sidu ar y r ight s ove r whi c h ar e ve ste d in m e
, ,
or e v e n if y ou h a v e a n i n h e r i t a bl e r igh t of t he kin d t e r m e d
“
e m phyt e u si s In a ll t h e se ca se s t he do mi n i u m r e m a in s in
.
m e b u t in t he t w o l a st b e in g r e d u ce d t o a m e r e sh a dow
, , ,
a t a ll e ve n t s fo r t he t i m e it i s b ar e own e r ship ( n u da ,
p r op r i etas ) i e own e r shi p st r ipp e d of it s m o st v a lu a ble

, . .
in cide n t s All t he a bove m e n t ion e d r i gh ts it m u st be

.
-
n o t e d wh e t h e r gr e ate r o r le ss a r e r ight s of p r op e r t y a n d
, , ,
a s su ch p r o te c te d by a pp r op r i a te r e m e di e s a g a in st a ll t he
wor ld (ju ra i n r em ) ; b u t whi le t he r e sidu ar y r ight ho w ,
i d m i i m — i
e v e r r e d u c e d is a r igh t of own e sh p (
,
r o n u j u s n r e
p r op r i a ) t he sp e cific r igh t s howe ve r e x t e n d e d a re r igh t s

, , ,
in fe r ior t o own e r shi p ( ju r a i n r e a li ena ) Su ch a t le a st is .

, ,
t he a n a lysis co m m onl y a cce p t e d G r ot i u s howe ve r u se s .

, ,
t he wor d ei gendo m ( own e r ship ) in a wid e r se n se ; for he

in clu de s u n de r it bo t h dom i n i u m ( stri ct o se nsu ) which he
di s t in gu i sh e s a s volle eigendom —dom i n i u m p len u m a n d ,
h e dist in gu i sh e s a s gebr eckeli cke

ju r a i n r e a li en a w hi ch
1
G r 2 33 5
. . . .
G r 2 3 3 l D ig 6 3 l : Qu i in pe rpe t u u m fu n du m fru e n du m
. . . . . .
c o n du x e r u n t a m u n i c ipib u s , qu a m vi s n on efii c i a n tu r dom i n i , & c

'
.
THE MEANING OF O WNE RSHIP 1 27
e i gendom — d om i n i u m mi n u s p len u m “ In t he followi n g

.
‘
p a ge s w he n w e u se the wor d own e r ship w e m e a n e it he r
c o m pl e te own e r shi p or t he r e si d u a r y r igh t whi c h r e m a ins
in a p e r son a fte r de d u ct ion fr o m hi s own e r ship of sp e cifi c

po r t io n s of own e r shi p ve ste d in a n o th e r o r
Gr . 2 3
. . 9 .
II
THE CLASSI F ICATI ON OF T H IN G S

WH E N p e a k of t he c l a ssifi ca t io n of t h in gs w e m e a n
we s ,
t h e ir cl a ssifi ca t io n a c c o r din g t o t he l e g a l sy ste m w hi c h

w e are e x a m ini n g I n t he Ro m a n D u t c h syste m t hin g s .
-
ar e c l a ssifi e d fi r st a cc o r di n g t o t h e ir r e l a t io n t o p e r s o n s
, , ,
i e in r e g a r d t o t he qu e st io n w h e t h e r t h e y a r e or a r e n o t
. .
O bj e c t s of own e r sh ip ; a n d se c o n dly a c c o r di n g to t h e ir ,
n a t u r e a s c o r po r e a l a n d i n c o r p o r e a l m ov a bl e a n d i m m ov
, ,
“
a bl e The Signifi ca n ce of t h e se di stin c t io n s will a ppe ar
.
fr o m the se qu e l .
THI NG S A S O B J E C T S O F O WNE R S HI P Ju stini a n di st in .
gu ishe s t h in g s a s ( a ) r e s c o m m u n e s ( b) r e s p u bli cae ( c ) , ,
re s u n i v e r sit a t i s ( d) re s n u lli u s ( e ) r e s sin u loru m

“ Th e se
g , , .
ca t e go ri e s h a v e li t t l e s c ie n t ific v a l u e b u t will se r ve a s a ,
b a sis of cl a ssific a t io n .
To t he cl a ss of t hin g s c o m m o n i e c o m m o n t o a ll m a n , . .
kin d a r e r e fe rr e d t he a ir flowin g w a te r t he se a a n d t he
, , , ,
“ 4
se a s ho r e
-
The c l a ss of t hi n g s p u bli c in cl u de s h a r bo u r s
.
,
“ “
pu bli c r ive r s o r l a ke s a n d p u bli c r o a d s In t he R o m a n ,
.
vi e w t he a bove cl a sse s of t hin gs ca nn o t b e o w n e d e it h e r

The a ir . by i n divi du a ls o r by c o r po r a ti o n s Th u s t he a ir is n o t .
,
su sce p t ibl e of own e r ship b u t it i s n o t i n c o n si ste n t wi t h ,

'
t hi s t h a t a l a n down e r ha s c e r t a in r igh t s in r e sp e ct of t he
a ir in cu m b e n t o n hi s l a n d so t h a t e g he m a y re qu i r e his , , . .
7
n e ighbo ur n o t t o p r oj e ct his b u ildi n g i n t o i t .
Gr 2 1 4 . . . .
Ins t . 2 1 6 ; V o e t , l 8 1 ; ( a ) ( b ) ( c ) an d ( d ) a re
. 1 pr ; G r
. . 2 . 1 . . .
sa id t o b e e x tr a n o s tru m p a tr i m o n i u m , i e le ga lly in ca pa b le o f . .
b e in g o w n e d , o r a c u ir e d b y a pr iv a te pe r so n q
O t he r t h in gs a r e .
i n n os tr o p a tri mon i o n s t l o c c it . I . . .
I
ns t 2 l 1 ; D ig l 8 2 ; G r 2 l 1 7 a n d 2 1 ; V o e t , l 8 3
. . . . . . . . . . . .
I
ns t 2 1 2
G r 2 1 2 5—
. . . .
. 8; V a n L e e u w e n , 2 l 1 2
. . . . .
‘
H e r e w e ge n G r 2 3 5 9 ; C en s F or 1 2 1 4 3 4; Sto c km a n s ,
’
. . . . . . . . .
D e cis B r a ba n t n o 85
. . . .
7
G r 2 1 2 3 2 34 8 A s to
. . . . . . a ir c r a ft se e A c t NO 1 6 . . o f 1 9 2 3 , se c . 9 .
1 30 THE LAW OF PROPE RTY
su ch t h e y c ann o t be p r iv ate ly own e d b u t m ay b e u se d a n d ,
e n j oye d by a ll m e m b e r s of t he c o m m u ni t y for n a vig a t io n

“
or fi s hin g A m o n gst p u blic r ive r s t he Ro m a n D u t ch L a w
.
-
,
followin g t he fe ud a l la w di st in gu ishe d furt he r b e t we e n ,
( 1 ) n a vig a ble r ive r s a n d t he ir t ri b u t a r i e s ( 2 ) o t he r p u bli c ,
“ “
Re ga li a .
r iv e rs The fo r m e r cl a ss fe ll u n d e r t he h e a d of r e g a li a wit h
.
,
t he r e su lt t h a t fis hin g in n a vig a ble r iv e r s a n d o t h e r inl a n d

n a vig a ble w a t e r s w as n o t p e r m it te d wi t ho u t lic e n c e fr o m
“
Gove rn m e n t Thi s di st in ct ion is of li tt le o r n o i m port an ce
.
a t t he p r e se n t t im e for i n t he m od e r n la w t he p re r og a t ive ,
of t he Cr own e x te n d s t o a ll p u bli c r ive r s a n d st r e am s “

.
Wh a te ve r ha s b e e n said a s t o t he r ights of the p u blic in

p u blic r ive rs m u st b e u n de r st ood su bj e ct to the qu a lifi ca t ion
t h a t n o p e r s o n m a y e x e r c ise hi s r igh t im p r op e r ly to t he
p u blic de tri m e n t A c cor din gly a n in te r di ct lie s t o p r ohibit .
in te r fe r e n c e wi t h n a vig a t i o n or t he flow of t he stre a m “

.
Vo e t, 1 8 8 . . .
This di st in c t io n a ppe a r s a lr e a dy in t he R o m an L a w in c o n
n e x io n w i t h t he t o pic o f l e a din g w a t e r D ig 43 1 2 2 ; V o e t , . . . .
1 8 9
. .
J
L ib F e u d II 5 5 ( 5 6 ) ( c o n s t it u t i o n o f Fr e de r i ck I o f
. . .
.
G u de lin u s de ju r e n ovi s si m o , 5 3 5 ; G roe n de le g a br a d In s t

2 l 2 ; V in n iu s a d Ins t 2 1 2 , se c 3 ; G r 2 1 2 5—
. . . . .
, .
. . 7 ; Hu b e r , . . . . . . .
H eede ns da egs e Re chts ge lee r theyt, 2 1 1 7—1 9 ; V o e t , 1 8 8 a n d 9 . . . .
14 3 49 . . .
Gr 2 5—7 ; V a n L e e u w e n , 2 1 1 3 ; V oe t , 1 8 9 ad fin ;
. 2 1
. . . . . . .
41 1 6 ; b u t r o d fi shin g w as a llo w e d G r 2 1 2 8 The r ight o f

. .
-
. . . . .
fe r r y ( v ee r r e cht ) a lso w a s in c lu de d u n de r t he hea d o f r ega li a

-
.
P r ovi n cia l A dm i n is tr a ti on o hn A da ms a n d C o [ 1 9 2 9] V . J .
O P D 2 9 O n t he su b e c t o f fe r r i es r e fe r e n c e m a y b e m a d e t o
. . . . j
F A H o lle m a n , R echts ges chi eden is de r H e e r lij ke Ver en i n H olla nd ,
. .
a t he s is pr e se n t e d fo r t he d e gr e e o f doctor ju r i s , L e ide n , 1 9 2 8 .
Thi s se e m s a le git im a t e in fe r e n c e fr o m Va n Ni e ke r k s cas e B y

’
.
D u t c h L a w r ega li a , spe a kin g ge n e r a lly , w e r e in a lie n a b le ( Res o lu ti e

va n de S ta te n va n H o lla ndt , 1 5 S e pt e m b e r , 1 620 , 3 G P B . . .
a n d in t h is c o n n e x io n t h e dist in c t io n in dic a t e d in t he t e x t m a y
s t il l e x is t
‘
Wit ho u t e x pr e ss in g an y ie w u po n the po sit io n o f V
n a v iga b le r iv e r s i t w il l b e su f c ie n t t o sa y t ha t t he Cr o w n m a y fi
v a l idl y in c lu de in a gr an t o f la n d t he b e d o f a n o n n a v iga b le -
pu b lic st r e a m ( p er nn e s C J in Va n Ni e ker k s Cas e a t p 3 7 3 ) I

’ ’
. . .
a n d w h e n o n c e pr o pe r t y is sh o w n t o b e r ipa r ian — t ha t is , t o ru n
‘
u p t o t h e n a t u r a l b o u n da r y o f t h e r i v e r —t he n it l ies u po n him
w h o c o n t e st s it s e x t e n s io n to m ids t r ea m t o S ho w t h a t it s to ps a t
t he b a n k ( p
’
F o r Ce y lo n s e e Wa n iga tu n ga
. S i n n o A ppa V .
( 1 9 2 5 ) 2 7 N L R 5 0 ( the b e d o f a pu bli c st r ea m b e lo n gs t o t he
. . .
Cr o w n ) . D ig 43, t its 1 2 an d I 3 . . .
CLASS IFICATI ON OF THINGS 1 31
The p hr a se r e s n u lli u s is u se d in t he R o m a n L a w in Res

distin ct se n se s ( 1 ) Re s c o m m u n e s a re sa i d t o b e r e s “ mu “
thr e e
n u lli u s a n d h u m a n i j u r i s ; ( 2 ) Re s s a cr ae re ligi o sae a n d ,
sa n ct a e ( ch u r c h e s gr a v e yar d s ci t y w a lls ) a r e r e s n u lli u s

, ,
a n d di vin i o r qu a s i di vi ni j u r i s ( 3 ) Thin gs own a ble bu t ,
“
u n own e d ar e r e s n u lli u s a n d m a y b e a c qu ir e d by o cc u p a
,
t io n Wit h r e g a r d t o t he se c on d of t h e se cl a sse s which

.
,
a lo n e h e r e co n ce r n s u s i t i s su ffi cie n t t o sa y t h a t i t ha s n o ,
pl a ce in R o m an D u t ch L a w sin ce a ll t he thi n gs co m pr i se d
-
in it are own e d e i t h e r by cor por a t io n s o r in di vid u a l s or by

“
the St a te .
P a ssin g ov e r t hin gs own a ble b u t u n own e d in fa ct of Re s u ni , ,
w h i c h w e sh a ll sp e a k h e r e a fte r w e co m e t o t he l a st tw o ,
r e s u n iv e rs it a t is a n d loru m
’
c l asse s in Ju st in i a n s divi si o n v iz ,
. .
r e s sin gu lor u m The fir st c l a ss c o m p r is e s t hin g s o w n e d by

.
“
t own s vill a ge s a n d sim i l ar so cie t ie s o r by c or por a t io n s
, ,
.
The se c o n d cla ss co m p r i se s t h in g s o w n e d by i n di vid u a ls .
This di sti n ct ion se e m s t o b e a di st in c t io n n o t of t hi n g s ,
b u t of p e r sons i e a c c or di n g a s t h e y a re ( a ) a rt ifi ci a l o r
,
. .
j u r i st ic p e r so n s ; o r ( b) n a t u r a l p e r son s .
TH I NG S A C C O R D ING T O THE IR NA TUR E Thin gs are Things .
fu r t he r cla ssifie d a ccor di n g t o t he ir n a t u r e as corpo r e a l

a n d i n c o r po r e a l Co r por e a l thi n gs ca n b e t o u che d e g n a t ur e
.
, . .
:
7
l a n d ho u se s ca tt le c lo t h e s I n cor po re a l t hin gs consi st
, , ,
.
c o rpo ra“
in a r ight as se rvi tu de in h e ri t a n ce oblig a tio n s d e b t s
, , , , ,
a ct i o n s r e n t s ,
.
Ag a in t hin g s ar e di vide d i n t o im m ova ble s a n d m o v im m ov

,
9
a bl e s This is p r ope r ly a cl a ssifi c a t ion of cor por e a l
.
t hin g s ; b u t in la w m o st in cor pore a l t h in g s ar e d e e m e d
Se e K
o t z e s Va n L ee u w e n , v o l i , p 1 48 ( t r an sla t o r s n o te )
’
—
. . .
V oe t , 1 8 1 . . In s t 2 l 1 2 ; G r 2 1 5 0 2
. . . . . . . .
G r 2 1 1 5 ; V a n L e e u w e n 2 l 9 ; G r o e n de leg a br a d In st
. . .
, . . . . .
V
.
2 1 8 a n d 9 ; C ap e T ow n Wa te r w or ks C o
’
. . E lder s E x or s ( 1 890 ) . . .
8S C 9. . .
G r 2 1 3 1 if V o e t , 1 8 1 0 Th e S t a t e ( o r w ha t c o m e s t o t he
. . . . . . .
sa m e t h in g, t h e fi s c u s ) m a y , o f c o u r se , o w n pr o pe r t y qu a in div idu a l .
Pr o pe r t y so o w n e d is n o t pr o pe r ly S pe a kin g r es pu blica I t is i n .
p e cu n i a p opu li , n o t pu bli ca u su i des ti na ta D ig 1 8 1 6 pr ; G r 2 . . . . . . .
Gr 2 1 . . . 1 0 ; Vo e t , 1 . 8 11. .
t o be co m pr ise d
d m ova ble s
un er Thi s i m m ova ble s or .
1
divisio n t he re fo r e b e co m e s t he p rin cip a l b asi s of c lass i

, ,
fi c at io n Whe r e howe ve r t he co nte xt r e qu ir e s it in

.
, , ,
cor por e a l t hi n g s for m a t hir d a n d se p ar ate class by ‘
“
t h e m se lve s The cl ass of t hi n g s i m m ov a bl e co m p r ise s
.
n o t m e re ly t hi n g s phy si ca ll y i m m ov a bl e b u t a l so s o m e ,
m ov a ble a n d in cor por e a l t hi n gs w hi ch a r e d e e m e d t o b e ,
i mm ov a ble a n d a r e gove r n e d by t he la w of i m m ova ble s .
The cl a ss of t hi n g s m ova bl e c o m p r ise s n o t m e r e ly t hi n g s

physic all y m ov a ble b u t a ls o s om e in c or po r e a l t hin gs ,
whi ch a r e de e m e d t o b e m ov a ble a n d a r e gove rn e d by

t he la w of m ov a ble s “
I mm ov a ble t hin g s a n d t hin g s .
d e e m e d t o b e im m ova bl e a r e : ( 1 ) l a n d a n d hou se s ; 4
( 2 ) t hi n g s n a t ur a ll y or a r t ifi c i a lly a nn e x e d t o o r a ss o ci a t e d
“
wi t h l a n d a n d ho u se s ( u n d e r t hi s h e a d fa ll gr o w in g
t r e e s a n d fru it s ; m in e r a ls st on e s & c ; c e r ta in m ov a ble s , ,
.
a nn e x e d t o ho u se s e v e n t ho u gh te m por a r ily re m ov e d ;
ce r t a i n m ov a bl e s n o t a nn e x e d t o b u t e n j oye d a lo n g wi t h , ,
l an d a n d ho u se s or d e stin e d for p e r p e tu a l u se t h e r e wi t h )
7
( 3 ) p r a e di a l se r vit u de s ; ( 4) p e r s on a l se r vit u de s ove r im
m ov a ble s ; ( 5 ) a ct ion s in r e m di r e c t e d t o t he r e cov e r y of
8
im m ova ble s ; ( 6 ) ann u a l r e n t s ch ar g e d o n la n d a n d ( 7 in

9
t he m od e r n la w l e ase s of i m m ov a bl e p r ope r t y S O far a s

,
t h e y cr e a te r igh s t in r e m ;
11
( )
8 o t h e r r e a l r igh t s ov e r l a n d
V o e t , l 8 1 8; E x p a r te M as ter of the S u p r em e C ou rt [ 1 9 0 6 ]
. .
T S 5 63
—
. . .
V o e t , 1 8 2 9 ; V d K 1 7 8 9 ; E x p a r te Cr on w r ight s E x or e
’
. . . . . .
[ 1 9 3 8] C P D 2 3 6 . . . .
O n t il b ae r O fte o nr o e r b ae r ; r e s im m o b il e s Gr 2 1 12 . . . . .
G r 2 1 1 3 : Wa t ae r d O fte n a ghe l v as t is , w e r d ghe ho u de n a ls

. . .
e e n ge v o lg v a n he t o n t ilb a r e ; V o e t , l 8 1 3—1 4 R ex M a bu la . . . V .
[ 1 9 2 7 ] A D 1 5 9 V a n L e e u w e n ( C en s F o r 1 2 1 4) a dds t it le
. . . . . . . .
de e ds F o r Ce y lo n se e B r o di e
. A ttor n e y G en e r a l ( 1 9 0 3 ) 7 N L R
7
V .
~
. . .
81 . V o e t , u bi su p V oe t , l 8 2 0 . . . .
V o e t , ib id Voet , 1 8 2 1 . Vo e t , l 8 2 4 . . . . . .
C o lli ns V
Hu go ( 1 89 3 ) H e rt z o g 1 7 6 p er o t z e J E x p a r te
. K
M as ter of the S u p r em e Cou r t [ 1 90 6 ] T S 5 6 3 ; i nfr a , p 1 6 1 B y . . . .
t he D e e d s R e gist r ie s A c t No 47 o f 1 9 3 7 , se c 1 0 2 , im m o v a b le
‘
. .
pr o pe r t y in clu de s :
( a ) An y r e gist e r e d le ase o f r ight s t o m in e r a ls ; a n d ( b) a n y
r e gist e r e d l e ase o f la n d w h ic h , w he n e n t e r e d in t o , w a s fo r a pe r io d
o f n o t l e ss t han t e n y e a r s o r fo r t he n a t u r a l l ife o f t he l ess e e o r a n y
o t he r pe rso n m e n t io n e d in t he lea se , o r w hi ch is r e n e w a b le fr o m
of t he i mm ov a ble pr op e rt y of m in or s ;1 ( 4) t he p r o ce ss of
e x e cu t i o n u po n i mm ov a bl e s d iffe rs fr o m t he p r o ce ss of
e x e cu t io n u po n m ova bl e s
“ .
The a bove distihct io ns t ho u gh a u se fu l gui de a r e n o t in , ,
v ar i a bly c o n clu sive A t hin g m ay fo r inst a n ce b e t r e a te d

.
, ,
a s i m m ov a bl e fo r s o m e p u r po se s b u t n o t for a ll Thu s a .
m ort g a ge of l an d lik e a sa le o r ot h e r a li e n a t io n r e qu ir e s
, ,
t o b e sole m n ly e x e cu te d a n d r e g ist e r e d if it is t o bin d

t hir d p a r t ie s a n d s o fa r r e se m bl e s i m m ov a bl e p r op e rt y “
, ,
b u t i s n e v e rt h e le ss a s w e h a v e se e n in o t h e r r e spe ct s
, , ,
classe d wi t h m ova ble s .
A S t o t hi n gs a n n e x e d t o l a n d o r ho u se s o r wh at ar e ,
co m m o nl y ca lle d fix tu r e s t he qu e sti o n w h e t h e r t h e y h a v e ,
b e co m e i m m ova ble t hr o u gh a nn e x a t ion by h u m a n a ge n cy

d e p e n d s u pon t he cir c u m st a n c e s of e a ch c a se The t h in g .
‘
m u st b e i n its n a t u r e c a p a bl e of a cce di n g t o r e a lt y t h e r e ,
m u st b e so m e e ffe c t iv e a tt a ch m e n t ( w h e t h e r by m e r e
we ight o r by physi ca l c on n e xion ) a n d t h e r e m u st b e a n ,
in te n t ion t h a t it S hou ld r e m ain p e r m a n e n t ly a tt a ch e d ; ’
‘
a n d t he in te n t i o n r e qu ir e d ( in co n j u n c t io n wi t h a n n e x a
t i o n ) t o d e str oy t he id e n t it y t o m e r ge t he t it le o r t o , ,
t r a ns fe r t he dom i n i u m of m ov a ble p r op e rt y m u st su r e ly
b e t he in te n t io n of t he
1
O p c it , c a p x v iii , se c 1 ; su p r a , pp 49 , 1 1 0
. . . . . .
Op c it , c a p x x , se c 7 ; V a n de r L in de n , Ver ha nd e li ng over de
. . . .
J u di ci e e le P r ac tijcq, b o o k ii i , c h ap V i ; Na t ha n , C omm on L a w of .
S ou th A fr i ca , v o l iv , pp 22 0 6 if A u dgm e n t c r e di t o r m u s t e x c u s s
. . . j
t he m o v a b l e pr o pe r t y o f h is de b t o r b e fo r e pr o ce e din g a ga ins t t he
im m o v a b le s : C ap e Ru les of C ou r t, R u le 3 6 ; H a r t L e n n ox [ 1 9 2 6 ] V .
W L D 2 1 9 As t o t he in c a pa c it y o f a gu a r di a n t o t a ke im m o v a b le
. . . .
r ope r t u n d e r t h e w il l o f h i s w a r d se e b e l o w , p 3 64 Th e di s
p y . .
t in c t i o n is a lso o f im po r t a n c e in in so lv e n c y , in c o n s t r u in g w ills ,
c o n t r a c t s a n d m o r t ga ge s , a n d in de te r m in i n g t h e in c ide n c e o f
t r a n sfe r du t y , r a t e s a n d t a x e s .
Vo e t , 1 8 2 7 . . .
4
M a cdon a ld L td V
Radi n N 0 dc P o tchefstro om D a i r ies [ 1 9 1 5 ]
—
. . . .
A D a t pp 46 6 7 p er Inn e s C J ; G a u lt v
. . . B ehr m a n [ 1 9 3 6] . . .
T P D 3 7 ; ( Ce y lo n ) T i s s er a
. . . T i sser a ( 1 9 40 ) 42 N L R 6 0 V . . . . .
III
HOW OW NE RSH IP I S AC QU I R E D
I N t his h a p te r w e de a l wit h t he a c qu i sit i o n a n d e x t in c Modes of

c
ig?
t i on of own e r shi p 1 n c or por e a l t hin g s a n d p r in cip a lly wi t h f
t he l e g a l m od e s of a c qu i sit io n of own e r ship i e t he pr o corpore al ,
. .
“
lu n g“
ce sse s w hi c h in law m a k e a t hin g m i n e The m ode s of
, ,
.
a c qu ir in g a n d lo sin g own e r shi p of in c o r po r e a l t hi n g s will
b e c on si d e r e d in c onn e xi o n wi t h t he v ari ou s in c or por e a l

t hin gs of w hi ch w e sh a ll spe a k h e r e a ft e r The m ode s of .
a c qu i si ti o n of c o r pore a l t h i n g s i e of s in gle t hi n g s ( r eru m , . .
s i n gu la r u m ) —fo r wi t h a c qu i si t i o n pe r u ni v e rs it a te m w e
a r e n o t n o w c o n c e r n e d— a r e p r i n cip a lly t he foll owin g : v i z .
( 1 ) o ccu p a tion ; ( 2 ) a cce ssi o n ; ( 3 ) spe ci fi ca t i on ; ( 4) t r a di

t i o n o r d e live r y ; ( 5 ) p r e scr ip t io n We S h a ll s pe a k of t h e se .
in or d e r Sin ce t he D u t ch t re a t m e n t of m ode s O f a c qu isi

.
t i on c lo se ly follows t he R o m a n L a w w e S h a ll cr e di t t he ,
r e a d e r wi t h a kn owl e dge of t he fir st t i t l e of t he se c o n d
book of Ju stini a n s I n sti tu tes a n d li m it o u r se lve s to r e

’
c a lli n g t he h e a d s O f c l a ssi fi ca t i o n t h e r e in c o n t a in e d an d ,
t o d ir e ct in g t he a t te n t i o n t o s om e p a rt i c u l a rs in whi c h t he
R o m a n D u t ch L aw p r e se n t s fe a t u r e s of p e cu li ar in te re st .
I O c c u p a tion m a y b e de fin e d a s t he l a wfu l se iz in g Occu pa

.
i° n
( w it h t he in te n ti o n o f b e c o m in g own e r ) of a n u n own e d
‘
corp or e l t hin g ca p a ble of own e r shi p

a
“ Th is m ode of a o .
qu isiti o n is a ppli ca ble i n ter a li a t o : ( 1 ) w ild b e ast s b ir d s , ,
a n d fis h e s ; ( 2 ) e n e m y good s ; ( 3 ) a b a n don e d t hin gs (r es

2 3
4
der eli cta e ) ; a n d in shor t t o e v e r y own a ble t hi n g whi c h
, ,
e it h e r n e v e r ha s b e e n own e d or h a vin g o n c e b e e n own e d
is own e d n o lo n g e r .
Wit h r e g ar d to wild a ni m a ls t he D u t ch L aw de p a rt e d Wild

a ni m a ls.
1
V o e t , 41 1 2 ; H e in e c c E le m J u r Ci v a d In s t , se c 3 42
. . . . . . .
V
. .
In st 2 1 1 2—1 6 ; Ri chte r
. . . D u P looy [ 1 9 2 1 ] O P D 1 1 7 ; .
V
. . .
L a mon t H eyn s [ 1 9 3 8] T P D 2 2 He ld b y t he Na t a l Co u r t in
. . . . .
D u n n v B ow y er ( 1 9 2 6 ] N P D 5 1 6 t ha t a pe r so n w ho c a pt u r e s a
. . . .
w il d a ni m d ille ga lly d o e s n o t b e co m e o w n e r .
3
In st 2 1 1 7 ; M shw a kez e le G u du ka ( 1 90 3 ) 1 8 S C 1 67
. . . V . . . .
4
Ins t 2 1 47
. . . . G r 2 1 50 . . . .
in m a n y p ar ti cu la r s fr o m t he la w of Rom e It is howe ve r .
, ,
u nn e ce ssar y t o r e c a ll t he ob s ol e t e fe u d a l cu st o m s an d
ga m e l a ws whi c h for m e d p a r t of t he old la w 1 Su c h .
m a t te r s ar e n o w r e gu l a te d by l e gis la t ion “ On e dou b t fu l .
point m a y b e m e n t io n e d v i z a s t o t he own e r shi p of , .
t a m e d a ni m a ls whi c h h a v e lo st t he a n i m u s r e ve rt e n di “ .
Ac c or din g t o se ve r a l a u t hor i tie s t he y do n o t t h e re by r e

v e r t t o t he ir n a t ur a l li b e r ty b u t r e m a in t he su bj e ct of ,
p r iv a te own e r shi p F a l c ons a n d Sp arr ow h a wks a r e cite d

“ .
-
as e x a m pl e s The in st a n c e s giv e n su gge st t h a t t he rul e

.
b e lon gs t o a n o r d e r of ide a s whi ch ha s p a sse d a wa y

_
.
Thin g s whi ch h a ve b e e n lo st by t he ir own e r r e m a in hi s

p r op e r ty a n d c a nn o t b e a cqu ir e d by occu p a t ion “ A p e r s o n .
who t a k e s t h e m in b a d fa i t h c o mm i t s t h e ft “ If a fte r .
p r op e r in qu ir y the own e r is n o t fou n d t he fin de r of a ,
t hi n g m a y r e t a in i t bu t t he fu ll p r e scri p t iv e p e r iod of ,
t hir t y ye a r s m u st e l a p se b e for e he c a n c la im t o r e m a in in
Wre ckage . po sse ssi on a s own e r 7
Wr e ck a ge is se p ar a te ly t re a te d . .
Thi s G r o tiu s te lls u s u se d fr o m of old t o b e r e ga r de d a s ,

‘
t he p r iv a te p r op e r t y of t he Cou n t s b u t in vi e w of t he ,
in cr e a se of shi pp in g in a n d a bou t t h e se l an ds t he Cou n t ,
n oble s a n d t own s d e cr ee d t h a t e v e r y o n e m igh t re cov e r hi s

,
shipwr e c k e d a n d lo st p r op e r t y The cl a im m us t b e m a d e
wi thi n a ye ar a n d Six we e k s a n d t he own er m u st b e a r
9
,
1
F o r w hi ch b o o k i i , c ha p 4 ; V a n L e e u w e n , 2 3 2 fi
se e Gr . . . .
Th e y w e re S w e pt a w a y a t t he e n d o f t he e ighte e n t h ce n t u r y
b u t fre sh r e gul a t i o n s w e r e fo u n d n e c e ssa r y a fe w y ear s la t e r .
V dL l 7 2
. . . . . .
2
S e e e g Ce y l o n O r d No 1 o f 1 9 0 9 , w hi ch a m e n ds a n d co n
. . . .
so li da t e s t he l a w r e la t in g t o t he pr o t e c t i o n o f ga m e , w ild b eas ts ,
b ir ds , r e pt il e s , a n d fi sh F o r t he n i o n se e B la in e s Con s o lida ted

’
. U
I n de x to S ta tu te L a w , su b voce G a m e a n d for S ou t h e r n R h o d e s ia
‘
R e vi s ed S ta tu tes , ca p 1 87 . .
3 I 1 5 ; D ig 41 1 5 5 ; G r 2 4 1 3
ns t 2 1 . . . . . . . . . . .
4
C e ns F or 1 2 3 7 ; V o e t , 41 1 7 ; G r o e n de leg a br ad In s t ,
. . . . . . . . . . .
u bi su p Mo de r n Co de s
. 9 60 , C o de Ci vi l S u i ss e 7 1 9 ) fo llo w
t he R o m a n L a w V o e t , 41 1 9 ; V d K 1 89 ; V d L 1 7 2
. . . . . . . . . . . .
Inst 2 l 48 . . .
7
V o e t , u bi su p ; V d k 1 89 . . . . .
8
G r 2 4 3 6 Th e r e w as m u ch le gisla t io n L e e , C om m e n tary ,
. . . . .
a d 10 0 .
9
S o sa y s G r o t iu s , b u t fur t he r a u t ho r it y is w a n t in g ; R echts Obs .
pt 4, n o 1 8 G r is fo llo w e d b y Vin ni u s ( a d In s t 2 l 47 ) a n d b y
. . . . . . .
S c ho r e r ( a d G r 3 2 7 b o t h o f w ho m a t t r ib u te t h is t im e lim i t t o
. . .
wit h ce rt a in voice In t he m od e r n la w su ch m a t te rs
no .
1
a r e r e gu l a t e d by st a t u te “ .
Acce ssio n . II A c ce ssi o n is a m ode of a cqu ir in g own e r ship wh e r e by

.
a t hi n g b e co m e s t he p r op e r t y of a p e r so n by b e i n g physi
c a lly or in te ll e ctu a lly a sso cia t e d wit h so m e o t h e r t hin g

O f whi c h su ch p e r s o n i s a lr e a dy o w n e r 3 The t hin g w hi c h .
a c c e d e s m a y e i t h e r b e p r e v i o u sly u n ow n e d ( r es n u lli u s ) o r
p re vio u sly own e d ( r es a li cuju s ) W h e n t w o own e d t hin g s .
b e c o m e u n i te d by a cce ssion i t m a y b e qu e sti o n e d wh i ch

of t he t w o a cc e d e s t o t he o t h e r i e wh i ch i s p r in cip a l ,
. .
,
‘
whi ch a cce ss or y G r otiu s sa ys t h a t a c ce ssion t a k e s pl a ce .
wh e n of t w o t hi n gs whi ch a r e j o in e d t oge t h e r t he m or e
4
v a lu a ble dr a ws t o i tse lf t he le ss v a lu a bl e B u t t he t e st
’
.
a dop te d by U lpi a n i s b e t t e r : Wh e ne ve r w e a sk whi ch of ‘
t w o t hi n g s c e d e s t o t he o t h e r w e look t o se e whi ch i s ,
a pp lie d t o o r n a m e n t t he o t h e r ;
’
5
S O t h at e g p r e c io u s ,
. .
st o n e s a dh e r e t o a S ilv e r pl a te in wh i ch t h e y a r e se t ; or
w e m a y sa y t h a t t he p r in cip a l t hin g i s t he t hi n g whi ch

m ain t a in s it s in d e p e n d e n t e x iste n ce wh e t h e r t he o t h e r
t hi n g i s j oin e d t o i t or n o t “ .
A c ce ssio n co m p r ise s i n ter a li a t he followin g m ode s of

7 8
1 l
a cqu i sit i o n : v i z ( ) a l u vio n ; ( ) i sl a n d r i si g in a r iv
2 n . e r ;
ch g of iv b d d r i a l a t t a ch m e n t ( a d
9
( 3 ) a n e r e r e ; ( 4) i n u st -
j u n cti o ) ;
10
( )
5 pl a n t i n g “ a n d s owi n g “2
D e t a il s w il l b e .
n o t i c e d o n ly s o fa r a s t he R o m a n D u t ch L a w p r e se n ts -
fe a t u r e s of p e c u li ar in te r e st .
Allu vi on . All u vi o n i s d e fin e d a s a l a te n t in cr e m e n t wh e r e by ‘
,
s o m e t hin g i s a dd e d t o l a n d so S lo w ly t h a t i t is i m po ssibl e
V o e t , 41 l 1 3 , a n d se e 49 1 4 3
1
. . . . .
2
F o r Ce y l o n L a w se e O r d NO 5 o f 1 89 0 a n d P e r e ir a , p 2 86 . . . . .
V o e t , 41 1 1 4 ; V d L 1 7 2 . . . . . . . .
4
G r 2 9 1 ; A ldi n e T i m ber C o
. . . H la tw a yo [ 1 9 3 2 ] T P D 3 3 7 . V . . . . .
D ig 3 4 2 1 9 , 1 3
. . . .
7
D ig 6 1 2 3 , 5 ; 41 1
. . 2 6 pr . I n st 2 1 2 0 . . . . . . .
8
In st 2 1 2 2 . . .
9
Ins t 2 1 2 3
. . . . .
1“ I
n st 2 1 2 6 ( i n tex tu r a ) ; s e c s 2 9 a n d 3 0 ( i n a edific a ti o ) ( J ohn
. . .
V
.
s on ( E C o G r a nd H o te l C o [ 1 9 0 7 ] O R C a t p 5 0 ; R eed B r os v
. . . . . . . . .
F or d [ 1 9 2 3 ] T P D a t p 1 5 3 ) se c 3 3 ( scr ip tu r a ) ; se c 3 4 ( p i c tu r a ) ; . .
V
. . . .
Coop er J or da n ( 1 884) 4 E D C 1 81 ( w he e ls a nn e x e d t o w a go n ) . . . .
V
.
“1 Ins t 2 1 3 1 S e cr e ta r L d J e r om e [ 1 9 2 2 ] A D
; .
yf o r
. a n s .
at . . .
1“I 2
1 1 7 ns t 2 l 3
p . . . . . .
HOW OWNE RSHIP I S ACQUIRED 1 39
to how m u ch is a dde d a t a n y o n e
sa y B y t he
R o m a n L aw l a n d so a dde d by t he w a sh of a r iv e r o r st r e a m
b e lon ge d to t he own e r of t he l an d to w hi ch it a dhe r e d “ .
I n t he N e t h e r l a n d s t he la w of a ll u vi o n w a s ve r y u n
l
se t t e d a n d v ar i e d fr o m p r ovi n ce t o p r ov in ce
“ A ccor di n g .
,
t o o n e vi e w a llu vi o n b e in g a n in ci d e n t of r ive r s fe ll u n d e r , ,
t he h e a d of r e g a li a “ Ce r t a in ly in So u t h H oll a n d sa ys .
‘
,
’
Vin ni u s n o m a n w a s for m e r ly fo u n d t o cl a im t h is r igh t

‘
,
of in cr e m e n t a s hi s o w n u nle ss o n t he gr ou n d t h a t t he
r igh t ha d b e e n gr a n t e d t o him by t he Co u n t or t h a t t he ,
l a n d ha d b e e n a ssign e d t o him t o hold by t he sa m e r ight

On
’
5
as t he Co u n t ha d t h e r e i n t h a t is u p t o t he r ive r , ,
.
pr in ciple t he cla im of pr e r og a t iv e m u st b e li m ite d t o

n a vig a bl e p u blic r i v e r s t h e se a lo n e fa llin g u n d e r t he h e a d ,
“
of r e g a lia T hi s l im it a t io n is n o t a lw a ys e xp r e sse d by t he
.
D u t ch wr ite r s w ho live d in a l a n d w he r e a ll r ive r s a r e ,
n a v ig a bl e The cl a im w h a te ve r it s e x te n t is n o t a d m it te d
.
, ,
by Va n L e e u w e n 7 o r by V o e t 3 e x ce p t in t he c a se of a gr i ,
lim it a t i G r o ti u s de cl a r e s t he cl a im of t he Co u n t in t h is
3
.
ca se t o b e u n do u b t e d
“0
B e yo n d t h is he e xp re sse s n o .
c e r t a in op ini o n .
An o t h e r ca se of a c ce ssio n i s t h a t of a n i sl a n d r i sin g in Isl n d a
a p u bli c r iv e r He r e t he cl a im of the Co u n t is a dm itt e d by i e

.
r i sin g in
r v r
t he D u t ch wr i te r s who c o n si de r t h a t t he own e r ship of t he

.
i sl a n d follo w s t he o w n e r sh ip of t he st r e a m 11
The r e su l t is .
t he sa m e wh e n a n a v i g a bl e p u bli c r iv e r w holly a b a n do n s
it s c o u r se The de se rt e d r i ve r b e d b e lon g s t o t he
.
-
1
In st 20 . 2 . G r 2 9 1 3 ; V o e t , 41 l 1 5
1 . . . . . . . .
3
G r 2 9 1 8 ff ; V a n L e e u w e n , 2 4 2
. . . . . .
C e n s F or 1 2 4 1 2 ; G r o e n de leg a br a d n st 2 1 2 3 ;
. . . . . . . . I . . .
B o r t , T r a c ta e t va n de D om e yn e n va n H o lla n dt, c a p 5 , se cs 1 6 ff . .
.
V in n ius ad ns t 2 l 20 , se c 2 , fo llo w in g G r 2 9 2 6 ; V a n I . . . . . . .
L e eu w en , 2 4 4 .
3
B u t see a b o v e , p 1 3 0
. . . .
7
C e n s F o r u bi su p .
3
V o e t , 41 1 2 8
. . . . .
3
ie
‘
. fi
de n e d b y s t r a igh t l in e s , h a v in g n o n e c e ssar y r e la t io n t o
.
n a t u r a l fe a t u r e s , as w a s u s u a l in gra n t s b y t h e S ta te
’
B u c kla n d , .
.
1°
p . 2 1 1 . G r 2 9 25 . . . .
“1 V o e t 41 1 1 7 V in n iu s a d n s t 2 1 2 2 se c 7 Sc ho r e r a d I
, ; .
, ;
. . . . .
G r 2 9 24; V a n L e e u w e n , 2 4 2
. . . . . .
1“
V o e t , 41 1 1 8: m o r ib us n o st r is m a gis e st u t a lv e u s flu r nin i s
. .
de se r t us fi sco c e da t The sa m e ho lds go o d o f t he b e ds o f pu b lic .

Bu t ap ar tia lly a b a n do n e d r ive r b e d a c ce de s t o r ip a r i a n -
own e rs p r ovide d t h a t t h e y h a ve t he r igh t of a ll u vion “ .
If l a n d i s c ove r e d by flood i t do e s n o t t h e r e for e ce ase

t o b e lo n g t o it s own e r who m a y r e su m e po sse ssio n wh e n ,
t he flood a b a t e s “ In H oll an d n a t ur a lly t he l e g a l c o u se

.
, ,
q u e n ce s of in u n d a t i o n w e re m a t t e r of se r io u s in te r e st The .
r u l e of t he R o m a n L a w whi ch l e ft in u n d a t e d l an d s t he ,
p r op e rt y of t h e ir o r igin a l own e r s m ight h a ve hi n d e r e d ,
ef for t s a t r e cl a m at ion Acco r di n gly t he la w p r ovi de d t h a t .

,
if t he l a n d had c on t in u e d u n de r w a te r for a whol e p e r iod

of te n ye ars a n d t he own e r ha d n o t give n a n y e vide n t
,
i n di ca t io n of a n in te n t io n t o r e t a in po sse ssi o n ( wh i ch ,
c o n t r a r y t o t he R o m a n L a w he m igh t do by fi sh in g
3
,
m e r e ly ) t he l a n d w a s h e ld t o b e a b a n do n e d a n d t o go t o
,
t he Co u n t “ I t i s s car ce ly n e ce ssar y t o a dd t h a t in t e r
.
m itt e n t floods do n o t a fl e ct t he ow n e r sh ip of p r op e r t y
wit ho u t e vi de n ce of a b a n don m e n t “ In H oll a n d sa n d .
dr ift w a s by cu st o m a ssim il a te d t o flood so t h a t if l a n d ,
ha d for a p e r i od of t e n ye ar s r e m a in e d u n e n clo se d fr o m
t he w a ste a n d c o m ple te ly cove r e d by sa n d it b e ca m e by
la ke s .Vo e t , 41 1 1 8 Cf 1 G P B 1 2 5 2 ; a n d see B o r t , D om eyn en

. . . . . . .
v a n H olla n dt , c a p 5 , s e cs 3 8 ff . . .
1
V inn iu s a d In st 2 1 2 3 , se c 3 The s t a te m e n t in t he t e x t . . . . .
m u s t b e r ea d in c o nn e x io n w it h t he dec is io n in Va n Ni e ker k cf;

U n i on G ovt v C a r ter [ 1 9 1 7 ] A D 3 5 9 t o t he e ffe c t t ha t pr o pe r t y
. . . .
b o u n de d b y a n o n n a v iga ble s t r e a m m u st b e pr e su m e d t o e x t e n d
-
a d m e di u m fi lu m flu m i n i s ; a n d t ha t , t h ou gh t his pr e su m pt io n
m a y b e r e b u tt e d , t he m e r e fac ts t ha t t h e dia gr a m d o e s n o t e x te n d
b e y o n d t he b a nk a n d t ha t t he Spe c i e d m e as u r e m e n t is c o m pl e t e fi
w it ho u t su c h e x t e n sio n a r e n o t , e it h e r s in gly o r t o ge t h e r , su fli c ie n t
t o e s t a b lish a r e bu tt a l ( p er Inn e s C J a t p A S t o n a v iga b le . . .
r iv e r s t h e Co u r t r e fr a in e d fr o m e x pr e ss in g a n o pin io n ( su p r a ,
t he R o m an D u t ch
‘
p 1 3 0, n
. I t is in t e r e s t in g t o n o te t ha t
.
-
L a w t ha t r ipa r ian o w n e r s o n ly o w n t o t he e dge o f t he st r e a m i s t he

pr e s e n t la w o f Ne w Y o r k The s u r v iv a l o f t his la w has r e sul t e d .
i n lit iga t io n w i t h r e fe r e n c e t o t he b e d o f t he H u ds o n R iv e r
’
.
P r o f H M ilt o n Co lv in in M em o i r es de l A cade m i e i n tern a ti on a ls de

’ ’ '
. .
D r oi t comp a r e ( S ir e y , Pa r is , 1 9 3 4, v o l ii , pt ii , p T he
'
. . .
D u t c h w e r e in o c c u pa t io n fr o m 1 6 2 4 t o 1 66 4 .
In st 1 24
. 2 . . .
3
D ig 7 4 2 3 The te x t i s n o t a lto ge t he r in po in t , b u t it is c it e d
. . . .
in t h is c o nn e x io n .
G r 2 9 7 ; V o e t , 41 1 1 9 ; V in n iu s ad n st 2 1 24, se c 2
. . . . . I . . . . .
5
Gr 2 9 8
. . . .
o u
“ AS a rul e
own e r ship in a gift doe s n o t p a ss u n t il t he
y .
t r a di t io n B u t h e r e t r a di t i on has p r e c e d e d a n d fur t h e r
.
h a n din g ove r is u n n e ce ssar y Th is i s c a ll e d b r e vi m a n u .

‘
t r a d it io The sa in e c o ns e qu e n ce foll ow s if a n a ge n t who

hold s goods fo r A r e ce iv e s di r e ct io n s t o hold t he m for B .
T he e ffe c t of su ch c h a n g e of cu st ody is t o c o n st it u te
‘
de live r y t o su ch t hir d p e r son 3

Co n ve r se ly I m a y a gr e e .
’
t o r e m a i n in po sse ssio n n o t a s own e r a n y lo n g e r b u t a s , ,
bo rr owe r e g I give y o u m y w a t ch o n c on di t i o n t h a t y o u
, . .
a r e t o l e n d it m e u n t i l n e x t w e e k Te chn i ca lly tw o t r a n s .
,
fe r e n ce s of po sse ssi on a r e n e ce ssa r y fir st t o p e r fe c t t he ,
gift se co n dl y t o e ffe ct t he lo a n B u t t he t w o can ce l o n e

, .
a n o t h e r a n d I r e m a in in phys i ca l po sse ssio n b u t u n d e r a

, ,
n e w r igh t This is ca lle d co n stit u t u m po sse ssor iu m

. An
a ll e g e d a g r e e m e n t of t he so r t i s r e g ar d e d by t he Co u r t s
‘
wit h so m e su spi cio n a n d di sfa vo u r A p r o ce ss by wh i ch a .
ch a n ge of dom i n i u m m ay de p e n d u po n a m e r e ch a n ge of
m e n t a l a tt i t u d e is o n e t he a ppli ca t i o n of w hi ch sho u ld b e
’
car e fu lly s cr u t i n i z e d
5
In bo t h t he a bove ca se s t he tr a di .
‘ ’ ‘ ’
t io n is sa i d t o b e fe ign e d o r fi ct it i o u s ; a n d so it is t oo
whe n t h e r e is n o a ct u a l h a n di n g ove r b u t a t h in g is pl a ce d -
,
in m y sigh t o r I a m pl a ce d in S igh t of it so t h a t I m a y ,
e a sily t a k e po sse ssio n This is lo n g a m a n u ‘

’
An ot h e r kin d of t r a di ti o n is sa id t o b e sym bolic a l e g , . .
wh e n t he k e ys of a w ar e ho u se ar e h a n de d ove r ( o n t he
S po t t he b u i ldin g a n d it s c o n te n t s a r e d e e m e d t o p a ss 7
.
B u t t h e r e i s n ot hi n g sym bolic a l o r fi ct i ti o u s a bo u t t h is
1 I Cf D ig 1 2 1 9 9 ; 1 2 1 1 0
ns t 2 1 44; D ig 41 2 9 5
. . . . . .
, . . . .
, . . .
G r 2 5 1 1 ; V o e t 41 1 3 4; Ill ei n tj es V Wi ls on [ 1 9 2 7 ] G P D
. . .
, . . . . . .
1 83
V
.
3
C ou r t M ose n tha l C o ( 1 89 6 ) 1 3 S C a t p 1 5 3 ; B G B 9 3 1 . . . . . . . .
V
.
4
’
Th is is st ill r e c o gn iz e d in S A G o ldi n ger s T r u s tee Whi te la w . . .
[ 1 9 1 7 ] A D 66 ; G r o e n ew a ld V a n der M e r w e [ 1 9 1 7 ] A D 2 3 3 ; V . . .
K V
. .
D r e ye r s T r q tee [ 1 9 20 ] A D 45 4 ; Vis a gi e v M u n tz ck C o
’
a tz . . . . .
[ 1 9 2 1 ] C P D 5 82 .
V
. . .
5
p e r Inn e s C J in G o ldi nger s T r u s te e
’
Whi te la w db S on ,
. . .
u bi su p a t p 7 4
V
. . .
3
D ig 46 3 7 9 ; G r o en e w a ld Va n de r M e rw e , u bi su p a t p 2 3 9 . . .
V K V
. . .
X apa Nts o ko [ 1 9 1 9 ] B D L 1 7 7 ; aa l Va lley S u pp ly S tor es

. . . . .
L ou w [ 1 9 2 3 ] C P D 6 0 . . . .
7
I ns t 2 1 45 ; D ig 41 l 9 , 6 Pa pin ia n ( D ig 1 8 1 7 4) sa y s
. . . . . . . . . .
‘
a pu d ho r r e a
HOW OWNE RSHIP I S ACQUI RED 1 43
p r o ce ss for h a n din g ove r t he ke ys is t he b e st m e an s of

,
givi n g c on tr ol ove r a n d t he r e for e po sse ssi on of t he w ar e

t n
“
ho u se a n d it s c on e t s In o t h e r w or ds t he po sse ssor of .
,
the k e y s is pr i m a fa ci e a l so po sse sso r of t he b u i ldi n g .
Tr a di t io n w ill n o t op e r a t e a s a m e a n s of a cqu ir in g E sse nt i ls a
0“ “ d“
own e r ship ( bu t o nl y a s a t r a n sfe r of po sse ssi o n ) u n le ss t i n s o
3
a a
t he fo ll o w m g c o n d1 t 1 0 n s co n cur :
3 ”
m od ( f
P e
1 The t r a n sfe r o r m u st b e own e r o r a t le a st a ct by $02

. ,
a u t ho r it y of t he own e r v iz a s hi s se r v a n t o r a ge n t
“ .
, .
Ra t i fi ca t io n i s e qu i v a le n t t o a n t e ce de n t au t ho r it y .
2 The t r a n sfe r or m u st h a v e t he i n t e n t i o n of t r a n sfe rr in g

.
“ “
own e r ship e x j u st a cau sa Su ch in te n t i o n is a b se n t w h e n .
a p e r so n t r a n sfe r s hi s o w n p r op e r t y in e rr o r su ppo sin g ,
t h a t i t i s t he p r op e r t y of a n o t h e r p e r so n “ .
3 The t r a n sfe r o r m u st b e l e g a lly c o m p e t e n t t o a lie n a t e

. .
The r e for e a m in o r ( ge n e r a lly sp e a ki n g ) or a n in t e r di cte d

p r o di g a l ca n n o t p a ss o w n e r ship by t r a di t io n w it ho u t t he
a u t ho r i t y of his t u t o r or c u r a t o r
“ .
1
Sa v ign y , D as Re cht de s B es i tz es , bo o k i i , se c 1 6 ; C H Mo n r o . . .
o n D ig x li , 1 , A ppe n dix 1
. .
In st 2 1 42—3 ; D ig 41 1 2 0 pr G r 2 5 1 5 ; V a n L e e u w e n ,
. . . . . . . . . .
2 7 5 ; V o e t , 41 l 3 5 S o m e t im e s t h e au t ho r it y is c o n fe r r e d b y
. . . . .
‘
la w a n d n o t b y a c t o f par t y A c c idit a l iqu a n do u t qu i do m in u s .
n o n S it a lie n a n da e r e i po t e sta t e m ha b e a t ( In s t 2 8
’
a s t he . .
e e , o r t he gu a r dia n as a dm in ist r a t o r o f his w a r d s

’
p le dg pr o pe r t y .
3
In st . 40 2 . 1 . .
4
This m e a n s t ha t t h e le ga l dispo sit io n in t e n de d is o f su c h a kin d
t ha t t he t r a n s fe r o f po sse ss io n c a rr ie s w it h i t in la w t r a n sfe r o f
o w n e r sh ip D ig 41 1 3 pr ; Nu n u a m n u da t r a dit io t r a n s fe r t
. . . . . q
do m in iu m se d i t a S i v e n d it io a u t a li qu a u st a ca u sa pr ae c e s se r it j
q
pr o pt e r u a m t r a dit io se qu e r e t u r S e e B e yer s v M cK en zi e ( 1 880 ) . .
F o or d a t p 1 2 7 T he c a u s a n e e d n o t l it e r a lly pr e c e de I t m a y b e
. . .
S im u lt a n e o u s w it h t he t r a dit i o n .
5
D ig 41 1 3 5 : n e m o e r r a n s r e m su a m a m itt it
. . . .
S u p r a , pp 49 a n d 1 1 5 F o r pr o h ib it i o n o f a lie n a t io n in fr a u d
—9 ;
. .
o f c r e d it ors se e G r 2 5 3 ( a d fi n ) a n d 4 ; V a n L e e u w e n , 2 7 8
. . . . . .
V o e t , l ib x l ii , t i t 8 ( a cti o p a u lia n a ) ; V d K 1 9 9 —2 00 ; a n d t he
. . . . .
j
l e a r n e d u dgm e n t o f B e r w i ck D J ( Ce y lo n ) , in R a m a n a t ha n ,
1 87 2 —
.
6 , 7 , p 89 ( r e pe a t e d in 3 N L R Mor e r e c e n t c a se s
—P u n chi B a nda P er er a ( 1 9 2 8) 3 0 N L R, 3 5 5 ; D eu tr om v D eu
. . . .
V . . . .
tr om ( 1 9 3 5 ) 3 7 N L R 9 1 I n t he la w o f S o u t h A fr ic a t he gr o u n d
. . . .
ha s b e e n t o a gr e a t e x t e n t c o v e r e d b y t he n so lv e n c y A c t s , b u t I
n o t t o t h e e x c lu s io n o f t h e c o mm o n la w r e m e dy w he r e a lica ble
pp
V V
.
S cha rfi [ 1 9 1 5 ] T P D a t p 47 6 ; Wi en er
’
S cha rfi s T r u ste e . . . . . .
E s t M cK en zi e [ 1 9 2 3] C P D a t p 5 7 9 ; Ma r s, I nsolven cy , p 2 2 0
. . . . . . .
4 The t hi n g t r a n sferr e d m u st b e
. l e g a lly a lie n a ble by
de live r y This r u l e s o u t t h in gs whi ch ca n n o t b e own e d
.
by in dividu a ls a n d t h in g s w hi ch ca n n o t b e a lie n a te d by ,
t h is p r o ce ss “ .
5 The t r a n sfe r e e m u st h a v e t he in t e n t io n of b e c o m in g
.
,
a n d m u st b e co m p e te n t t o b e c o m e o w n e r in co n se qu e n ce ,
h
of t e tr a n sfe r “ .
Th u s fa r w e h a ve S poke n of t r a n sfe r in ge n e r a l m a kin g ,
n o di st i n c t io n b e t w e e n m ov a bl e s a n d i m m ov a bl e s Nor .
w a s a n y su c h dist i n ct io n k n own t o t he l a t e r R o m a n L a w .
L a n d an d m ova ble s a like p a sse d by de live ry “ B u t in .
R om a n D u t ch L a w it w a s o t h e r wise C u st o m in it s m an y
-
.
,
v a r ie tie s d e m a n de d s o m e t hin g m o r e t o p e r fe ct a t it le t o
,
la n d “ In p a r t s of H oll a n d a s of Ge r m a n y 5 t he co n
.
, ,
v e y a n ce w a s r e qu ir e d by lo ca l la w t o b e p a sse d b e fo r e t he
Co u r t of t he di st r i ct in whi ch the la n d w as sit u a te d This “ .
p r a cti ce w a s m a d e g e n e r a l a n d O bliga t or y by a pla ca a t of

1
R e s in c o rpo r a le s D ig 41 1 43 1 . . . .
, .
D ig 44 7 5 5 : I n o mn ib u s r e b u s
. . do m in iu m t r a ns fe r u n t ,
. q u ae
c o n cu r r a t O po r t e t a ffe c t u s e x u t r a qu e pa r t e c o n t r a he n t iu m Cf . .
We e ks V
A ma lga m a te d A ge n c i es L td [ 1 9 2 0 ] A D a t p 2 30 B u t
. . . . . .
i t w a s n o t n e c e ssa r y t ha t t he t r a n sfe r e e sho u ld in t e n d t o b e co m e

o w n e r b y t h e c a u sa , w h ic h w a s in t h e c o n t e m pl a t i o n o f t h e t r a ns
fe r o r D ig 41 1 3 6 T h e spe c ia l ru le s o fl a w r e la t in g t o t he t r a n sfe r
. . . . .
o f o w n e r ship in t hin gs so l d a r e c o n s id e r e d in a l a t e r c h a pt e r .
3
i e w h e n t r a di t io su pe r se de d m a n c ipa t io in sa l e o f l an ds
. . .
B u t pu b l ic it y w a s r e u ir e d a n d , in pr a c t ice , a w r it t e n in st ru m e n t q .
B u c kla n d , T e x tbo o k, p 2 3 1 . .
4
F o c k An d , v o l i , pp 1 9 2 ii ; de B leco u r t
. .
pp 2 2 5 ff . . . . .
G i e r ke , D eu ts ches P r i va tr e cht, ii 2 7 1 . .
3
G r 2 5 1 3 ; V o e t , 41 l 3 8; V d K 2 0 2 ; Re chts Obs , pt 3 ,
. . . . . . . . . . .
no .32 I n t he o ld l a w t h e pe r so n m a ki n g c e ssio n o f t he la n d
.
sy m b o l i z e d t he t r a n sfe r b y h a n d in g o v e r a so d o r t w ig , l a t e r b y
ha n din g o v e r o r t hr o w in g fr o m h im a st r a w ( ha lm ) F o c k A n d , . . .
v ol i , p 1 9 2
. Th e h a n din g o v e r o f t he t i tle de e ds s o m e t im e s se r v e d
. .
-
t he sa m e pu r po se I bid This pr o c e ss ( c a lle d o v e r dr a c ht o r

‘
. .
’
t r a n spo r t ) pa sse d t he pr o pe r t y , t h o u gh n o t fo ll o w e d b y e n t r y
‘ ’
o n t he la n d Ib id , p 1 9 5 , n 1 The hist o r y o f la n d t r a n s fe r in . .
V
. . . .
R D L i s c o n s ide r e d b y t he Ce y lo n S C in A ppu ha m y
.
-
. . A pp u . . .
ha m y 1 880 ) 3 S C O 6 1 I n t h is Co lo n y : Tr a di t io w h e t he r a c t u a l
‘
. . . .
o r s y m b o l ic i s n o l o n ge r n e c e s sa r y fo r t he c o ns u m m a t i o n o f a s a le
o f im m o v a b le pr o pe r t y a n d ha s b e e n r e pla c e d b y t he de liv e r y
o f t h e de e d p e r B e r t r a m C J in Gu n a ti lle ke v
’
F e rn a nd o ( 1 9 1 9 ) . . .
2 1 N L R a t p 2 6 5 ; c o n r m e d in a ppe a l t o R C [ 1 9 2 1 ] 2 A O 3 5 7
. . . . fi . . .
2 2 N L R 3 85 . . . .
co m ply wit h t he p r ovi sio n s of t he Pla ca a ts of 1 5 2 9 an d
1 5 9 8 ar e d e cl ar e d t o b e n u ll a n d void t he t r a n sa ct io n is ,
in fa ct o nl y a void e d as a g a in st t hir d pe r so n s wh e t h e r ,
p u r ch a se r s o r cr e di t or s A s b e twe e n t he p art ie s t h e m .
“
se lv e s t he co n t r a ct hold s good a n d t he r i sk p a sse s t o t he ,
“
p u r ch a se r b u t u n t il t he sol e m n co n ve y a n ce t a ke s pl a ce t he
,
“
own e r shi p r e m ain s wh e r e i t w a s In Sou t h Afri ca own e r .
ship p a sse s a t t he m o m e n t t h a t d e li v e r y of t he p r op e r t y
‘
i s giv e n t o [t he p u r ch ase r ] a n d t h a t d e live r y o c cur s a t t he ,
m o m e n t his n am e i s e n te r e d o n t he r e giste r as t he n e w
dom i n u s of t he
V P r e scr ip t ion Th is m e a n s a c qu i sit ion O f own e r ship
. .
by lon g co n t in u e d po sse ssio n It wil l b e r e m e m b e r e d t h a t

-
.
Ju st ini a n fu se d t he civil la w in st i t u t ion of u su ca pion a n d

t he p r ovin cia l in st it u t i o n of lo n g t im e po sse ssio n o r pr e - -
s cr ip t i o n a n d p r ovid e d t h a t po sse ssio n of m ov a bl e s fo r

,
t hr e e ye ar s of im m ov a bl e s fo r t e n ye ars i n ter pr a esen tes

, ,
fo r t w e n t y y e a r s i n ter abs en tes ( t hi s m e a n t t h at so lo n g as

t he p a rt ie s w e r e n o t r e sid e n t in t he s a m e di str ict t he
pr e scr ip ti ve p e r iod w a s do u ble d ) if o r igi n a t in g in j u st t itle ,
a n d a c qu ir e d in good fa it h m a d e t he po sse sso r own e r The .
t hin g po sse sse d m u st n o t h a ve b e e n st ol e n o r po sse sse d by

viole n ce Po sse ssio n fo r t hir ty ye a r s of m ov a ble s o r im
.
m ov a ble s if a cc o m p a n ie d in it s in ce p ti o n by good fa it h
, ,
t ho u gh n o t or igin a t in g in a j u st t it l e m a d e t he po sse ssor ,
own er e ve n of a r e s fu rt iva b u t n o t of a r e s vi po sse ssa

, , .
The co m m e n t a t o r s ca ll t hi s lo n gissim i t e m po r is pr ae s cr iptio

I n t he N e t h e r l a n ds t he whol e su bj e ct of p r e s cr ip tion
w a s i n volve d in t he gr e a t e st u n ce r t a i n t y a cc or di n g a s ,
loc a l p r a ct i ce app r o a ch e d t o o r r e ce de d fr om t he Ro m a n
“
L aw The sit u a t ion w as fu r th er com pli c at e d by t he
.
Ne o st a d S u p r , . Cu r D e ci s , n o 70 ; 2 Ma a sdo r p, p 87
. . . . .
Ne o st a d D e cis va n de n H ov e , n o
3
, . 32 . .
3
7 6 4, 81 0 ; H a rr is v B u iss i n n e s T r u s te e , u bi
’
B ijn k O T i , . . . .
su p . L e e , C om m e n ta r y , p 82
; . .
B r e yte n bac h V
Va n Wijk [ 1 9 2 3 ] A D a t p 547 B u t r e gist r a
. . . . .
t io n i s n o t n e c e ss a r ily c o n c lu s iv e a s t o o w n e r ship, e g in c a se o f . .
m a rr i a ge in c o m m u n i t y , o r w he r e a s t a t u te r e gu la te s t he o w n e r
sh ip o f la n d C o lli n v T ofii e [ 1 9 44] A D a t p 46 3
. . . . . .
G r 2 7 5 ; F o ck An d , v o l i i , pp 1 2 3 if
. . . . . . . .
HOW OWNE RSHIP IS ACQUI RED 1 47
pre se n ce of t w o n e w t er m s of p r e scri p t io n a S horte r “

,
p e r iod of a ye a r a n d a da y ( whi ch m e an t in pr a ct i ce a ye a r
a n d S ix a n d a lo n g e r pe r iod of a t hir d O f a c e n t u r y
( w h i c h m e a n t in p r a c t i ce t hi r t y t hree y e a rs a n d fo u r -
3
m o n t h s a n d a s so m e a dd t h r e e o r fo u r d a ys )
, ,
.
The fir st of t h e se w a s of G e r m a ni c or i gi n 4
We S h a ll The
0“
.
yg
pe
m e e t wi t h i t a ga in in c o n n e x i on w it h t he po sse ss or y a
r e m e dy k n o w n a s I n de p e n de n t ly of t hi s it an d 8»
“ day
fe ll o u t of u se a ft e r t he m iddl e of t he se ve n te e n t h c e n tu r y
'
The p r e s cr ip t io n of a t hir d of a ce n t u r y— in ori gi n it The ,
wo u ld se e m m e r e ly a v a ri a n t fr o m t he t hirt y ye ar s pr e
,
’
s cr ip t i o n of t he Th e odo si a n Cod e
7 — ca m e e ve n t u a lly t o b e a ce n t ry u
O
t he u su a l te r m of p re s cr ip ti o n a t a ll e v e n t s for im m ov a bl e m o a bles , v .
“
The G r e a t P r ivil e g e gr a n te d by Ma ry of
‘ ’
p r op e r t y .
“
B ur gu n dy of Mar ch 1 4 1 47 6 ( Ar t fix e s t he pe r iod O f ,
.
p r e scri p ti on fo r i mm ov a ble s ( leen en ends erffelijcke goeden )

“
a n d t he sa m e te r m i s m e t wi t h
0
a t a t hir d of a ce n t u r y ,
i n n u m e r o u s docu m e n t s O f t he si x te e n t h ce n t u r y S id e by
si d e w it h t he S ho r t e r an d lo n g e r p e r i ods of t he R o m a n L a w .
Afte r G r o t i u s pr o n o u n ce d in i t s fa vo u r it w as ge n e r a lly a c
“1
ce pte d a s t he p r op e r t e r m of p re scr ip t io n for i m m ov a bl e s .
Wit h r e g ar d t o m ov a ble s G r o t i u s e xp r e sse s n o fi n a l O pin io n The .
“1
G r oe n e w e ge n w ho se book w a s p u blis h e d in 1 6 49 sa ys
, ,
t h a t t he pe r iod of p r e scr ip t i o n is a t hir d of a ce n t u r y fo r yea rs fo r

m o v a ble“
im m ova ble s b u t t hir t y y e a rs fo r ,
A t t he C a p e t he p e r iod of p r e s cri p t i o n w a s t hi r t y ye a rs P r es ip cr
a lik e for m ov a ble a n d i m m ov a bl e p r op e rt y t he first by ,
c o m m o n la w t he se c on d by st a t u te a n d t hi s i s n o w Africa
, ,
.
“
g e n e r a l thr o u gho u t t he Un io n 3
.
G r 2 7 6 ff
. . . V oe t , 44 3 4
. . . .
3
Ma t t ha e u s , P a r oem ia e , n o 9 , se c 1 . . .
4
F o c k An d , v o l ii , p 1 2 4
. . I nfra , p 1 6 3
. . . . .
6
V o e t , 44 3 8 ( ad V d K 20 8
. . . . . .
7
Co d Th e o do s , lib iv , t it 1 4; Co d 7 3 9 3 ( A D
. . V a n de . . . . . . .
Spie ge l , Oor spr on g e n his tor i c de r Vade r la n ds che Re chten , pp 1 2 9 .
30
3
G r 2 7 8; G r o e n de leg a br a d Co d liv v ii , t it 39 ; V a n
. . . . . . . . .
3
L e e u w e n , 2 8 5 ; C e n s F or 1 2 1 0 l l
. . 2 G P B 67 1 . . . . . . . . . .
Se e G r 2 7 8 . . . V d K 206
. . . . .
“ 3
G r o e n de leg a br a d Co d 7 3 9 , se c 3
. . . . . . .
“
Ca pe A c t 7 o f 1 865 , s e c 1 0 6 ; 2 M aas do r p, p 93 ; Pr es c ri pt ion
3
. .
THE LAW OF PROPE RTY
Go
od So m e o t h e r poin t s in t he la w of p r e s cr ip t io n a re le ss
do u b t ful Con tr a r y t o t he R o m a n L a w t he Ro m a n D u t ch
.
-
L a w r e qu ir e s n e i t h e r good fa i t h n o r j u st t i t l e “ All t h a t is .
re qu ir e d i s t h a t t h e po sse ssio n or qu a si po sse ssio n of t he -
p e r so n cl a im in g by p r e scr ip ti on S h a ll b e p e a ce able op e n ‘
,
a n d as of r igh t ( n e c vi n e c cl a m n e c
’
an d ,
“ 3
u n in te rr u p te d I n t e rr u p tio n ( u su rp a ti o ) is e i th e r : ( 1 )
.
n a t u r al i e phy sic a l o r ( 2 ) j u di ci a l i e by in stit u tin g

, . .
, , . .
“
pr o ce e din g s t o e nfo r ce a n a dve r se cla im Physi ca l in te r .
t u r be d
ru p t io n a s n e g a t ivi n g c o n t in u e d po sse ssi o n i s a n a b s ol u te
.
, ,
b a r t o p r e s cr ip t io n ; j u di ci a l in t e r r u p t ion p r e v e n t s it s ru n
“
n in g a g a in st t he p e r s o n who i n st i t u t e s t he p r o ce e din g s .
In ca lcul a t in g t he p e r iod of p r e s cr ip t ion t he po sse ssi o n of

~
t he p r e d e ce ss or in t i t l e if a dve r se t o t he or igin a l own e r , ,
m ay b e r e cko n e d ( conju n cti o temp or u m ) wi t ho u t an y dis

“
t i n ct io n of good o r b a d fai t h in e i t h e r p ar t y Pr e scr ip t io n .
ge n e r a lly r u n s a g a i n st t he Cr own p r ovid e d t h a t t he pr o ,
p e r ty cla i m e d by t his m ode of a cqu isit io n is su ch a s t he

7
Cr own ca n a lie n a t e a n d a p r iva te p e r son c a n o w n Ti m e .
do e s n o t r u n a g a in st m in or s o r m a d m e n a n d o t h e r su ch
p e r so n s who ar e de e m e d t o b e m i n or s a n d ar e su bj e cte d
,
t o gu ar di a n ship ; n or a g a in st p e r s o n s who a r e a b se n t
A c t , 1 9 43 , s e c 2 a n d in S o u t he r n R h o des ia ( R S
. ca p 27, . . .
F o r Ce y lo n , se e O r d No 2 2 o f 1 87 1 , s e c 3 , Th e e ffe c t
‘
se c . . . .
o f t he O r din a n c e i s t o sw e e p a w a y a l l t he R o m a n D u t c h L a w -
q
r e la t in g t o t h e a c u is it io n o f im m o v a b l e pr o pe r t y b y pr e s cr ipt io n
Pe r e ir a , p 3 84
’
e x c e pt a s r e ga r ds t h e pr o pe r t y o f t he Cr o w n . . .
V o e t , 44 3 9 ; A n t o n M a t t ha e u s , P a r o e m ia e , n o 9 s ec s 2—3
. . . .
, .
V d K 207
. . . .
J on es v T ow n Cou n c i l of Cap e T ow n ( 1 89 6 ) 1 3 S C a t p 5 0 ;
. . . .
S m i th V M a r ti n s E x or ( 1 89 9 ) 1 6 S C a t p 1 5 1 ; K a r e iga B ap tis t
.
’
. . . .
C hu r ch Tr u s tees v We bber ( 1 9 0 3 ) 1 7 E D C 1 0 5 D e B ee r v Va n . . . . .
de r M er w e [ 1 9 2 3] A D a t p 3 84 . . . .
Va n S cha lkw y k v H u go ( 1 880 ) F o o r d 89 ; D e ler k P i ena a r

. K V .
( 1 89 9 ) 1 6 S C 3 7 0 . . .
4
V o e t , 41 3 1 7 E x t r a u di c ia l de m a n d is in su f c ie n t fo r t he
. . . j fi
pur po se I b id , se c 2 0
. . . .
V o e t , 41 3 20 : t a n t u m in e o r u m c e d it u t ilit a t e m qu i l it e m
. .
m o v e n do V igila r u n t s ib i ; c u m r e s in t e r a lio s a c t a a liis n e c pr o s it

n e c n o ce a t V o e t , 44 3 9 . . .
U
.
n io n G ov t v E s ta te Whi tta ker [ 1 9 1 6 ] A D

7
V o e t , 44 3 1 1 ; . . . . . .
1 9 4: U
n i on G o vt v T on ki n [ 1 9 1 8] A D 5 33 ; P r e scr ipt i o n A c t ,
. . . .
1 9 43 , s e c 1 3 . .
I n t he t i m e of Gr o t iu s pr op e r ty m ight b e de cl ar e d
“
by j u dici a l se n t e n ce B u t a ll for fe itu re s fo r crim e
.
we r e a bolishe d in H olla n d by Re solu ti on of t he St at e s of

H ollan d of Ma y 1 ; a n d i n t he Colo n i e s by P u bli c a
t io n of t he St a t e s G e n e r a l of A u g u st 1 0
-
,
G r 2 32 6
. . . .
6 G P B 5 7 7 ; R e chts Obs , pt 1 , n o 5 0
. . . . . . . .
9 G P B 45 8; Ca pe S t a t u t e s , v o l i , p 2
. . . . . .
T H E INCI D ENT S AND K IN D S OF OWNE RSH IP
WE have spoke n of t he o w n e r ship a n d of t he Su b j e ct

n atu r e O f
t”
,
Of
d istin ctio n b e twe e n fu ll own e r ship a n d t he lim it e d r ight s fi s
c a r ve d o u t of a n o t h e r s own e r shi p whi ch ar e co mm only chapte r
’
,
.
kn own as j u r a in r e a li e n a In t he pre se n t ch a p t e r w e .
sp e a k of t he i n ci d e n t s of own e r shi p a n d m or e p ar t i cu l ar ly
of t he kin ds of own e r ship in la n d .
SE CTI ON I . THE I NCI D E NT S O F OWNE RS HIP IN
G E NE RA L
I t is a yin g t h a t a m a n m a y do wh at he The
com m o n sa
“
will wit h his o w n The pr ove r b ha s a n e le m e n t of t r u t h $ g
.
ggf .
Own e r sh ip c o m p r ise s r i gh t s O f po sse ssi o n u se r a n d a li e n a shi p in

t ion a n d a ll t h e se r igh t s ar e lim i te d o nl y by t he d u t y
ge n er al
, ,
'
whi ch t he la w im po se s u po n a ll t o h a ve du e r e g a r d t o t he
r igh t s of e a ch a c co r di n g to t he m a x i m m a l e j ur e n o str o
‘
de b e m u s
’
u ti n o n .
B u t w h a t i s m a le
‘
of l an d is r e ga r de d What is
u ti an d W h at u se
in la w a s a n in j u r y t o a n o t h e r ? It i s n o t po ssi bl e t o give a ii ng
fl
“:
ge n e r a l a n sw e r e x ce p t t h at a l an dow n e r m ay do Wh a t he du ty t o j
1“
ple a se s so lo n g a s he do e s n o t hin g whi ch ca n b e r e fe rr e d t o $ 2 13
a r e c ogn i z e d h e a d of l e g a l w r o n g Thu s it m a y b e ve r y “ our “
.
,
a nn oyi n g t o y o u t h a t I S ho u ld b u i ld a ho u se w i t h wi n dow s
looki n g o u t ove r yo u r g ar d e n b u t a p ar t fr o m se r vitu de y ou ,
h a ve n o l aw fu l gr o u n d of c o m pl a in t or le g a l r e m e dy Ag a in .
,
if I Sin k a w e ll in m y fi e ld t he r e su lt m a y b e t h a t owin g t o , ,
t he in te r ce p t i on of p e r c ol a t in g u n d e r gr o u n d wa t e r t he we ll ,
“
in you r fi e ld will r u n dr y B u t y o u a re wi t hou t r e dr e ss . .
S u pra , p 1 25
V
. .
3
D ig 39 2 2 4, 1 2 ; G r 2 3 4 2 7 ; V o e t , 8 3 6 ; S tru ben
. . Cap e
. . . .
V
. . .
T ow n Wa ter w or ks C o ( 1 89 2 ) 9 S C 68; S m i th S m i th [ 1 9 1 4] A D . . . .
U V
. .
257 ; n i on G ovt M a r a i s [ 1 9 2 0 ] A D 2 40 ; pr o v i de d t ha t I a c t e d
. . .
U
.
S in e a n im o n o ce n di vi c in o D ig 39 3 l , 1 2 V o e t , 3 9 3 4 ; n i on
. . . . .
G ov t v M a r a is , u bi su p a t p 2 47 , w he r e , ho w e v e r , t he u e st io n
. . . . q
‘
w a s le ft e n t ir e ly o pe n ;
’
i rsh K
P i n cu s [ 1 9 2 7 ] T P D 1 99 V . . . . .
It woul d be o t he r w ise if I in te r fe r e d wi t h t he flow of a
“
d e fin e d u n de r gr o u n d strea m .
Wh at t h e n a p a r t fr o m in te r ru p t io n of se r vit u d e a r e t he
, ,
wr o n g s for w hi ch a la n down e r m a y O b t a in r e dr e ss fr o m '
his n e ighbo u r ? o r t o r e p e a t t he qu e st io n in o t he r wor ds , ,
wh a t ar e t he d u t ie s whi ch o n e l an down e r owe s t o a n a d

j oinin g l a n down e r ? The y ar e m a inl y t hr e e : vi z ( 1 ) n o t t o .
dis t u r b his po sse ssi o n ; ( 2 ) n o t t o in t e r fe r e wr o n gful ly wi t h

hi s e n j oym e n t ; ( 3 ) n o t t o ca u se a su b si d e n ce of hi s l a n d or
in te rr u p t t he a ccu st o m e d flow of a str e a m .
( 1 ) I m u st n o t dis t u r b m y n e ighbo u r s po sse ssion Thi s

’
.
I sho ul d do fo r e x a m p le if I con stru ct e d a b u ildin g o n m y

, ,
la n d so t h a t so m e p ar t of it pr oj e c te d a bove hi s l an d for ,
thi s wo u ld b e a n in t e r fe r e n ce wit h his r igh t t o b u ild as

“
‘
bi gh a s he ple a se s u pon hi s own l an d A like wr o n g is .
c o m m i tt e d if I a llow m y t r e e s t o S p re a d t h e ir b r a n ch e s ov er
t he bo u n d ar y .
B y t he c o mm o n
la w e ver y o n e m a y bu ild o r plan t tr ee s on
‘
his o w n la n d , e v e n t hou gh hi s n e ighb o ur s li ght o r v i e w m a y be

’
o b st ru cte d t he r e by ; b u t n o o n e m a y by t ha t l a w a llow hi s
t r e es t o o v e r ha n g t he gr o u n d o f a n e ighb o u r ; an d t he l a tt e r
“
m a y c au se w ha te v e r so o v e r han gs hi s gr o u n d t o b e cu t do w n ,
a n d if he do e s n o t do so he i s e n titled t o t he fr u i ts w hi ch ha n g ,
ov e r .
2 M aa s do r p , p 1 2 0 ; u t a , Wa te r R ights , J
pp 5 if ; B r eyten
. .
C o lli e r i es L td v B e n n i l [ 1 9 1 3 ] T P D a t p 2 69
. . . . . . .
G r 2 1 2 3 a n d 2 3 4, se c s 4, 8, 1 1 , 1 9 , 2 3
. . .
‘
Qu i a o u s e s t
. . . j
j
ca e lu m c u u s e st s o lu m , S c ho r e r a d G r 2
’
1 23 . . . .
3
V o e t , lib x l iii , t it 2 7 Th e sa m e pr in c iple a pplie s t o in t ru din g
. .
r o o ts B i n gha m v
. oha n n e s bu r g C i ty C ou n c i l [ 1 9 3 4]
. J L D 1 80 W . . . .
A s t o t he o w n e r ship o f se v e r e d b r a n che s se e D e Vi lli er s O S u lli va n

’
V .
( 1 883 ) 2 S C 2 5 1 A c t io n fo r da m a ge s ca u s e d b y o v e r ha n gin g t r ee
. . .
b lo w n do w n b y h igh w i n d do e s n o t lie w i t ho u t pr o o f o f n e glige n ce ;

( Ce y lo n ) i n a s en a v E nge lti na ( 1 9 1 9 ) 2 1 N L R 444 F o r n u i sa n ce
J . . . . .
c a us e d b y fa ll in g l e a v e s s e e i r sh P i n cu s , u bi su p K V . .
4
G r 2 3 4 2 1 V o e t , lib x liii , t it 2 8 S e cu s u r e c iv ili ; G r o e n
. . . . . . j .
de leg a br a d D ig , lib x l iii , t it 2 8 Ne it he r G r o e n e w e ge n n or V o e t

. . . . . .
b e a r s o u t t he st a t e m e n t in t he t e x t t ha t t he n e ighb o u r m a y t a ke
ha n gin g fr u it s Th e y b o t h spe ak o f fru c t u s de c ide n t e s
. Hu b e r .
( 2 6 20 , 5 6
. . fo r Fr ie sla n d , de n ie s t he r ight
. . .
In like m a nn e r I
m a y n o t , a pa rt fr o m se r v i t u de , a ll o w t he dr ip
n o r dis
’
fr o m m y e a v e s t o fa ll o n a n o t he r s l an d ( G r 2 3 4 . . .
’
c ha r ge w a t e r o v e r a n o t he r s la n d , G r 2 3 4 1 6 . . . .
Wa te r Wit h r e spe ct t o t he flow of a str e a m wh e the r a bove or
“
u n d e r gr o u n d t he low e r r ip a r i a n p r op r i e t or i s e n t i t l e d t o
h a ve t he str e a m r e a ch his l a n d u ni m p a ir e d in qu ali t y

a n d in qu a n t i t y, su bj e ct o n ly t o t he u pp e r p r op r i e t o r s
’
r igh t of r e a so n a bl e u se r a n d e n j oym e n t A s t o qu a lit y he .

,
i s e n t i tle d t o a n in t e r di ct a g a ins t a n y m a t e r ia l poll u t ion

of t he str e a m “ A S t o qu a n t it y t he u pp e r p r op r ie t or s
’
.
,
r igh t of u se a n d e n j oym e n t i s c o n st r u e d in t he se nse t h a t he
m a y : ( 1 ) t a ke as m u c h w a t e r a s i s r e a so n a bly n e ce ssa r y for

t he su pport of a n i m a l life u po n his p r op e r t y a n d do so ,
e v e n if n e e d b e t o t he e xh a u st io n of t he st r e a m ( p r im a r y
, ,
u se ) ; ( 2 ) t a ke w a t e r for a gr i cu l t u r a l p u r po se s b u t o n ly ,
so far a s he ca n do so wi t h du e r e g ar d t o t he r i gh t s of
low er p r op r ie t o r s t o do t he sa m e ( se c on d ar y u se ) ; a n d
( 3 ) su bj e ct t h e r e t o a n d u po n lik e co n di t io n s t a k e w a t e r for
m e ch a n i ca l a n d in d u st r i a l p ur po se s ( t e r t i ar y
Th e se r u le s it m u st b e r e m e m b e r e d a pply o nl y t o p u bli c
, ,
st r e a m s The ow n e r of a p r i v a t e str e a m m a y arr e st it o n

.
hi s o w n l a n d an d dim in i sh it s vol u m e t o a ny e x te n t he
“
ple a se s The sa m e m a y b e sa id of r a in w a t e r
. Bu t an .
own e r m ay n o t dive r t it fr om it s co ur se t o t he pre j u di ce of

a low e r p r op r i e t or If he do e s S O he m ay b e su e d in t he
.
‘
a c t io a qu a e plu vi ae a r ce n dae ( t he a ct io n fo r k e e pin g o ff
r a in w a t e r The m a xim di en w a ter deer t di e w a ter keer t
‘
if w a te r hu r t s y o u y o u m ay t u r n it a w a y — m u st b e
,
“ ’
u n d e r st ood su bj e c t t o t hi s im po r t a n t li m i t a t i o n I n de e d .
,
t he phr ase is misle a din g for i t m e r e ly m e a n s t h a t w a te r

,
7
m a y b e a llow e d t o t a k e i t s n a t ur a l c o u r se .
If a st r e a m r i se s in a m a n s l a n d it is in i ts in c e p t io n
’
p r iva t e a n d m a y b e de a lt wi t h a s su ch ; b u t if it has co n
t in u e d t o flow in a de fi n e d ch a n n e l for a c o nsid e r a bl e
2 Ma as dor p p 1 3 1
'
. .
V
,
S a li s bu r y M u n ic ipa li ty J oo a la [ 1 9 1 1 ] A D a t p 1 85 p e r de
. . . .
V il lie r s C J S e e a lso Or a n gez i cht E s ta tes L td

. . Ca p e T ow n T ow n
. V .
C ou n c i l ( 1 9 0 6 ) 2 3 S C 2 9 7 a n d Ju t a , Wa te r R ights , pp 1 7 9 ff The
. . . .
e x t e n t o f t he l o w e r pr o pr ie t o r s r igh t t o c o m pla in o f c o n t a m in a t io n
’
fi 3
2 M a as dor p , pp 1 36 ff
séq 2
h a r t 6 6 1 e ac t ly de n e d
1fi
. . .
3
Ca p e T ow n C ou n ci l v B en n i ng [ 1 9 1 7 ] A D 3 1 5
. . . .
INCIDENTS OF OWNE RSHIP 1 55
l e n g t h of t im e ( whi ch in So u t h Afr i ca is t a ke n t o b e thir t y

ye a r s) ove r a dj oini n g l a n d t he str e a m b e c o m e s p u bli c an d ,
t he u su a l in ci de n t s of p u bli c s tr e a m s a tt a c h t o it
-
“
.
Ju st a s a lowe r p r op r ie t o r has r ight s a g a in st a n u pp e r

“
p r op r ie t or S O he o w e s him d u t ie s He m u st r e ce ive su ch
, .
w a t e r a s in t he or din a r y c o u r se of n a tu r e flow s o n t o it
“
fr o m t he u pp er le ve l a n d m u st n o t by t u r ni n g i t o ff or in
,
’
a n y o t he r w a
y in j u r e t he u pp e r p r op r ie t or s u se r of his
la n d .
I n t he p r e ce din g p ar a gr a ph s w e h a v e b e e n sp e a kin g of The

t he li m it s wh i ch t he la w pl a ce s u po n a n o w n e r s r igh t s h fifif
’ ’
of u se a n d e n j oym e n t An ot h e r qu e st i o n of p r a cti ca l im vin di

.
por ta n ce r e l a te s t o t he lim it s whi ch t he la w pl a ce s u po n

a n own e r s r i gh t of r e c ov e r i n g hi s lo st po sse ssi o n hi s ju s
’
v in di ca n di The fir st t opi c i s p r in cip a lly c on ce r n e d w it h

.
t he u se of l an d The se co n d t op i c i s p r in cip a lly b u t n o t

.
,
e x c lu si ve ly c o n ce r n e d w i t h t he r e c ove r y of m ov a ble s
,
It .
ha s b e e n sa id a bov e t h a t t he ju s v in di ca n di i s a n in ci de n t
of ow n e r sh ip In t he Ro m a n L a w t he p r in ciple w a s ge n e r a l
.
a n d a ppli e d a lik e t o i m m ov a bl e a n d t o m ov a bl e p r op e r ty
—u b i r e m m e a m i n v e ni o i bi vi n di c o Bu t a s r e gar ds m o v, .
a ble s in t he N e t h e r l a n d s t he r u l e of t he R o m a n L a w ca m e
,
i n t o sh ar p c o n fli ct w it h a c o n tr ar y r ul e de r ive d fr om t he
cu st om a r y la w of so m e of t he Ge r m a n t ri b e s n a m e ly t h a t , ,
m ov a ble p r op e r t y c ann o t b e follow e d i n t o t he h a n d s of a

thi r d p e r son : Ha nd m u ss Ha nd w a hr en —m o bilia n on ha ben t
s equ ela m— m eu belen en hebben ge en gevolg—p osses si on va u t
ti tr e
.
“
I n t he law of H oll an d a cc or di n g t o t he p r e v a ilin g ,
The Irr iga t io n A c t ( 8 o f) 1 9 1 2 , se e 8; R e ti ef v L ou w ( 1 85 5 ) . .
[ 1 874] B u ch 1 6 5 ; S i lber ba u er
. V
Va n B r eda ( 1 866 ) 5 S 2 3 1 ; Va n . .
B r eda v S i lber ba u e r ( 1 86 9 ) L R 3 R C 84 ; M u n i cip a li ty of

. . . .
F r en chho e k V
Hu go ( 1 883 ) 2 S C 2 3 0 ; Comm i ss i on e r s of Fr e n ch
. . .
Hoe k v H u go ( 1 885 ) 1 0 A pp Ca 3 36 , 3 S C 3 46 ; Ver m a a k v

. . . . . .
V
.
P a lme r [ 1 87 6 ] B u ch 2 5 P r e to r i a M u n i cip a li ty
. B on A ccor d .
Ir r i ga ti o n B oa r d [ 1 92 3 ] T P D 1 1 5 ; Ju t a , Wa ter R ights , pp 41 if
. . . .
2 Maa sd o r p , p 1 3 0 . .
3
D e Vi lli er s v G a llow a y [ 1 9 43 ] A D a t p 444
. . . . .
The pr o po sit io n t ha t t he o ld G e rm a n i c l a w did n o t a llo w a n

o w n e r , w ho h a d v o lu n t a r il
y pa r t e d w it h t h e po s se ssio n , t o r e c la im
his m o v a b le pr ope r t y fr o m a t hir d pa r ty ha s n o t pa sse d u n c ha l
l ong e d de B l éc o u r t ( or t B egr ip
. K
p 2 0 7 ) c o n c lu de s : V e il ige r .
op in io n t he vi ct o r y w a s o n t he side of t he Ro m an do ctr in e
, ,
b u t su bj e ct t o s om e qu a lific a t io n s a n d e xce p t io n s In t he .
m od e rn la w t he o w n e r s r igh t of vi n di ca t in g hi s p r op e rt y
’
fr o m a po sse ssor who c a nn o t S how a good t it le a s a g a in st

“
t he own e r i s in p r in cipl e u n do u b te d b u t a g a in su bj e ct t o ,
e x ce p t i o n s w hi ch a s m igh t b e e xp e c t e d ar e n o t t he sa m e
, , ,
a s in t he la w of H oll a n d E x ce p ti on s whi ch in t he old la w

.
w e r e b a se d u po n a sp e ci a l st a tu t e or lo ca l cu st o m fin d n o
pl a ce in t he m ode rn law It w a s qu e sti on e d whe t he r sa l e s
.
in a p u bl i c m ar ke t fe ll u n d e r t hi s h e a d On t he o t h e r h a n d .
t he r u l e s O f n e go t i a bili t y ar e b e tt e r d e fi n e d t o d a y t h a n
t h e y w e r e in t he e igh t e e n t h ce n t u r y a n d t he cir cu m st a n c e s ,
in w hi c h a n own e r ca nn o t a sse r t a t it le a g a in st a bon a

fide holde r fo r v a lu e ar e c on se qu e n t ly b e tte r a sce rt a in e d .
F in ally n o t ion s de r ive d fr om t he ru le s of E n glish e qu it y

,
h a v e ce r ta in ly in Ce ylon a n d a lm o st ce r t a in ly in So u t h
,
Afr i ca m a de a n im p r e ssion o n t he m ode r n la w A fu lle r

, .
c o n sid e r a t io n of t h e se i m po r t a n t qu e st io n s i s r e se r v e d fo r
“
a n a pp e n dix .
SE C TI O N II . TH E K I ND S OF OWNE R S HIP OF LAN D

I n t hi s ct ion w e sp e a k of wh a t is co mm on ly c all e d
se
l a n d t e n ur e i e of the d iffe r e n t kin ds of own e r ship of l a n d

,
. .
r e cog niz e d by la w In E n gl a n d a ll l a n d is h e ld by fe u d a l
.
t e n u r e m e di at e ly or im m e di a t e ly of t he K i n g who is ,
Sov e r e ign L or d or L or d P a r a m o u n t e i t h e r m e di a te or
‘
, ,
im m e di at e of a ll a n d e ve r y p ar ce l of l a n d withi n t he
,
Re a l m I n H oll a n d fe u d s ( leen goed) e xi st e d S id e by side -
wit h l and s h e ld a ll odi ally ( eigen goed) F e u d a l l a n ds we r e -

.
gove r n e d by t he r u le s of t he fe u da l law ( leen r echt) whi c h -

,
w a s a dm in i ste r e d by fe u d a l Co ur t s ( leen ger echten ) Allo -

.
di a l l a n ds w e r e own e d a cco r di n g t o t he o r din a r y p r in cipl e s
gaa t m en m e t to da t m e n in de ge r m a a n sche la n de n z e e r
z e gge n
u it e e n l o o pe n d e r e ge lin ge n a a n t r o f .
A s t o w ha t m u st b e pr o v e d b y a pla in t iff in a in dica t o r y V

a c t io n s e e G ru e n e w a ld v M a thi a s [ 1 9 2 5 ] S W A
. 117 . . . .
3
A ppe n dix E .
Co L it t 6 5 , a ; 2 B l Com m 5 3 E v e r y a cr e o f la n d is t oc hn i
3 ‘
. . . . .
c a lly he l d o f t h e Cr o w n , Che sh ir e , T he M ode r n L a w of R ea l P r o

’
p er ty ( 4t h p 72 . .
158 THE LAW OF PR OPE RTY
em phy te u sis of the Ro m a n L aw n or it S e e m s d e r ive d , , ,
fr o m it Th e r e ca n b e n o do u b t howe ve r t h a t it w a s
.
, ,
in fl u e n ce d in it s de ve lop m e n t by t he r u le s of R o m a n L a w .
“
E ve n G r o t iu s st ill m o r e t he d ist in ct ive ly r o m a ni st wri te r s
,
of t he se ve n t e e n t h a n d e ighte e n t h ce n t u r ie s fa il t o di s ,
“
t in gu ish b e t w e e n t he n a t i ve a n d t he e xot i c in st it u t i o n .
In a ddi t io n t o t he a bov e m e n t io n e d m ode s of l a n d -
holdi n g vill e in t e n ur e wh i ch w as a lwa ys a sso ci a te d wit h

, ,
ville in st a t u s pl a ye d a n i m por t a n t p a r t in t he O ld la w
,
.
I t di d n o t su r viv e t he r e volu t io n a r y in flu e n ce s of t he e n d
of t he e igh t e e n t h ce n tur y “ Thi s in st it u t io n t he r e for e ,
.
,
howe ve r i n t e r e st in g h ist or i c a lly n e e d n o t de t a in u s S in ce , ,
i t ha s n o c o u n t e r p a r t i n t he m ode r n la w
U
s ufr u ct . The life in t e r e st in l a n d ( lijf to cht —
-
u s ufr uc t) w ill b e c o n -
side r e d i n a l a t e r c h a p t e r .
I t r e m a in s t o sp e a k of t he c o n tr a ct of hi r e of l a n d S O ,
fa r a s it a ffe ct s t he p r op r ie t a r y r igh t s of t he p ar t ie s In .
t he R o m a n L a w a l e ase of l a n d w a s p u r e ly c o n t r a ct u a l in
c h a r a ct e r a n d g a v e n o r igh t a g a in st t hir d p ar t i e s
,
Th u s .
,
if t he l e sso r sold t he la n d t he p u r ch a ser t ho u gh a w ar e of , ,
t he le a se w a s n o t bo u n d by it Thi s p r i n ciple p r e v a ile d

,
.
in s o m e p ar t s of H oll an d ( a t a ll e ve n t s a s r e g ar d s shor t
le a se s ) a n d fo u n d e xpre ssio n in t he pr ov e r b K oop br ee hl ,
“
hu u r ( Sa l e b r e a k s hir e ) The r e a son w a s t h a t le ase s ,
b e in g m or e c o n tr a cts r e qu ir e d n o sole m n i t y a n d c o n se
,
qu e n t ly did n o t tr a n sfe r a n y p r op r ie t a r y i n t e r e st o r a ffe ct

“
t h ir d p ar t i e s Else w h e r e a n d l a t er t he ru l e w a s r e ve r se d
.
,
B r eekt koop geen hu u r ( Sa le b r e a k s n o hir e ) Hu u r ga a t voor ,
koop ( H ir e go e s b e for e sa l e ) ; wit h t he r e sul t t h a t t he hi r e r
3
G r 2 40 2
. . . . e g Van L e e u w e n , 2 10 2 . . . . .
3
F o c k A n d , v o l 1, p 5 2
. .
3
. Ib id , p 3 45
. . . . .
Cf V o e t , 1 9 2 1 N0 ge n e r a l r u le c a n b e la id d o w n a s r e ga r ds
. . . .
H o lla n d a n d t he o t he r Pr o v in c e s o f t he Ne t he r la n ds Cu st o m .
v a r ie d b o t h b e fo r e a n d a ft e r t he r e c e pt io n ; d e B lec o u r t p 27 1 . .
F o r G e r m a n y se e G ie r ke , D e u ts ches P r i va t r e cht, ii 2 00 , n 5 5 ; . .
iii 5 1 2 ff Th e m a x im hu u r gaa t v o o r ko o p do e s n o t a pply t o a ll

. .
I t i s a c o n c is e s t a te m e n t o f t he
‘
c o n t r a c t s o f l e t t in g a n d hir in g .
e ffe c t o f c u s t o m a n d le gisla t io n u po n le a se s o f la n ds a n d h o u s e s
G r a ha m V L o ca l a nd Ove r sea s I n ves tm e n ts ( P ty) L td [ 1 9 42 ] A D a t

. . . .
p 1 1 0 , p e r Wa te r m e y e r J A
. . .
INCIDENTS OF OWNE R SHIP 1 59
c o u ld m a ke good his r ight t o t he l a n d a g a in st a n y t hir d Hu u r gaat

v oo r kO OP
p e r son t o w hom his l an dlor d migh t h a ve sold it In t hi s
'
1
se n se t he la w i s l a i d dow n by G r o t i u s wit h t he qu a lifi ca ,
t io n how e ve r t h a t a l e sse e of l a n d ha s n o su ch r igh t u nl e ss

, ,
“
his l e a se i s in wr it in g p a sse d b e for e S che pe n e n ( cor a m ,
“
lege loci ) or u n d e r t he h an d of t he l e ssor G r oe n e w e ge n .
go e s fu r th e r for b e side s r e g ar di n g wr itin g a s of t he e sse n ce

,
“ he r e qu i r e s t h a t
of a ll le a se s of l a n d s ( b u t n o t of
a l e a se a d lon gu m temp us i e for t e n y e a r s an d u p w a r d s ,
. .
,
s ho u l d b e e x e cu t e d cor a m lege loci i f it i s t o p r e v a il a g a in st ,
“
a p u r c h a se r The r e a so n is t h a t a l e ase ad lon gu m temp us
.
i s in e ffe c t a n a lie n a t i on a n d d e m a n d s t he sa m e sol e m

7
n it y of e x e cu t i o n A ccor din g t o G r o e n e w e ge n th e n : ( 1 ) G roe n e
.
,
a sho r t l e a se of l a n d if in wr itin g hold s good a g ain st a 33232“ , ,
p u r ch a se r ; ( 2 ) a S hor t le a se of ho u se s hold s good a g a in st a o f t h la w e
O f le ase s
p u r ch a se r e ve n w it ho u t w r itin g ; ( 3 ) a lo n g le ase of l an d
'
or ho u se s hold s good a g a in st a p ur ch a se r if e x e cu te d
“
cor a m lege loci o t h e rw ise n o t In So u t h Afr i c a wit h
, .
,
G r 2 44 9 ; V a n L e e u w e n 4 2 1 7 ; V o e t , 1 9 2 1 7 D e We t v
. . .
, . . . .
U
.
n i o n G o vt [ 1 9 3 4] A D 5 9
. G r u bi su p a n d 3 1 9 3 . . . . . . . .
3 ‘
B y pu b lijc ke in st ru m e n t e n O ft e d e yge n ha n dt v a n de n
’
E y ge n aa r i s t he la n gu a ge o f t he PO 1 O r d 1 5 80 ( Ar t
’
w hic h . . .
G r o t iu s pu r po r t s t o fo llo w S e e n e x t n o t e H is o w n w o r ds ( 3 1 9 3 ) . .
Z
. .
‘
are : o n de r s c h e pe n ke n n i sse O ft e sc h r ift b y de n e ighe n a e r
’
ghe t e ic ke n t .
G r o e n de leg a br a d Co d 4 6 5 2 4, se c 1 A s a u t ho r it ie s fo r
. . . . . . . .
t his pr o po s it io n , r e fe r e n ce i s m a de t o t he Pla c a a t o f P h ilip D u ke o f

B u r gu n dy o f Ju n e 1 1 1 45 2 ( 3 G P B t he P la c aa t o f Ch a r le s V
, . . .
o f Ja n u a r y 2 2 , 1 5 1 5 ( 1 G P B a n d t he P 0 1 O r d 1 5 80 , A r t 3 1 . . . . . .
(1 G P B
. . . The se e n a c t m e n t s , ho w e v e r , r e la t e n o t t o o r igin a l :
le a se s b u t t o n a hu yr The y a r e t he r e fo r e n o a u t ho r it y fo r t he pr o
.
pos it io n a dv a n c e d in t he t e x t S e e V d K 6 7 2 . . . . .
G r o e n u bi su p , se c 2 , n o n o bs ta n te H o ll C on s , v o l 1, n o 2 6 2
. . . . . . . .
V a n de r K e e sse l ( Th 6 7 0 ) a gr e e s V o e t , ho w e v e r ( 1 9 2 . an d . . .
D e c ke r ( a d V a n L e e u w e n , 4 2 1 3 ) c o n s ide r t ha t t h e E di c t o f t he . .
S t a t e s o f H o lla n d a n d We st Fr ie s la n d o f A pr il 3 , 1 6 7 7 ( 3 G P B . . .
se t t le d t h e l a w in t he s e n se t h a t l e a se s o f b o t h l a n ds a n d
ho u se s m u st b e in w r it in g V a n d e r L in de n ( l 1 5 t ho u gh . . .
r e ly in g o n a l a t e r st a t u t e , a gr e e s w it h t h is s t a t e m e n t o f t he l a w .
A d Co d 4 65 9 . . . .
7
G r o e n , l o c c it V o e t ( 1 9 2 1 ) e x pr e ss e s w it h so m e he sit a t i o n
. . . . .
t he sa m e o pin io n V a n L e e u w e n ( 4 2 1 9 ) pr o n o u n ce s t h e o t he r w a y
. . .
3
G r oe n a d G r 3 1 9 9 , w h e r e h e sa y s : I t b e in g w e ll u n de r st o o d
‘
. . . .
t ha t in n o c a se ca n im m o v a b le pr o pe r t y b e le t fo r m o r e t ha n t e n
y e a r s u n l e ss t he w r it t e n le a se ( hu u r cedu lle ) i s pas se d b e fo r e t h e
st a t u t or y e x ce p t io n s t he va lidit y of a le ase a s b e t we e n ,
t he p a r tie s i s i n d e p e n de n t of t he p r e se n ce o r a b se n ce of
wr it in g a n d a l e ase Whi ch is good b e t we e n t he p ar t ie s is
,
a l s o good a s a g a i n st p e r s o n s cl a imi n g t hr o u gh t he l e sso r

“
by lu cr a t ive tit le A s r e gar ds p ur ch a se r s a n d cr e dit or s .
t he la w i s o t h e r wi se A S hor t le ase i s a b solu t e ly v a lid .
a g a i n st t h e m a lo n g l e a se o n ly if r e gi st e r e d a g a i n st t he
t i t le o r if t he p u r ch a se w a s m a d e or t he cr e di t giv e n wit h
,
“
kn owle dge of t he le a se Su ch i s the ge n e r a l law bu t t h e r e .
,
a r e st a t u t or y v a r i a t io n s In t he Tr an sv a a l a l e a se O f l a n d .
fo r t e n ye ar s o r u pw ar d s has n o e ffe ct e ve n b e t we e n t he
“
p a r ti e s u nl e ss n o t ar i a lly e x e cu t e d a n d t he la w is t he sam e
, ,
in t he Fr e e St a t e e x ce p t t h a t t he p e r iod ha s b e e n h e ld t o
—
b e t we n t y fiv e ye a r s “
In N at a l a n y co n t r a ct t o gr a n t or .
t a ke a l e a se or su bl e a se of im m ov a bl e p r op e r t y o r of a n y
in t e r e st t h e r e i n for a p e r iod e x ce e din g t w o ye ar s fr o m t he
t im e of m a kin g su ch co n tr a c t o r fo r t he ce ssio n of a n y ,
su ch l e a se o r su ble a se h a v i n g t h e n m o r e t h a n t w o ye ar s
t o r u n m u st u n l e ss t h e r e ha s b e e n p a r t p e r for m a n c e b e
, , ,
“
e vid e n c e d by w r i t i n g Ov e r t he whol e of So u t h Afr i ca .
’
Co u r t o f t he pla c e w he r e t he pr ope r t y is S it u a t e d F o r Ce y lo n se e .
Or d No 7 o f 1 840 , s e e 2
. . . .
S e mble , Ca n a va n dc R i vas v The Ne w Tr a n s va a l G old F a r ms .
L td [ 1 9 0 4] T S 1 3 6 ; E x or E s t
. om e n. D e H e er ( 1 9 0 7 ) 2 8
. . . K V .
. . . K
N L R 5 7 7 ; om en v D e H e er ( 1 9 0 8) 2 9 N L R 2 3 7 . . . . .
3
H e r ber t V
A n de r s o n ( 1 83 9 ) 2 M e n z 1 66 ; G r e e n v G r ifiiths
. . .
( 1 886 ) 4 S C 3 46 ; D e We t . n i on G ovt [ 1 9 3 4] A D 5 9 ; w h e t h e r
. V U . . . .
t h e pu r c h a se r kn e w o f t he le as e o r n o t Ib id a t p 7 3 . . . .
3
An u n r e gist e r e d l e a se in lo n gu m t e m pu s ho lds go o d , in a n y
e ven t , u p to ten ye ar s o m e n v D e H ee r , u bi su p . K . .
4
Pr o c l No 8 o f 1 9 0 2 s e c 2 9
. The r e a d e r sho u l d c o n su lt t he
. , .
se c t i o n S e e Cohen v Va n der Wes thu i z e n [ 1 9 1 2 ] A D 5 1 9 . . .
V
. .
O r d 1 2 o f 1 9 0 6 , se c 5 1 F i cha r dt
. We bb ( 1 889 ) 6 C L J 2 5 8 . . . . . .
This t e r m i s t a ke n fr o m a n Or don n a n ti e op he t m/idde l va n den

ve er ti gste n p e n n i ng o f t h e S t a t e s o f H o lla n d da t e d M a y 9 , 1 7 44
(7 G P B B u t t h is e n a c t m e n t h a s b e e n he ld n o t t o b e in
V U
. . .
fo r c e a t t he Ca pe ( M a yn a r d she r ( 1 845 ) 2 M e n z in t he . .
T r a n sv a a l ( Ca n a va n dc R i vas T he N e w T r a n s va a l G old F a r ms V .
L td , u bi s u p ) in Na t a l ( E x or E s t
. . om e n v D e H ee r , u bi s u p ) . . K . .
D o u b t le ss t h e r u le is n o w ge n e r a l in S o u t h A fr ic a t ha t a l e a se i n
longu m temp u s m e a n s a le a se fo r t e n y e a r s o r u pw a r ds Co m par e .
fi
,
t he de n it io n o f im m o v a ble pr o pe r t y in t he D e e ds R e gist r ie s A c t ,
1 9 3 7 ( su p r a , p 1 3 2 , n . .
3
L a w No 1 2 , 1 884, se cs 1 ( c ) a n d 2 ; C o le V S tu a r t [ l 9 40 ] A D 3 9 9
. . . . . .
V
P OSSE SSI ON
WHA TE V E R of po sse ssion m a y h a ve e xiste d in t he
t h e or y
n a t iv e la w of t he N e t h e r l a n d s t he R o m a n D u t ch wr i te r s ,
-
r e p e a t t he R o m a n L a w doc t r in e a s t h e y u n d e r st ood i t .
The shor t c h a p t e r w hi ch G r o t iu s d e vo te s t o t he su bj e c t
r e fl e ct s m e r e ly t he vi e w s of t he c ivili a n s
“
S in ce t h e y ar e .
a c ce ssible fr o m o t h e r s o u r ce s it i s u nn e ce ssa r y t o r e ca ll
t h e m B u t t he c ase i s di ffe r e n t wi t h t he r e m e di e s w hi c h t he
.
L a w of H oll an d a ffor d e d for t he p r o t e c t ion of po sse ssio n .
Th e se t ho u gh t h e y p r e se n t s o m e n e ce ssa r y a n alogi e s wit h

,
t he R o m a n in t e r d i ct s w e re r e m o t e ly if a t a ll c o nn e ct e d
, , ,
wi t h t he m The t e x t book wr i t e r s n o n e t he le ss c omm o nl y

.
-
, ,
a ssign t o t h e m a R o m a n o r igin a n d dist in gu i sh t h e m a s
dir e c t e d t o ob t a in in g r e t a in in g a n d r e c ove r in g po sse ssio n

, , ,
a pplyin g t he R o m a n cl a ssifi ca t io n t o whi c h t h e y do n o t
r e a dily l e n d t h e m se lv e s I n t he m od er n la w t h e y h a ve
.
c e a se d t o e xis t a s se p a r a t e i n st i t u t io n s The ir hi st or i ca l .
im por t a n c e howe ve r e n t it le s t h e m t o so m e b r ie f a t t e n t io n
, ,
.
The D u t c h L aw a ffor de d t hr e e p r in ci p a l r e m e di e s fo r t he
pr o te ct io n of po sse ssi on ( w i t h so m e o t h e r s of le ss ge n e r a l
a pp li ca t i o n ) Th e se we r e Ma in te n u e Co m pla in te a n d
.
, ,
Spoli e Th e y ca m e in t o H oll a n d fr o m Fr an ce by w a y of
.
Fla n de r s u n de r t he i n flu e n ce of B u r gu n di an j u r ists of the

“
fifte e n t h ce n t ur y The pr o ce ss of t he Co u rt whi ch t he
.
pla in tiff in voke d w a s ca ll e d a m a n d a m e n t o r wr i t a n d t he ,
va r i o u s r e m e di e s ar e di stin gu i sh e d a s m an d am e n t v a n
m a in te n u e m a n d a m e n t v a n c o m pl ain t e a n d m a n da m e n t
, ,
v a n spoli e This l ast ha s a r e m o te r or igi n in t he a ct io

.
S po lii of t he C a n o n L a w
3
We sh a ll give a short a c c ou n t
.
“
of e a ch of t he se po sse ssor y a ct io n s .
G r l ib ii , c a p ii
. . . . de B léco u r t , p 2 00 . .
3
D e cr e tu m G r a t ia ni , c 3 , c a p 3 , qu 1 r e din te gr an da su n t o m ni a
. . .
e x po lia t is v e l e je c t is e pis co pis H e n ce t he n am e r e din t e gra n da

‘
.
’
b y w hic h t his ac t io n w as a ls o kn o w n .
4
F o r ful le r di sc u ss io n s e e F o ck A n d , v o l i , pp 2 1 8if ; de B lé
. . . .
co u r t , pp 2 00 if
. .
P OSSE SSI ON 1 63
1 . M a in ten u e p e r son di st u r b e d in hi s po sse ssion Main

. An y
33 mm
m igh t a ddr e ss a p e t it i on e it h e r t o t he H of o r t o t he H ooge
“
Ra a d p r a yi n g for a m a n d a m e n t whe r e by he shou ld b e

m a in t a in e d c o n fir m e d a n d ( so fa r a s n e ce ssar y ) le t in t o
, ,
t he po sse ssi o n or qu a si po sse ssi o n of t he L a n ds a n d o t h er

-
Good s in qu e sti on a n d or de r in g t he de fe n da n t t o in
,
de m n ify him for a ll p a st di st u r b a n ce a n d t o a b st a in fr o m

t he like i n fu t u r e “ In c a se of oppo si t io n su ppli a n t a ske d
.
for i n ter i m po sse ssio n ( r ei cr eden ti a —r ecr eden ti e ) whi ch w a s ,
gr a n te d in the dis cr e t io n of t he Co u r t su bj e ct t o his givin g

se c ur i t y t o c o m p e n sa t e t he o t h e r p a r t y fo r m e sn e p r ofi t s
i n t he e ve n t of t he ca se b e in g u l t im a te ly d e ci de d in t he
“
o the r p art y s fa vo u r ’
To e n t it le t he su pp lia n t t o t he
.
m a n d a m e n t t w o c o n d it i o n s a lo n e w e r e n e ce ssa r y : ( a )
“
po sse ssio n ( b) d istur b a n ce The de fe n da n t m igh t de fe a t
,
.
’
t he pl a in t i ff s ca se by showin g t h a t his po sse ssio n w as
a u t vi a u t c l a m a u t p r e car io a b a dv e r sa r i o ( t he ple a of
vi ciou s po sse ssion ) Pr oof of po sit ive di stu r b a n ce w as

.
n o t e sse n t i a l The m a n d a m e n t wou ld b e gr an te d e ve n in

.
ca se of a pp r e h e n d e d d istu r b a n ce — p r op t e r m e t u m oppo
“
si t i o ni s ha b e n dae e t t u r b a t io ni s fa cie n dae I n case of .
se r i o u s t hr e a t s of viol e n ce p r oc e e din g fr o m powe r fu l pe r
s o n s a p r oce ss w as gr a n te d ca ll e d t he m a n d a m e n t v a n
“
Sa u ve g ar de B u t t hi s w a s n o t so m u c h a po sse ssor y
.
r e m e dy a s a p r oc e d u r e wi t h a cr i m in a l sa n c ti o n d e sign e d
for t he p r o te cti on of p e r s o n o r pr op e r t y a g a in st appr e

h e n de d vi ole n ce .
2 Comp la i n te Thi s w as a su m m ar y p r o ce ss d e sign e d to Co m

. .
p h mte
af for d p r ovisio n a l re lie f The c o n di t io n s of t he wri t w e r e ‘
.
m or e str in g e n t t h a n in t he ca se of m a in te n u e The su ppli an t .
m u st S how : ( a ) t h a t he ha d po sse sse d ( b) qu i e t ly a n d ,
p e a ce a bly ( c ) for a ye ar a n d a d ay ( d) o u ste r o r distur

, ,
b a n ce wit hin t he ye a r n e x t b e for e a cti on br o u ght Ac cor d .
in g t o c ir cu m st a n ce s he p r a ye d t o b e m a in t a in e d in o r ,
q
F or t he for m u l a o f r e u e st se e P ap ega y , cha p x v ( e d 1 7 40 , . .
v ol i, p
. .
3
B i u k , O T i 2 7 6, 30 5 j . . . .
3
F o c k A n d , v o l i , p 2 1 8 V d L Ju di c P r ac t , b o o k ii , cha p x x
. . . . . . . . . . .
4
B o r t , T r ac ta e t va n C omp la i n cte , t it 1 , se c 3 2
B or t , lo c c it , se cs 2 6—
. . .
. .30 ; o p c it , 4 5 2 1
. . . . . .
r e st or e d to po sse ssio n vi ti a po sse ssio ni s m igh t b e.
“ The
ple a de d a s a de fe n ce .
The p r o ce d ur e t ook t he fo r m of a n i n qu ir y i n loco c o n

d u c te d by o n e o r t w o Ju dge s de le g ate d for t he p u r po se If .
t h e y w e r e sa t isfie d t h a t t he pl a in t iff ha d e st ablish e d hi s

c a se t h e y o r de r e d r es ta bli ssem en t t h a t is r e st o r a t io n of
, ,
t he s ta tu s qu o If n o t so sa t i sfie d t he y m a de n o or de r
. .
Thi s pr op e r ly S p e a kin g c o n cl u de d t he p r oce d u r e in co m

, ,
pl ain t e If t he d e fe a te d p ar t y c a rr ie d t he m a tte r n o
.
fu r t h e r t he c o n tr ove r sy w a s a t a n e n d The fu r t h e r pr o
, .
ce e din gs i f a n y w e r e in m a i n te n u e
, , D e B lec o ur t sa ys t h a t .
m a i n t e n u e w a s t he l a st st a ge in t he p r o ce d u r e of co m
“
pl a in t e It w o u ld p e r h a p s b e m or e in fo rm a t ive t o sa y
.
, ,
t h a t c o m pl a i n t e w a s a p r e l im i n a r y b u t n o t a n e c e ssa r y ,
pr e li m in a r y of p r oc e e di n g s in m a in te n u e It w a s a pre
, .
lu de t o a dr a m a Oft e n t he p e r for m a n ce e n de d wit h t he

.
p r e lu de Mor e oft e n t he p r e lu de w a s o m it te d
. .
3 S poli e T hi s w a s a p r o c e ss dir e ct e d t o r e cove r y of po s

. .
se ssio n . The pl a in tiff ha d t o p r ov e : ( a ) po sse ssion ( b) dis ,
po sse ssi o n The o n ly d e fe n c e w a s de ni a l of t he fa ct s

.
“
a ll e g e d , fo r S po li a t u s a n t e o m n i a r e st it u e n du s e st The .
ple a O f vi cio u s po sse ssio n w a s n o t a d m i tte d The r e m e dy .
a sk e d for w a s r e st o r a t i o n a n d co m p e n sa t i o n a n d t o b e
“
r e i n st a te d in po sse ssi o n I n S p it e Of i ts a pp ar e n t a ttr a c .
tiv e n e ss t h is r e m e dy w a s se ldo m in vok e d p e r h a p s b e c a u se ,
it m e r e ly p r o m i se d r e in st a te m e n t a n d did n o t d e ci d e e ve n
pr ovi si o n a lly t he r ight t o r e m a i n in po sse ssio n .
I m m issie . Th e r e w a s a n o t h e r po sse ssor y r e m e dy of m or e limi te d

a ppli c a t io n Th is w a s t he m a n d a m e n t v a n imm issie by
.
,
which a n h e ir o r l e g a t e e ob t a in e d po sse ssi o n of t he whole

’
o r p ar t of a d e ce a se d p e r so n s e st a t e The p r oce d u re w a s
t he sa m e a s in m
.
a in t e n u e wit h w hi ch it w as c omm o nly ,
c o m b i n e d i n a p e t it io n fo r m a in te n u e a n d if n e e d b e fo r
‘ ’
Fo ck A n d . .
, v ol . i , p 2 1 9 ; de B lé c o u r t , p 2 0 1
. . o p c it
. .
,
b o o k ii , c ha p 2 1 . .
3
de B léc o u r t , p 203 . .
3
F o ck A n d , v o l i , p 2 1 8; de B lé c o u rt , p 2 0 1 ;
. . . . . o p c it
. .
,
b o o k ii , c ha p 2 2 . .
4
P ap ega y, c hap x i v ( v o l 1, p . . .
l
c e ar p r oof of po sse ssio n It i s n o t e n o u gh t o m a k e o u t a .
“
p ma faci e ca se whi c h m igh t j u st ify a n in te r d i ct
r i .
In t he a l te r n a t iv e a pl a in t i ff m a y b r in g a n a ct i o n t o
r e cov e r po sse ssi on a n d d a m a ge s o r d a m a g e s for dist u r
“
b a n ce .
P e r r y s t r a n sla t io n , p 40 9 ) t ha t t h e t r u e pu r po s e o f t his su m m a r y
’
.
r e m e dy i s t o pr e v e n t b r e a c he s o f t he pe a c e , a n d t o M e n o c hiu s
’
( D e R ec u p P oss R em ed T i t 1 7 , pa r
‘
. . c o n t in u e d : t h e a u t h o r
. . .
d o e s n o t , a s m a n y o f t he m o de m s w o u ld a ppe a r t o do , e x t e n d in
t h is pa ssa ge e v e n t his fo r m o f a c t io n t o a n y a n d e v e r y de te n to r .
As t o w h e t h e r t he y a r e r igh t in s o d o i n g I pa r t i c u l a r ly de s ir e t o
’
de c ide n o t hi n g .
M a n de lko or n v S tr a u s s , u bi su p . .
3
P e n tz V
Co l G ovt ( 1 89 1 ) 8 S C 3 4;
. . o e n igs be r g dc C o
. . . K . V .
Ro bi n s o n G M C o [ 1 9 0 5 ] T H 9 0 ; M i ller v H a rr is [ 1 9 1 2 ] C P D
. . . . . . . . .
20 3 ; O m a r v S a hi b ( 1 9 0 7 ) 2 8 N L R 6 2 5
. . . . .
[D r . T . W . Pri c e o f Tr in i t y H a ll ha s giv e n m e v a lu a b le a ssi st a n c e
in r e v is in g t h is c h a pt e r , bu t, o f c o u r se , I am so l e ly r e spo n s ib le
fo r w ha t i s sa id I t i s t o b e ho pe d t ha t h i s t he s i s o n The P os s es
.
s or y R e m e di es i n R o m a n D u tch L a w w i ll soo n b e pu b li she d ]

-
S E RV IT UD E S
“
THE ne x t cl ass of j ur a in r e ar e Ser vi tu d e s A se r vi tu de Se rvi .
l u de“
is a re a l r ight e n j oye d by o n e p e r s o n ove r o r in r esp e ct
of the p r ope r t y of a n o t he r w h e r e by t he l a t te r i s r e quir e d
,
t o su ffe r t he form e r t o do or h im s e lf t o a b st a in fro m

,
doin g so m e t hin g u po n su ch p r op e r t y fo r t he for m e r s

,
’
a dv a n t a ge . The p e r so n for w ho se b e n e fi t su c h r ight is

c o ns t i t u te d m a y e i t h e r e n j oy i t a s i n ci d e n t a l t o a n d in
se p a r a bl e fr o m im m ova ble p r op e r t y of w h i ch he i s own e r ,
o r m a y e n j oy it p e r s on a ll y a n d wi t ho u t r e fe r e n ce t o a n y
p r op e r t y of whi ch he is own e r In t he fir st case t he r i ght .
i s t e rm e d a r e a l or p r a e di a l se r vit u d e ; in t he se c on d c a se it
i s t e r m e d a p e r son a l se r vitu de B u t a ll se r vi t u de s r e a l o r
.
,
p e r son al ar e r e a l r ight s whi ch ca n b e m a de good a ga in st

, ,
“
a ll t he wo r ld .
I n t he case of r e a l se r vi t u d e s t he l a n d i n r e sp e ct ofwhi ch Rea l or

,
t he r igh t i s e n j oye d is t e r m e d t he p r ae di u m do m in a n s BM W ,
t he l a n d ove r whi ch t he ri ght is e x e r c ise d is te r m e d t he t u des

pr ae di u m se r vie ns Re a l o r p r ae di a l se r vit u d e s e x ist for
.
t he b e n e fi t of l a n d s a n d ho u se s a n d t he b ur de n of t h e m,
is im po se d o n l a n ds o r ho u se s P e r so n a l se r vi t u de s e xist
.
fo r t he b e n e fi t of p er so n s a n d ar e e n j oye d in r e sp e c t of
,
m ov a ble a s w e ll a s of i m m ov a ble p r op e r ty Wh e n t he .
wor d se r vit u d e is u se d w it hou t qu a li fi c a t i o n it i s u su a ll y

a r e a l ser vit u d e t h a t i s m e a n t .
A r e a l se r v it u de is a fr a g m e n t of t he own e r shi p of a n
im m ov a ble d e t a ch e d fr o m t he r e si d u e of own e rshi p a n d
ve st e d in t he own er of a n a dj oin in g im m ova ble a s a cce s
s or y t o su c h o w n e r shi p a n d for t he a dv a n t a ge of su ch
j
F o r a fu ll e r t r e a t m e n t o f t he su b e c t o f se r v i t u de s t he r e c e n t ly
pu b lishe d w o r k o f C G H a ll a n d E A
. . e lla w a , Ju t a
y
. . K CO , .
C a pe T o w n , m a y b e c o n su lt e d ; a n d se e t he v a lu a b le n o t e in
K o t z e, Va n L e e u w e n , v o l i , pp 3 0 2 fi
3
. . .
E x p a r te G e lde n hu ys [ 1 9 2 6] O P D a t p 1 6 3 ; G a la nt v
. . . . .
M a ko nga [ 1 9 2 2 ] E D L a t p 7 9
. . . . .
imm ova ble Tho u gh own e r sh ip i s t hu s divide d an d ve ste d
.
in t w o p erso ns t he de t a ch e d fr ag m e n t is as a ru l e re l a
, , ,
t iv e ly insigni fica n t in co m p ar iso n wit h wh a t r e m a in s It .
se e m s n a t ur a l t h e r e fo r e t o sp e a k of t he p e r s o n t o who m
, ,
t he r e si d u e b e lon g s a s own e r of t he l a n d whi l e t he p e r s on ,
in who m t he d e t a ch e d r igh t is v e st e d i s sa id t o h a ve a
“
ju s in r e a li e n a P e r so n a l se r vi tu de s of t he u su a l t yp e
.
a pp r o a ch m or e n e a r ly t o own e r shi p a n d h a v e li tt l e in
com m o n wit h r e a l se r vit u de s e x ce p t the n a m e For t he .
p r e se n t w e c o n fi n e o u r a tt e n ti o n t o r e a l se r vi t u d e s .
Re a l se r vi t u d e s ar e d ist in g u ish e d a s r u st i c a n d ur b an .
The di st in ct io n ha s r e g a r d t o t he ch ar a ct er of t he do m in an t
tene m e nt Se r vit u d e s a tt a ch e d t o l an d ar e ru sti c se r vi
.
,
“
t u d e s a t t a ch e d t o b u ildin g s a r e ur b an .
3
The followin g ar e t he p r in cip a l r u st ic se r vi tu d e s ( veld
di ens tba er heden ) .
1 RI G HT S O F WA Y : ( a ) for w a lkin g a n d r idin g ( i ter )

.
whi ch t he D u t ch wr ite r s su bdivide in t o foot p at h ( vo et -
“
p ad ) a n d b r idl e p a t h (r ij p ad ) b
( ) f o r d r ivi n
-
g c a tt l e a s -
w e ll a s for goin g o n foo t a n d ho r se b a ck a n d for light ,
— 6
ve hicle s ( a ctu s dr eef) ; ( c) for a ll kin d s of tr affi c in cl u din g
— 7
la de n w a gon s ( vi a w eg) ; t o whi ch m a y b e a dde d ( d) a
w a y of n e c e ssi t y ( n ood w eg) i e a w a y t o b e u se d o nl y -
, . .
for t he h ar ve st fo r c a rr yin g a cor p se t o b u r i a l or o t h e r

, ,
“
n e c e ssar y p ur po se or a w a y givi n g n e c e ssa r y a c c e ss t o a
,
“
p u blic r o a d The r ight t o u se a tr e k p a th ove r the l a n d -
.
1
G r 2 33 1 . . . .
V o e t , 8 1 3 4; G ir a r d , p 3 87 ; B u c klan d , p 2 6 2 I s a r ight
3 -
. . . . .
o f w a y a t t a c h e d t o a ho u se r u s t ic o r u r b a n ? Opin io n s diffe r S ee .
L e e , E lem e n ts of R om a n L a w , s e c 2 2 7 . .
3
S e e F o ck A n d , v o l i , pp 2 7 5 ff . . . . .
4
G r 2 3 5 2 ; V an L e e u w e n , 2 2 1 2
. . . . . .
G r 2 3 5 3 ; V an L e eu w en , 2 2 1 3 ; V oe t , 8 3 1
. . . . . . . .
’
G r 2 3 5 4; V a n L e e u w e n , 2 2 1 4; V o e t , 8 3 2 ; B r eda s
. . . . . . .
E x or s v M i lls ( 1 883 ) 2 S C 1 89
. . . . .
7
G r 2 3 5 5 ; V a n L e e u w en , 2 2 1 5 ; Vo e t , 8 3 3
. . . . . . . .
3
G r 2 35 7 ; Vo et , 8 3 4
. . . . . .
3
G r 2 3 5 8 a n d 1 1 ; V a n L e e u w e n , 2 2 1 7 ; V o e t , u bi su p . . .
V
. . .
P ea co ck Hodges [ 1 87 6 ] B u ch 65 ; Va n S cha lkw ij k v D u P lessi s

. . .
( 1 900 ) 1 7 S C 454 ; N e i ls on v M a hou d [ 1 9 2 5 ] E D L 2 6 ; R a mp e r . . . .
V
. .
sa d G o ber du n [ 1 9 2 9 ] N P D 3 2 Wi lhe lm v Nor ton [ 1 9 3 5 ] B D L

. . . . . . . .
1 43 ; ( Ce y lo n ) F er n a n do v F er n a n do ( 1 9 2 9 ) 3 1 N L R 1 0 7 . . . . .
ca t t e (pecor is a d agu a m
l r igh t of a ccess to
“ ’
wa te r ove r a n o t h e r s l a n d ( water ga ng) -
3 Righ t of t a kin g sa n d o u t of a n o t h e r s s o i l o r of t a kin g

’
.
li m e a n d h a vin g a li m e kihi o n a n o t he r s l an d “ -
’
.
4 Right of p a st ur e
.
“
.
The a bov e li st i s n o t e xh au sti ve Ot h e r r e al se r vi tu d e s .
m a y b e cr e a t e d i n a n y of t he r e c og n iz e d w a ys p r ovid e d
t h a t t h e y a r e of su ch a n a t ur e a s t o b e n e fi t t he do m i n a n t
e st a te a n d i n o t h e r r e sp e ct s sa t i sfy t he l e g a l c o n di t io n s
,
“
of se r vit u de s .
The followin g a r e u r b a n se r vit u d e s

1 My r igh t t o r e qu ir e m y n e ighbo u r t o su ppor t t he
.
we ight of m y ho u se o r w a ll ( ju s on er is fer endi—m u u r be

A p e cu li ar i t y of t his se r vi t u de is t h a t c on tr ar y ,
t o t he g e n e r a l r ul e i t e n t a ils a n a ct ive d u t y of k e e pin g in ,
r e p a ir B u t if t he own e r O f t he ser vi e n t te n e m e n t a b a n do n s
.
it t he d u t y of r e p a ir ce a se s
, .
2 My r igh t t o dr i ve t im b e r & c in t o m y n e ighbo u r s

’
. .
, ,
—
wa ll ( jus tign i i mm i ttendi i n ba lcki ng Ofte i na n cker i ng) 7
.
3 My r igh t t o h a v e a b a l c o n y o r o t h e r t hi n g p r oj e ct in g
.
ove r m y n e ighbo ur s l a n d ( jus ti gn i pr oji ci endi vel pr ote ’
3
g e n d i ) Th i s c a s e
. di f
f e r s fr o m t h e l a st i n r e sp e c t of t he
G r 2 3 5 1 9 ; V a n L e e u w e n , 2 2 1 1 4 ; V o e t , 8 3 1 1 , a n d se e
. . . . . . .
S mi t V
R u s sou w [ 1 9 1 3 ] C P D 847 G r o t iu s a dds t r e c ht o m t e
. . . . .
v a r e n d o o r e e n a n d e r s w a t e r , w h ic h M a a sd o r p r e n de r s t he r igh t o f
’ ‘
fo r d ; b u t i t se e m s r a t he r t o b e w ha t V o e t ( lo c c i t ) c a lls ju s n a v i
’ ‘
. .
m u um D
’
g a n di p e r a l t e r i u s l a cu p pe r e t a d n o s t r a pr a e dia ig . .
8 3 2 3 , 1 S e e a ls o V a n L e e u w e n , 2 2 1 1 7 ; a n d C e n s F or 1 2
. . . . . . . . .
3
1 4 41. . Van L e eu w en , 2 2 1 1 3 . . .
3
Ju s a r e n ae fo die n da e , ju s ca lc is c o qu e n da e , & c V o e t , 8 3 1 1 . . . .
4
Voe t, 8 3 1 0 A s t o t he e ffe c t O f a gr a n t o f fr e e gr a z in g
. . .
( vr ije ve e w ei de ) se e Vo ls hen k v Va n den B er g [ 1 9 1 7 ] T P D 3 2 1 ;

-
. . . .
B ade nhor s t V
J ou ber t [ 1 9 2 0 ] T P D 1 0 0 Fr e e w o o d ( vr ije hou t) ,
. . . . .
Vo ls hen k v Va n de n B er g, u bi su p . .
V o e t , 8 3 1 2 Su c h a s a r ight t o u se a t hr e shing fl o o r ( Ce y lo n )
. . .
Wee r as i nghe v P er er a ( 1 9 43 ) 43 N 5 7 5 R e st r ic t iv e c o v e n a n t s
. .
e n t e r e d in t o b y a u r c ha se r o f la n d m a y O pe r a t e b y w a y o f se r v i
p
t u de a ft e r r e gist r a t io n A le x a n der v J ohn s [ 1 9 1 2 ] A D 3 9 3 ; F la ts . . .
V
.
L td . T r a ns vaa l C on s o lida ted L a nd C o

.
[ 1 9 2 0 ] T P D 1 46 ; . . . .
T on ki n v Va n H eer den [ 1 9 3 5 ] N P D 5 89
. . . . .
4
G r 2 3 4 3 ; Va n L e e u w e n , 2 2 0 2 ; V o e t , 8 2 1
. . . . . . . .
7
G r 2 3 4 7 ; V a n L e e u w e n , 2 20 6 ; V o e t , 8 2 2
. . . . . . . .
3
Van L e e u w e n , 2 2 0 7 ; V oe t , 8 2 3 . . . . .
SE RV ITUDE S 171
reme dy if vit u de i s e x e r cise d withou t r ight I n t he

a se r .
for m e r ca se t he p e r so n w ho se l a n d is e n cr o a che d u pon

m ay r e m ove t he O b st r u c ti on in t he l a t t e r ca se he m u st
“
pr oc e e d by w a y of a ct io n .
4 My r igh t t o r e qu i r e y o u n o t t o r a i se t he h e igh t of
.
y ou r b u ildi n gs ( ju s a ltiu s n on tollendi —belet va n hoger

S car ce ly d ist in gu i sh a ble fr o m t h is i s m y
r i gh t t h a t y o u Sh a ll n o t in t e r fe r e w it h m y li gh t s ( s er vi tu s
n e lu m i n ibu s ofiici a tu r — vr ij If w e ar e t o a dh e r e in
t h is m a t te r t o t he R o m a n L a w t he l a st n a m e d r igh t m e r e ly -
go e s t o t he le n g t h of p r oh ib itin g i n t e r fe r e n ce wi t h a c ce ss
of light t o u pp e r win dow s In t his r e sp e ct i t is m o r e .
li m it e d in scop e t h a n t he ju s a lt iu s n o n t oll e n di On t he .
o t h e r h a n d ob str u ct io n of light by tr e e s wo ul d b e a n
,
“
in te r fe r e n ce w it h t he se c on d r igh t b u t n o t w it h t he fi r st ,
.
“
A n o t he r a lli e d r ight is t he r igh t of pr o sp e ct ( vr ij gee i cht) ,
whi ch se e m s in R o m a n L aw t o h a ve i m plie d a c ce ss of
, ,
“
light n o t on ly t o u pp e r b u t t o lowe r w in dows a s we ll I n .
t hi s ca se t o o I a m e n t i tle d t o r e qui r e t h a t m y ligh t sh a ll

, ,
n o t b e i n te r c e p t e d by t re e s .
5 My r ight t o di s ch ar g e t he w a te r fr o m m y e a v e s or
.
D ig 9 2 2 9 , 1 ; V o e t , 8 1 4
. . . . . .
3
G r 2 3 4 1 8; V a n L e e u w e n , 2 20 1 2 ; V o e t , 8 2 8 T h e c o n
. . . . . . . .
t r a r y se r v it u de a lti u s to llen di i s v a r io u s ly e x pla in e d Se e V o e t , .
8 2
. . 5—7 .
3
G r 2 3 4 2 0 ; V a n L e e u w e n , 2 20 1 3 ; V o e t , 8 2 1 1 A
. . . . . . . .
ge n e r a l se r v it u de o f light a c c o r din g t o V o e t ( lo c c it ) in c lu de s . .
fu t u r e l ight s a s w e ll a s pr e se n t light s B u t w h e t he r t his i s so o r n o t .
de pe n ds u po n t he t e r m s o f t h e gr a n t S t L eger T o w n C ou n ci l of . . V .
C a p e T ow n ( 1 89 5 ) 1 2 S C 2 49 . . .
4
A n e ighb ou r m a y c u t o v e r han gin g b r a n ch e s G r 2 3 4 2 1 . . . .
su p r a p 1 52
, . .
G r 2 3 4 2 0 ; V a n L e e u w e n , 2 2 0 1 4 ; V o e t , 8 2 1 2 G r o t iu s
. . . . . . . .
a dds ( 2 t r e cht o m e e n v e in s t e r t e
‘ ’
3 4 22 ) V e in st e r r e c ht , i e
. .
-
. .
’
b ob b e n ha n ge n de O ft e o pga e n de o v e r e e n s a n de r s gr o n d ; o r , a s
V o e t ( 8 2 9 ) pu t s it , ju s a pe r ie n di fe n e s t r a m pe n du la m su pr a
‘
. .
a r c a m a lt e r iu s G e z ic ht v e r b o d i s m y r igh t t o pr o hib it y o u fr o m
’
.
e x e r c is in g a r igh t o f pr o spe c t o v e r m y la n d G r 2 3 4 2 7 Ju s . . . . .
lu m in u m o r ju s lu m in is im m itt e n d i i s m y r ight t o o pe n l ight s o r

w in do w s in y o u r w a ll D ig 8 2 4 ; V o e t , 8 2 9 .Ju s lum in is n o n . . .
q
. . .
a pe r ie n d i i s m y r ight t o r e u ir e t ha t
y o u sha ll n o t o pe n light s in
y o u r w a ll V o e t , 8 2 1 0 . . . .
3
L a t io r ple n io r qu e de pr o spe c t u u a m de lu m in ib u s se r v it u s q .
Vo e t , 8 2 1 2 . . .
s po u t o n t o yo ur l a n d ( u s s ti lli ci dii vel
j —
flu min is dr op ) ;
1
or m y co n tr a r y r i gh t t o r e qu ir e
y o u t o dis ch ar g e su ch w a te r
o n t o m y l a n d ( dr p va ng
3
o ) -
.
6 My r igh t t o h a v e a n a r t ifi c ia l dr a in p assin g t hr o u gh o r
.
—
.
ove r yo u r l a n d (ju s cloaca e m i ttenda e goot r echt) 3 -

.
We p ass t o t he m ode s of a c qu ir in g se rvi tu d e s G r ot iu s .
sa ys t h a t se r vi t u d e s a r e a cqui r e d by : ( 1 ) a gr e e m e n t
followe d by a c qu ie s ce n ce o n t he p a rt of t he own e r of the
4 3
se r vi e n t p r ope rt y ; ( 2 ) l a st wi ll ( 3 ) p r e s cr ip t io n ; ( 4)
im plie d g r a n t ; a n d V o e t a dd s ( 5 ) j u dici a l de cr e e
7 “
.
Fo r t he m ode r n law it will b e m o r e co n ve n i e n t t o di s

t in gu ish t it l e s a n d m od e s of a cqu isit ion A p e rso n m ay .
b e c o m e e n t it l e d t o a se rvi t u de : ( a ) by gr a n t or c o n t r a ct ;
( b) by l a st will ; ( 0 ) by j u di ci a l d e cr e e A se rvi t u de is .
a c qu ir e d p r i n c ip ally by r e is te r e d
g gr a n t or by p r e scr ip t i on .
1 Regi s ter ed gr a n t Wh e n G r o t iu s S p e a k s of a gr e e m e n t
‘
. .
foll ow e d by a c qui e sce n ce he e vid e n t ly ha s in v ie w t he ’
qu a si t r a di ti on of t he l a t e r R o m a n L a w Tr a dit i o pl a n e
-
.
“
e t p a t ie n t i a se r v it u t iu m i n du ce t o ffi ciu m pr a e t o ri S
‘
Th e r e is n o do u b t t h a t de live r y of se r vi t u de s a n d a o
qu ie s ce n ce in t h e m will c o nst it u te su ffi cie n t gr o u n d for
t he a i d of t he p r ae t o r Con si st e n t ly w it h t his he a dvi se d
.
’
in a n op ini o n r e po r t e d in t he Holla nds che Con su lta ti en

t h a t by t he g e n e r a l u sa g e of H oll a n d se r vi t u de s w e r e c o n
st i t u t e d u n d e r h a n d a n d n o t b e fo r e t he B u t l a te r
c o m m e n t a t or s o n t he L a w of H oll a n d m a in t a in e d a g a in st
G r o t iu s t h at t he c o n stitu ti o n of a se r vi tu de r e qu i r e d t he
“
sa m e sol e m ni t ie s a s a t r a ns fe r of l a n d a n d t hi s is t he ,
m od e r n la w :
G r 2 3 4 1 0 V a n L e e u w e n , 2 20 8
. . . . . .
3
C r 2 3 4 1 3 ; V an L e e u w e n , 2 2 0 9 ; V o e t , 8 2 1 3 This su p
. . . . . . . .
s e d s e r v i t u de se e ms t o r e st u po n a mis in t e r pr e t a t io n o f t h e
p o
t e x t s o f t he R o m an L a w
—
.
t r e c ht o m e e n go o t t e he b b e n le g
3 ’
G r 2 3 4 2 4 ; G o o t r e cht
. . .
-
h e n d e O f t e u i t ko m e n d e o p e e n s a n d e r s gr o n d V o e t , 8 2 1 4 ; D ig
g . . . .
8 1 7 V o e t ( lo c c it ) m e n t io n s m a n y o t he r s e r v it u de s o f le ss fr e
. . .
q
.
4
u e n t o c cu r r e n c e . G r 2 36 2 . . . .
3 7
G r 2 36 3 . . . G r 2 36 4
. G r 2 36 6 . . . . . . . .
3
Voet, 8 4 2 .
3
D ig 8 3 1 , 2
. .
“3
H oll C on s iii 3 1 6
. . . . . . . .
G r o e n a d G r 2 3 6 2 ; V o e t , 8 4 1 ; V an L e e u w e n , 2 1 9 2 ;
. . . . . . . .
V d K 369
. . . .
l
r e u ct an t to a dm i t an y d e r og at ion fr o m t he p r in ciple
t h at rea l ri gh t s ar e cr e a t e d a n d t r an s fe rr e d by r e gi ste r ed
de e d .
The o nsid e ra tions a pply t o a j u dg m e n t cr e di t or

sa m e c
pr o ce e din g t o a sa le in e x e cu t io n of t he se r vi e n t p r ope r t y .
An u nr e g ist e r e d s e r vit u d e a ffor d s n o p r o te c t io n if t he ,
cr e di t o r ha s giv e n c r e di t t o hi s d e b t or in i gn or a n c e of i t s
e xi st e n c e
“
.
A gr a n t of a se r vitu de i s e ffe ct e d by m e an s of a d e e d
.
e x e cu t e d by t he o w n e r s O f t he do m in a n t a n d se r vie n t
v
“
t e n e m e n t s a n d a tt e ste d by a n o t a r y p u blic I t m a y a lso .
b e a n i n cide n t of a t r a nsfe r of l a n d wh e n a se r vi t u d e is ,
3
i m po se d o n or in fa vo u r of t he l an d t r a n sfe rr e d in fa vo u r
O f o r o n o t h e r l a n d r e gi ste r e d in t he n am e of t he t r a n s
“
fe r o r The r e gist r a t ion a g a inst t he t i t le of t he se r vi e n t
.
l a n d co n st it u t e s t he se r vitu de .
A Cr ow n gr a n t of a se r vit u de is su i gen er is Sin ce Cr own .
l an d s ar e n o t on t he r e gi st e r it lie s wit h t he Cr own t o

“
cr e a t e a se r vi t u de ov e r t h e m in a n y w a y i t pl e a se s .
Se rvitu des I n Ce ylon a se r vi t u d e i s c o n s tit u te d by a n o t ar i a l in stru

m e n t w h i ch m u st b e r e gi ste r e d b u t t h e r e i s n o p r ovi ,
si o n fo r r e gist e r in g t he se r vi t u d e a g a in st t he t i t l e t o t he
“
se r vi e n t l a n d .
II P r escr ip ti on A se r vi t u de m a y b e a c qu ir e d by u n
. .
co n t e st e d op e n e n j oym e n t a dve r se t o t he own e r ( n ec vi ,
n ec cla m n ec pr eca r i o ) a n d co n t in u o u s fo r t he p e r iod

,
de fi n e d by law .
( )
1 U n co n tes te d i e wi t ho u t r e si st a n ce
,
or p r o t.e st.o n t he
p ar t of t he own e r (n ec vi ) ; ( 2 ) Op en ( n ee cla m ) The own e r .
n e e d n o t h a v e kn own t h a t t he se r vit u d e w as b e in g ox e r
cise d a g a in st hi m
7
bu t he m u st h a ve ha d t he m e a ns
,
V o e t , 8 4 1 ; J u dd . F ou r i e ( 1 881 ) 2 E D G 41
. V . . . . .
3
D e e ds Re gis t r ie s A c t , 1 9 3 7 , se e 7 5 .
3
Th is is t h e s o ca ll e d de du c t io se r vi t u t is o f R o m a n L a w
-
.
So hm , e d L e dl ie , p 3 43 , n 1
. . . .
4
D e e ds R e gist r ie s A c t , 1 9 3 7 , se c 7 6 . .
B r a u nschw eig V M B oa r d v n i on G ovt [ 1 9 1 7 ] B D L

. . . U . . . .
1 86 .
3
O r ds No 7 o f 1 840 , se c 2 ; No 2 3 o f 1 9 2 7 , se c 1 6
. . . . . .
7
V oe t , 8 4 4; S ec us Vinn i u s . S ele ct Qu aes t i 3 1
. . . . . .
SE RVITUDE S 1 75
of kn owin g A r igh t of se r vitu de t o a n u n de r gr o u n d dr a in

.
1
ca nn o t b e a cqu ir e d w it ho u t pr oof of k n owle dge .
A d i Cl r ly t he e n j oym e n t w o u ld
( )
3 ve r s e ( n e c p r ec a r o ) e a .
n o t b e a dv e r se if e x e r c i se d by p e r m i ssion B u t fu rt h e r .
, ,
2
t he e n j oym e n t m u st fr o m it s n a t ur e b e a dve r se Su ppo se .
o u h a v e for m a n y y e a r s r e fr a in e d fr o m b u ildin g o n yo u r
y
l a n d a n d I h a ve in c o n se qu e n ce e n j oye d a n a cce ss of li ght
,
.
This give s m e n o r ight t o de m a n d t h a t you sh a ll n o t b u ild .
My e n j oym e n t ha s b e e n m er a efacu lta ti s— m a tte r offa ct n o t ,
of la w Yo u w e r e fr e e t o b u il d o r n o t a s y o u ple ase d So if
. .
,
fo r a n u m b e r of y e a r s a n u pp e r r ip ar ia n own e r h a vin g a s , ,
su ch a r i gh t t o r e du ce t he vol u m e of t he str e a m wit hi n t he

,
lim its a n d for t he p ur po se s p e r m it te d by law ha s in fa ct , , ,
a llo w e d a lo w e r p r op r ie t o r t o e n j oy a n u n i n t e rru p te d flow of
w a te r t he low e r p r opr i e t or has n o t t he r e by a c qu ir e d a n y

,
3
r i gh t t h a t t h is st a t e of t h i n g s sh a ll c o n t in u e fo r hi s b e n e fit .
The po siti o n w o u ld b e d i ffe r e n t in bo t h t h e se c ase s i f t he o n e

p r opr ie t or ha d r e fr a in e d fr o m e x e r cisin g his pr opr ie t a r y
r i gh t i n d e fe r e n ce t o t he o t h e r s c l a im of r i gh t t o h a v e him
’
do so a n d ha d so r e fr a in e d d ur in g the whole cu rr e n cy of t he
,
te r m of p r e scr ip ti on Wh a t i s h e r e sa i d a ppli e s t o n e g a t ive

.
se r vi t u d e s o nl y An a ffi r m a ti ve se r v it u de i s fr o m it s n a t u r e
.
a dv e r se t o t he p r op r i e t o r ov e r w h o se l a n d i t i s e x e r ci se d .
( 4) Con ti n u ou s The e n j oym e n t of t he se r vi t u de m u st

.
b e u ni n t err u p te d Th u s a cl a im t o a se r vitu de of gr a z in g
.
w a s h e ld t o fa il wh e n i t a pp e a r e d t h a t i t ha d b ee n in te r
4
r u pte d by vi s m a or fo r a p e r iod of t hr e e m o n t hs Wh a t
j .
c o n st it u te s a n in t e rr u p t i o n d e pe n d s u po n t he n a t u r e of
t he se r vi t u d e Som e se r vit u d e s ar e in t h e ir n at u r e in te r
.
mi tte n t a n d a b r e a k in t he e n j oym e n t m a y b e m e re ly t he
m a nn e r in whi ch t he se r vi t u d e w a s b e in g e n j oye d 5 ’
.
1
Cf D a lton
. A n gu s ( 1 881 ) 6 A pp Ca s a t p 82 7 ; Un i on
V .
V
. . .
I/ighter age 0 0 L ondo n G r a vi n g D o ck C o [ 1 9 0 2 ] 2 Ch 5 5 7 ;

. . .
V
.
L i verp o o l C o rp C oghi ll [ 1 9 1 8] 1 Ch 3 0 7 ; H a lsb u r y , x i 5 3 7

. .
V
. . .
2
D e B eer Va n de r M e r w e [ 1 9 2 3 ] A D a t p 3 84
.
V
. . . .
3
J or da a n Wi n kelm a n [ 1 87 9 ] B u ch 7 9
. . .
B os hofi V
R ei n ho ld [ 1 9 2 0 ] A D 2 9 ; D e B ee r
. Va n der M er w e . . V .
[ 1 9 2 3] A D 3 7 8 . . .
5
V o e t , 8 4 1 7 ; B os hofi
. . V
R e i n ho ld , u bi su p a t p 33 ; H ea d v. . . .
D u T ai t [ 1 9 32 ] C P D 2 87 . . . .
5 . F or the p er i od defin ed by la w I n t he . D u t ch L a w t hi s
1
a t h ir d of a ce n t u r y A C a p e A ct
w as .
( No . of 1 86 5
7 ,
se c . b st it u te d t h ir t y ye ar s a n d t his is
1 0 6) su , n o w ge n e r a l
t hr o u gho u t t he Un io n 2
.
Tho u gh t he fu ll p e r i od of p r e scr ip ti o n is n e ce ssa r y to

c o n st it u t e a se r v i t u d e i t do e s n o t foll ow t h a t t he Co ur t ,
will a lwa ys o r d e r t he r e m ov a l of a str u ct ur e w hi ch has

b e e n m a in t a i n e d for a shor t e r p e r i od in de r og a t io n of
a n o t h e r s r ight Th u s by t he keu r en of D e lft a n d o t h e r
’
.
,
t ow n s a b u ild in g w h i c h ha d st ood for a ye ar a n d a da y "

wit ho u t pr o t e st ( on be klaa gt ) w a s t h e r e by su fficie n t ly pr e
s cr ib e d i e it s r e m ov a l wou l d n o t b e d e cr e e d ; b u t t he
, . .
own e r of the l an d w a s e n tit le d t o c o m p e ns a t ion in

4
d a m age s In t he m ode r n la w t he Co ur t will i n it s dis er e
.
,
t i o n o r d e r r e m ov a l o r r e qu ir e t he e n cr o a chin g p a r t y t o
,
t a ke t r a n sfe r of t he e n cr o a ch e d u pon l a n d a n d of so m u c h
m or e a s m a y h a v e b e e n r e n d e r e d u se l e ss t o t he own e r
by t he e n cr o a ch m e n t an d t o pay a r e a so n a ble su m as
5
da m a ge s .
Ac c or din g t o V o e t t o m a ke good a cl a im t o a se r vi tu d e ,
by p r e s cr ip ti o n bo n a fide s i s n e ce ssar y t ho u gh j u st u s , ,
6
t i t u lu s i s n o t B u t t he a n a logy of t he g e n e r a l la w of
.
p r e scr ip t io n su gge st s t h a t n e it h er t he o n e n or t he o t h er is
7
n e e de d .
vet u st a s .
Clo se ly r e se m bli n g p r e scr ip tio n b u t dis tin gu i sh a ble fr o m ,
it i s i m m e m or i a l u se r ( v e t u st as ) wh i c h n o t wit h st an di n g ,
Ma a sdor p s st a t e m e n t t o t he c o n t r a r y m a y c o n st i t u te
8
’
a cl a im t o a p r iv a t e s e r vi t u d e For p a r t i cu l ar s r e fe r e n ce
”
.
m ay b e m a de t o t he wr i t e r s e di t ion of G r o t i u s
’
.
1
G r 2 36 4 . . . .
2
Pr e scr ipt io n A c t , 1 9 43 , s e c 2 . .
3
i e fo r a y e a r , s ix w e e ks a n d t hr e e da y s An t o n M a t t hae u s ,
. . . .
P a r o em No ix , se c 1 7 . . . .
G r 2 3 6 5 a n d G r o e n a d lo c
. . G r o e n de leg a br a d Co d
. . . . . . .
3 3 4 1 —2 B ijn ke r sho e k ( O T i i 1 6 9 5 ) in s ist s t ha t su ch ke u r e n

. . . . . .
d o n o t m a ke ju s com m u n e
V
.
5
Cap e T ow n M u n i c F le tcher [ 1 9 3 6 ] C P D a t p 3 5 2 . . . . .
V
.
( Ce y lo n ) G n a na p r a ka sa m M a r ia p i lla i ( 1 9 3 7 ) 39 N L R 40 6 . . . . .
Vo et , 8 4 4 . . .
7
Cf An t o n M a t t ha e u s , P a r o em n o ix , se cs 2 , 3
. . . . . .
9
8
V ol 2 , p 2 5 2 . . V o l ii , pp 1 9 0 fi
. . . .
178 THE LAW OF PR OPE RTY
InE nglish L aw p u blic r ight s of w a y m a y b e cr e a te d by
1
de di ca t io n t o t he p u bli c This is p r ob a bly un kn own t o t he .
2
la w of So u t h Afr i ca a s it is t o the la w of Ce ylon u nle ss ,
'
3
e ffe c t e d by d e e d o f gr an t .
P r ae di a l se r vi tu d e s a r e lo st by
l Me rg er .
4
wh e n t he se r vi e n t a n d t he do m in a n t l a n d
,
m ee t in t he s am e h a n d ; in a cc o r d a n c e wi t h t he m a xim
5
‘
n u l li r e s su a se r vi t If t he c ir cu m st a n ce s a re su ch t h a t ’
.
t he c o n fu sio n i s p e r m a n e n t t he se r vi t u de is a lt og e t h e r
‘ ’
go n e ; if t he un io n of o w n e r ship i s m e r e ly te m por ar y as ,
w o u ld b e t he ca se if t he own e r shi p of t he t w o l a n d s w a s
n ot p e r dur a ble ( t o bo rr ow a phr ase fr o m E n gli sh L a w )
‘ ’
“
t he se r vi t u d e wo ul d b e in su sp e n se .
2 R e l e a se
.
7
whi ch m a y b e e it h e r : ( a ) e xp r e ss ; or ( b)
,
t a cit ; a s by a cqu i e s cin g in som e a ct of t he own e r of t he

se r vi e n t l a n d w hi ch i s i n c o n si st e n t wi t h t he c o n t in u e d
“
e xi st e n ce of t he se r vi t u d e .
3 D e t e r m in a t io n of t he gr a n t o r s i n te r e st in t he
’
.
9
se r vi e n t l a n d .
4 No n u se r fo r t he t hir d of a h u n dr e d ye ar s
.
-
.
5 Sa l e of l a n d by p u b li c a u ct ion in p u r su a n ce of a
.
j u d i cia l se qu e str a t ion In su c h ca se p e r so n s c la imi n g .
r igh t s of se r vi t u d e &c ar e giv e n a n opport u ni t y of asse r t , .

,
ing t h e m a n d i f t h e y fa il t o do so c ann ot a fte r w ar ds m a k e

,
11
t h e m good a g a in st a p u r ch ase r .
1
Ha lsb u r y 217 , xv i . .
2
L on d on dv S A E xp lor a ti on 0 0 i mber ley T ow n Cou n ci l
. . . V K .
( 1 882 ) 1 H C G 1 3 6 ; L is s ac k 00 . S i gma B u ildi ng 0 0 ( 1 89 7 )

. . . V . .
4 O R 2 1 3 ; T a u ber . Ven ter [ 1 9 3 8] B D L 82 V . . . . .
V
.
2
S a n dr as egr a S i n n a ta m by ( 1 9 2 3 ) 2 5 N L R 1 3 9 . . . . .
D ig 8 6 l G r 2 3 7 2 ; V a n L e e u w e n , 2 2 2 1 ; V o e t , 8 6 2
. . . . . . . . . . .
D ig 8 2 2 6 ; S ec u s B G B 889 ; S w iss
. . . 7 33 , 7 3 5 . . . .
Sc ho r e r , a d G r 2 3 6 6 ; V o e t , 8 6 3 ; 1 9 l 6 ; S a lmon . . . . . . . V .
L a m b s E x or , u bi su p 7
G t 2 37 3 ; Voet , 8 6 5
’
. . . . . . . .
2
C r 2 3 7 4 ; V a n L e e u w e n , 2 2 2 3 ; V o e t , u bi su p ; E dmea des
. . . . . .
V .S che ep er s ( 1 881 ) l S C 3 34 Ve rm e u len s E x ecu tri x

’
M oo lm a n . . V .
[ 1 9 1 1 ] A D a t p 409 . . . .
2
G r 2 3 7 6 ; V an L e e u w e n , 2 2 2 5 ; Voe t , 8 6 1 3
. . . . . . . .
1°
G r 2 3 7 7 ; V a n L e e u w e n , 2 2 8 4 ; V o e t , 8 6 7 ; in t he Ca pe
. . . . . . .
Pr o v in c e fo r th ir t y y e a r s Ohls son s Cap e B r ew er i es

’
Tho mp s on . V .
( 19 0 1 ) 1 1 C T R 2 75 ; B rau n P ow r i e ( 1 9 0 3 ) 1 3 C T R 46 4
. . . V . . . . .
V oe t , 8 8 1 4; H all Con s , ii , 6 . . . . .
SE RVITUDE S 1 79
6 . D e str u ction
of t he do m in a n t o r se r vi e n t p r op e r ty ,
e g if e it h e r i s sw e p t a w a y by t he se a
. . B u t l a n d i s g e n e r a lly .
in de str u ct ible a n d if b u ildin gs a r e r e b u ilt a se r vit u de

,
r e vive s e ve n if t he p r e s cr ip t iv e p e r i od ha s m e a n whil e
,
1
e l a p se d .
Ce r t a in ru le s a pply t o a ll pr ae di a l se r vi t u de s R l e s of u
1 Th e r e ca n b e n o p r ae di a l se r vi tu d e w it ho u t a do m i £ 33
3 2 :
7
n a n t a n d a se r vi e n t l a n d ; w h i c h l a st m u st b e n e a r e n o u gh t ion 139
11 7 ]
t o t he fir st t o b e u se fu l t o it b u t n o t n e ce ssar ily co n £33 ,
? t u des
ti u o u s
g
“
2 . The r e vi tu de ove r a se r vit u de
ca n n ot be a se r .
"1
Se r vi t u s se r v it u tis e sse n o n po te st
‘
.
3 The e x t e n t of t he se r vitu de m a y n o t e x ce e d wh a t is
.
“
r e qu ir e d fo r t he c o n v e ni e n ce of t he do m i n a n t l a n d .
4 The d u t y l a i d u po n t he o w n e r o f t he se r vi e n t l a n d
.
m u st w it h t he e x ce p t i o n of t he ju s o n e r is fe r e n di b e a
, ,
Se rVit u t iu m n on e a n a t u r a
‘
du t y t o for b e a r n o t t o do , .
e st u t a l i qu id fa ci a t qu i s v e lu t i v iri di a t o ll a t a u t a m o e n ,
i or e m pr ospe ct u m pr ae ste t a u t in ho c u t in su o pin g a t se d , ,
u t aliqu i d pa t i a t ur a u t n o n B u t m od er n c ode s
de p a rt fr o m t he p r in ciple in t he se n se t h a t a n a ct ive d u t y
7
m a y b e a t t a ch e d t o t he se r vi t u d e .
5 A se r vi t u de m u st be ca p a ble of p e r pe t u a l d u r a t io n
. .
Th e r e for e a le sse e of l a n d ( e v e n if t he le a se is for a lon g

,
t e r m of ye ar s ) ca nn o t a cq u ir e a se r v it u d e by p re scr ip t io n .
I t ca n o nl y b e a c qu ir e d by a do m in u s o r by a n e m phy ,
t e u t a o r su pe r fi ciar iu s who t ho u gh n o t own e r s ha ve a n , , ,
1
C r 2 3 7 5 ; V a n L e e u w e n 2 2 2 6 ; Vo e t , 8 6 4
. . . . . . . .
2 7
Voe t , 8 4 1 9 . . . V oet, 8 4 7 . . .
4
D ig 33 2 1 . . . .
V o e t , 8 4 1 3 H e n c e a r e a l s e r v it u de c a nn o t c o n s ist in a m e r e
. . .
a m e n i t y o r pe r so n a l e n o y m e n t D ig 8 1 8 pr : U t po m u m j . . . . .
de c e rpe r e li c e a t e t u t spa t ia r i e t u t ce n a r e in a lie n o po ssim u s

se r v it u s im po n i n o n po t e s t Cf V o e t , 8 4 1 5 . . . . .
D ig 8 l 1 5 , 1 I t is n o t o f t he n a t u r e o f s e r v it u de s t ha t a
‘
. . . .
m a n sho u ld [ha v e t o ] do a n yt hin g ; fo r in s t a n c e r e m o v e shr u b s so

as t o [r e a d u t fo r a u t] a f fo r d a m o r e ple a s in g ie w , o r , w it h t he V
j
sa m e o b e c t , pa in t so m e t hin g o n h is o w n gr o u n d ; b u t o nl y t ha t he
sho u ld su b m it t o so m e t h in g b e in g do n e o r a b s t a in fr o m do in g
( M o n r o s t r a ns la t io n ) ; V o e t , 8 4 1 7
’ ’
s o m e t hin g . . .
7
e g C ode Ci vi l S u i s s e , A r t 7 30
. . . .
in t e r e st whi ch if n o thin g occu r s t o d e str oy it m a y l a st
, ,
?
fo r e v e r o r by a bo n a fide po sse ssor
, The a lli e d r u l e t h a t
a se r vi t u d e m u st h a v e a p e r p e t u a l c a u se is so m e wh a t
'
ob scu r e It se e m s t o m e a n t h a t t he t hin g ove r which t he

.
r igh t i s c l a im e d a s w e ll a s t he r igh t e x e r c i se d m u st fr o m
, ,
t h e ir n a t u r e b e c a p a ble of p e r p e t u a l co n t in u a n ce a n d n o t ,
de p e n d m e r e ly u po n t he a ct of m a n B u t t he li m it s of t he .
ru l e ar e ill d e fi n e d ; a n d it m a y b e do u b t e d wh e t h e r i t
?
for m s p ar t of t he m ode r n la w
P E R S O NA L SE R VIT U D E S
The p r in cip a l p e r s o n al se r vi tu de s in R o m an L a w w e r e
u su fr u c t a n d u se The c or r e spo n d in g in st it u t io n s in D u t ch
.
L aw a r e lijftocht a n d br u i ck To d e s cr ib e t h e se as ser vi .
t u d e s i s p e r h a p s t o m a k e t o o gr e a t a co n ce ssion t o R o m a n
, ,
t e r m in ology G r o t iu s de p a r ts fr o m t he a rr a n g e m e n t of
.
t he R o m a n L a w Fr om fu ll own e r ship he dist in gui sh e s

.
p r op r i e t ar y r igh t s l e ss t h a n own e r sh ip whi c h he d e scr ib e s ,
3
co m p r e h e n sive ly a s ge r e chtighe de n Th e se a ga in ar e‘ ’
.
, ,
e i t h e r c o nn e ct e d w i t h t he o w n e r ship of l a n d or n o t so
?
c o nn e c t e d To t he fir st of t h e se su b cl a sse s a lo n e he -
a c co r d s t he n a m e of se r vi t u d e s Fo r
t he se c o n d su b cl a ss he ha s n o di st in ct i ve n a m e
-
It .
“ 2 7
i n clu de s su ch v a r i o u s r ight s a s : ( l ) u su fr u ct ; ( ) u se ;
10
( )
3 f e u d s ;
8
( 4) h e r e di t ar y l e ase s ;
9
( )
5 t i t h e s ; ( 6 ) m o r t ~
12
g a g e s ; a n d so m e o t h e r s
11
Su ch an a rr a n g e m e n t i s pe r .
,
h a p s b e t t e r su i t e d t o a tr e a t ise o n j u r i spr u de n ce t h a n t o
,
t he e xpo sit io n of a sy ste m of po sit i ve la w In t hi s book .
w e h a ve a lr e a dy m e n t i o n e d fe u d s a n d h e r e dit ar y l e a se s
1
Ci ty D eep L td V M c Ca lga n [ 1 9 2 4] W L D 2 7 6
. . . . . .
2
D ig 8 2 2 8: O m n e s se r v it u t e s pr a e dio r u m pe r pe t u a s c au sa s
. . .
ha b e r e de b e n t Se e i llu st r a t io n s giv e n in t he t e x t ; a n d fo r t he
.
m o de r n la w V o e t , 8 4 1 7 ; G r o e n , de leg a br a d D ig , a d l o c
. . . . . . .
Win dsc he id , i , 2 0 9 , n 7 E v e n in t he R o m a n L a w t he e x e r c ise o f

. .
a s e r v i t u de m i ght b e li m i te d t o c e r t a in t im e s o f t he d a y o r t o
a l t e r n a t e da y s D ig 8 l 4, 2 a n d 5 , l
. . . . .
2
G r 2 33 1 —2 , a n d se e Ta b le iv t o l ib ii , c a p i
. . . . . .
E r fa e n ha n gig, o n e r fa e n ha n gig G r 2 33 3 . . . . .
G r , lib ii , c a p x x x ix
. . . Ca p x l iv . . .
1°
2
Ca pp x l i x liii
.
-
2
Ca p x 1
. Ca p l . . . .
11 22
Ca pp l i—x l v ii . .
1 82 THE L AW OF PROPE RTY
for t he te r m of t he u su fru c t If ho w e ve r t he p r ope rt y ?
, ,
h e ld in u s u fr u c t is le t o n hi r e t o a thir d p ar t y t he le ssee ,
m u st b e a llo w e d a r e a so n a bl e t im e a fte r t he d e te r m in a t ion

2
of t he u su fr u ct t o look o u t for o t h e r a cc om m od a t io n ;
4 To g iv e t he p r op e r t y i n ple dg e o r m o r t g a ge a n d t o
.
su ffe r it t o b e t a ke n in e x e cu t io n b u t o nl y t o t he e x te n t ,
“
of his u su fr u ct u a r y in te r e st .
In t he a b se n ce of sp e ci a l c ir cu m st a n ce s a u su fru ct u a r y
4
is n o t e n tit l e d t o cl a im com p e n sat io n for im p r ove m e n t s .
The d u t ie s of t he u su fr u ct u a r y ar e :
1 To fr a m e a n i n v e n t o r y of t he p r ope r t y co m p r ise d in
.
t he u su fr u ct I n R o m a n L a w t hi s w as a dvi sa ble b u t n o t
.
,
co m p u ls o r y I n R o m a n D u t ch L a w it m ay b e c o m pe ll e d
“
.
-
2 To give se cu r i t y t o t he do m in u s : ( a ) fo r t he u se
.
a n d c u l t i v a t i o n of t he p r op e r t y i n a h u sb a n dlik e m a nn e r ;
( b) for it s r e st or a t io n in p r op e r c o n di t io n u pon t he t e r
'
7
m in a t io n of t he u su fr u ct .
The d u t y of gi vin g se cu r i t y ca n n o t b e r e m it te d to t he
u su fr u c t u ar y by t he l as t will of t he se tt lor t ho u gh it
1
D ig 7 l 1 2 , 2 ; V o e t , l o c c it Th is se e m s c le ar , t hou gh t he
. . . . .
t e x t in t he Ins t it u t e s ( 2 4 3 ) n a m e xt r a n e o c e d e n do ni hil
‘
. .
a git u r ha s giv e n u n n e c e ssa r y diffi c u lt y V a n L e e u w e n sa y s u ite

‘
. q
c o rre c t ly ( C e n s F or 1 2 15 S ic u t u s u fr u c t u s c e ss io n e e x
. . . . .
t r a n e o fac t a n o n t a m ipsu m ju s u su fr u c t u s u a m fru c t u u m pe r q

c e pt io n is c o mm o dita s t r a n s la t a ide a t u r
’
Se e Va n de r M er w e V . V .
Va n Wyk N D [ 1 9 1 2 ] B D L 2 9 8, a n d 40 .
p 1 48 . . . . .
2
V o e t , l o c c it H o ll C o n s i v 5 1
. . V o e t , l o c c it
. . . . . .
’
B r u n s don s E s t B ru n s don s E s t [ 1 92 0 ] C P D a t p 1 7 2 ,
’
. V . . . . . .
pe r K
o t z e, J diss e n t in g fr o m S c ho r e r a d G r 2 3 9 1 3 . . . .
D ig 7 9 1 , 4 . . . . Voet, 7 9 2 . . .
7
G r 2 39 3 ; V an L e eu w en , 2 9 1 0 ; V d L l 1 1 5 ; 1 1 4 1 0 ;
. . . . . . . . . . . .
D ig 7 9 1 pr ; E x pa r te New be rr y [ 1 9 2 4] O P D a t p 2 2 3 If a
. . . . . . . . .
u su fru c t u ar y ha s fa il e d t o giv e se c u r i t y , w he n c a lle d u po n t o do
so , h e i s n o t e n t it l e d t o t h e fru it s , w h ic h in t ha t ca se a r e im pu te d
t o c a pit a l Ne o st a d D e ci s S u p r Cu r n o 33 ( i n
. . s e cu s , if . . . .
s ec u r it y has n o t b e e n d e m an de d D ec i s e n Res o lu t va n de n H ove , . . .
n o 3 5 4 ; H al l C on s V i 3 2 6 ; V d K D ic ta t a d G r l o c c it
. . . . . . . . . . .
G r , u bi su p a n d S c hor e r s n o t e ( D is s en t G r o e n de leg a br
’
. . . . . .
a d Co d 3 33 . V o e t , u bi su p ; V d K 3 7 1 Why n o t ? The
. . . . . . .
r e as o n s giv e n a r e ir r e le v an t , o r e x t r e m e ly fe e b l e , as t ha t t he
u su fru c t u a ry m a y b e t e m pt e d t o w a s t e t h e pr o pe r t y ( G a ill , ii .
1 45 , In a n y e v e n t , pa r e n t s a r e n o t b o u n d t o fin d se cu r it y fo r
pr o pe r t y giv e n t o t he ir c hil dr e n b y las t w ill o r a c t i n ter vi vos su b
je c t t o a u s u fru c t in t he ir fa v o u r V o e t , 7 9 7 E x p a r te P is tor i u s . . .
[ 1 9 20 ] T P D 2 9 7 ; E x p a rte Newberr y [ 1 9 2 4] O P D 2 1 9
. . . . . . .
PE RSONAL SE RVITUDE S 1 83
m ay b e by o n e w ho gr a n t s a u su fr u ct by a ct in ter
re m itte d
vi vos a n d by t he h e ir of a t e st a t or who has co n st it u te d
, ,
a u su fr u ct by hi s w il l
1
The se cu r it y m a y b e d e m an de d .
by t he dom in u s a t a n y t im e du r in g t he cu r r e n cy of t he
2
u su fr u c t ;
3 To k e e p in r e p a ir a t hi s o w n c o st a n d t o m e e t a ll
.
or din ar y e xp e n se s b u t e x tr a or din a r y e xp e nse s m ay b e ,
3
c h a r ge d a g a in st t he do m in u s ;
4 To pa y a ll u su a l t a x e s a n d o u t goin gs ch ar g e d o n t he
.
4
la n d ;
“
5 No t to co mm i t w a ste by fe llin g t im b e r
. de str oyin g ,
“
hou se s an d t he lik e The pe r m i t te d u s e s of t im b e r ar e .
,
si m il ar t o t ho se re c ogn i z e d by E n gli s h L a w Un de r gr ow t h .
m ay b e cu t Tr ee s m a y b e fe ll e d o n t im b e r e st ate s in du e
.
w ood m a y be t a ke n fo r vin e po st s
7
c o u r se of h u s b a n dr y -
o r n e ce ssa r y r e p a ir s If l ar g e t r e e s a r e t hr own down by .
t he w in d t h e y be lo n g n o t t o t he u su fru c t u ar y b u t t o t he
6 Ge n e r ally t o e x e r c ise all his r igh ts wi t h the c ar e of a

.
,
“
bo n u s p a te r fam ilias .
The d u t ies a n d r ight s of t he dom i n u s ar e t he co u n te r p a rt The du ties
of t he r ight s an d d u tie s of the u s u fr u c tu a r y Thu s o n t he .

,
do min us .
1 2
Vo et, 7 9 9 . . . V oe t , 7 9 1 1 . . .
G r 2 3 9 6 ; V a n L e e u w e n , 2 9 1 0 ; V o e t , 7 1 3 6 ; E x p a rte
. . . . . . .
E s t M ei n tjes ( 1 90 7 ) 1 7 C T R a t p 45 3
. . . . . .
V an L e e u w e n , 2 9 1 1 V o e t , 7 1 3 7 . . . . .
G r 2 3 9 7 : E e n lijft o c ht e r m a g ge e n b o o m e n a fho u de n da n
. . .
d ie ho u b ae r z ijn H ou ba er is a t r a n sla t io n o f ca edu a , i e

. u ae . . q
s u c c isa ru rsu s e x s t ir pib u s a u t r a di c ib u s r e n as c it u r D ig 5 0 1 6 . . . .
3 0 pr The u s u fru c t u a r y m a y w o r k o r o pe n m in e s , b u t , as a r u l e ,
.
m u s t r e s t o r e t o t he do m in u s t he v a lu e o f t he m in e r a ls ta ke n
q
a n d m a y b e r e u ir e d t o giv e se cu r it y fo r s u c h r e st o r a t i o n V an .
L e e u w e n , 2 9 4 ; T he M as te r . A fr i ca n M i nes Cor p L td
. V . . .
[ 1 9 0 7 ] T S 9 2 5 In t he Tr a n s v a a l t his r ight n o lo n ge r e x ist s in

. . .
q
c o n se u e n c e o f t he Pr e c io u s a n d B as e M e t a ls A c t ( 3 5 o f 1 9 0 8)
E x p a r te Ven ter [ 1 9 3 4] T P D 6 9 A ppa r e n t ly it i s n o t w ast e to . . . .
c ha n ge t he c ou r se o f hu s b a n dr y V o e t , 7 1 2 4 ; D ig 7 1 1 3 , 5 , . . . . . .
a n d G o t ho fr e dus , a d 10 0 .
V o e t , 7 1 2 1 A m e lior a t in g w ast e I b i d
. . . . .
7
S ch or e r ad G r , u bi su p . .
V o e t , 7 1 2 2 ; a n d t he r e fore t he u s u fru c t u ar y w as n o t b o u n d
. .
t o r e plac e t he m D ig 7 1 5 9 pr ; V o e t , ib id . . . . . .
V oe t , 7 1 41 . . .
1 84 THE L AW or PR OPE R TY
o ne h a n d he m ay n o t p r e ve n t hi nde r or dim inis h t he
, , ,
r i gh t of u se a n d e n j oym e n t ; m ay n o t for e x a m pl e b ur de n , ,
l an d h e ld in u su fru ct wit h a r e a l se r vit u de wi t ho u t t he co n

?
se n t o f t he u sufru ct u a r y On t he o t h e r h a n d he r e t a in s ,
a ll su c h r igh t s as ar e p r op e r ly in cid e n t t o hi s r e v e rsio n ,
su ch a s t he r igh t of a li e n a tin g t he p r op e r ty by sa l e or ,
?
g ift su bj e ct of co u r se t o t he u su fru ct
, , ,
G r o t iu s sa ys t h a t u s u fr u ct is a cqui r e d by : ( 1 ) Agr ee
m e n t follow e d by a cqu i e sce n ce o n t he p ar t of t he do mi n u s ; 2
4
( ) l ast will ; ( 3 ) p r e s cr ip t ion of a t hi r d of a c e n t ur y
2
“
( 4) j u di ci a l de cr e e .
For t he fir st w e sho u ld p e r h a p s su b st it u te de live r y of

m ov a bl e s a n d r e gi str a t io n of im m ova bl e s fo r a s V a n de r ,
K ee sse l poin t s o u t t h e r e i s n o n ee d h e r e t o h a ve r e co u r se ,
t o qu a si t r a di ti o n ( as in t he c a se of p r a e di a l se r vi t u de s )
-
,
for u su fru ct p er se e n tit l e s t he u su fr u ct u ar y t o t he a ct u a l

7
po sse ssi o n of t he su bj e ct m a tte r A l ast will do e s n o t ve st -
.
“
t he u su fr u ct in t he l e g a te e b u t e n t it l e s hi m t o c a ll fo r it , .
A u su fr u ct m ay a ls o b e r e se rve d in a dee d of tr a nsfe r of

“
la n d .
Usu fr u ct is de te r m in e d by : ( 1 ) de at h of t he u sufr u c
o r d u r in g hi s life t im e by t he e xpir y of t he t im e
10
t u ar y ,
-
for w hi ch t he u su fr u ct w a s gr a n t e d or by a r e solu t ive c o n ,
di ti on 11
Whe n t he u su fr u ctu ar y is a cor por at ion t he e ve n t
.
c orr e spo n din g t o n a t u r a l d e at h i s t he di ssol u t io n of t he
c o r por a t i o n or t he e fii u x i o n of o n e h u n dr e d y e ar s fr o m
,
?2
t he d a t e of t he in ce p tio n of t he us u fr u ct The h e ir s of t he
u s u fr u ct u ar y h a v e n o r igh t t o r e m ov e st a n di n g cr op s b u t ,
1
Vo e t , 7 l 2 0 B u t u r e c iv ili n e c c o n s e n t ie n t e fru c t u ar i o
. . .
‘
j ’
.
2
2
V o e t , u bi su p C r 2 39 8; V o e t , 7 1 7 . . . . . . .
G r 2 39 9 . . .
V
.
G r 2 3 9 1 1 ; ( Ce y lo n ) S e lo ha m y
. . G o on ew a r de n e ( 1 9 2 8) 3 0
. .
N L R 1 1 2 In S o u th Afr ica n o w t h ir ty y e a rs , Pr e scr ipt io n A c t ,

. . . .
1 9 43 , s e c 2 . .
2
C r 2 3 9 1 2 Ju re c iv ili a lso i n c e r t a in cases ( 5 ) b y o pe r a t io n
. . . .
o f la w Voet 7 1 6
.
, . . .
7
V d K D i c t a t a d G r 2 3 9 8; L e e , Com m e n ta r y, p 1 9 9
. . . . . . . . .
2
2
S u pr a , p 1 7 3 D e e ds R e gis t r ie s A c t , 1 9 3 7 , s e e 67
V o e t , 7 4 1 1—
. . . .
11
1°
G r 2 39 1 3 ; Vo e t , 7 4 1 . . 13 . . . . . .
V
.
12
G r 3 39 1 5 ; V o e t , 7 4 1 ; J oha n nes bu r g M u n i cip a li ty
. . . . . .
T r a ns vaa l Co ld S tor age 0 0 [ 1 9 0 7 ] T S a t p 7 2 9 . . . . .

whi ch a r e cr e at e d wh e n a r igh t of w ay or o t h e r n orm a lly
p r a e di a l se rvitu de is gr a n te d t o a p e r son a s su ch fo r life
?
a n d n o t t o t he own e r of a dj oi n i n g p r op e rt y in p e r p e t u i t y
Su ch r igh t s ar e g e n e r a ll y i n a l ie n a bl e Bu t a gr a n t of .
m i n e r a l r igh t s co n st itu te d in fa vo ur of t he b e n e fici ar y

‘
p e r son a lly a n d n o t i n his c a p a cit y as own e r of a n ot he r

,
pr op e r t y wo u ld b e in the n a t ur e of a p e r son a l se r vitu de

, ,
? ’
b u t fr e e ly as sig n a ble a n d p assin g t o his h e ir s Th e se
ar e p e c u li ar t o t he c ir c u m st a n c e s of t he co u n t r y
‘
r igh t s ,
a n d do n o t r e a di ly fa ll u n de r a n y of t he c l a sse s of re a l
r igh t s di s c u sse d by t he co m m e n t a t o r s
1
V o e t 8 1 4 ; Wi llou ghby s C ons o lida ted 0 0 V Cop tha ll S tor es
’
. . . .
,
[ 1 9 1 3] A D .
p 2 81 ; T ex as 0 0 ( S A ) L td
. at . C ap e T o w n M u n i c
. . . . V . .
[ 1 9 2 6] A D . 467 . .
2
Va n Vu r e n V
R egi str a r of D e e ds [ 1 9 0 7 ] T S a t p 2 9 4
. . . . .
2
L a za ru s ( 2 J ac ks on V
Wes se ls [ 1 9 03 ] T S a t p 5 1 0 A s t o t he
. . . . .
r e la t io n o f t he gr a n te e o f m in e r a l r ight s t o t he o w n e r o f t he
sur fa c e se e No lte V
J oha n n es bu r g C ons olida ted I n ves tme n t Co L td
. . .
[ 1 9 43] A D 2 9 5
. . .
MORTGAG E OR HY P OT H E C
MORT G A G E i s de fi n e d by Gr o t iu s a s a r ight ove r a n o th e r s
I ‘ ’
? ’
pr op e rt y whi ch se r ve s t o se cu r e a n oblig a t io n The pe r
s on who cr e a te s t he m or t g a ge i s t e r m e d t he m o r t g a go r ,
t he p e r s o n i n who se fa vo u r i t i s cr e a t e d i s t e r m e d t he
m or t g a g e e .
The oblig a ti o n in t e n de d t o b e se cu r e d m ay b e e i t h e r
c ivil o r n a t u r a l p r ovide d t h a t i t i s n o t o n e whi c h t he c ivil
,
la w d isa pp r ov e s “ A p e r so n m a y cr e a te a m or t g a g e t o.
’
se cu r e hi s o w n oblig a t i o n o r a n yo n e e lse s b u t t h e r e ca n ,
b e n o m o r t g ag e wh e r e t h e r e i s n o p r i n cip a l oblig a t i o n
4
.
A n yt hi n g m ay b e m o r t g a ge d whi ch b e lo n g s t o t he m ort
“
g a gor whe t he r in fu ll or qu alifi e d own e r ship a n d wh e t h e r ,
su c h p r op e r t y b e m ov a bl e o r i mm ov a bl e c o r po r e a l or i n ,
c o r po r e a l i n po sse ssio n or c o n sist i n g i n a r igh t of a c t io n

“
.
,
A m or tga ge of a sp e cifi c t hi n g i m po r ts a m or t g a ge of t he
7 “
fr u i ts a n d o t h e r a c c e sso r i e s Ge n e r a lly sp e a kin g a m a n .
,
ca nn o t m or t g a ge wh a t do e s n o t b e lo n g t o him
“
bu t a ,
The te rm m o r t ga ge , de r iv e d fro m E n gl is h la w , i s n o w in
1 ‘ ’
c o m m o n u se a s a s y n o n y m fo r
‘ ’
hypo t he c , t ho u gh t he t e n de n c y ,
pe r ha ps , is t o spe a k o f e x pr ess mor tgag es a n d o f t ac it hyp othe cs .
2
G r 2 48 l : ge r e cht ighe id o v e r ce n s a n de rs z ac e k di e n e n de t o t
. . .
B y ge r e c ht ighe id G r o t iu s m ea n s a
‘ ’
z e e c ke r he id v a n in s c hu ld .
pr o pr ie t ar y r ight le ss t ha n o w n e rs hip G r 2 3 3 1 . . . . .
2
V o e t , 2 0 1 1 8 M o r t ga ge s a r e fr e u e n t ly m ad e t o se c u r e
. . . q
fu t u r e a d v an c e s a s w e ll a s e x ist in g l ia b ilit ie s A m o r t gage o f t his .
S e e D eeds R egis tri es A ct,

‘ ’
kin d is kn o w n a s a c o v e r in g b o n d .
1 9 3 7 , se c 5 1 , a n d Wille , M or tga ge a nd P ledge i n S ou th A fr i ca , p 9 2

. .
a n d fo r Ce y lo n , O r d No 2 1 o f 1 9 2 7 , se c 1 7 . . . .
2
K
i lbu r n E st V
i lbu r n [ 1 9 3 1 ] A D 5 0 1
. . K . . .
2
C r 2 48 2 G r o t iu s ( se c
. . . fo u n din g o n t he R o m a n L a w ,
. .
s a y s t ha t t he m or t ga ge o f u r b a n se r v i t u d e s a n d o f a gr ic u l t u r a l
in st r u m e n t s is fo r b idde n , b u t S cho r e r dis se n t s .
2
V o e t , 20 3 1 Se e Na tion a l B a n k of S A
. .
’
.
’
C ohe n s Tr u s tee . . V .
[ 1 9 1 1 ] A D a t p 2 5 0 A m o r t ga ge it se lf m a y b e m o r t ga ge d b y t he
. . . .
m o rt ga gee t o s e cu r e a de b t du e fr o m him s e lf ( su b mor tga ge ) V a n -

.
L ee u w e n , 4 1 3 6 . . .
7
V oe t , 2 0 l 3 ; B a r cla y s B a n k
’
. The M as ter [ 1 9 3 4] C P D
.
2
V . . . .
41 3 . V oe t 20 1 4 , . . .
2
V o e t , 20 3 3 A s b e t w e e n m o r t ga go r an d m or tga ge e t he
. . .
h u s b a n d by virt u e of his m ar it a l a dm in istr a t io n m ay ,
m or t ga ge t he p r op e r t y of hi s wife e ve n t ho u gh c o m ,
1
m u ni t y o f good s ha s b e e n e x clu d e d ; a n d p a wn b r ok e r s ,
a cco r din g t o so m e a u t ho r it ie s w e r e n o t r e qu ir e d t o r e st o re ,
'
t o t he tru e o w n e r t hi n gs p a wn e d wi t h t h e m by a n o n
o w n e r e x ce p t o n te r m s of p a ym e n t of t he de b t for se cu r i t y
,
of whi ch t he p awn w a s give n F u r t he r a t hin g m ay be

2
.
,
ef fe ct u a lly m or t g a g e d by a n o n own e r if t he own e r co n -
s e n t s or a fte r w a r ds r a t ifi e s t he t r a n s a c t io n ; o r if t he
“
m or t g a gor a fte r w ar ds b e c om e s own e r B u t t hi s l ast de .
p a r t ur e fr o m t he rul e ha s n o a pplic a t ion t o a spe ci a l

m o r t g a ge of im m ov a bl e s 4
.
The imm ova ble p r op e r t y of a m in or m ay n o t b e m or t

g a ge d witho u t a j u di ci a l de cr e e “
.
Mor t g a ge s ar e e it h e r : ( 1 ) con ve n t ion a l ( o r e xp r e ss ) o r ,
2
( ) le g a l ( o r t a cit ) ; a n d e a ch of t h e se m ay b e e it he r
2
g e n e r a l o r sp e ci a l a c cor din g as t he m or tg a ge a tt a ch e s t o ,
a ll t he m o rt g a go r s p r op e r t y ( imm ov a bl e or m ov a bl e or
’
bot h ) fu t u r e a s w e ll as p r e se n t or to so m e sp e cifi c t hi n g
, ,
o r coll e ct io n of t hi n g s as a flock of sh e e p or a ll t he goods in ,
?
a shOp I n t his l ast case t he m or t g a g e cove r s t he flo c k o r
st o c k in t r a d e a s i t m a y fr o m t i m e t o t im e b e co ns t it u te d .
Con ve n ti o n a l m or t ga ge s as t he n a m e i m pli e s ar e cr e a te d , ,
by a gr e e m e n t T a cit m or t g a ge s a ri se by O p e r a t io n of la w
. .
The phr a se j u di ci a l m or tg a g e ( p ig n u s p r ae t or i u m v e l
t r an sa c t i o n ho lds go o d , b u t n o t t o t he pr e u dice o f t he o w n e r j .
V d K 5 39
. . . .
1
V o e t , 2 0 3 7 ; H o l l Con s i 1 5 1 . . . . . .
2
V o e t , u bi su p S c hor e r a d G r 2 48 2 ; V an L e e u w e n , 4 1 3 4 ;
. . . . . .
G r o e n de leg a br ad Co d 8 1 6 B u t see M u lle r

. Cha dwi ck d: 0 0
. . . . . V . .
[ 1 90 6] T S 30 . . .
2
D ig 1 3 7 41 ; V o e t , 2 0 3 4 F o r o t he r c a se s se e V o e t ,
. . . . . .
20 3 7. . .
V o e t , 2 0 3 6 In t he m o de r n la w t he m o r t ga ge o f imm o v a ble
2 ‘
. . .
r o e r t w i t h ou t t h e c o n se n t o f t he o w n e r is r e n de r e d pr a c t i ca ll y
p p y
im po ssib le b y o u r sy s te m o f r e gis t r a t io n
’
Wil le , M or tgage a nd .
P ledge , p 5 6 . .
2
D ec ke r a d V a n L e e u w e n , 4 1 2 4 ; A dm in i s t r a t io n o f E sta t e s . .
A c t , 1 9 1 3 , s e c 87 ; su pr a , p 49 F o r o t he r c ase s in w h ic h
'
. . .
m o r t ga ge is n o t pe r m itte d se e D e cke r s n o te
’
.
2
G r 2 48 7 . . . .
7
V oe t , 2 0 1 2 . . .
1 90 THE L AW or PR OPE R TY
m or t g a ge w a s t o p a r t ie s i e t o bin d t he af
fe c t t hir d , . .
?
p r op e r t y It w a s im m a te r i a l wh e t he r po sse ssio n w as o r
?
w a s n o t t r a n sfe rr e d t o t he cr e di t o r
Ple dge o f ( b) A sp e ci a l m or t g a ge of m ova ble s a cc o m p a n ie d by
m o v ble s
d e live r y i e a pledg e ( pignu s— p an d t e r m inn e ) w a s
a .
.
, .
ef fe ct e d by h a n din g ove r t he p r op e r t y t o t he cr e dit or t o

“
hold a s a se cu r i ty To t he v a lid it y of a ple dge t r a n sfe r of
'
?
po sse ssio n w a s e sse n t i a l A n agr e e m e n t t h e r e for e wh ich , ,
a llowe d t he pl e dgo r t o r e t a i n t he t hi n g p r e ca r io or a s a
lo a n o r de po sit o r o n hir e fr om t he ple dge e r e n de r e d t he

, ,
ple dge in v a lid b e in g looke d u pon a s a fr a u d u po n t he la w

, ,
whi ch in si sts u pon d e live r y a s a n e sse n t ia l e le m e n t in t he

t r a n sa c t i o n “
.
( 0 ) A g e n e r a l m or t g a ge w a s c o n st i t u t e d e it he r by a
ge n e r al cl au se a dde d t o a sp e ci a l m or tg a g e o r by a ge n e r a l ,
bon d If t he g e n e r a l bo n d r e l a t e d t o imm ov a ble s t he la w

.
r e qu ir e d i t t o b e p as se d b e fo r e a Ju dg e who m igh t b e a n y ,
Ju dg e in t he P r ovin ce of H oll an d “ .
Mor tgage A ge n e r a l bo n d of m ov a ble s w as ge n e r a lly e x e cu te d

o f m ov
b e fo r e a n o t ar y The sa m e a ppli e d t o a sp e ci a l bo n d of
a ble s
.
?
wi t hou t m ov a ble s u n a c co m p ani e d by d e live r y
de liv e ry
( d) Mor t g a g e s of r igh t s (r e s in c o r por a l e s) we r e e ffe ct e d
.
Mo r t gage
o f r ight s
.
by a gr e e m e n t wh i ch m igh t o r m ight n o t b e a c co m p a ni e d
, , ,
“
by ce ssi o n of t he r igh t t o t he cr e dit o r .
Mo rt gages I n S o u t h Afr i ca t he law r e m ain s su b st a n t ia lly t he sa m e .
in So u t h
A sp e c i a l m o r t g a ge of i m m ov a bl e s i s c o n st i t u t e d by a
Africa
r e fe r e n c e in t h a t is t o t he Pla ca a t o f M a y 9 , 1 5 60 ( 2 G P B
a r t ic le . . .
759 an d n o t t o t h e Pla c aa t o f 1 5 2 9 .
1
C r 2 48 3 0 V d K a d 10 0 ( L e e , C om m e n ta r y , p 2 1 5 ) ho lds
. . . . . . . . .
t h a t o m is sio n o f r e gis t r a t i o n d id n o t e n t a il t he pe n a lt y o f n u llit y .
2
G r 2 48 3 3
. . . .
2
G r 2 48 2 7 ; V d L l 1 2 3
. . . . . . . . .
2
B u t b r e v i m a n u t r a d it io m a y b e su f c ie n t O Ca lla gha n s
’ ’
fi .
A s s ign e es V
Ca va n agh ( 1 882 ) 2 S C 1 22
. . . .
2
V o e t , 2 0 l 1 2 ; H all C on s iii 1 7 4, 47 0 ; V d K 5 3 6 ; G o ldi n
. . . . . . . .
’
ge r s T ru s tee V
Whi te la w [ 1 9 1 7 ] A D a t pp 7 9 , 89 ; G oos en s T r u s
.
’
. . .
te es V G o osen ( 1 884) 3 E D C a t p 3 87
. . . . . .
2
P 0 Art . G r 2 48 2 3 ; V o e t , 2 0 l 1 0 ; V d K 42 8
. . . . . . . . . .
7
G r 2 48 2 3 a n d 2 8 V d K a d 10 0 ( L ee , C om m en ta r y , p 2 1 2 )
. . . . . . . .
V a n L e e u w e n , 4 1 3 20 a n d o t z e, a d 10 0 . K .
V
.
V o e t , 2 0 3 l 2 0 1 1 7 Na ti o n a l B a n k of S A L td
’
2
. . C ohen s
. . . . . .
T r u s tee A D at p 250 . . . .
MORTGAGE OR HYP OTHEC 191
1
bon d kn own a s a m or t g a ge bon d e x e cu te d b e for e a n d
,
‘ ’
, ,
a t t e st e d by t he Re gis tr ar of D e e d s who has r e pl a c e d t he

, ,
Ju dg e fo r t he p u r po se a n d r e gi ste r e d a g ain st t he t it le ,
de e d s of t he p r op e r t y Ge n e r a l m or t g a ge s of im m ova ble s
2
.
ar e n o lo n g e r m u se Mor t g a ge s of m ov a ble s ( a p a r t fr o m .
ple dge ) sp e cia l or ge n e r a l ar e e ffe cte d by n ot a ri a l bon d

, , ,
a n d t o gi ve t h e m a p r e fe r e n c e in in s olv e n cy m u st b e
re gi st e r e d
“ A m or t g a ge of a r e s in co r po r ali s su ch a s a
.
,
‘
r igh t of a c t io n is e ffe ct e d by c e ssi o n : An i n co r po r e a l r igh t
,
is by i t s n a tu r e n o t su sce p t ible of physi c a l d e live r y b u t ,
t he ple dgo r m u st do some a ct t o show t h a t he dive st s

him se lf of t h a t r ight a n d ve st s it in t he ple dge e for t he
4 ’
p ur po se of holdi n g it a s a se cu r ity .
In Ce ylo n c on ve n t io n a l g e n e r a l m or t g a ge s h a v e b ee n in Ce ylon .
“
a bol i sh e d by st a t u t e A sp e cia l m or t g a ge of im m ova ble s .
m u st b e e x e cu te d b e for e a n o t ar y a n d t w o wi t n e sse s o r a
Distr ict Ju dge &c a n d be r e giste r e d A spe cia l m or tg a ge
“
, .
, .
of m ova ble s m u st b e e ffe cte d by a ctu a l de live r y o r by

?
wr it in g dul y r e giste r e d ( b ill of sa le )
B e fo r e le a vi n g t h is b r a n c h of o u r su bj e ct it is to b e No spe c i l a
0“
re m ar k e d t h a t n o sp e c i a l fo r m of wo r d s is n e ce ssar y fo r t he 2
£335
cr e a t ion of a m or t g a ge Wh e t he r t he w or ds u se d are a pt requ ir ed . .
to cr e a t e a m or t g a ge i s a qu e sti o n of in te n t i o n a n d c o n
st ru c t io n I t som e t im e s h a pp e n s t h a t wh a t i n e sse n c e is a
.
m or t g a ge is di sgu ise d in te rm s a pp r op r i ate t o sa le o r so m e Disgu ised

“
o t he r co n tr a ct B u t the Cou r ts will a lwa ys go be hin d t he 22
.
2 .
form t o a sce rt a in t he e sse n tia l n at u r e of t he t r an sa c ti on ,
1
D e e ds R e gist r ie s A c t , 1 9 3 7 , se c 1 0 2 . .
2
H a r r is V
B u i s i n n e s Tr u s te e ( 1 840 ) 2 Me n z a t p 1 0 8; D e e ds
’
. . .
R e gist r ie s A c t , 1 9 3 7 , se e 5 0 . .
2
F r a n cis V
S a va ge db H i ll ( 1 882 ) 1 S A R 33 ; H a r e
. H ea ths . . . V .
Tr u s te e ( 1 884) 3 S C 3 2 ; 2 Maas dor p, p 2 81 . . . .
2
S m i th V
F a rr e lly s Tr u s te e [ 1 9 0 4] T S a t p 9 5 5 Na ti on a l B a n k
’
. . . .
of S A L td
. . . V
C ohen s T r u s te e [ 1 9 1 1 ] A D a t p 2 5 1 ; R o ber t v
’
. . . . .
E ttli nger [ 1 9 3 7 ] W L D 2 8 A s t o w ha t i s n e ce s sa r y t o c o n st it u te
. . . .
a ce ss io n o f a r ight , se e p 2 47 i n r a
f . .
2
O r d No 8 o f 1 87 1 , se c 1 ; r e e n a c t e d , O r d No 2 1 o f 1 9 2 7 ,
. . .
-
. .
se e 3 . .
2
O r d No 7 o f 1 840 , se e 2 ; O r d No 1 7 o f 1 85 2 , se c 1
. . . . . .
V
.
7
O r d No 2 1 o f 1 87 1 ; O r d No 2 3 o f 1 9 2 7 , se e 1 8; M o ha ma d
. . . . . .
E as ter n B a n k ( 1 9 3 1 ) 3 3 N L R 7 3 F or t he o lde r la w o f Ce y l o n se e . . . .
T a tham V
A n dr ee ( 1 86 3 ) 1 M O O P C C
. 3 86 . . . . .
a n d, if t hi s is fou n d u pon it s tru e con stru c tion t o b e a
m or t ga ge will p r on o u n ce it t o b e so
, Th is is a n a ppli .
c a tio n o f t he m a xim — Plus v a le t qu od a gitur qu a m qu od

s im u l a t e co n ci it ur
?
p
An a gr e e m e n t t o const itu te a m or t g a g e i n fu tu ro e g t o , . .
give a m ov a bl e as a ple dge t o se cu r e a p r e se n t or fu t ur e

de b t b e a r s t he sa m e r e l at io n t o a m or t g a g e as a c on tr a c t
,
t o se ll b e ar s t o a sa l e p e r fe ct e d by d e live r y If su ch a n .
a gr e e m e n t sa t i sfi e s t he r e qu ir e m e n t s of t he law a s t o fo r m
a n d in a ll o t h e r r e sp e ct s t he Co u r t s will giv e e f fe ct t o i t
di r e ctly by d e cr e e in g sp e cifi c p e r form an ce o r in dir e ct ly
, , ,
by i n t e r dict a n d in a n y e ve n t by a n a ct i o n for d a m a ge s
,
a g a in st t he p a r t y in d e fa ul t Thi s is p ar t of t he ge n e r a l .
la w of c on t r a ct a n d do e s n o t ca ll fo r a n y fu r t h e r n o t ic e in
,
t his pl a ce It m u st b e r e m a r k e d how e ve r t h a t a n a li e n ee
.
, ,
wi t h n o t ic e i s in n o b e tte r po sit ion t h an if t he m ort g a ge

ha d b e e n a c t u a lly i m ple m e n te d ?
We p ass to t a cit hypot he cs Man y su ch ar e m e n t io n e d .
in t he book s of whi c h som e w e re p e cu li ar t o t he law of

,
H olla n d bu t m o st we r e a le ga cy fr o m t he Rom a n L a w
, ,
whi ch in t he la t e r E m p ir e a n d p ar ti cul a r ly u n d e r Ju st i ,
ni a n m u l t iplie d t h e se e m b arr a ssin g clog s o n p r op e r t y

,
s om e of t h e se ar e in a ppli ca bl e t o m od er n c o n di t i o n s Ma n y .
w e r e a boli she d by pr e Uni on le gisla ti o n in o n e or o t h e r of

-
t he c olo ni e s a n d t o da y n o n e of t h e m e xc e p t t he l a n d
,
-
’
lor d s hypo t h e c confe r s a p r e fer e n ce in i n solve n cy This .
“
pr ovi si o n of t he I ns olve n cy A ct do e s n o t po sit ive ly
a bolish t a ci t hyp o t h e c s in g e n e r a l fo r t he st a t u te l e a v e s ,
u n t o u ch e d t he hyp o t h e c ar y cr e di t or s r i gh t ( if i t st i ll
’
4
e xi st s ) of followin g t he p r op e r t y in t o t hi r d h an ds a n d his
r igh t of p r e fe r e n ce wh e r e t h e r e is n o in s olv e n cy a s in a n ,
1
Co d 4 2 2 ; V o e t , 1 3 7 1 ; a n dbe r g va n Z y l [ 1 9 1 0 ] A D Z V . . .
V
. . . .
a t p 309 ; Na ti o n a l B a n k of S A C o hen s T r u s te e [ 1 9 1 1 ] A D a t
’
. . . . .
V K V K
.
2 4 2 A n de r s on a p la n [ 1 9 3 1 ] C P D 5 0 ; B h a ij e e h oj a
p ; . . . .
V
. .
[ 1 9 3 7 ] A D 2 4 6 ; C o
. mm r s of. C u s to m s R a n dles B r os [ 1 9 41 ] A D
. . . . .
3 69
V V
.
2
Ca to A li o n <2 H e lp s [ 1 9 2 2 ] N P D 46 9 ; D e J ager
. S is a n a . . . .
[ 1 9 3 0 ] A D a t p 84 . . . .
2
In solv e n c y A c t , 1 9 36, se e 85 ( l ) . .
In t hi s p assa ge V o e t spe a k s of t he po ssibi li ty of se i z ur e in
t he ve r y a ct of r e m ov a l ; a n d G r o t iu s sa ys t h a t t he le ssor
“
pr ese r ve s hi s r ight if he pr oce e ds a gain st t he pr ope rt y

im m e di a te ly whil e it is b e in g r e m ove d fr om t he gr o u n d
‘
,
'
The lim i t s which t he law p u t s u pon t hi s r igh t we re co n

side r e d in Webster v E lison [ 1 9 1 1 ] A D 7 3 The N a t a l
. . . .
Q ui ck Cour t ha d d e ve lop e d a doctr in e of so c a lle d qu i ck pu r -

‘
’
su i t a cco r din g t o whi c h
, if t he l an dl or d p r o ce e ds e x ‘
pe di t io u sly or wi t h su ffi cie n t ce le r i t y he i s e n t i tle d t o a n

, ,
o r der for t he a t ta ch m e n t a n d r e tu r n of t he good s t o t he

le ase d p re m i se s B u t t he Appe ll ate D ivision r e fu se d to
’
.
e n do rse t his doc tr in e By t he law of S o u t h Afr i ca t he .
u t m o st i n d ul g e n c e a llow e d t o t he l a n dlo r d is t o arre st t he
goods in p r oce ss of r e m ov a l or whil e in t r an sit t o t h e ir n e w

‘
de stin a t i on ( In n e s J a t p If t he t e n a n t ha s r e m ove d
. .
t he good s after a n o r d e r of a t t a chm en t t he Co u r t will ,
or der him t o re t u r n t h e m t o t he p r e m i se s for t he p ur po se of

?
givin g e ffe ct to the a tta ch m e n t Bu t e ve n in t hi s ca se ( it
?
se e m s ) a bon a fide p ur ch a se r wi ll h a ve a cqu ir e d a good t i t l e
I t is n o t t he c a se howe ve r a ccor din g t o m od e r n pr a c

, ,
’
t i ce t h a t t he l a n dlo r d s hyp o t h e c r e qu ir e s a j u dicia l a rr e st
,
t o m a k e i t e ffe c t u a l ove r m ova ble s re m a in i n g u po n t he

pr e m i ses ; fo r ove r su ch pr op er ty t he l a n dlor d has a r ight
of pr e fe r e n ce in t he e ve n t of ins olve n cy which p r e vails ,
e ve n a g a in st a pign u s p r ae t o r i u m i ssu e d b e fo re t he l a n d
lor d has ob t a in e d a n a tt a ch m e n t or in te r di ct in e n for ce

m e n t of his lie n “ The hyp o t h e c i s n o t lo st by t he r e m ova l
.
of t he good s fr om t he le ase d p re m ise s u n de r a wr i t of

e x e cu t ion t a k e n o u t by t he l a n dlo r d u po n a j u dgm e n t for
?
a rr e ar s of r e n t
2 The hypo t h e c in p r i n ciple a tt a ch e s t o m ov a ble s u po n

.
t he p r e m ise s b e lo n gin g t o t he te n an t ; o r t o a su b t e n a n t -
,
b u t o nl y t o t he e x te n t of r e n t du e fr o m t he su b te n a n t t o -
“
hi s imm e di a t e l a n dlor d The p r op e rt y of thir d p ar t ie s i s
.
1
G r eefi v P r e tor i u s ( 1 89 5 ) 1 2 S C 1 0 4
. . . .
2
V o e t , 2 0 2 3 , i n fin e
. . .
2
I n r e S ti lw e l l ( 1 83 1 ) 1 Me n z 5 3 7 ; 2 Maa s do r p, p 3 1 3 . . .
2
Co lu mbi a F u r n is hi ng 0 0 G oldbla tt [ 1 9 2 9 ] A D 2 7 . V . . .
5
V o e t , 20 2 6 , i n fi n e ; S m i th v D i e r ks ( 1 884) 3 S C
. . . . . 1 42 ;
MORTGAGE OR HYP OTHEC 195
n ot bo u n d u n le ss it ha s b e e n b r o u ght u po n t he pr e m ise s the

2 mm “
“
w it h t he k n owle dge a n d co n se n t e xp r e ss o r i m pli e d of t he , ,
own e r fo r t he p e r m a n e n t or in de fini te u se of t he te n a n t
a n d t he l a n dlo r d is u n a w ar e t h a t t he good s do n o t b e lo n g
?
t o t he te n an t Goods su ppli e d u n de r a hir e p u r ch a se -
a gr ee m en t u su all y sa t i sfy t hi s co n di ti o n
?
Con se n t is
i m pli e d if the own e r b e in g in a po si t io n t o give n o ti ce of
his own e r shi p to t he l an dlo r d has fa ile d t o do so “
So soo n .
a s t he good s c e a se t o b e lo n g t o t he t e n a n t e by b e i n g
g , . .
sold a n d d e live r e d t o a bon a fide p u r ch as e r t h e y ce ase t o b e ,
a ffe c te d by t he hypo t h e c e v e n b e fore t h e ir r e m ov a l fr o m

?
t he l a n d On t he o t h e r h an d if t he good s h a ve in fa c t ,
b e e n b r ou ght o n t o t he p r e m ise s for t he p e rm a n e n t or

i n de fi ni te u se of t he te n a n t it is im m a te r i a l t h a t t he ,
“
l a n dlor d di d n o t kn ow t h a t t he y w e r e t h e re The l a n d .
’
lor d s hypot he c doe s n o t e x te n d t o good s pla ce d in t he
h an ds of the te n an t t o b e wor ke d by hi m in t he cour se of
hi s tr a d e “ It is n o t lo st if t he l a n dl or d has a c ce p te d a
.
su re t y or a co n ve n t io n a l m o r t g a g e t o se c u r e hi s r e n t for ,
?
n o o n e sho u ld b e p re j u di ce d by e x ces s of c au t io n
The In solve n cy A ct 1 9 1 6 se e 86 ( as a m e n de d by A ct , , .
’
No 2 9 of 1 9 2 6 se e 2 9 ) pr ovide d t h at t he l a n dlor d s
.
, .
E x p a rte A egis A s su r a nce C o [ 1 909 ] E D C 36 3 Rei n ho ld ck 0 a v . . . . . . .
Va n Ou dts hoor n [ 1 9 3 1 ] T P D 3 82 Qua e r e w he the r t hi s a pplie s . . . .
a l so t o t he pr o du c e o f t he la n d in t he ha n ds o f a su b t e n a n t -
.
S m i th v D ie r ks , u bi su p ; Will e , L a ndlor d a n d T e n a n t ( 3r d
. .
p 1 84
. .
1
D ig 2 0 2 7 ; G r oe n ad G r
. . . Voet, B lo e m . .
f o n te i n M u n ic J ac ks on
’
s L td [ 1 9 2 9.
] A D V
a t p
. 2 7 6 ; P hi lli p s v . . . . .
H ea r n e ( 93 Co [ 1 9 3 7 ] C P D 6 1 ; Va n den B er gh P o llia ck ( ft 0 0
. . . . V . .
[ 1 9 40 ] T P D 2 3 7 . . . .
2
B lo emfon te i n M u n ic J acks on s L td u bi su p
’
. V . .
2
Ib id a t p 2 7 7 S er combe v Co lon i a l M otor s ( Na ta l) L td [ 1 9 2 9 ]
. . . .
N P D 5 8; B a nd F u rn i s hi ng Co v H eyden r ych [ 1 9 2 9 ] T P D 5 83 ;
. . . . . . . .
F r es h M e a t S u pp ly 0 0 S ta nd a r d Tr adi ng Co [ 1 9 3 3 ] C P D . V . . . . .
5 50 .
2
Webs ter V
E llis on [ 1 9 1 1 ] A D a t p 84 p e r L o r d D e V illie r s
. . . .
C J The sa m e c o n s e u e n c e fo llo w s if go o ds a re a t t ache d o n t he

. . q
le ase d pr e m ise s a t t he in stan ce o f a u dgm e n t cr e dit o r o f t he j
l e sse e Ib id .
V
.
2
M a cka y B r os E agles ton e [ 1 9 3 2 ] T P D 30 1 . . . . . .
2
V an L e e u w e n ,
7
V oe t , 20 6 1 2 ; S cho r e r a d G r u bi su p
. . . .
hypo t h e c sho u ld give a pre fe r e n ce fo r a ll r e nt in re sp e ct of
t he p e r iod c ur r e n t wi t h a n d u p t o t he se qu e st r a t i o n a n d ,
fo r a r r e a r r e n t n o t e xc e e din g t hr e e m o n t h s in r e sp e ct of t he
p e r iod i m m e d ia te ly pr io r t h e r e t o The l ate st I nsolve n cy .
A ct gi ve s a p r e fe r e n ce for r e n t du e i n r e sp e ct of a n y p e riod
i m m e dia te ly p r ior t o a n d u p t o t he d a t e of se qu e str at io n
fo r p e r i od s e x t e n di n g fr o m t hr e e t o fifte e n m on t h s a c co r d
?
in g as t he r e n t i s p a y a bl e a t lo n g e r o r s hor t e r i n te r v a l s
The sa m e A ct by se c 84 in ca se of a sa le of good s u n de r .
a su sp e n siv e c o n di t io n o r of a hir e p u r ch ase a gr e e m e n t

'
The t r u ste e of t he d e b t o r s
’
cr e a t e s a st a t u t o r y hypo t h e c .
i n solve n t e st a te m a y b e r e qu ir e d by t he cr e di t or t o de live r
t he p r op e r t y t o him a n d t h e r e u po n t he cr e di t or is d e e m e d
,
t o b e holdi n g t he p r op e r t y a s se cu r it y for hi s cl a im .
A s e xpl a in e d a bov e t h e r e w e r e m a n y o t h e r t a cit hypo ,
t h e e s whi c h h a ve li t t le if a n y v a l u e a t t he p r e se n t da y , , .
So m e w e r e sp e ci a l a ffe ctin g p a r t i cu l ar t hi n gs su ch a s t he
, ,
hypo t he c of o n e w ho le n t m o n e y or su ppli e d m a te r i a ls for

r e p a ir in g a ho u se o r sh ip or e xp e n d e d l a bo u r in doi n g so ,
2
ove r t he ho u se o r ship in qu e st io n ; o r t he hypo t he c of a n
a gr i cu l t u r a l t e n a n t who ha d qui tte d po sse ssio n o n t he
,
d e t e r m in at ion of his le a se ove r t he le a se d p r op e rt y to ,
c ov e r hi s r igh t t o b e c o m p e n sa te d fo r st r u c t ur e s se t u p
“
wi t h t he l an dlo r d s c o n se n t Ot h e r s w e r e ge n e r a l a t t a ch
’
.
,
in g t o a ll t he p r op e r t y of t he d e b t or su ch a s t he hypo t h e c ,
of t he fiscu s ove r t he pr op e rt y of a dm ini str at o r s a n d

2
r e ce i v e r s of p u bli c fu n d s a n d of p e r so n s li a bl e for t a x e s
1
i z t hr e e m o n t hs i f t he r e n t is pa y a b le m o n t hly o r a t sho rt e r
V .
i n t e r v a ls ; s ix m o n t hs i f a t i n t e r v a ls e x c e e d in g o n e m o n t h , b u t n o t
e x c e e d in g t hr e e m o n t hs ; n in e m o n t hs , i f a t in t e r v a ls e x ce e din g
t hr e e m o n t hs , b u t n o t e x ce e din g s ix m o n t hs ; a n d ft e e n m o n t hs if fi
a t a n y lo n ge r in t e r v a l Ins o lv e n c y A c t , 1 9 3 6 , se e 85
. .
2
C r 2 48 1 3 ; V o e t , 2 0 2 2 8—9 ; 2 0 4 1 9 ; C r o o ks di 0 0
. . . . . . . . V .
A gr i cu ltu r a l C oop . U
n i on [ 1 9 2 2 ] A D 42 3 . . .
2
Pla c a e t v a n d e St a t e n v a n H o lla n dt o f 2 6 S e pte m b e r , 1 6 5 8,
Ar t 1 1 ( 2 G P B
. . F o r t e x t a n d t r a n s la t io n se e L e e , Com
. .
m e n ta r y , p 9 3 . .
2
G r 2 48 1 5 ; V o e t , 2 0 2 8; V d K 42 0 ; I n r e I n s o lven t E s t
. . . . . . . . .
B u i si n n e ( 1 82 8) l Me n z 3 1 8; C has e D u T o i t s Tru s te es ( 1 85 8)
.
’
V .
3 S e a r l e 7 8; ( Ce y lo n ) A ttor n e y G e n er a l P a na A dap pa C he tty V .
( 1 9 2 8) 29 N L R 43 1 . . . .
1 98 THE L AW OF PROPE RTY
distin gui she d as : ( 1 ) sa lva ge a n d i m p r ove m e n t lie ns ; ( 2 )
?
de b t o r a n d cr e di t or lie n s The fir st of t he se classe s of li e n
e x i st s in fa vo ur of a n
y p e r son who ha s n e ce ssar ily or u se
fu lly in c u rr e d e xp e nse a bo u t p r op ert y pre se n t ly in hi s
po sse ssio n The sec o n d is a co ns e qu e n ce of co n tr a ct a n d
.
,
cove r s all e xp e ns e s d ul y i n cu r r e d in t e r m s of t he a gr ee
m e n t The fi rst i s good a g a in st a ll t he wor ld t he se c on d
.
,
o nl y a g a in st t he o t he r p ar t y t o t he con tr a c t a n d p e rso ns
c l a im i n g t hr o u gh hi m or a c qu ir in g t he p r op e rt y wi t h ,
2
kn owle dge of t he lie n n o t a g a in st a n own e r who is n o t ,
a p a r t y t o t he c o n t r a c t u nl e ss it ha s b e e n m ade by his ,
a u t ho r it y e xp r e ss o r i m plie d or r e l at e s t o n e c e ssa r y or ,
u se fu l e xp e n se s
“
I n st a n ce s of t he fir st ar e t he r igh ts of
.
r e t e n t io n whi ch t he la w give s t o po sse sso rs a n d occu p ie r s
of l a n d in r e sp e ct of im pr ove m e n t s a n d pe r h a p s t o a
2
,
2
fin d e r of lo st pr ope rt y in re sp e c t of n e ce ssar y e xp e nse s .
In st a n c e s of t he se con d are t he r ight s of r e te nt io n e n j oye d

“
by b u ilde r s by a r t ifi ce r s e g wh e n clot h has b e e n . .
, ,
7
de li ve r e d t o a t a ilor t o m a ke u p in t o clo t he s by live r y ,
“ “
st a ble k e e p e r s by c a rt ers a n d wa re hou se m e n
,
By a n .
e x t e n sio n of t he sa m e p r in c ipl e a tt o r n e y s a n d o t h e r l e g a l
pr a c tit io n e r s h a ve a r ight t o r e ta in docu m e n t s u n til p aid

1
Un i ted B i ldi ng S o c u S m oo kler s Tru s te es , u bi su p Colon i a l
. V . .
M a n ufactu r i ng Co v Wiid [ 1 9 2 7 ] C P D 1 9 8 . . . . . .
2
Ni ema n v S cr i ven er N 0 [ 1 9 2 2 ] O P D 1 0 1 ; L evy v T yler
. . . . . . .
[ 1 9 33] C P D 3 7 7
V
. . . .
2
F or d R e ed B r os [ 1 9 2 2 ] T P D 2 6 6 a t p 2 7 8; Re ed B r os v . . . . . . .
V
.
F or d [ 1 9 2 3 ] T P D 1 5 0 ; C o lon ia l Ca bi n e t M a n ufa ctu r i ng 0 0

. . .
U V
. .
Wi id , u bi s u p n i ted B u i ldi ng S oc
. S m o o kle r s Tr u stees a t
’
. .
2
6 2 8 I nfr a , p 45 1
p . .
K V
. .
2
i lli a n R e i lly ( 1 9 0 8) 1 8 C T R 1 5 9 . . . .
U V
.
S m o okler s Tr us te es , u bi su p ;
’
n i ted B u i ldi ng S o ci e ty
2
. .
S cho ltz VF a ifer [ 1 9 1 0 ] T P D 2 43 P hi llip s dc G or don v A da ms

. . . . .
[ 1 9 2 3] B D L 1 0 4
. . . .
7
V o e t , 1 6 2 20 ; 2 0 2 2 8 ( i n
. . Spu rr i e r v C oxw e ll N O . . . . .
[ 1 9 1 4] C P D a t p 88
V
. . . . .
2 F
or d R e ed B r os u bi s u p ; Reed B r o s v F or d u bi su p
. . . . . .
B y R o m a n D u tc h L a w , diffe r in g he re in fr o m E n glish la w , e xpe n se s

-
in c ide n t a l t o t he m a in t e n a n c e o f t he lie n , e g t he fe e d a n d s ta blin g . .
o f ho rs e s , m a y b e c ha r ge d a ga in s t t he de b t o r Ib id Con tr a , L ong . .
a n S a l t C o L td v B lu me nfe ld ( k 0 0 [ 1 9 22] N P D 1 77 Fo r
p . . . . .
. . .
a gis t o r s lie n se e L a n d B a n k v M a ns [ 1 9 3 3 ] C P D 1 6
’
. . . . .
2
A nd erson dc C o v P i e na a r cfc Co [ 1 9 2 2 ] T P D 43 5 . . . . . . .
MORTGAGE OR HYP OTHEC 1 99
t h e ir h ar ge s in conn e xio n wit h le g a l p r o ce e din gs to whi ch

c
?
The in n kee p e r s li e n m a y p e r h a p s
’
t he docu m e n t s r e l a te
?
b e r e fe rre d t o t he sa m e g e n e r a l cl ass
The Co u r t r e se r v e s t o it se lf the di s cr e t io n wh er e e qu i t y ,
de m an ds it t o or der a lie n holde r t o su rr e n de r t he pr o

,
-
“
pe r t y a g ain st a de qu a te se curi t y .
It re m a in s to p e a k of t he e ffe ct of a m or t ga ge in r e l a How
s
t io n t o t hi r d p ar t ie s i e how far it cr e a te s a r e a l se cu r i t y fi ,
zégage . . .
In R om a n L aw a m or t g age wh e t h er g e n e r a l or spe ci a l affords , ,

“ e a1
wh e t he r of m ova ble s or i mm ov a ble s wh e the r e xpr e ss or ,
t a ci t bo u n d t he m or t g a ge d p r op e r t y n o m a tte r in t o who se
, ,
h an ds it m ight c om e ?
In t he Rom an D u t c h L a w t he -
c o nse qu e n c e s ar e n o t so sim pl e We m u st di st in gu ish t he .
v ar i o u s kin ds of m or t ga ge a n d sh all sp e a k first of c o n

v e n t i o n a l m or t g a g e s .
( a ) A sp e ci a l m or t ga ge of a n im m ova ble bin ds t he pr o 1 Con .
1 2 11 2 1
p e r ty so lo n g a s it is r e gi ste re d a g a in st t he m ort g a gor s 332 ’
“
t i t le b
( )
. A pl e dg e of a m ov a bl e d e p e n ds i n p r i n cipl e ga ges
,
.
a s in R o m a n L a w u po n re te n t io n of po sse ssi o n by t he ,
“
ple dgee L o ss of po sse ssi o n de str oys o r a t b e st i m pe rils
.
, , ,
?
t he se cu ri t y ( c ) A ge n e r a l m or t g a ge of m ov a ble s a ffe ct s
t he p r ope rt y so lon g as it r e m a in s in t he po sse ssi o n of the
1
V a n L e e u w e n , 4 40 2 ; Qu e en s T ow n A ssu r a nce C o v Wood s
’ ’
. . . .
Tru s tee ( 1 887 ) 5 S C 3 2 7 B u t t his r ight o f re t e n t i o n doe s n o t

. . .
affo r d an y se cu r it y o r pr e fe r e n c e in ins o lv e n cy In so lv e n cy A ct , .
1 9 3 6 , se e 47 Has a n a t to r n e y a r ight o f r e te n t io n o v e r m o n e y s
. .
in his ha n ds fo r hi s c o st s The u e s t io n w as le ft o pe n in a ys er di q K
D e B e er v E s t L i eben ber g [ 1 9 2 6 ] A D a t p 9 8 B o o k kee pe rs li e n ,
. . . . . .
-
’
Ni e m a n v S cr ivene r N 0 [ 1 9 2 2 ] O P D 1 0 1 ; Will e , p 1 5 7
. . . . . . . .
2
V an L e e u w e n , lo c c i t Se e H o lmes G a r age L td v L evi n [ 1 9 2 4]
. . . .
5 8, w he re t he E n gli sh L a w i s c o n t r ast e d .
2
F or d V
Re ed B r os [ 1 9 22 ] T P D a t pp 2 7 2 3
. F o r t he
. . . . .
-
.
pr o c e du r e in t he e v e n t o f t he in s o lv e n c y o f t h e o w n e r o f pr o pe r t y
he ld b y a cr e di t o r u n de r c la im o f li e n se e In so lv e n c y A c t , 1 9 3 6,
s ec 3 3 ; M ar s , I n s o lven c
y p 3 62
—
. . .
2
Vo e t , 2 0 1 1 4 1 5 . . .
2
F o r pr oc e d u r e in R e gist ra r s Of c e se e R e gist r y o f D ee ds A c t ,
’
fi
1 9 37, se e s . 5 6, 5 7 .
2
S u p r a , p 1 90 ; V o e t , 2 0 1 1 3 ; H eyden r y ch
. F au r i e ( 1 89 6 ) . . V
q
.
1 3 S C 3 7 1 F o r a u a lifi c a t io n o f t h is pr in c iple see p 2 0 1

. . .
V
. .
7
Cf D e u ts chm a n n
. IL'p e ta [ 1 9 1 7 ] C P D 7 9 A G e r m a n a d a ge . . . . .
sa ys : Mit d e r H a n d st ir b t das Pfa n d .

2 00 THE L A W OF PR OPE RTY
m or t g a gor It is
in e ffe c tu a l a g a in st a n alienee by o n e r o u s
.
1
o r l u cr a t iv e t i tl e w it h o r w it ho u t n o t i c e or a su b se qu e n t ,
ple dge e or a cre dit or who g e t s a n e x e cu t io n a g a in st a n y

,
2
p ar t of t he pr op e r ty A cre dit or who ha s a sp e ci a l .
m or t g a ge of m ova bl e s u n a cc o m p a n ie d by d e live r y is in
“
n o b e tt er po si t io n t h a n o n e who ha s a g e n e r a l bo n d of
m ov a ble s e x ce p t t h a t he ca n a sser t hi s r igh t a g ain st a
,
su b se qu e n t a li e n e e or e n cu m b r a n ce r who ha s n o t i ce of
?
hi s cl a im d
( ) Th e e ffe c t of t he m or tg a ge of a r ight wo u ld
de p e n d it m a y b e su gge ste d u pon t he n a tu re of t he r ight
, ,
a n d t he ch ar a c t e r of t he ce ssi o n If t he ce ssio n t ho u gh .
,
in te n de d m e r e ly t o b e in se cu r it a te m de bit i we r e a b solu t e
in it s t e r m s t he c e ssion ar y m igh t g ive a good t it le t o a
,
p u r ch a se r o r ple dge e who t ook t he p r op e r t y in ign or an ce ,
“
of t he fa ct s .
(2) t acit . The e ffe ct of t a cit hypo t he cs m ay b e shor tly st a te d A .
t a cit hypo t h e c of im m ov a bl e s follow s t he p r op e r t y i n t o

“
t he h a n d s cu ju sv is po sse ssor i s a s i n R o m a n L aw A t a cit , .
hypo t h e c of m ova ble s a t t a che s t o t he pr op e r t y o n ly so

.
lon g a s t he d e b t o r o r cr e dit or r e m a in s in po sse ssio n It .
is e x t in g u ish e d by tr a n sfe r t o a t h ir d p ar t y wh e t h er by
o n e r ou s or by lu cr a t ive t it le ; a n d if a t hir d p ar ty a cqu ir e s
a sp e ci a l hypo t h e c a cc o m p a n ie d by d e l i v e r y o r a r igh t ,
of r e te n t io n ove r good s i n clu de d in t he se cu r it y he i s

1
G r 2 48 2 3. . . an d 2 4; V o e t , 2 0 . 1 . 1 4; 2 0 . 6 5; 2
. Maas do rp
p 32 1
. .
2
C r 2 4s 2 3 a n d 2 9 V o e t , 20 6 6 , a d fin ; 20 1 1 4; V d K
. . . . . . . . . . .
43 2 ; 2 M aa sdo rp , p 3 1 9 . .
2
I n Na t a l a spe c i a l hypo t he c a t io n o f m o v a bl e s b y n o t a r ia l b o n d
ha d t he sa m e e ffe c t a s i f t he m o v a b l e s ha d b e e n de liv e r e d a s a
pl e dge This i s so n o l o n ge r
. The No t a r ia l B o n ds ( Na t a l ) A c t , .
1 9 32 ; P a r a k V
R eyn ha r dt ( 2 C o [ 1 9 3 0 ] N P D a t p 2 5 8; I n r e
.
:
. . . . .
U m la as Woo l Was hi ng C o [ 1 9 3 4] N P D 1 8 . . . . .
2
C oa ton v A lex a n de r [ 1 87 9 ] B u c h 1 7 ; M eyer . B o tha . V .
H er gen r oder ( 1 882 ) l S A R 47 ; Ca to

' ‘
A lion ( fi H e lp s [ 1 9 2 2 ] . . . V .
N P D 469 ; D e J a ger
. . .
'
S i sa n a [ 1 9 30 ] A D a t p 84 This do e s n ot V . . . . .
a pply t o a ge n e r a l b o n d 2 M a a s do r p , p 3 2 1 . . .
2
This m a y b e i n fe rr e d fr o m t he l a n gu a ge o f L o r d De V illie r s C J . .
in Na t B k of S A . Cohen s T r u s tee [ 1 9 1 1 ] A D a t p 2 44
’
. . . V . . . . .
‘
q
The r e i s n o u e st io n [he r e ] a s t o t hir d pa r t ie s b e in g m isle d b y t he
fo r m o f t he c e ssio n ? Se e H a r togh Na t B k [ 1 9 0 7 ] T S 1 0 9 2 V . . . . .
[1 90 7] T E 20 7 . . .
6
Voe t, 20 1 1 4
,
. . .
202 THE L A W OF PR OPE RTY
Wr ongful The pr in ciple t h at lo ss of po sse ssion e n t a ils lo ss of
se c u r i t y m u st b e fu rt h e r qu ali fi e d in t he se n se t h a t if a
ple dge e is wr on gfu lly dis po sse sse d t he la w will h e lp hi m to ,
re cov e r po sse ssio n e v e n fr o m a n inn oc e n t t hir d p a r t y a n d

1
a n a lie n ee or su b se qu e n t pl e dgee wi t h n o t i ce t a ke s su bj e ct
?
t o t he ple dge
Pri orities . It m ay h a pp e n t h at t he sa m e p r ope r t y i s affe cte d wit h
m or e t h a n o n e m or t ga ge In t h a t e ve n t a qu e st ion a r ise s .
a s t o p r e fe r e n c e o r p r io r i t y b e t w e e n t he v a r io u s e n cu m
b r a n ce s u po n t he p r op e r t y In p r in cipl e a ll m o rt g a ge s .
,
howe ve r co n stit u te d r a n k in or d e r of t im e — Pr ae v a le t
,
j u re qu i pr ae v e nit te m por e — Qui p r ior e st te m po r e po t i or

“
e st j u r e In t he c a se of co n v e n t i o n a l m or t g a g e s t hi s
.
m e a n s fr o m t he d ate of e x e cu t ion a n d in m ode rn p r a ct ice ,
fr o m t he d a te of r e gis tr at io n wh e n r e gistr a t ion is r e qui r e d

by law ?
T a cit hypo t he cs t ook e ffe ct fr o m t he m o m e n t
w h e n t he c ir cu m st a n c e s e x iste d which g a ve bir t h to t h e m .
Th u s t he m in or s hypot he c ove r hi s gu ar di an s e st a te t ook

’ ’
ef fe ct fr om t he m o m e n t a t whi ch t he r e l a t i o n ship of
“
gu a r di a n a n d w a r d c a m e in t o e x iste n ce .
B u t s o m e se cu r i t ie s fr o m t h e ir n a t u r e a re p re fe rr e d t o
sec u r it ies .
o t he r s Thu s a m or t ga ge of m ova ble p r op e rt y pe r fe c te d

.
by de live r y ( ple dge ) give s t he cr e di t o r a n in e xpu gn a ble

r i gh t t o re t a in t he p r op e r t y a g a ins t a ll r iv a l cl a im a n ts
“ h
u n t il hi s o w n cl a i m is sa t isfi e d T e s a m e a pplie s t o lie ns .
o r r igh t s of r e t e n t i o n whi ch a s e xpl a in e d a b ov e a r e n o t

, , ,
m o r t ga ge s b u t in t hi s r e sp e ct c o n fe r t he s a m e a dv a n t a ge
,
.
“
The l an dl or d s hypot h e c a n d t he p ign u s p r ae t o r i u m
7 ’
1
T he r on V
G er ber [ 1 9 1 8] B D L 2 88
. . . . .
2
Co a ton V
A lex a n de r [ 1 87 9 ] B u ch 1 7 ; M eye r
. B otha db . V .
H er gen r bde r ( 1 882 ) 1 S A R 47

’
. . . .
2
Co d 8 1 7 . 2 ; C r 2 48 3 4—6 ; V o e t , 2 0 4 1 6
. . . . . . .
2
V oe t , 2 0 4 2 9 ; In s o lv e n c y A c t , 1 9 1 6 , see 87 ( 2 ) ( a b r o ga t in g
. . .
t he e ffe c t o f S ta nda rd B k . V
H eyde n rych [ 1 9 0 7 ] A O 3 3 6 , 3 B u ch
. . . .
A O
. . In so lv e n c y A c t , 1 93 6 , se e 87 . .
2
V o e t , 2 0 2 1 7 ; S chu tte . .
’
V
M eyer s A s si gn e e [ 1 9 2 7 ] C P D 3 7 1 . . . . .
2
V o e t , 2 0 1 1 2 ; 2 0 4 9 ; V d K 43 7
. . . . . . . .
7
V o e t , 20 4 1 9 ; V d K u bi su p ; Po t hi e r : Con tr a t de L on a ge ,
. . . . . .
252 .
2
I n r e Woe ke 1 83 2 ) 1 Me n z 5 5 4 B u t b y t he In so lv e n c y A c t , . .
1 9 3 6 , se e 9 8 ( r e pe a t in g t he A c t o f 1 9 1 6 , se e 84) t he pre fe r e n c e o f
. .
b e lon g t o t he sa m e class Wit hin t his gr o u p n o qu e st ion

of pr ior it y a r ise s for t he sim
.
ple qu e sti on is who is in ,
?
a ct u a l po sse ssi o n o r con t r ol of t he p r op e r t y Thus if a ,
cr e di t or wi t h a r ight of r e te n tion p a rt s wi t h t he posse ssi on

t o t he de b t or who su b se qu e n t ly ple dge s t he p r op e rt y
,
wit h a t hi r d p a r t y t he ple dgee s righ t is p ar a m ou n t bot h ,

’
a g a in st t he p r i o r c re di t o r a n d a ls o so lo n g as he r e t a ins ,
po sse ssion a ga in st a j u dgm e n t cr e di t o r who se e ks t o

, ,
a t t a c h t he p r op e rt y u n d e r a n e x e c u t i on .
By t he Politi c a l Or di n an ce of 1 5 80 A r t 3 5 g e n e r a l P 0 ,
.
,
. .
con ve n t io n a l m ort ga ge s of i m m ova ble s we re po stpon e d

?
t o sp e cia l co n ve n ti o n a l m o r t ga ge s t ho u gh of l a te r d a te ,
Thi s did n o t a pply t o t a cit s b u t ve n do rs u se d to re ta in ,
a c h a r ge u po n t he l a n d fo r u n p a id p u r ch ase m o n e y by a
s p e c i a l m o rt g a g e e x e cu te d c o n te m por a n e o u sly wit h t he
t r ansfe r ca lle d a K us ti ngbr i ef This w a s p r e fe rre d t o a n y K ust in g

“
.
n ew “
ge n e r a l t a cit whi ch m ight b e lu r kin g 1 11 t he b a ckgr o u n d
,
r e a dy t o se i z e u po n t he p r ope rt y in t he h a n ds of t he
p u r ch a se r It r e se m ble d the u n p a id ve n dor s ( so c a lle d )

.
’
-
lie n in E n gli sh L a w whi ch howe ve r a r ise s by ope r a t io n of , , ,
la w wit hou t e xp r e ss a gre e m e n t ?

This i n st it u t io n ch a n ge d
“
i ts ch a r a c te r in t he c our se of t he ni n e te e n t h ce n t u r y a n d ,
t he disu se of ge n e r a l t a c it h ypo t h e c s has d e p ri ve d it of

a ny i m por t a n ce .
A m ort g a ge e see m s in p r in ciple to be e n t it le d t o posse s Rights o f

sio n ,
n o t lik e t he E n gli sh m o r t g a ge e s in c e t he L a w of
“
P r op e r t y A ct 1 9 2 5 qu a te n a n t b u t b e cau se t he r ight t o , ,
po sse ss is a co n se qu e n ce of t he r ight of hypot he c By t he .
t he e x e cu t io n i s l im it e d t o t he t a x e d c o st s o f e x e cu t i o n
c r e dit o r .
Se e U n i on a nd Rhodes i a Who lesa le L td ( i n L i qu ida t ion ) B r ow n . V .
<6 0 0 [ 1 9 2 2 ] A D 5 49
. . . .
1
I t se e m s , ho w e v e r , t ha t su c h a u e st i o n o f pr i o r it y m a y a r i se q
a s b e t w e e n t h e l an dl o r d s h f
’
yp o t h e c a n d t h e st a t u to r
y h yp o t h e c o
t he se lle r u n de r a hir e pu rc has e a gr ee m e n t S u pr a , p 1 9 6 -
. . .
l G P B 33 8; G r 2 48 3 4 ; V o e t , 2 0 l 1 4 ; V d K 43 6
2
. . . . . . . . . . . .
2
C r 2 48 40 ; 3 1 4 2 5 ; V o e t , 2 0 4 1 8; V d K 437 ; I n r e
. . . . . . . . . .
B u isi n n e ( 1 82 8) 1 Me n z 3 2 6 ; n i ted B ldg S e c S m o o kler s

’
. U . . V .
Tr u s te es [ 1 9 0 6] T S 6 2 3 ; E s t G his li n . F aga n [ 1 9 2 5 ] C P D 2 0 6
. . V . . . . .
2
H a l sb u r y , v o l x x , se c 7 1 5 . . .
2
The K u s ti n gbr i ef b y M r G e o D e n o o n , 6 1 . .
2
p . 2 7 7 . Ch e shi r e p 607 . .
a c t io hypo t he ca ri a t he m ort g a gee a sse r te d his r igh t t o
posse ss a g a in st the m o r t g a gor a n d a n yo n e e lse who c o u ld
?
n o t show a b e tte r t it l e B u t it is qu e st i o n a bl e wh e t h e r
t hi s r igh t is a d m it te d in t he m ode r n la w 2
No t b e in g .
own e r the m or t gage e ca nn o t gr an t l e a se s u nl e ss he is in

“
po sse ssio n o n t he te r m s of a n a n t i chr e sis whi ch e n title s ,
him t o t ak e t he p r ofi t s of t he l a n d in li e u of in te r e st .
In p r in cipl e t h e re i s n o r e a son why a m ort g a gor shou l d

n o t d e a l wi t h t he m o rt g a g e d p r op e r t y a s he pl e a se s su b ,
je c t t o t he r i gh t s of t h e m o r t g a g e e B u t in fa c t i t i s o t h e r .
wi se In S ou t h Afr ic a he c a nn o t do so Fo r sin ce t r a n sfe r

. .
of l a n d o n whi ch a m o rt ga ge is r e giste r e d c a nn o t t a ke pl a ce
wi tho u t the c o n se n t of the m or t g a ge e wit ho u t his co nse n t ,
?
t he l a n d ca nn o t b e a li e n a t e d A m ort g a go r is n o t pr o
“
hi b ite d fr o m gr a n t i n g a l e a se su bj e ct t o t he m ort g a g e ,
.
The i m po sit ion of a se r vi tu de b e in g pl a inl y p r e j u dicia l ,
t o t he m or t g a ge e i s n o t p e rmi tte d “ .
,
An y c ove n a n t s whi c h a r e l a wful an d n o t co n tr a r y t o

7
p u blic policy m a y b e a nn e x e d t o t he con t r a ct e g ( 1 ) t h at ,
. .
t he d e st ru c t i o n of t he ple dg e wit ho u t fa ul t o n his p a rt

sh a ll fr e e t he d e b t o r ; ( 2 ) t h a t t he c r e dit o r sh a ll t a k e t he
p r ofit s in li e u of in te r e st ( a n ti chr es i s ) ; ( 3 ) o r in sat isfa c

2
t i on of hi s cl a im ; ( 4) t h a t t he pl e dg e sh a ll n o t b e r e d ee m e d
for a ce r t a in t i m e ( in v a lid if a nn e x e d t o a n ti chr es i s
'
( )
5 t h a t i f t h e d e b t i s n o t p a id wi t h in a c e r t a in t i m e t h e
cr e dit o r m a y pr opr ia a u ctor i ta te e n t e r in t o po sse ssi o n of
t he m or t g a g e d l a n d ; ( 6 ) t h a t if t he d e b t is n o t p a id t he
1
D ig 2 0 l 1 6 , 3 ; G ir a r d , p 82 5
. . . . .
2
R oodep o or t D u T o i t N 0 [ 1 9 2 8] A D a t p 7 1 As . . . . . .
t o t h e r igh t s a n d d u t ie s o f a m or t ga ge e in p o ss e ss io n se e J n de s v .
S A B r ew er i es L td [ 1 9 22 ] W L D l
. . . . . . .
Vo e t , 1 9 2 4 .
2
D e e ds R e gist r ie s A c t , 1 9 3 7 , se c s 5 6 , 5 7
. . . .
2
Wa tson V
M cH a tti e 1 885 ) 2 S A R 2 8; D r ey er s T r u s te e
.
’
. . . V .
L u tley ( 1 884) 3 S C 5 9 ; R e ed s Tr u s te e R eed ( 1 885 ) 5 E D C 2 3

. .
’
V . . . . .
2 ’
S te w a r t s Tr u s te e Un i on da le M u n i cipa li ty ( 1 889 ) 7 S C 1 1 0 V . . . .
7
Vo et , 20 1 2 1 . . .
2
V o e t , 2 0 l 2 3 ; ( Ce y lo n ) Wije ys i nghe
. .
'
Ve lo ha m y ( 1 9 2 8) V .
2 9 N L R 3 49
. . . .
2
S a n de , D ec i s F r i s 3 1 2 1 1 ; M cCu llo u gh di Whi tehe a d
. . . . V .
Whi te a w a y <2 0 0 [ 1 9 1 4] A D a t p 6 2 6 ( Ce y lo n ) G a br i a l v A dika r a n

. . . . .
( 1 9 41 ) 42 N L R 1 46 . . . .
j u st gr o u n d ,
he ca n sho w t ha t , in c ar r yin g o u t t he a gre e m e nt
an d e f
fe ctin g a sa le , t he cr e di t r o ha s a ct e d in a m a nn e r w hi ch
has pr e j u di ce d him in his r ights .

’1
It se e m s t h at p ar a te e x e cu t ie is n o t a ll owe d by t he law of
“
Ce ylon .
If t he d e b t o r is i ns olve n t t he m or t ga ge d p r op e rt y is
s old n o t by t he m o rt g a gee b u t by t he t ru ste e of t he in ,
“
s olve n t e st a t e .
In t he R om a n D u t ch L a w diffe r in g h e r e in fr o m t he -
,
2 “ r e de e m o r b u
R om a n L a w a l a te r m or t g a ge e c a nn o t, y
o u t a n e ar li e r m o r t g a ge e a g a in st hi s will so a s t o ste p in t o
hi s pla ce “ Bu t he c an do so in dire c t ly by su in g t he
.
,
m or t g a gor a n d ob t a in in g a sa le in e x e c u t ion in whi ch ,
e ve n t he will h a v e t he sa m e r igh t a s a n yo n e e l se of m a kin g

7
“
a bid for t he p u r ch a se of t he m or t g a g e d p r ope r t y an d ,
is e n t it le d t o h a ve his bo n d se t o ff a g a in st t he p ur ch a se
“
p r ice The sa le in e x e cu t io n give s hi m a cle a n t it le t o t he
.
pr op e rt y e ve n t hou gh t he p r ice doe s n o t cove r t he a m ou n t

?0
of t he bon d B u t it i s u su a l in t he fir st in st a n ce t o o ffe r
t he p r op e r t y for sa le a t a r e se r ve p r ice .
A m ort ga ge m a y b e e x t in gu i she d in the followin g wa ys

v i z by : .
1 E x tin ct ion of t he p r in cip a l de b t o r lia bili t y ( book iii

.
,
p a rt i ch a p ,
B u t a m or t g a ge e in po sse ssio n m ay
.
,
1
Ko t z e J in Osry V Hi r sch L ou bs er do 0 0 [ 1 9 2 2] C P D
. .
, . . . .
at p 5 47 .I n P aru k G l . V
e nda le E s t C o [ 1 9 24] N P D l T a t ha m J
. . . . . . .
fo u n d n o di st in c t ion b e t w e e n m o v a b le s a n d im m o v a b les B u t se e .
L E . . K
r a u se , T he H i s tor y of P a r a te E x e cu ti e , 41
pp 2 0 , 1 85 .
K
.
1
H on g on g a nd S ha ng ha i B k v K r is hna pi lla i ( 1 9 3 2 ) 33 N L R . . . . .
2 49 .
2
Maa sdo rp, u bi su p .
2
Co d 8 1 7 1 e t p assi m
. . .
2
V a n de r K e e sse l ( Th 441 ) m e r e ly sa y s a n po ss it , n o n s in e
‘
.
c a u s sa du b it a r i po t e s t
2
B u t he ( o r a n y o n e e lse ) m a y , b y a gr e e m e n t , t a ke an ass ign
m e n t o f t he m o r t ga ge G r 2 48 43 ; V o e t , 2 0 4 3 5 . . . . . . .
7
S ecu s , u r e c iv i li V oe t , 2 0 5 3j 2
2 Maasdo r p , p 3 2 6
. . . . . .
2
S m i les T r us te e
’
S m i les [ 1 9 1 3 ] C P D 7 3 9 V . . . . .
1°
V o e t , 2 0 5 1 1 ; S A A ss oc i a tion . Va n S ta de n ( 1 89 2 )
. . . V .
95 ; U
n i te d B u i ldi ng S e c L a w [ 1 9 1 0] T P D 3 69 S ecu s in . V . . . . .
Ce y lo n , K r i s tna pp a Che tty v H or a ta la ( 1 9 2 3 ) 2 5 N L R 3 9 . . . . .
11
Will e , M ort gage a nd P ledge i n S ou th Afr ica , c ha p V 111 ; 2 Ma as .
1“
do rp, c hap xx x v . . V oe t , 2 0 6 2 . . .
o tw it h sta n din g t he di sch a r ge of t he m ort ga ge r e

n ,
t a in t he p r op e rt y u n t il a n u n se c u r e d d e b t du e t o
1
hi m fr om t he m or t g a gor has b e e n sa t isfie d ;
2
Re n u n cia t i on of t he m o rt g a ge ( a ) e xp re ss ; ( b) i m pli e d ,
a s by r e st or i n g a ple dge o r a llowi n g t he m o r t g a gor
t o a li e n a te t he m or t ga ge d p r op e r t y b u t kn ow
le dge o f o r c o n se n t t o sa le of t he pr op e r t y doe s
n o t n e ce ssa r ily i m ply a r e m issio n of t he m or t g a ge .
2
It is a qu e st ion of in te n t io n ;
Con fu sio n o r m e r ge r i e whe n t he t it le s of m ort g a go r ,
. .
2
a n d m o r t g a ge e m e e t in t he sa m e p e r so n ;
Ali e n a ti o n of t he m or t ga ge d p r op e rt y by t he m ort ga gor

in t he c a se s in wh i ch a lie n a t i on p asse s t he p r op e rt y
fr e e of t he m o rt ga ge ( sup r a pp 1 9 9 —2 0 0 ) ,
.
2
Co m ple te de str u ct io n of t he m or t g a ge d p r op e rt y ;
Expir y of t im e or op e r a ti o n of co n ditio n w he n t he
m ort g a ge w a s e xp re sse d t o b e te m po r a r y o r co n
7
dit io n a l ;
Ex t in ct ion of t he m ort g a gor s t itle e g by de at h if ’
,
. .
,
hi s in te r e st w a s for hi s life ; o r in t he ca se of a ,
su b m or t g a ge ( i e a m ort g a g e of t he m o r t g a gee s
’
-
. .
in te re st ) by t he de te rm in a t ion of t he pr in cip al
,
m o r t g a ge
Pr e scr ip tio n G r o t iu s a dop t s t he Ro m a n la w pe r iods
.
of fort y ye ar s if t he p r ope rt y is in t he h a n d s of ,
t he m ort g a gor o r hi s h e ir s ; of t hir t y ye ar s if it ,
ha s c o m e in t o t he h an d s of a t hi r d p a rt y by t it le
a dve r se t o t he m or t g a go r
“
o r by n o t it l e at a ll , .
Ot h e r s wr it e r s e xp re ss a p re fe re n ce for t he ge n e r a l
1
C o d 8 2 6 ; V d K 43 5 ; L e e , Com m e n ta ry , p 2 1 6 ; S m i th v
. . . . . . .
’
F a rr e lly s Tru s te e [ 1 9 0 4] T S a t p 9 6 2 ; b u t a ga in s t t he de b to r . . .
o n ly , n o t a ga in s t his c r e dit o rs , i b id .
2
V o e t , 2 0 6 5 , in c lu din g n o v a t io n o f t he m o r t ga ge b y su b
. .
st it u t in g a n o t he r r ight in i ts
pla c e Wille , p 2 90
—
. . .
2
Vo et , 20 6 6 7 . . .
2
V d K 442 ; S w a n ep oe l v Va n H eer den [ 1 9 2 8] A D 1 5
. . . . . . .
2
V o e t , 20 6 1 . . .V o e t , 20 6 4 . . .
7
V o e t , 20 6 1 0 . . .
2
V oe t , 2 0 6 2 ( i n fi n e ) . . .
2
C r 2 48 44 V d K 443 V d L 1 1 2 6
. . . . . . . . . . . .
THE LAW OF PR OPE RTY
co m m on la w te r m of a t hir d of a ce n tu ry In Sou th ?
2
Afr ica t he p e r iod is fix e d by st at u te a t t hir t y ye ar s ;
9 . D e cr e e of t he Cou rt whe n e g the m or t ga ge is se t
, , . .
as id e o n t he gr o u n d of m i st a k e or fra u d o r u n d e r ,
t he p r ovi sion s of t he I n solve n cy A ct 1 9 36 se cs 2 6 '
.
, , ,
2 9 a n d 3 0 a s a dispo sit ion wit hou t v a lu e o r a

, , ,
voida ble or u n du e p r e fe r e n ce ;
10 . Ju di ci a l sa l e o r sa le in in s olv e n c y of t he m o r t g a g e d
, ,
pr op e r t y .
Wh e r e t he r e is a fir st a n d a se con d m ort ga ge o n t he sa m e
p r op e r t y a n d a ny e ve n t occ u r s w hich e x t in gui sh e s t he
fir st m or t g a ge w it ho u t e x t in gui shin g t he se con d n or m a lly ,
t he se co n d m o r t g a ge i s p r o m o te d t o high e r r a n k B u t if .
t he fir st m o rt g a ge e ha s p u r c h a se d t he p r op e r t y fr om t he
m or t g a gor by p r iva te con t r a ct he m a y if he ple a se s ke e p , , ,
t he fi r st m or t g a g e a live a s a g a i n st a se c o n d m or t g a ge e who ,
“
is p r oce e di n g t o a j u di ci a l sa le of t he p r op e rt y .
1
V o e t , 2 0 4 9 ; M a t t hae u s , P a r o e m n o 9 , se c 6
. . . . .
2
P r e scr ipt io n A c t , 1 9 43 , s e e 3 . .
2
Co d 8 1 9. . 1 ; Voet 20 5 10 The G e r m a n s c a ll thi s
, . . .
E ige n t ii m e r hy po t he k Se e E n n e c e ru s
. ipp Wo lfi , L e hr bu c h des
-
K -
B ur ger li che n Re chts , iii 5 30 . .

B OOK III
INT ROD U CTI ON
FR OM t he la w Of p r op e r t y o r r e a l r ight s w e p a ss t o t he
, ,
.
la w of oblig a t i on s or p e r son a l r igh t s A r e a l r igh t a s w e .

,
h a ve se e n c on st itu te s a cl a im whi ch t he law w ill su st a in

,
a g a in st a n
y a n d e ve r y in v a de r It i s a r igh t a g a in st all .
t he wor ld A p e r son a l r ight o n t he con tr ar y i s a r ight

.
, ,
a g a in st so m e sp e c ifi c p e r s o n a n d a g a in st hi m a lo n e Wh e n .
o n e p e r so n i s l e g a lly e n t i t l e d t o d e m a n d fr o m a n ot h e r
so m e sp e cifi c a ct o r fo r b e ar a n ce a r e l a t ion e xi st s b e t we e n ,
t h e m which i s t e r m e d a n oblig a t i on W h e n w e sa y t h a t .
o n e p e r s on i s l e g a lly e n t it l e d w e i m ply t h a t t he o t h e r pe r
so n i s l e g a lly bo u n d or oblige d A c cor din gly Ju stini a n .

,
d e fin e s obliga ti o a s j u r i s vin cu lu m qu o n e ce ssit a te ‘
a dst r in gim u r a li cu ju s so lv e n da e r e i se cu n d u m n o str a e

1— ‘
An obli g a t ion i s a l e g a l fe t t e r wit h
’
c ivi t at i s j u r a
whi c h w e ar e bo u n d by t he n e ce ssit y of p e r for m in g som e

m a t t e r in t e r m s of t he l aw s of o ur cou n t r y An y givin g
’
.
,
“
doin g o r for b e a r in g m a y b e t he su bj e ct of a n oblig a ti on
, ,
p r ovide d onl y t h at it b e som e t hin g po ssible a n d n ot con

t r a r y t o la w “ Fr o m le ga l or civil oblig ati on s a s t he y ar e
.
‘ ’
,
‘
sp e c ifi c a lly c a ll e d m u st b e di st in gu i sh e d ,
n a t u r a l oblig a
ti on s
’
.The se a r e p e r son a l cl a im s fou n de d n o t in law b u t ,
“
in m or a li t y e g t he c l a i m of a fa t h e r t o r e ce ive se r vi ce s
, . .
of du t y a n d a ffe ct ion fr o m his childr e n More p r e ci se ly

“
.
, ,
in R o m a n la w t he phr a se n at u r a l oblig a t ion w a s li m ite d

‘
,
t o cl a im s whi ch whil e n o t e n for ce a ble by a ct ion we r e

, , ,
n e ve r t he le ss a v a il a bl e a s a d e fe n ce a n d ha d o t h e r co n se
,
fi ld of po v e law
“ Th i s di st in ct io n is n o t
q u e n ce s i n t he e s i t i .
wit hou t im por t an ce a t t he p r e se n t da y Thu s it is ge n e r a ll y .
h e ld t h a t t he u n a ssiste d c on tr a ct of a m in or cre ate s a

n a t u r a l oblig a t io n a n d i s a good fo u n d a t i o n for a t hi r d
1
In st . 1 3 pr
3 . The te r m o b liga t io n is.
‘ ’
n ot u n de r s t o o d to
in c lu de pe r s o n a l r e la t io n s a r is in g fr o m st a t u s .
2
2
V o e t , 44 7 1 . . . Voet , 2 14 1 6 . . .
2
2
V o e t , 44 7 3 . . . V o e t , u bi su p .
INTRODUCTI ON 211
p a rt y s con tr a ct of sur e t yship An ot he r ca se is a sta t u te

’
.
b arr e d de b t The de b t or is n o t bou n d t o pa y bu t if he

.
,
p ays he ca nn ot re cla im t he m on e y on the gr ou n d t h at it

?
w a s n o t owe d ( c o n di c ti o in d e b it i )
A le g a l bon d or obligati o n b e t we e n t w o p e r so n s m ay How
a r i se in dif fe re n t w a y s Th e se h a ve b e e n v a r i ou sly c l a ssi
.
fie d by t he j ur i sts We a dop t a s m o st con v e ni e n t t he a rise

. .
a rr a n ge m e n t cho se n by G a iu s in hi s book c a ll e d A u r ea o r
G olde n Wor ds ?
A cc or di n g t o t his oblig a t ion s ar ise : ( 1 )
,
fr o m a gre e m e n t ; ( 2 ) fr om wr o n gdoin g ; ( 3 ) fr o m va r io u s
o t he r ca u se s We sh a ll discu ss t h e se se ve r a lly u n de r t he
.
t hr e e h e a ds of Con tr a ct u a l D e lic t u a l a n d Mi s ce ll a n e o u s o r
, ,
Qu as i co n tr a ct u a l
-
.
1
V o e t 1 2 6 2 ; Wess e ls i 1 2 7 1 Wesse ls e x a m in es so m e o t he r
, . .
, . .
( dou b t fu l ) cas es o f n a t u r a l o b li ga t io n .
2
Ob liga t io n e s au t e x c o n t r a c t u n as cu n tu r au t ex m a le fi c i o au t
pr o pr i o qu o da m j u r e e x v a r iis c a u sa r u m fi gur is . D ig 44 7 1 pr
. . . .
P A RT I
OB L IGATI ON S A RI S IN G FROM C ONT RACT
TH E su bj e ct m a tte r of
-
t he la w
of con tr a ct is in a ll le ga l
s yste m s t he sa m e v iz a g r e e m e n t s a n d p r o m i se s
, . What .
a gre e m e n t s w h a t p r o m i se s will t he la w e nfor c e ? Thi s i s

, ,
t he p r oble m t o b e s olve d a n d it i s s olv e d by diffe r e n t

,
s yst e m s of la w in diffe r e n t w a y s B u t t he d e fini t ion of

.
c o n t r a c t in t he a b str a c t i s a lw a y s t he sa m e v i z a n a gre e
‘
.
,
m e n t e n fo r ce a ble a t la w or wh a t co m e s t o t he sa m e t hin g
, ,
a n a gr e e m e n t which cr e a te s a l e g a l oblig a t io n b e t we e n t he
p a r tie s t o it An a gr e e m e n t whi ch p r odu ce s t hi s e ffe ct is

’
.
a c o n t r a ct a n a gr e e m e n t which fa ils t o p r od u c e t hi s e f fe ct ,
howe ve r m u ch it m a y b e in te n de d t o do so is a void c o n ,
?
t r a ct i e n o c on tr a ct a t a ll
,
. . S o m e t im e s t he a gr e e m e n t
ha s in law t he e ffe ct t h a t it lie s in t he op t io n of o n e of t he
p a rt ie s w h e t he r he will b e bo u n d by it o r n o t In t h a t c a se .
it is sa id t o b e void a ble by su ch p ar t y Agr ee m e n t s di r e cte d

.
t o ill e g a l e n d s a r e u su a lly void ; a gr e e m e n t s p r o cur e d by

fr a u d a re u su a lly void a ble I n sta n c e s will b e give n in t he
.
followin g p a ge s .
The re is Fr o m wh at ha s b e e n said it is a pp ar e n t t h a t t he law of

c o n t r a ct i s co n ce r n e d n o t wi t h a ll a gre e m e n t s b u t o nl y ,
wi t h su ch a gr e e m e n t s as ar e in te n de d t o cre a te a le ga l
obliga t ion b e t we e n t he p a r t ie s If t he p art ie s do n o t wis h
.
“
t o b e bo u n d t he la w wil l n o t b in d t he m Th e r e fore n o
.
le g a l co n se qu e n c e a tt a ch e s t o wor ds spoke n an d u n de r
1
fi
O r w e m a y , if w e ple ase , de n e co n t r ac t a s a n a gr e e m e n t
‘
w h ich c r e a te s o r is in t e n de d t o c r e a te a le ga l o b l iga t io n b e t w e e n
t he pa r t ie s t o it ( Je uk s , D i ges t of E nglis h Ci vi l L a w , A r t This .
w ill pe r m it u s w i t ho u t a b u se o f la n gu a ge a n d in ha r m o n y w it h
c o m m o n u sa ge t o S pe a k o f a
‘ ’
v o id c o n t r a c t , i e a c o n t r ac t w hi c h
. .
is in te n de d t o c r e a te , b u t do e s n o t cr e a t e , a le ga l o b liga t io n b e t w e e n
2
P o t hie r , Tr a i té des Obliga ti on s , s e c 3 The ge n e r a lit y o f t his
. .
s t a te m e n t m u s t b e q fi
u a li e d t o t he e x t e n t o f a dm itt i n g t ha t a
pe rso n m a y in c e rt a in cas e s ha v e ac t e d in su c h a w a y as t o in du ce
a n o t he r t o b e lie v e t ha t he in t e n de d t o co n t r a c t w it h him , a n d m a y
b e e s t o ppe d fr o m de n y in g t ha t h is a ppa r e n t in te n t io n c o rre spo n de d

w it h h is r e a l in t e n t io n I nfr a , p 2 2 0 , n 1
. . . .
F ORMATI ON OF C ONT RACT
To on st it u te a v a lid con tr a c t : ( A ) the p a rt ie s m u st b e
c
a gree d ; ( B ) t he p a r t ie s m u st i n te n d or be d ee m e d t o ,
in te n d t o cr e ate a le g a l obliga t ion ; ( C ) t he obj e ct of t he

,
a gree m e n t m u st b e physi c a lly a n d le g a lly po ssibl e D

( ) t he
r e qu isite fo r m s or m ode s of a gr ee m e n t ( if a n y ) m u st b e
ob se r ve d ; ( E ) t he a gre e m e nt m u st n o t b e i m pe a ch a ble o n
t he gr o u n d of fr a u d fe a r m isre p r e se n t a t i on u n du e in
, , ,
flu e n ce o r le si on ; ( F ) t he a gr ee m e n t m u st n o t b e dir e cte d
,
t o a n ill e g a l obj e ct ; ( G ) t he p a rt ie s m us t b e c om pe te n t t o
con tr a ct .
SE CTI O N A
T he p a r ti es m u s t be a greed
The gre e m e n t is e xpla in e d in m an y we ll

n at u r e of a
kn own wor ks We a r e h e r e con ce rn e d wi t h t he m ode s in

.
wh i ch a gr e em e n t s a r e con clu de d a n d wit h som e cir cu m

st a n c e s in whi c h a gr e e m e n t is a b se n t Agr ee m e n t u su a lly .
r e su l t s fr o m t he a cc e p t a n ce of a n o f
fe r or fr o m t he re ply ,
‘
t o a qu e st i on Thu s if I say I o ffe r t o b u y yo u r hor se for
.
,
’
a n d y o u a n sw e r Agr e e d ; t he contra ct is c o m ple te
‘
fr o m t he m o m e n t t h at you r a n swe r m a ke s kn own t o m e

?
yo u r a c ce p t a n ce of t he o ffe r m a de t o you So if I say ,
‘
Will you se ll m e you r hor se for £ 5 0 an d you a nswe r I ‘
will ; t h e r e is a con t r a ct co m ple t e d by yo ur a n swe r e x

’
,
pr e ss in g a willin gn e ss t o se ll give n in r e ply to m y qu e st ion,
e xp r e ssin g a will in gn e ss t o b u y I n R om a n L a w t he .
c o n t r a ct k n own a s t he st ip ul at io n w a s n o r m a lly e xp r e sse d
in t he form of qu est ion an d an sw e r In R om an D u t ch L a w .

-
1
The ge n e r al r u l e is as s t a te d in t he te x t B u t in t he c as e o f .
a cc e pt a n c e s t hr o u gh t he po s t a c t u a l c o m m u n i ca t io n t o t he o ffe r o r
is n o t in di spe n sa b le ( i nfr a , p 2 1 6 ) a n d t he o ffe r m a y in so m e

.
case s , fr o m i t s n a t u r e o r b y e x pr e ss t e r m s , di spe ns e w it h c o m
m u n i c a t io n o f a c c e pt an c e Rex . V
Ne l [ 1 9 2 1 ] A D a t pp 3 44, . . . .
3 5 1 ff M cK e n zi e V
F a rm er s Cc op M ea t I nd u stri es L td [ 1 9 22 ]
’
.
-
. .
A D 1 6 ; Cu lli n a n
. . V U
n i on G ov t [ 1 9 22 ] C P D 33
. . . . . .
F ORMATI ON OF CONTRACT 2 15
n e it he r offe r a n d a c ce p t a n ce n or qu e st ion a n d a n swe r a r e

in disp e n sa ble b u t a n y e xpr e ssion of a c o m m on in te n t ion
, ,
whe the r con ve ye d by spoke n or wr itte n wor ds o r by c o n ,
d u ct or p art ly by wor ds a n d p ar tly by con du ct wil l c on

, ,
stit u t e a n a gr e e m e n t w hi c h ( o t h e r n e ce ssa r y c o n di t i o n s
?
b e in g sa t i sfi e d ) t he law will e n for ce B u t wi t ho u t u ni on of
m in d s t h e r e can b e n o a gr e e m e n t “
The r e for e a m e r e .
,
de cl ar a ti on of in t e n ti o n n o t in te n de d t o b e a sse n te d t o “
,
o r n ot ye t a sse n te d t o o r a m e r e o f fe r u n a c ce p t e d i s d e st i , ,
?
t u te of le g a l con se qu e n ce s To su ch u nil a te r a l de cla r a
t i o n s of inte n ti on t he R o m a n l a wy e r s g a ve t he n a m e
2
Sin ce a n u n a cce p te d offe r doe s n o t
‘ ’
of pollicita t ion .
b in d t he o ffe r or u n t il a c ce p t an ce b e for e a c c e pt a n ce it ,
m a y a t a n y t im e b e re voke d “
On ce a c ce p te d it b e co m e s .
,
ir r e voc a ble An offe r if n o t a cc e p te d withi n t he t im e or

.
, ,
1
Va n L e e u w e n , 4 3 1 . . .
2
G r 3 3 45 ; J ou ber t
. . .E ns li n [ 1 9 1 0 ] A D a t p 2 3 ; J on es V . . . . V .
Reyn o lds [ 1 9 1 3 ] A D 3 66 ; B loom A me r i ca n S w is s Watch 0 0

. . V . .
[ 1 9 1 5 ] A D 1 00 ( in for m a t io n giv e n in ign or a n ce o f o ffe r e d r e w ar d ) ;

. .
D o bbs V
Verr a n [ 1 9 2 3 ] B D L 1 7 7 ( On e par t y t ho u ght t ha t a r ide
. . . .
in a m o t o r c a r w a s t o b e pa id fo r , t he o t he r t ho u ght t ha t it w as
-
2
Gr 3 1 1 1 . . . .
2
G r 3 1 48; Va n L e e u w e n , 4 1 3 G r o t iu s sa y s t ha t a po lli c i
. . . . . .
t a t io n m a d e in G o d s ho n o u r o r e x pr ae c e de n t i ca u sa fo r pu b li c
’
pu r po se s is b in din g Th is is t ake n fr o m t he R o m a n L a w ( D ig 5 0. . .
1 2 1 an d
. B u t it sca r ce ly ho lds go o d t o da y Su ch a po llic ita t io n -
.
ho w e v e r , if a c ce pte d, m i ght b e b in din g as a n ac t io n a b le pac t o r

c on tr a c t Se e G r o e n de leg a br , ad lo c , i n fin e
. . . . . .
2
D ig 5 0 1 2 3 pr , P ac t u m e st du o r u m c o n se n su s a t u e c o n
. . . . q
v e n t io , po lli c i t a t io v e r o o ffe r e n t is so liu s pr o rn issu m G r o t iu s .
po llic it a t io b y b e l o ft e A n o ffe r in t e n de d t o b e ac c e pt e d
‘
r e n de r s
As t o t he e ffe ct o f t e n de r se e Un i on G ovt V
‘ ’
is t o e z e ggin g . . .
Vi a n i n i [ 1 9 3 8] A D 5 6 0 . . .
2
G r 3 3 45 S in c e t he de c is io n in C on r adi e
. . . . R oss ou w [ 1 9 1 9 ] V .
A D 2 7 9 ( i nfr a , p 2 2 6 , n 2 ) a n o pt io n t o pu r c h as e m u s t b e t a ke n , a t
. . . .
a ll e ve n t s in c e r t a in ca se s , t o c o n s t it u t e a b in di n g c o n t r a c t , fr o m
w hi c h t he pe rso n giv in g t he o pt i o n c ann o t w i t hdr a w w itho u t t he

c o n s e n t o f t he pe rs o n t o w ho m t h e o pt i o n w a s gi v e n B oyd Ncl . V .
[ 1 9 22 ] A D‘ 41 4 B u’ t an Opt io n m a y b e a m e re o ffe r A pr o m is e
. . . .
t o giv e a v o o r ke u r m a y c o n fe r a n o pt io n ( F au r i e D e B r u yn V .
[ 1 9 1 4] A D . o r m e r e ly a pr e fe r e n c e , in w h ich ca se i t m a y o r
.
m a y n o t giv e a le ga l r ight t o t he pr o m isee Va n P lets en H en n i n g . V .
[ 1 9 1 3] A D a t p 1 0 2 ; Ro bi n s on v Ra ndfon tei n E s ts G M 0 0
. . . . . . . .
[ 1 9 2 1 ] A D a t pp 1 88, 2 3 7 ; E dw a r ds ( Wa a i kr a a l ) G M Co L td
. . . . . . .
v Ma m o ga le [ 1 9 2 7 ] T P D a t p 2 9 5 ; S her
. A lla n [ 1 9 2 9] O P D
. . . . V . . . .
1 3 7 ; Ra i nfor th V
B r ow n [ 1 9 3 7 ] S R 2 6 9 . . . .
2 16 THE LAW OF OBLIGATI ON S
in t he m a nn e r p r es cr ib e d fo r a cce p t a n ce or wh e r e n o
,
1
, , ,
t im e is p r e s cr ib e d wi thi n a r e as o n a ble t im e l a p se s a n d
, , ,
ip so ju r e de te r m in e s in t he e ve n t of t he d e at h of t he
'
“
o fie r or o r of fe r e e b e fo r e a c ce p t a n c e A p u r por te d a cce p .
t a n ce su bj e c t t o co n di t ions a ddi t io n s r e st ri ct i o ns o r , , ,
fe ct a s a re j e ct io n of t he o r igi na l O
a l te r a t io n s t a k e s e f ffe r
a n d a s a n ewo f
“
fe r .
In t he c a se of n e got ia t i on s t hr ou gh t he po st o r by o t h e r ,
su c h m e di u m of co rr e spo n d e n ce it is ofte n m a t te r of ,
i m por t a n ce t o d e te r m in e wh e t h e r a n d wh e n a c o n t r a ct
has b e e n con cl u d e d Su ppo se fo r i n st a n ce a n O ffe r m a de .
, ,
t hr ou gh t he po st a n d a n a cce p t a n ce po ste d wh i ch n e v e r
r e a c h e s t he o ffe r o r o r r e a c h e s hi m l ate Ca,
n i t b e sa id t h a t .
t he offe r has be e n a cce p te d ? E n gli s h L a w is se tt l e d in t he

se n se t h a t t he po st in g of a l e t te r of a cce p t a n ce co n cl u d e s
t he c on tr a ct so t h a t bo t h p a r t i e s a r e fr om t h a t m o m e n t
,
bou n d a n d t he App e lla te D ivi si on ha s p r o n ou n ce d in

4
,
fa vou r of t his solu t io n pr ovide d of c ou r se t h a t t he pu r , ,
por te d a c ce p t a n ce is n o t in c o n siste n t wi t h t he te r m s of t he
“
offe r .
The a cce p t a n ce of r a ilw a y t i ck e t s clo a k r oo m t i cke t s ,

-
,
a n d t he lik e ha s r a i se d t he sa m e di f fi cu lt ie s in m ode r n
R o m a n D u t ch L aw a s in E n glish L a w a n d wi t h sim il ar
-
re sul t s A p ar t y is bou n d if he ha s ha d a r e a so n a ble

.
“
opport u ni t y of a cqu a in t in g hi m se lf wi t h t he con te n ts .
So m e t im e s it is a gr e e d b e tw ee n t he p a rt ie s t h a t t h e ir
c o n t r a ct s h a ll b e r e d u ce d t o wr i t in g Wh e t he r t h e y ar e .
1
L a ws V
Ru the rfu r d [ 1 9 2 4] A D 2 6 1
. . . .
2
V o e t , 5 l 7 3 S ee S tofbe r g
. . E s t Va n Rooy en [ 1 9 2 8] O P D
. V . . . . .
3 8; B u ckla n d , T extboo k, p 41 3 , n 8 . . .
2
Je nks , Di gest, A r t 2 1 1 ; Watermeyer M u rr a y [ 1 9 1 1 ] A D
. V . . .
6 1 ; H ou s ton V
B letc hly [ 1 9 2 6 ] E D L 3 0 5
. . . . .
2
An so n , L a w of Con tr ac t, p 2 5 . .
2
K
er gu e le n S ea li ng a n d Wha li n g 0 0 Com m r s for I n la nd . V . .
Re ve n u e [ 1 9 39 ] A D 487 , a ppr o vi n g ot z e J P s de c is io n in C a p e
’
K . .
V
. .
E xp losi ve Wor ks L td S A Oi l a nd F a t I ndu s tr i es L td [ 1 9 2 1 ]

. . . .
V
.
C P D 2 44 Se e a ls o Woo lme r
. . B e es [ 1 9 3 5 ] T P D 3 1 9 ( o ffe r . . . .
V
. .
a n d a c c e pt a n c e b y t e le ph o n e ) ; Ya tes D a lton [ 1 9 3 8] E D L 1 7 7 . . . .
( b y t e le gr am ) .
2
P ea r d v R en n i e dc S on s ( 1 89 5 ) 1 6 N L R 1 7 5 ; C en tr a l S ou th
’
. . .
V
.
Afr i ca n Ra i lw a ys M cL a r en [ 1 90 3 ] T S 7 2 7 ; D y er v M e lr os e
. . . .
S tea m L a u nd r y [ 1 9 1 2 ] T P D 1 64; We sse ls i 1 0 7 ff . . . . . .

2 18 THE LAW OF OB LIGATI ON S
1
e x iste n ce o r n o n e xiste n c e of a r u le of law A s distin ct -
.
fr om m ist a k e of law m ist a ke of fa ct ofte n affe ct s t he ,
form a t io n o r t he op e r a t io n of a c on tr a ct a n d t ha t in ,
var iou s w a ys In r e l a t io n t o t he for m a tio n of c on tr a c t

.
,
m ist a k e if it ha s a n y e ffe ct a t a ll p r e ve n ts a con tr a ct fr Om

, ,
c o m in g in t o e xi ste n ce To co ns t it u te a c on t r a ct t he re .
m u st be p ar t ie s who a gr e e a n d so m e t hin g a gr ee d u po n .
If e it he r of t h e se e le m e n ts is wa n t in g t h e r e m ay in de e d
be t he e x t e rn a l i n di ci a of a con tr a c t b u t t h e r e is n o ,
c o n sen su s of m in d s Th e r e fo r e in pr in ciple t h ere is n o .

, ,
con tr a ct
1 . If o n e of t he p ar t ie s t o a su ppo se d c on tr a c t is u n de r
a m isa pp r e h e n sio n as t o t he p e r so n wit h who m he
2
i s con t r a ct in g (e rr or in p e r son a ) ;
2 . If t h e r e is a m isu n de r st a n di n g a s t o t he n a t u r e of
t he t r a n sa c ti on ( e r r or in n e go t io ) or
3 . As t o t he id e n t it y of t he su bj e ct m a t te r of t he c o n -
2
t r a ct (e rr or in cor por e ) ; o r
A s t o t he qu a li t y of t he su bj e ct m att e r ( e rr o r in
'
4 .
-
2
su b st a n t i a ) ; o r
“
5 . G e n e r a lly a s t o t he e sse n ti a l te r m s of t he c on tr a ct
, .
No dou b t e ve r y o n e of t h ese pr opo sit i on s m u st b e t a ke n

su bj e c t t o q u a lifi c a t io n s which c a nn o t b e d e v e lop e d in
a n e l e m e n t ar y t r e a t ise A fe w po in t s m a y b e m e n t i o n e d . .
F ir st a ccor di n g t o a wide ly a cce pte d vi e w it is n ot e ve r y

, ,
K otz e le a r n e d u dgm e n t ; H e yden r ych

OJ . .
’
s j
S ta n da r d B k of V . .
S A [ 1 9 2 4] C P D 33 5 ; 3 3
. . . .
p 45 E rr o r o f fa c t
. . .
a n d e r r o r o f la w di s t in gui s h e d S a mp s on n i on ( 2 Rhodes i a . V U .
Who lesa le L td [ 1 9 2 9 ] A D a t p 47 9 . . . . .
1
Whe t he r m is t a ke a s t o pr iv a t e r ight s is a m is t ake o f la w ?
Ro o th V
The S ta te , u bi su p , a t p 2 6 7 ; Um hle bi
. U m hlebi s E s t
’
. . V . .
[ 1 9 0 5 ] 1 9 E D C 2 3 7 ; E st J ons s on . . E s t J on s son [ 1 9 2 6] N P D
. . V . . . . .
a t p 300 . .
2
Po t hie r , Obli ga ti o ns , se c 1 9 B e yer s M cK en zi e ( 1 880 ) F o o r d, . V .
1 25 .
2
P o t h ie r , D o bbs v Verr a n [ 1 9 2 3 ] E D L 1 7 7 . . . . .
2
M a r i tz V
P r a tley ( 1 89 4) 1 1 S C 3 45 ; A ns o n , p 1 6 0
. . . . .
P o t hie r , s e c 1 8 . .
2
M cA lp i n e V
Ce llie r s [ 1 9 2 1 ] E D L 1 1 2 This w as a c as e o f
. . . . .
m ist a ke as t o t h e m e a nin g o f a r e pr e s e n t a t io n in du c in g t he co n
t r a c t , b u t it illu s t r a te s t he pr in c iple .
mi st a ke p e rsons whi c h will b e fat a l t o a c on tr a ct ;

as to
wh e r e t he in di vi du ali ty of the p ar t y is n ot a m ate r ia l co n
si de r a t i o n t he c o n t r a c t hold s good n o t wi t h st a n din g t he
m i st a ke ?
Th u s wh e r e an o r de r is se n t to o n e t r a de sm an
,
a n d e x e cu t e d by a n o t h e r in t he a b se n ce of sp e ci a l c ir cu m ,
st a n ce s t he good s m u st b e p a id fo r t ho u gh t he p u r ch ase r ,
m a y h a ve b e e n u n de r a m isa ppr e he n si o n a s t o t he p e r s o n
who su pplie d t he m Bu t an ot h e r vi e w w hi ch se e m s m or e
.
,
in a c cor d a n ce wit h p r in cipl e is t h a t if t he good s ar e ,
?
r e t ain e d t h e r e i s a qu asi con tr a c tu a l d u t y t o pa y for t h e m
-
N e x t a s r e gar ds wh at m ay b e c a lle d t he m ate ri a l b a sis

,
o r su bj e ct m a t te r of t he c o n tr a c t — t he cru c ia l qu e sti o n to
-
de te r mi n e is wh at w as t he b ar g a in be twe e n t he p art ie s .
Vi de a m u s qu i d in te r e m e n te m e t v e n de n te m a ct u m sit
‘ ’
,
sa ys Ju li a n in t he D i ge st
“ Cle ar ly m ist a ke whi ch li e s .
,
ou tside t he or bit of t he b ar g a in ca nn ot a ffe ct it in a n y

w a y Thu s in a C a n a di a n c a se wh e re A o ffe re d te n box e s
.
, ,
of m a t che s for sa le a t p e r box a n d t h e o f

f e r w as ,
a cc e p te d he cou ld n o t e s c a p e fr o m t he con tr a c t o n t he
,
ple a t h a t he m e an t t o ch ar ge pe r box a n d ha d ,
n a m e d t he low e r figu r e by m ist a k e

?
Si m il a r ly whe r e i t ,
i s a qu e st i on of qu a lit y e g if t he b a r g a in i s fo r t he sa le of
,
. .
t h e se ca n dl e st ick s it is b e side t he m a r k t h at t he p u r ch a se r
t hin k s he i s ge tt in g silve r ca n dl e st i c ks wh e n in fa ct t h e y ,
a r e pl a te d The ca se wou ld b e di ffe r e n t if t he se ll e r t ho u gh t

.
t h a t t he b a r g a in w a s fo r t he sa le of t h e se c a n dl e st i ck s
‘ ’
,
‘ ’
or t h e se pl a t e d c an dle sti ck s whil e t he bu ye r t hou ght , ,
t h a t t he b a r g a in w a s for t he sa le of t h e se silve r c a n dle

‘
In t h a t e ve n t t h e r e w o u ld b e n o u n i on of mi n d s
’
st i ck s .
b e t we e n t he p art ie s e a ch b e in g u n de r a m isa ppr e h e n si on

,
a s t o t he i n t e n t i o n of t he o t h e r Thi s is a ca se of m u tu a l .
e r r or It m u st b e dist in gu ish e d fr o m c om m on e rr or i e
.
, . .
whe n bot h p a rt ie s l a bou r u n d e r t he sam e m ist a ke “

.
1
P o t hie r , se c 1 9 ; An s o n , p 1 5 1 ; . 1 1 10 . .
2
We sse ls , i 9 3 5 if . .
D ig 1 8 1 41 pr . . . .
2
M or is se t V
B r ochu ( 1 883 ) 1 0 Qu e b e c L a w R e po r t s , 1 0 4
. .
Po thie r , se c 1 8; Pr o f Che shir e in 6 0 L Q R

. .
p . . . . 1 75 .
I nfr a , p 2 2 1 . .
THE LAW OF OB LIGATI ON S
The E ve n wh e re a m a te r i al m is a pp r e he n sion e xi st s it doe s ,
n o t n e ce ssar ily follow t h a t a p a r t y t o a n a pp a r e n t c o n t r a c t
ca n e s c a p e li a b ili t y by a ll e gi n g his m i st a k e It i s t o s o m e .
e x te n t t ru e t h a t a c o n t r a ct ha s a n obj e c t i ve e xis te n ce
in d e p e n de n t of t he volit io n of t he p a r t ie s ?
I n e st im a tin g
t he c o n se qu e n ce s of m i st a ke t he qu e st i on whi c h i s a ske d
“
i s n o t s o m u c h wh at a pe r s on i n te n d s a s wh a t he say s ; a n d
n o t so m u ch wh a t he sa ys a s wh a t e xpe ct a t i o n hi s wor d s
e xcite ( o r r e as o n a bly m a y e x c ite ) in a n o t h e r p e rs o n s m in d

’
.
Th e r e for e o n t he o n e h an d t he p r om i sor is bo u n d t o
, ,
‘
p e rfor m wh a t his l a n gu a ge j u stifi e d t he p r o mi se e in e xp e ct

a n d o n t he o t h e r h a n d a p r o m i see s e xp e c t a t i o n
’ ’
in g , ,
m u st b e r e a so n a ble in t he cir cu m st an ce s N e it h e r p r o m is or .
n o r p r o m i se e ca n t a k e a dva n t a ge of his mi st a k e u n l e ss i t
w a s a r e a s on a bl e m i st a k e — j u st u s e t pr o b a bili s— n o t i m
?
pu t a b le t o his o w n c ar e le ssn e ss Thu s if a t a sale by
a u ct ion a p e r so n b i d s for p r op e r t y A in t e n di n g t o b i d fo r ,
p r op e rt y B a s a ru le he m u st a cce p t t he co n se qu e n ce s
,
of his m ist a ke b u t t he r e su l t will b e diffe re n t if t he re ,
w a s so m e t h in g i n t he ci r cu m st a n c e s t o m a k e t he m ist a ke
“
e x cu sa bl e .
We h a ve spoke n of ca se s in whi c h m ista ke m a y h a ve

1
Case s a r ise in w hi c h , a lt ho u gh t he r e is in fa c t n o m u t u a l
‘
ass e n t , a n d a cc o r din gly n o c o n t r ac t , o n e o f t he pa r t ie s m a y b e
e st o p e d b y his st a t e m e n t s o r c o n du c t fr o m se t t in g t his u In
p p .
s u ch c a se s t he re m a y b e sa id t o b e a u as i m u t u a l a sse n t
’
B lac k q -
.
b u r n J in S m i th . V
Hu ghes ( 1 87 1 ) L R 6 Q B a t p 6 0 7 , c ite d in . . . . .
Va n Ryn Wi ne a nd S p i r i t 0 0 v Cha n dos B a r [ 1 9 2 8] T P D a t . . . . .
p 42 2
.
‘
Whe r e a pa r t y has e n te r e d in t o a w r itte n a gr ee m e n t , he is
.
n o t e n t it le d t o re lie f, b e c a us e he u n de rs t o o d t he c o n t r ac t diffe re n t ly
fr o m w ha t it is t r u ly c o n st r u e d t o m e a n H ofi ma n n v S A Can . . . .
s er va tor i u m of M u si c ( 1 9 0 8) 2 5 S C a t p 3 0 p er Ma a s do r p J . . . .
2
S A l . s . Na t B k of S A [ 1 9 2 4] A D a t p 7 1 6 p er
. V . . . . . . . .
We sse ls J A . .
2
P i e te r s ( 2 0 0 S a lom on [ 1 9 1 1 ] A D a t p 1 3 8 p er Inn e s J
. V . . . .
P hea s a n t V Wa rn e [ 1 9 22 ] A D a t p 487 ; H odgs on B r os v S A

'
-
. . . . . . . .
l s [ 1 9 2 8] C P D 2 5 7 ; Va n Ryn Wi ne a nd S p i r i t 0 0
. . . C ha n
. . V .
dos B a r , u bi su p ; I r vi n ( 2 J ohns on ( S A ) L td v . ap la [ 1 9 40 ]
'
. . . . K
C P D 6 47
. . . .
2
V o e t , 1 2 6 7 ; 2 2 6 6 ; L oga n v B e i t ( 1 89 0 ) 7 S C a t p 2 1 6
. . . . . . . . .
2
M err i ngto n v D a vids on [ 1 9 0 5 ] 2 2 S C 1 48; D e Vi llie r s . . . V .
P a rys T ow n Cou nci l [ 1 9 1 0 ] O P D 5 5 . . . .
2
M a r i tz V
P r a tley [ 1 89 4] 1 1 S C 3 45 ; a n d se e t he E n glish cas e
. . .
o f S cr i ven V
Hi ndle y [ 1 9 1 3] 3 K B 5 6 4; An so n , p 1 5 7
. . . . .
222 THE LAW OF OB LIGATI ON S
void if the c ir cu m sta n ce s a re su ch a s to e x cl u de co nse n t .
The sa m e p r in cipl e se e m s t o a pply t o a c o n t r a ct p r ocu r e d

by t he fr a u d of o n e of the con tr a ctin g p art ie s ; e g whe n . .
a m a n is d e c e ive d a s t o t he n a t u r e of t he t r a n sa c t io n .
Ce rt a inl y in su ch a ca se he wo ul d h a ve n o cons e n t in g
,
mi n d .
‘
If t he de fe n dan ts w er e in du ced by fr au d to e n te r into a
c on tr a ct t he y n e v er in te n de d t o e n t e r in t o in t he a b s e n c e of ,
a co n tr a ct in g mi n d on t he ir p ar t t he c on tr a ct w o u ld be
,
w holl y void a n d n o t onl y v oida ble ; b u t t he d e fe n ce o f fr a u d

,
c ou l d n ot b e se t u p by t he m a ga in st t he b a nk a n in n o ce n t ,
part y if t he y w e r e gu ilty o f n e glige n ce in signi n g t he co n

,
Pr ope rt y The ffe ct of m ist a ke wh e re it op e r a te s b e in g t o re n d e r

e , ,
t he con t r a ct void n o t void a ble p r op e rt y a lie n a te d u n de r

, ,
m ist a k e ca n b e r e cove r e d e ve n fr o m bona fide po sse ss or s .
I t is howe ve r n o t u n u su a l t o ta k e a ct ive ste p s t o pr o

, ,
te e t o n e se lf a g a in st li a bilit y by a pplyi n g t o t he Co ur t for

r e sc i ssio n of t he co n tr a ct a n d t hi s i s p a r t ic ul ar ly m a tte r
,
of pru de n ce w h e n t he c o n tr a ct i s e xpr e sse d in wr it in g .
A de cr ee of r e st itu t ion o n t he gr o u n d of mi st a ke i m plie s

t h a t bot h p a rt ie s m u st be r e pl a ce d in t h e ir for m e r po sit ion .
For e x a m ple a p u r ch a se r of sh ar e s who se e k s r e st it u t io n

,
o n t he gr o u n d t h a t he r e a so n a bly a n d j u st ifi a bly mi st ook
t he m e a ni n g of te r m s in t he con t r a ct of s a le m u st a cco u n t
fo r p r ofit m a d e by sa le of su ch sh are s a s we re de live r e d t o
hi m It i s n o t e n ou gh t o o ffe r t o re t ur n a n e qui v a le n t
.
2
n u m b e r of sh are s .
SE CTI ON B
The pa r ti es mu s t i n tend or be deemed to i n tend to , , cr ea te
a legal o bli ga ti on
Sin ce t he fo u n da t ion of con tr a ct is t he in te n t ion of

t he p a r t ie s t o bin d t h e m se lve s wh e re t hi s is a b se n t t h e ir
,
1
S ta nda r d B a n k v D u P lo oy ( 1 89 9 ) 1 6 S C a t p 1 7 2 p er Maas
. . . .
do r p J Mac ke u r t a n , S a le of G oods i n S ou th Afri ca , p 1 3 0 I t . .
m a y b e pr e su m e d t ha t t he S o u t h Afr i c an Co u r ts w o u l d n o t acc e pt
t he r e as o n i n g in Ca r lis le B a n ki n g C o v B r a gg [ 1 9 1 1 ] l K B 489 ;
. . . .
2
A nso n , p 1 6 2 . . L oga n v B ei t ( 1 890 ) 7 S C 1 9 7 . . . .
F ORMATI ON OF C ONTRACT 22 3
a gr e e m e n t doe s n o t cre ate a le ga l O blig a t ion Wh e the r .

1
su c h a n in te n ti on e xi st s o r n o t i s u su a lly t o b e in fe rr e d
fr om t he cir cu m st a n ce s a n d p art ic u l a r ly fr om w h a t t he
,
p a rt ie s sa id a n d did The E n glish L a w re g ar ds the givin g

.
of c on side r a ti on a s e vide n ce ( a n d in ge n e r a l n e ce ssa r y , ,
e v id e n ce ) of su c h in te n t i o n I n t he R o m an D u t c h L a w.
-
w h i ch doe s n o t r e qu ir e c o n side r a t i o n a s a c o n st it u e n t
e l e m e n t of a co n t r a c t
2
it b e co m e s a ll t he m or e im porta n t
‘
,
t h a t t he e vide n ce shou ld e st a bli sh cle a r ly t h a t t he in

3 ’
t e n ti on of t he p a r t ie s w a s t o cr e a te a l e g a l O blig a t io n .
If t he tr a n sa cti on is of a u su a l b u sin e ss ch a r a cte r t hi s

in te n ti on will b e in fe rr e d t o b e pr e se n t in t he a b se n ce of
‘
c l e a r e vi d e n ce t o t he c o n t r ar y .
SE CTI O N C
The ob e ct o
j f the a gr eem en t m u s t be p hys ica lly a nd lega lly
p ossi ble
The Cou r t s will c o n side r t h at a n a gr e e m e n t is wit ho u t Physica l
le ga l e ffe ct if a c co r din g t o the p re v a ilin g sta n d ar d of kn ow

l e dge it i s su ppo se d to be i m po ssible of pe r fo rm an ce . bility .
The sa m e m ay b e sa id of a n a gr e e m e n t d e sign e d t o
cr e a te a l e g a l re l a t io n w hi c h t he la w doe s n o t re c ogni z e
a s po ssibl e ; e
g if a pe r so n a gr e e s t o cre ate a se r vi tu de
. .
in fa vo u r of him se lf ove r his o w n p r op e rt y c o n tr a r y t o t he

‘
p r in ciple n u lli r e s su a se r vit ’
.
SE CTI O N D
The r equ i si te for ms or modes o f agr eem en t (if a ny ) mu s t
be o bser ved
The hi st or i ca l de ve lop m e nt of t he la w of con tr a ct Re qui re .
m e n t“
foll ows su b sta n t ia lly t he sa m e c ou r se in t he var iou s le ga l of form .
1
V an L e e u w e n 4 l 3 ; V in n i us a d In st 3 1 4 2 s e c 1 1
'
, . . . . .
, . .
2
I nfr a , p 22 6 . .
3
R o bi ns on v Ra ndfon te i n G M Co [ 1 9 2 1 ] A D a t p 2 3 7 p er
. . . . . . .
S o lo m o n J A . .
The E n glis h case o f Ros e cfi F r a n k Co v Cr omp ton [ 1 9 2 3 ] '

. .
2 K B . . 2 6 1 su pplie s a r e m a r ka b le illu st r a t io n o f t he e ffe c t

o f s u ch c o n t r a r
y in te n t i o n ( r e v e rse d o n a ppe al t o t he H o u se o f
L o r ds , b u t n o t o n t hi s po in t [ 1 9 2 5 ] A C a t p C f F oste r v . . . . .
Whe e ler ( 1 887 ) 3 6 Ob D 6 9 5 ; B a lfou r v B a lfou r [ 1 9 1 9 ] 2 K B 5 7 1

. . . . . .
2 24 THE LAW OF OB LIGATI ONS
sy ste m s kn own t o u s I n a p r i m it ive s o cie t y fe w pr o m i se s

.
a re e nfo r ce d by la w a n d o nl y u po n c o n di t io n of t h e ir
,
be in g a cc o m p a n i e d by so m e s ole m n i tie s of for m o r e xp re s

s io n , whi ch se r ve t o m a r k t h e ir se r io u s c h a r a cte r a n d t o
di stin gu i sh t h e m fr o m t he m a ss of a gr e e m e n t s a n d pr o
mi se s of w hi ch t he law in it s in it i a l st a ge s fa ils t o t a ke
a cco u n t
1
. L a t e r t he ca te gor ie s of a ct io n a ble a gr e e m e nt s
,
a r e m ul tiplie d o r t he co n di t io n s of e n fo r c e a b ili t y m a d e
,
m or e si m ple L a st ly a st a ge is r e a ch e d in whi c h a ll a gre e

.
,
m e n t s in te n d e d t o cr e a te le ga l r e l a t io n s c o n t r a c te d by ,
co m p e te n t p e r so n s fo r l a wfu l O bj e ct s a r e u phe ld by the ,
c o u rt s . I t m ay b e how e ve r t h a t t he law stil l r e qu ir e s t h at

, ,
a ll a gr e e m e n t s in di f fe r e n t ly shou ld sa t i sfy s om e co n di t io n
whi ch is t a ke n t o be the te st of t he se r iou s in te n t io n of
t he p a r t ie s I t m a y b e fu rt he r t h a t for sp e c i a l r e as on s
.
, ,
s o m e kin d s of a gr e e m e n t ar e r e qu ir e d t o b e e xp r e sse d in
wri t in g or in sole m n wr itt e n for m .
The R o m a n L aw a s i s w e ll k n o w n w a s far fr o m e u
, ,
for ci n g a ll a gr e e m e n t s In Ju stin ia n s syste m o nl y t he

.
’
followin g c la sse s of a gr e e m e n t we r e a ction a ble v i z : ( 1 ) ,

.
r e a l c o n t r a ct s ; ( 2 ) st ip u l a t io n s ; ( 3 ) t he fo u r c o ns e n su a l
c o n t r a c t s ; ( 4) t he s o — ca ll e d i nn o mi n a te con t r a ct s ; ( 5 )
c e r t a in p a c t s wh i ch a t v a r io u s t i m e s a n d in v a ri o u s w a ys
,
ha d b e e n c lo t h e d w it h a ct io n a bilit y a n d t hu s b e ca m e co n
t r a ct s i n e ve r yt hi n g b u t n a m e .
All o t h e r a gr e e m e n t s r e m a in e d b ar e p a cts (p a cta n u da ) .
Th e y co u ld n o t b e e nfor ce d by a ct io n b u t m ight be ,
ple a de d by w a y of e x ce p t io n 2
N u da p a ct io o b liga t io n e m
.
‘
3
n o n p a r i t se d p a r i t e x ce pti o n e m The st ip u l a t io n in it s
’
.
la te st st a ge s w a s a lm o st a lw a ys r e du ce d t o wr it in g so t h a t ,
it i s su b st a n t i a ll y t ru e t o s a y t h a t i n Ju stini a n s la w a n y
’
a gr e e m e n t wh a te v e r wo u ld b e e n fo r ce d p r ovid e d t h a t it
w a s e xp r e sse d in a wr i t t e n inst ru m e n t a n d w a s inte n d e d

to cr e a te a le g a l O bli g a t io n b u t o t h e r a g r e e m e n t s o nl y if
,
t h e y fe ll wit hin c e r t a in kn own cl a sse s or if o n e p ar t y ha d ,
1
Ma in e A n ci ent L a w p 3 2 7
, , . .
2
Gr 3 l 51
. . . .
( Ul pia n ) D ig 2 1 4 7 , 4
3
. . . .
Ro m an Fr o m t he
bove de scr ip t i o n O f t he e sse n t i a l e le m e n t s of
a
D u tch
c o n t r a c t it is a pp a r e n t t h a t t he R o m an D u t c h L a w p a ys -
L aw
re quire s n o a t t e n t i o n t o t h e fo r m a l r e qu ir e m e n t s of t he R o m a n
n e i t he r
o
fo r m L aw I t is e qu a lly a st r a n g e r t o t he E n gli sh r e qu ir e m e n t
.
O f F o r m o r Co n sid e r a t io n It m ay be a sse r te d wit h c o n

n or c on
.
side r a
t i on
.
fide n ce t h a t t he do ctr i n e of c o n sid e r at ion di d n o t for m
p a r t of t he R o m an D u t ch L aw of H oll an d The l a te L o r d -
.
de Villi e r s in de e d o n m or e t h an on e o c c a sion j u di ci a lly

, , ,
a dv a n ce d t he vi e w t h a t in t he R o m a n D u t ch L a w e v e r y -
con tr a ct m u st b e b a se d u po n so m e re ason a bl e ca u se (r ede

The lijk oor zaa k) a n d t h a t r e a s on a ble c a u se as u n de r st ood
, ,
doct rin e
a n d a pplie d by t he D u t ch l a wy e rs w a s in e ffe c t in di s
o f c a usa ,
O r r ed l l k t in u i sha b le fr om t he qu id pr o qu o whi ch p a sse s fo r ‘ ’
0 0 132 88i
g
1
conside r at ion i n E n gli sh L a w B u t t hi s ide n t ific a t ion has
,
2
n o w b e e n r e j e cte d by t he high e st j u dici a l au t ho r i t y It .
m ay in d e e d b e dou b te d wh e t h e r t he do ct r in e of c a u sa
, ,
re a lly o ccu pie d t he i m po r t an t pl a c e in t he R o m a n D u t c h -
L aw whi c h has b e e n a ssi gn e d t o it in m ode r n di scu ssion s .
If as se e m s p r ob a bl e ( t he id e n t ifi c a t io n of c a u se wit h
,
c o n sid e r a t io n b e in g r e j e cte d ) t o say t h a t a p r o mi se o r c o n ,
t r a ct w il l b e e nfor ce d if it has r e a son a bl e c a u se i s u n d e r

st ood t o d a y a s m e a ni n g si m ply t h a t it will b e e nfo r ce d i f
it i s re a son a bl e ( a n d l awfu l ) a n d if t he p a r t ie s in te n de d t o
con t r a ct a le ga l O blig a t io n t he r e te nt ion of t he phr ase ,
re aso n a bl e c a u se m a y b e j u st ifi e d a s a c o m p e n dio u s for m

‘
of e xp re ssi o n b u t o n t he ot h e r h a n d its di su se wo ul d
, , ,
le a ve the su b st an ce O f the la w u ni m p a ir e d The r e qu ir e .

‘
m e n t of a r e a son abl e c au se doe s n o t add t o o r t a ke a wa y

3
m u ch fr o m o u r ide a of a c on t r a ct
’
.
It w a s sa id a bove t h a t e v e n in a de ve lop e d le g a l syste m

form m ay som e t im e s b e r e qu ir e d in p a rt i cul a r c a se s Thu s .
it c or r e sp o n ds ra the r w i t h t he se co n d t e r m in his s e r ies , v iz . a
se r i o u s a n d de li b e r a te in te n t io n S ee A ppe n di x F . .
1
Se e Webster ( 1 9 0 4)
in par t ic ul ar t he Ca pe case o f M te m bu v .
21 S C . . Wal la ch [ 1 90 4]
3 2 3 , a n d t he Tr an sv aa l c ase o f Rood v .
T S 1 87
. . .
J a ya wi c kr em e v A mas u r i ya [ 1 9 1 8] A O 86 9 ; Con r ad i e v
2
. . . .
R ossou w [ 1 9 1 9 ] A D 2 7 9 ; R obi n son v Ra ndfon te i n E s ts G M Co

. . . . . . .
[1 9 2 1] A D at p 2 36 . . . .
3
We sse ls , i 7 2 . .
E n glis h L aw re qui r e s som e tim e s a de e d so m e tim e s t h a t a so me cases ,

r e qu i r e s
c o n t r a ct sho u ld b e e vi d e n ce d by wr it in g No su ch r e qu ir e t hat .
m e n t e xiste d in t he R o m a n D u t ch co mm on la w V a n de r con tr a cts -

.
Lin de n i n dee d sa ys t h a t a n a n te n u p t i a l con tr a ct m u st 16 m

0
1
, ,
'
b e in wr it in g b u t Va n de r K e e sse l do e s n o t a gre e wi t h r it ing

2 w
,
hi m It w as n o t n e ce ssar y t h a t c o n tr a ct s re l at in g t o l a n d
.
s ho u ld b e in wr it in g ; b u t i n t he m od e r n la w w r i t in g i s
3
ge n e r all y re qu ire d as a co n di ti o n of v ali dit y or of p r oof .
Fu rt he r as ha s b e e n se e n a bove a n te n u p t i a l con tr a ct s do
, ,
n ot a f fe ct t hir d p a rt ie s u n le ss r e giste re d in t he o ffice of

t he Re gi st r a r of D e e d s
4
Gifts in e x ce ss of £ 5 0 0 unl e ss .
,
r e gi ste re d o r ( of m ov a bl e s) n o t a r i ally e x e cu te d a r e in v a lid ,
5
t o t he e x te n t of t he e xce ss .
SE CTI O N E
The a gr e em en t m us t no t be i mp ea cha ble on the gr ou nd f
o
F r a u d F ea r , ,
M i sr epr es enta ti on Undu e ,
I nflu e nc e , or
L es i on
All c o n tr a ct s de r ive t he ir va lidi t y fr o m t he fr ee c onse nt Agree

of t he c o n tr a ctin g p a rt ie s Fre e c o nse n t is a b se n t whe n a mi; be
x
.
c o n t r a ct ha s b e e n p r o cu r e d by fr a u d o r fe a r free .
Fr a u d is de fin e d by L a b e o a s O m ni s callidi tas fa lla cia Fr a u d ‘

, , .
m a chi n atio ,
ad cir c u m v e ni e n du m , fa lle n du m , de cipie n
du m a lte ru m a dhib it a a n y cr a ft , de ce it ,
or c on t r iva n ce
1 9
V dL 1 3 3 . . . . . . S u pr a , p 7 3 . .
B y Tr an s v aa l Pr o cl No 8 o f 1 9 0 2 , sec 3 0 , NO c o n t r ac t o f
‘
. . .
fi
sa le o f x e d pr o pe r t y sha ll b e o f a n y fo r ce o r e f fe c t u n l ess it b e in
w r it in g a n d s ign e d b y t he par t ies t he r e to o r b y t he ir a ge n t s du l y
a u t h or is e d in w r it in g
’
L e vy P hi llip s [ 1 9 1 5 ] A D 1 3 9 F ix e d
. V . . . .
fi
pr o pe r t y is de n e d in s e e 2 S im il a r pr o v is io n s in O F S ( O r d 1 2 . . . . . .
o f 1 90 6 se c Wi lke n v o hle r [ 1 9 1 3] A D
. 1 35 Fo r . K . . .
Ce y lo n se e O r d No 7 o f 1 840 , se e 2 ; fo r Na t a l , L a w NO 1 2 o f 1 884,
. . . .
se c 1 ( R oys ton v B adebe [ 1 9 1 4] A D 43 0 ; C o le v S tu a r t [ 1 9 40 ]

. . . . .
A D
. . w hi c h fo ll o w s m o r e o r le ss c lo se ly t h e E n glish S ta t u te
o f F r a u ds , s e c 4 ( n o w t h e L a w o f Pr o pe r t y A c t 1 9 2 5 , se e 40
. .
se e An s o n , C on tr ac t ( 1 8th e d , p Th e r e is n o su ch le gis la t io n . .
in t he Ca pe Pr o v in c e .
5
S u pr a , p 7 3 . . I nfr a , p 2 89 .
fi
.
D ig 4 3 l , 2 This de n it io n , t o ge t he r w ith t he E n glish L a w

. . . .
as in t e rpre t e d in D err y v P ee k ( 1 889 ) 1 4A pp G as 3 3 7 , is dis cu s se d . . .
in T a i t v Wi cht ( 1 89 0 ) 7 S C 1 5 8 S e e a lso Roor da v C ohn [ 1 9 0 3]

. . . . .
T H 279
. . .
em ploye d wi t h a vie w t o cir cu m ve n t de ce ive or e ns n are , ,
’
a n o t h e r p e r so n .
In t he R o m a n L a w dolu s p r od u ce d ( i n ter ali a ) t he

fo llowin g e ffe c ts : v i z ( 1 ) In stri ct i j u ris a c t io ns it m ight .
b e t he su bj e ct of a sp e c ia l ple a ( excep ti o doli ) ; ( 2 ) In re la

t io n t o bo n ae fide i c o n tr a ct s i t m igh t b e a ll e ge d as gr ou n d
of a ctio n o r of de fe n c e ( wi t ho u t spe ci a l ple a ) in t he a c t ion
a pp r op r i a t e t o t he t r a n sa ct io n in qu e st io n e g sa le or ,
. .
de po sit ; ( 3 ) If n o o th e r re m e dy w as a v ail a ble it gr oun de d

1
a sp e ci a l a ct io n c a lle d t he a c t io doli .
In R o m a n D u t ch L a w t he vi ct im of fr a u d co u ld : ( a ) se t
-
in c ase o f 2 3
u p t he fr a u d a s a d e fe n ce ; ( b) su e for d a m a g e s ; ( 0 ) t a k e
1
ste p s t o h a v e t he co n t r a c t se t a sid e Thi s he di d by .
‘
a pplyin g t o t he H ooge Ra a d fo r a wr i t di r e ct in g a Co u rt of
fir st in st a n ce t o in qu ir e int o t he t ru t h of his a lle ga t io n s

a n d if t h e y w e r e w e ll fou n de d t o gr a n t r e li e f
, ,
.
In t he m ode rn la w t he p r o ce d ur e has bee n si m plifie d ,
5
b u t t he r e m e d ie s a re su b st a n t i a lly t he sa m e .
Dolu s
fr au d in cide n t a l t o a co n tr a c t ( dolu s i nciden s i n con tr actu m ) .
Fr au d w a s sa id t o c au se a c on tr a ct whe n a p e rs on w ho ,
ot he r wi se ha d n o t t he i n te n ti o n of co n tr a ct in g w a s in
,
du ce d t o con t r a ct by a n d wou ld n o t h a v e c on t r a cte d b u t ,
fo r t he fr a u d Fr a u d w a s sai d t o b e in cide n t a l t o a c o n
,
.
t r a ct wh e n a p e r son fr e e ly c o n t r a cte d b u t w a s d e ce ive d in

t he te r m s of t he co n t r a ct ( in m odo co n tr a he n di ) e g in ,
. .
6
t he p r i ce Thi s di st in ct io n whi c h se e m s t o h a ve n o solid
.
,
fou n da t io n in R o m an L a w ha s b e e n a dop te d i n m a n y
7
,
1
G ir a r d , p 49 2 . .
2
G r 3 48 7 ; V a n L e e u w e n , 5 1 7 1 3
. . . . . .
2
D e cke r ad V a n L e e u w e n , 4 2 2 ( . . K otz e s
’
t r a n s la t io n , v ol . ii ,
p .
G r 3 48 5 ; V a n L e e u w e n , 4 42 2 a n d 4
. . . . . .
2
F r os t v L es li e [ 1 9 2 3] A D 2 7 6 ; K le yn ha ns B r os v Wess e l s
.
’
. . . .
Tr u s tee [ 1 9 2 7 ] A D a t p 2 7 7 . . . .
V o e t , 4 3 3 ; V in n iu s , S e lect Qu aes t lib i , c a p x i i ; V a n de r

. . . . . .
L in de n , S u pp le men t ad P a nde ct 4 3 3 . . . . .
7
G ir a r d , p 49 3 , n 4 ; Cu q , M a n u e l des I ns ti tu ti on s Ju r i diqu es
. .
des R om a i ns , p 39 2 , n 1 1 . . .
if ap e r so n in du ce d by fr a u d t o e x e cu te a n in stru m e n t
is
p u r por t in g to b e a c o n tr a ct in e n t ir e ign or a n ce of it s
n atu r e t he a b se n ce of a co n t r a ct in g m i n d o n hi s p a rt
wo u ld ( a pa r t fr ome st opp e l du e t o ne glige n ce ) r e n de r t he
,
1
c o n t r a ct wholly void B u t a c a se of t his kin d m ay m ore .
2
p r op e r ly b e r e fe rr e d t o t he t opic of mi st a k e t h an of fr au d .
A s b e t we e n d e fr a u de d a n d d e fr a u de r t he dist in ct ion
of voi d a n d void a bl e is of n o gr e a t im porta n ce ; e x ce p t
t h at in t he l a tte r c a se t he vic t im of t he fr a u d m u st b e
m or e a l e r t t o a sse rt his r ight s b u t it a ffe ct s t he r igh t s
2
,
of inn oce n t t hi r d pe r so n s t o whom pr ope rt y ob t a in e d by

fr a u d ha s p a sse d If t he t r a ns a ct io n is wholl y void t he .
t hir d p a r t y ha s n o t it le a n d t he de fr a u d e d p e r son ca n
r e cov e r it fro m hi m by vin di c a t io n
1
If the t r ansa ct ion is .
‘
m e r e ly void a bl e t he in n o c e n t po sse ssor is in t he b e t te r

5
po siti on .
Sin ce a c o n t r a ct in d u c e d by fr a u d is void a ble n o t void , ,
t he p a r t y d e fr a u de d m a y in hi s O p t ion e it h e r ( a ) a bide by ,
or ( b) r e p u di a te t he c o n t r a ct If he m e an s t o re p u di a te
,
.
he m u st do so wi t hi n a re a son a bl e t im e an d m a y t he n ,
e it h e r b r i n g a n a c ti o n fo r r e s ci ssi o n or se t u p t he fr a u d ,
a s a d e fe n ce t o a n a ct io n o n t he co n t r a ct .
The d e fr au d e d p art y wh e t h e r he e le ct s t o a bide by ,
o r t o r e p u di a te t he co n tr a ct m ay in a n y e ve n t cl aim , , ,
d am a ge s fo r t he fr a u d if he ha s su ffe r e d p r e j u di ce in ,
c o n se qu e n c e of i t u nl e ss he ha s n o t o nl y a ffi r m e d t he co n
,
6
t r a ct b u t a ls o w a i ve d hi s cl a im for d a m a ge s
,
.
Co . o f Ca na da v . B ru n e t [ 1 9 09 ] A O . . 33 0 (PC . in a ppe a l fr o m
Qu e b e c ) .
1
S ta nda r d B a n k v D u P lo oy ( 1 89 9 ) 1 6 S C a t p 1 7 2 . . . . .
2
S u pr a , p 2 2 2 . .
2
We sse ls , i 1 1 3 5 if . .
V o e t , 4 3 3 This is e x pr e ss ly s t a te d a ls o b y G r o e n e w e ge n ad
. . .
G r 3 48 7 c it in g Neo st a d S u pr Cu r D ecis n o 5
. . . . . . . . .
2
We sse ls , i 1 1 41 In B eyer s M cK en zi e ( 1 880 ) F o o r d 1 2 5
. . V .
t he r e w as n o co n t r ac t a t a ll , a n d t he in n o c e n t pu r chase r a c u i r e d q
n o t it le Cf Cu n dy v L i nd s a y ( 1 87 8) 3 A pp Ca 45 9 ; P hi lips v
. . . . . .
B r oo ks [ 1 9 1 9 ] 2 K B 2 43 ; An s o n , p 1 5 2 . . . .
2
B ow di tc h v P ee l dc M agi ll [ 1 9 2 1 ] A D 5 6 1 ; F r ost v L es li e
. . . .
[ 1 9 2 3 ] A D 2 7 6 ; P a thes cop e
. . n i on of S A v M a lli n i ck [ 1 9 2 7 ] U . . .
A D 292
. . .
A p e r son se e kin g t o b e r e li e ved fr o m a c on tr a ct o n t he

gr ou n d of fr a u d m u st a s a r ul e t e n de r t o r e st or e wh a t he
1
ha s r e c e i ve d u n de r t he c on tr a ct .
It m u st b e n o te d t h a t dolu s a lwa ys im pli e s a n in te n ti on Inn 0

t o d e ce ive I n t he D u t c h L a w i nn o ce n t m i sr e pr e se n t a
.
t i on i n du cin g a c o n tr a ct g a ve n o r igh t of act i on n or cl a im t a t ion

t o r e li e f It w as how e ve r a v a il a ble a s a d e fe n ce fo r it
.
, , ,
2
i s in e qu i t a bl e t o su e u pon su ch a c on t r a ct .
The m ode rn law in flu e n ce d by E n gli sh p r a ct ice allows

, ,
a pl a in t iff t o su e for r e s cissi o n of a c o nt r a ct in du c e d by
inn o ce n t mi sr e pr e se n t a t ion b u t n o m ore t h a n t he D u t ch

,
2
L aw a llows a n a ct ion for d a m a g e s .
The r e ar e ce r t ain cla sse s of c o n tr a ct kn own a s c o n tr a cts D ty of u
u b e rr im ae fide i i n w hi c h t he la w i s n o t sa t i sfi e d wi t h t he
a b se n ce of m i sr e p r e se n t a t i o n fra u d ul e n t o r inn o ce n t b u t u b e f fi m ae ,
e"
goe s fur t he r a n d r e qui r e s a n a ct ive dis clo su r e of m ate r ia l
fa cts Co n tr a cts of ins u r a n ce b e lo n g t o t hi s cla ss
. In .
‘
poli c ie s of insu r a n c e t h e r e i s a n u n de r st a n din g t h a t t he

c o n t r a ct i s u ber r i ma m
fi d es t h a t if y o u k n o ,
w a n y c ir c u
st a n ce a t a ll t h a t m a
’
y in fl u e n c e t h e u n d e r w r i te r s O pini o n
a s t o t he r i sk he is in cu r r in g a n d c o n s e qu e n t ly as to ,
whe t he r he will t a ke it y o u wi ll s t a t e wh at
y o u k n ow .
Th e re i s a n oblig a ti on t he r e t o di sclo se w h a t y ou kn ow ;
a n d t he c o n ce a lm e n t of a m a t e r i a l cir c u m st a n ce kn o w n t o
1
M a r ks L td . V
L a u ghton [ 1 9 2 0 ] A D 1 2 B u t t his r ul e w il l
. . . .
p j
n o t a ply w he r e t he su b e c t m a t t e r o f t h e c o n t r a c t has
-
pe r is he d ,
w i t hou t fa u lt o f t he pu r c hase r , in c o nse u e n ce O f t he d e fe c t w hi ch q
i s a lle ge d a s t h e gr o u n d o f r e sc iss io n , e g e ggs fr a u du l e n t ly . .
r e pr e se n t e d as o f go o d q
u a li t y a n d a ft e r d e liv e r y d e st r o y e d b y t he
l o c a l a u t ho r i t y Ib id
. .
2
V a n de r L in de n , S u pp lem e n t ad P a ndect 4 3 1 ( a d . . .
V
. .
F o r S ou t h Afr ic a n L a w s e e Vi ljo en H i lli er [ 1 9 0 4] T S 3 1 2 . . .
( c it in g R edgr a ve V
Hu r d ( 1 881 ) 20 Ch D
. a r oo E as te r n . . K
B oa r d of E x or s v F a rr [ 1 9 2 1 ] A D 41 3 ; S a mp son
. . . n i on dc
. V U
.
R ho desi a Who les a le L td [ 1 9 2 9 ] A D a t p 480 . .
V
. . .
2
S te yn . D a vi s ( 2 D a r low [ 1 9 2 7 ] T P D 6 5 1 Wh e t he r a n . . . .
a c t i o n lie s in de lic t I nfr a , p 3 3 7 No t e t ha t m isr e pr es e n t a t io n o f

. .
t he le ga l e ffe c t o f a w r itt e n a gr e e m e n t w hic h a par t y sign s w it h

fu ll kn o w l e dge o f it s c o n t e n t s is n o t a gr o u n d fo r a v o idin g t he
a gr e e m e n t . T hi s is b e c a u se e v e r y m an is su ppo se d t o kn o w t he
le ga l e ffe c t o f a n in s t r u m e n t w hic h he s ign s n i on dc R hodes i a . U
. V
Who les a le L td ( I n L iqu ida tion ) S a mp son [ 1 9 2 8] C P D a t p 456. . . . .
p e r G ar din e r J P c it in g E n glis h cas e s

. . .
wh e th e r
y ou , y ou t ho u gh t it m a te r i a l or n o t , a voids t he
1 ’
policy .
Fea r or Fe a r or D ur e ss is an o th e r gr ou n d Of in v a li di t y in con
Qu od m e t u s ca u s a ge st u m e r it r a t u m n o n hab e b o
’
t r a ct .
,
s a id t he R o m a n P r ae t or in hi s Edic t
2
Ulpia n de fin e s fe a r .
a di st u r b a n ce of m in d c a u s e d by i ns t a n t o r a
‘
as
pp e r
2 ’ 4
h e n de d pe r il G r o t iu s de s cr ib e s it m or e la r ge ly a s a
.
, ,
‘
gr e a t te rr or as of de at h di sho n o u r gr e a t p a in u nl a wfu l , , ,
i m pr is on m e n t of o n e se lf o r of on e s be lon gin g s 2 ’ ’
I t is a n .
old con tr ove r sy whe the r a c on tr a ct p r ocu r e d by fe a r is

void o r void a ble NO do u b t if a c on tr a ct is p r o cu r e d by
.
,
physic a l c o m p u lsion it i s wholl y void B u t in ca se of 2

.
wh a t is so m e tim e s c a ll e d m or a l viole n c e or dur e ss t he

vi e w n o w ge n e r a lly a cce p te d is t h a t the con tr a c t is n ot
void b u t void a ble This a cc or ds wit h t he we ll kn own
, .
-
di ctu m of P a ul u s co a ctu s volu i to which t he glo ssa t or

7 ‘ ’
,
a dds t he e xpl a n a t io n volu n t a s co a ct a e st volu n t a s A o ‘ ’

.
c o r din gly a c o n t r a c t in d u c e d by fe ar r e m a ins good u n t il

8
r e p u di a t e d o r r e s cin de d a n d m a y b e r a t ifie d e xp re ssly o r ,
9
t a citly wh e n t he fe a r is r e m ove d It is n o t e ve r y kin d .
of fe ar t h at a ffe ct s the for m a tion of a con tr a ct b u t o nl y ,
a j u st o r re a so n a ble fe a r — m e t u s n o n v ani ho mi ni s 1° ‘ ’
g d b i g h d how v h d co n di t ion
( r e a r e n a e e r t o t e a ge se x a n
, , , ,
of t he p e r so n in t i m id ate d ) a n d a fe ar of u nl a wful n o t of
11
,
1
F i neG en er a l A ssu r a nce Corp or a tion [ 1 9 1 5 ] A D 2 1 3
v . .
V
.
C o lon ia l I ndu s tr i es L td P r ovi n ci a l I nsu r a n c e C o [ 1 9 2 2 ] A D 3 3

. . . . .
h h i h t x t i s c it e d a n d a do pt e d fr o m L o r d
( w e r e t e p as sa ge n t e e
B lac kb u r n s u dgm e n t in B r ow n li e
’
j Ca mp be ll ( 1 880 ) 5 A O a t V . . .
F o r t he du t y o f di sc lo su r e b e t w e e n pa rt n e rs se e D e J age r
p
V
.
Olifa nt s S yndi ca te [ 1 9 1 2 ] A D 5 0 5
’
. . . .
2
D ig 4 2 1 ; Whi te B r os v Tr easu r er G en e r a l ( 1 883 ) 2 S C a t
. . . . .
-
. .
p 3 50 .
11
I ns t a n t is v e l fu t u r i pe ri cu li cau sa m e n t is t r e pida t io Ib id . .
G r 3 48 6 . .
2
i e w ife a n d childr e n V o e t , 4 2 1 1
. . . . . . . .
2
We sse ls , i 1 1 68 I t is n o t e a sy t o im a gin e a c as e in w hich
. .
t he r e is t he se m b la n ce o f a c o n t r ac t , b u t n o v o lit io n .
7
D ig 4 2 2 1 , 5 ; G r u bi su p V o e t , 4 2 1 ; P o t hie r , Tr a i té de s
. . . . . . .
O bli ga ti on s , se c 2 2 , w it h n o t e in t he D u t c h t r a n sla t io n ;
.
V a n de r L in de n , S u pp leme n t ad P a nd e ct 4 2 2 . . . . .
2
2
V oet , 4 2 2 . . . Voet, 4 2 1 6 . . .
1°
D ig 4 2 6 ; V o e t , 4 2 1 1 V d L l 1 4 2 ;
. . .
Art 1 1 1 2 . . . . . . . . .
11
V o e t , u bi su p .
E n gli sh la w of u n du e in fl u e n c e ha s b e c o m e p art of t he law

1
of Ce ylon .
Le sion ( pr e j u di ce ) m a y b e 1 nv oke d by m in or s a s a
gr o u n d of r e li e f a g a in st c o n t r a ct s e n t e r e d in t o by t h e m
‘
wi t h t he a u t hor it y of t h e ir p a r e n ts o r gu a r di a ns o r e n te r e d ,
2
in t o by p a r e n t s o r g u a r dia n s o n t h e ir b e h a lf a n d by ,
p e r son s O f fu ll a ge in ca se of lae sio e n or m is wh e r e thi s ,
i n st itu t ion r e m a in s in for ce 3

.
. SE CTI O N F
The a gr eem en t m u st j n ot be di r ected to an i llega l o b ect
The n e x t r e qu i site Of a v a lid con tr a ct is t h a t it sho u ld

b e di r e cte d t o a l awfu l obj e ct An obj e ct is u nl a wful if it i s .
co n de m n e d by co mm o n law or by st a t u te In a ll m atur e
1
.
‘
le ga l syste m s t he pr in cip a l h e a ds of ill e g ali t y a r e m u ch t he

sa m e B u t sin ce s oci a l p r ogr e ss b r in gs wit h it n e w con di
.
t i o n s a n d fr e sh a b u se s t he i ll e g a li t ie s of o n e a ge will n o t ,
b e id e n t ic a l wit h t he ill e g ali t ie s of an o t h e r Accordi n gly .

,
t he c a te gor i e s of u n l a wfu ln e ss in con t r a c t a re n o t in t he
P er er a v T isser a ( 1 9 33 ) 3 5 N L R 2 5 7
1
. . . . .
2
S u pr a , 48, 1 1 4 ; i nfr a , A ppe n d ix B .
2
The r u le t ha t a v e n do r o f la n d fo r le ss t han ha lf it s r e a l v a lu e
m ight ge t b a c k h is la n d o n r e t u r n in g t he pr ice , u nl e ss t he b u y e r
’
V
pr e fe rr e d t o pa y t he fu ll a lu e , is a tt r ib u t e d in Ju s t in i a n s C o de
( 4 44 2 a n d 8) t o co n st it u t io n s o f D io cle t ia n a n d Ma x im i an
. .
( A D 2 85 a n d
. . b u t pe r ha ps w as o f l a t e r o r igin G ir a r d , .
p 5 7 5 In t he D u t c h L aw a sim il ar in du l gen ce w as a llo w e d t o a

. .
pu r chase r w ho ha d pa id m o r e t ha n do u b le v a lu e ( i ngs le y v K .
A fr i ca n L a nd Corp or a ti on [ 1 9 1 4] T P D a n d t h e pr in c iple . . .
w a s e x te n de d t o o t he r c o n t r a c t s b e s ide s sa le G r 3 1 7 5 ; 3 5 2 2 , . . . . . .
a n d S c ho r e r , a d 10 0 V a n L e e u w e n , 4 2 0 5 ; V o e t , 1 8 5 1 3 D id
. . . . . .
t he r u le e x t e n d t o m o v a ble s a s w e ll as t o la n d ? G ir ar d, p 5 7 6 . .
D o e s it a pply t o sa le s in e x e cu t io n ? S cho r e r , lo c c it L ae sio . .
e n o r m is has b e e n a b o lis he d a t t he Ca pe b y t he G e n e r a l L a w
A m e n dm e n t A c t No 8 o f 1 87 9 se e 8 ( So u t he r n R ho de s ia follo w s
. . .
t he Ca pe ) , a n d in t he Fr e e S t a t e b y O r d NO 5 o f 1 9 0 2 , se e 6 I t . . . . .
st ill o b t a in s in t h e T r a ns v aa l , M c G ee M i gn on [ 1 90 3 ] T S 89 V .
”
. .
K i ngs ley V
A fri ca n L a nd C orp L td [ 1 9 1 4] T P D 666 ; R 017 dc C o
. . . . . . .
V . M os e ly [ 1 9 2 5 ] T P D 1 0 1 ; H offm a n P r i n s loo cf: H ofi m a n V .

'
V
. . .
[ 1 9 2 8] T P D 6 2 1 ; in Na t a l , Mfu nda
. . . B r a m mag e [ 1 9 1 3 ] N P D . . . .
47 7 ; B r i ggs v H u ghes [ 1 9 33 ] N P D 6 1 8 ( ge n e r a l pr in c iple s dis

. . . .
c usse d ) ; a n d in Ce y lo n , G o on e r a tne v D o n P hi lip ( 1 89 9 ) 5 N L R . . . .
2 68; Wijes i r i w a r de n e V
G u n a s eker a ( 1 9 1 7 ) 2 0 N L R 9 2 ( le a se )
. . . . .
Gr 3 l . Voet , 2 1 4 1 6
. . . . .
m ode r n la w qu i te t he sa m e as t h e y we re in t he Ro m an L aw
or in t he D u t c h L a w of t he e igh te e n t h c e n t ur y .
Unl a wfu l con t r a ct s a r e r e g ar de d by Ro m an L a w a s Effec t of

me gaht y
ci vil ly i m po ssi bl e
1
For t h is r e a son D e ck e r spe a ks in t he
'
s a m e b re a t h of phy si ca l a n d of m or a l po ssib ili t y ( i e . .
le ga li t y ) a s t oge t h e r m a kin g o n e of t he e sse n t i a ls of c on

t r a ct
2
. It is howe ve r m or e in a cc or d an ce w i t h m od e r n
, ,
u sa ge t o k e e p t h e se t op i cs di st in c t Unl a wfu l c on t r a ct s .
2
a r e n u ll a n d vo i d No a cti o n ca n b e gr o u n d e d u pon t h e m
. .
On t he ot h e r h a n d m o n e y p a i d in p u r su a n ce of a n u nl a w
,
ful c o n t r a ct ca nn ot b e r e c ove r e d b a ck fo r a s w as s a i d by , ,
a n E n gli sh Ju dge : Whoe ve r is a p art y t o an unl awfu l‘
c o n t r a ct if he h a t h o n ce p a i d t he m o n e y st ip u l at e d t o b e
,
p a id in p ur su a n ce t he r e of he sh a ll n o t h a ve t he h e lp of ,
a co ur t t o fe t c h i t b a c k a g a in You sh a ll n o t h a ve a ri ght .
of a ct io n wh e n y o u c o m e in to a co u rt of j u st i ce in t his
,
"
u n cl e a n m a nn e r t o re cov e r i t b a c k
1
The s a m e do ctr in e .
i s e xp r e sse d in t he R o m a n L a w m a xim
‘
in p ar i d e li ct o ,
2
po t i or e st co n di ti o de fe n de n t is
’
This ru le e x clu de s case s .
in whi c h t he de fe n d a n t a lo n e is gu i lt y Fo r if a n inn o ce nt .
p art y ha s p ai d mon e y o r t r a nsfe r re d pr ope rt y for a pu r

po se in fa ct u n l a wfu l he m a y ge t it b a c k ( t oge t he r wi t h ,
fr u it s a n d a cce ssio n s ) o r t he va l u e by t he pr o ce ss whi ch , ,
in R o m a n L a w w a s kn own a s t he c o n di ct i o ob t u r pe m C n di ct io o
2
ca u sa m ; a n d t he p r in c ipl e ha s b ee n e x te n d e d t o t he c ase
O f a pl a in t iff il t y b u t n o t e qu a lly gui lt y wi t h t he de fe n

g u ,
da n t a s fo r in st an ce if he e n te r e d u po n t he tr an sa cti on
,
1 2
2
Gr 3 1,
. . 42 a n d 43 ; V d L
se c s . l 14 6 n de r u n la w fu l . . . . . . U
c o n t r ac t s a r e in c lu de d c o n t r a c t s su b e c t t o a su s e n s iv e c o n di t i o n
p j
w hi c h is u n l a w fu l G r 3 1 4 2 9 . . . . .
Wil m o t C J in Colli ns . .
’
V
B la n ter n ( 1 7 6 7 ) Sm it h s L e adi n g
.
Cas es ( 1 3t h v o l 1, a t p 41 1 . . .
2
A li ter , In de lic to par i p o t ior e st posse ss o r D ig 1 2 7 5 pr ; . . . . .
G r 3 1 43 ; B r a n dt v B er gs tedt [ 1 9 1 7 ] C P D 3 44 ; ( Ce y lo n )
. . .
V
. . . .
S i lva Ra tn a ya ke ( 1 9 3 5 ) 3 7 N L R 2 45
. . . . .
2
V o e t , 1 2 5 l , c o n di c t io o b t ur pe m ca u sa m e s t a c t io pe rso n a lis
. .
st r ic t i j
ur is ,
qu a r e pe t it u r q
u o d d a t u m e st O b fac t u m c o n t in e n s
t u r pit u di n e m e x pa r t e a c c ipie n t is , i t a u t c on di c e n s t ur pit u din is

e x e rs s it , lic e t
p ja m t u r pe fa c t u m su b se cu t u m sit S a nde m a n v . .
S o lomon ( 1 9 0 7 ) 2 8 N L R 1 40 . . . .
un de r in flu e n ce O f co m p u lsion o r m e n a ce a n d t o
t he ,
c a se s in whi ch t he co n tr a c t re m a in s su b st a n ti a lly u n pe r
form e d B u t in e ve r y c ase t he Co u rt will gr a n t o r wi t hhold
.
r e li e f wi t h r e g ar d t o t he p a r a m o u n t co n side r a t io n of
1
p u blic poli c y a n d j u stic e b e twe e n t he p art ie s .
Wh e n a c on t r a ct c on t a in s se ve r al a gr e e m e nts a n d is in
p art l awfu l in p a r t u nl a wful t he Co u r t will so m e t im e s
, ,
se v e r t he l a wfu l a gr e e m e n t fr o m t he u nl a wfu l a gr ee m e n t ,
2
gi v in g e ffe c t t o t he fir st a n d n o t t o t he se c o n d It ha s .
b e e n sai d t h at wh a te ve r t he R om a n L a w m a y h a ve ‘
b e e n our So u t h Afr ic an Co ur t s h a ve follow e d t he E n glish

,
2 ’
de ci sion s in t hi s b r an ch of t he law of c o n tr a ct B u t t he .
lim its wi thi n whi ch se ve r an c e is a d mi ssible a r e still n ot

2
ve r y p re cise ly de fin e d .
It is n ot a lw a ys e a sy t o d e te r m in e how far t he t a in t of
ill e g a lit y e x te n ds Con tr a cts m a y h a ve so m e conn e x i on .
wit h a n ill e ga l t r a ns a ct i on wit ho u t n e c e ssar ily b e in g in

t h e mse lve s ill e g a l The ge n e r a l r ul e a pplic a ble t o su c h .
c a se s is t h at if a pl ain t iff ca n m a ke o u t a c au se of a cti o n

w it hou t a ll e gin g t he ill e g a l t r a n sa c ti o n a s p a r t of his c a se
2
he is e n t it le d t o j u dg m e n t in hi s fa vo u r Thi s doe s n o t .
m e an t h at a pl a in t iff c an e v a d e t he stigm a of ill e ga lit y by

i n ge n u it y in st a t in g hi s c a se .
‘
pr in ciple se e m s t o m e t o b e t hat t he plain t iff
The t r u e
is onl y e n t it le d t o r e c o v e r u pon a n O bli ga t i o n conn e c te d wi t h
a n imm ora l [or ill e g a l] t r a ns a ct io n if u pon a c o n side r a t ion o f ,
a ll t he fa ct s o f t he case a n d o f t he r e a l O b j e c t s o f t he p a r t ie s
w ha t e ve r fo rm m a y h a v e b e e n a do pt e d t o e x pr e ss t he ir a r r a n ge
m e n t s a n d n ot m er e ly u pon t he plain t iff s pr e se n t at i on o f
’
1
Se e We lls V
D u P r eez ( 1 9 0 6 ) 2 3 S C 2 84; R v S e ebloe m [ 1 9 1 2 ]
. . . . .
T P D a t p 3 4 ; J ajbha y v Cass i m [ 1 9 3 9 ] A D 5 3 7 ; P e te r s en v
. . . . . . . .
Jajbha y [ 1 9 40 ] T P D 1 82 S in ce t he se las t ca se s t he au t ho r it y o f
. . . .
e a r li e r de c is io n s ma y b e o pe n t o
2
u es t io n q .
E as tw ood v S hep ston e [ 1 90 2 ] T S a t p 30 3

. . . . .
2
We sse ls , i 6 0 9 . .
2
A n s o n , p 2 39 F o r a r e c e n t disc u s s io n s e e B r oo ks ct: Wyn be r g
. .
v New
. U
n i ted Yeas t D i s tr i bu tor s L td [ 1 9 3 6 ] T P D 2 9 6 . . . . .
2
S i lke v G oode [ 1 9 1 1 ] T P D 9 89 ; F i s he r db S on v Voges . . . .
V
.
[ 1 9 2 5 ] C P D 3
. 7 0
.
; H e i lm
.a n Vor b ec k [ 1 9 2 5 ] T P D 7 90 B ut . . . . .
s e e S chu s ter V
G u e the r [ 1 9 3 3 ] S W A 1 9 , a n d
. en n edy S te e n . . . K V .
ka mp [ 1 9 3 6] C P D 1 1 3 . . . .
1
j u st ice e g t o st ifle a pr o se cu t io n to c on do n e t he co m
,
. .
,
2
m i ssio n of a fu t u r e cr i m e t o p r e ve n t a p e r s o n se e kin g
r e dr e ss in a co u r t of j u s t i ce fo r a fut u r e in j u r y or wr o n g
,
,
”
t o pa y a wi tn e ss afe e for a tte n d a n ce l a r g e r t h a n t he a m ou n t
2
fix e d by law ; a gre e m e n ts p ur por tin g t o a u t hor iz e o n e of
2
t he con tr a ct in g p ar t ie s t o t a k e t he la w in t o hi s o w n h a n d s .
TO t he sa m e cl a ss m ay b e re fe rr e d su c h a gr e e m e n ts a s in
E n gli sh L aw a r e kn own by the n a m e s of m a in te n a n ce
a n d ch a m p e r t y v iz a gre e m e n t s t o p r o m ote a n d m a in t a in
,
.
le g a l pr o ce e din gs in which t he pr o m isor ha s n o dire ct

c on c e r n a n d i n p ar t i cul a r t o do so wit h a vi e w t o sh a r in g
,
2
wi t h a pla in t iff t he p r o cee d s of a su i t V oe t m e n t ions in .
t hi s co nn e xion a n a gr e e m e n t de qu o ta li ti s b e t w ee n la wy e r
a n d cli e n t a n a gr e e m e n t t h a t a l a wye r i s n o t t o b e p a id
,
u n l e ss t he su i t i s su c c e ssfu l a n im p r ope r a gr ee m e n t fo r t he ,
7
assign m e n t O f a n o t h e r s r igh t of a c t io n
’
Ce ssion of a ct ion s .
is howe ve r in g e n e r a l fr e e fr om O bj e ct ion u nl e ss of a
, , , ,
sp e c u l a t iv e c h a r a cte r o r for o t h e r r e a so n s co n t r a r y t o t he ,
policy of t he law ; a n d it is n o t u nl a wfu l bona fide a n d pr o

p e r ly t o a ssist a li t ig a n t t o de fe n d or e st a blish hi s r igh t s ,
e ve n t ho u gh t he p e r s o n so a ssi st in g m a y d e r ive s o m e
8
b e n e fit fr o m t he su bj e ct m a tte r of t he a ct ion -
.
3 Agr e e m e n t s for t he sa le o r p r o cu r e m e n t of p u bli c

”
.
Offi ce s o r o t h e r wi se te n din g t o in j u r e t he p u b li c se rvi ce .
V d K 5 2 0 ; H otz
1
. . . S ta n da r d B a n k ( 1 9 0 7 ) 3 B u ch A C V . . . .
5 3 ; B ez u ide n hou t S tr ydom ( 1 884) 4 E D O 2 2 4; Vu u rma n V . . . . V .
U n i ve r sa l E n te rpr i s es L td [ 1 9 2 4] T P D 488; S m i ts v P i e na a r . . . .
‘
.
2
[ 1 9 2 8] T P D 45 0 . . . G r 3 1 42 V oe t , u bi su p
. . . . .
2
S chie r hou t V
M i n is te r of J u s tice [ 1 9 2 5 ] A D a t p 42 4 p er
. . . .
K otz e J We lls v S Afri ca n A lu men i te C0 [ 1 9 2 7 ] A D a t p 7 2 . . . . . . .
2
K
n ox V K
o ch ( 1 883 ) 2 S C 3 82
. . . .
2
B lom s on
'
V
B os hofi [ 1 9 05 ] T S 42 9 Ni n o B on i n o v D e L a ng e
. . . .
[ 1 9 0 6 ] T S 1 2 0 ( c la u se in a le ase pe r m it t in g t he l e ssor , in t he
. .
e v e n t o f b r e a c h o f c o n di t i o n , t o e xp e l t h e le ss e e a n d r e e n t e r o n t h e -
pre m ise s w i t ho u t le ga l pr o c e ss ) .
2
G r 3 1 41 I n corp or a ted L a w S oc
. . . R e id ( 1 90 8) 2 5 S C 6 1 2 ; . V . . .
Ca mp be ll V
We lver di end Di a mon ds L td [ 1 9 3 0 ] T P D 2 87
. . . . . .
7
G r 3 1 41 ; a n d S cho r e r a d lo c ; V o e t , 2 1 4 1 8; e g a ssign
. . . . . . . .
m e n t t o t he a tt o r n e y in a c ase o f a ll pla in t iff s r ight a n d in t e re st ,

’
E as t L on d on M u n i c Ha lber d ( 1 884) 3 S C 1 40 . V . . . .
2
P a tz V
S a lzbu r g [ 1 90 7 ] T S a t p 5 2 7 p er In n e s C J Cf
. . . . . . .
F e llow s S m i th -
S ha n ks [ 1 9 2 5 ] N P D 1 6 8 V . . . . .
2
V a n L e e u w e n , 4 1 4 6 ; V d K D icta t ad G r 3 l 42 . . . . . . . . . .
4 Agr e e m e n t s te n di n g to in j u r e t he St a te in it s fore ign

.
1
r e l a t io n s i n cl u din g a gr e e m e n t s w it h a li e n e n e m i e s
,
.
2
5 Agree m e n t s dir e cte d to a fra u d u po n t he p u bli c
. .
6 Agre e m e n t s te n di n g t o se x u a l im m o r a li t y
.
2
.
7 A gree m e n ts in r e str a in t of m arr i a ge

.
2
o r o t h erwi se ,
co ntr a r y t o t he poli cy O f t he la w in t he m a tte r of

m a rr i a ge ; e g a n arr an ge m e n t b e tw e e n t w o pe rs ons t h at
. .
w hi c h e ve r of t he t w o m a rr i e s fir st sh a ll pa y a su m of
2
m o n e y t o t he o t h e r ; a gr e e m e n t be t w e e n h u sb a n d a n d
2
wi fe fo r fu tur e vol u n t ar y se p ar a t io n ; a gr ee m e n t t o live .
7
a p a r t m a d e a t t he t i m e of m a rr i a ge ; a gre e m e n t t o pa y a
su m of m o n e y t o a pe rs o n if a divor ce is gr a n te d o n ,
8
e vid e n ce p r oc u r e d by t h a t p e rs on ; p r o m ise by a m a rr ie d
m an ( o r wo m a n ) t o m arr y ( ge n e r a lly o r wh e n hi s ( or he r )
e xi st in g m arr i a ge sh a ll h a v e be e n di ssolve d by d e a t h o r
”
divor ce ) B u t a gr e e m e n ts to p r o cu re m arr i a ge for r e war d
( m arr i a ge b r oc a ge co n tr a ct s ) are n o t i lle g a l by R o m a n
D u t ch L a w as t he y are by E n glis h L aw , .
”
11
8 Agre e m e n t s in u n d u e re st r a in t of t r a de
. .
9 Agre e m e n ts in fr a u d of c r e dit o rs
12
. .
1
J a ns o n V
D r i efon te i n Con s o lida ted M i n es [ 1 9 0 2 ] A O 484
. . . .
2
S t M arc
. V
H a r ve y ( 1 89 3 ) 1 0 S C 2 67 ; R obi ns on
. Ra ndfon . . V .
te i n E s ts G M Co [ 1 9 2 5 ] A D 1 7 3 . . . . .
V
. .
2
V o e t , 1 2 5 6 ; L ou is a Va n de n B er g ( 1 83 0 ) 1 M e n z 47 1
. . . .
A bu rr ow V
Wa llis ( 1 89 3 ) 1 0 S C 2 1 4
. . . .
V o e t , 2 1 4 2 1 H o ll C ons v 2 3
2
2
. . V oe t , lo c c it . . . . . .
2
B r a n de V
B r a u de ( 1 89 9 ) 1 6 S C 5 6 5 . . . .
7
Va n Oos te n V
Va n Oosten [ 1 9 2 3 ] C P D 40 9 . . . . .
2
K ie le y V
D r e yer [ 1 9 1 6] C P D 6 0 3
. . . . .
2
S ta p les V
M a r qu a rd [ 1 9 1 9 ] C P D 1 81 ; F r i edma n v H a rr is
. . . . .
[ 1 9 2 8] C P D 43 ; F e nde r
. . S t J ohn M i ldma y [ 1 9 3 8] A O l ;
. V . .
-
. .
V
”
Vi ljoe n
1
Vi ljo en [ 1 9 44] C P D 1 3 7
.
We sse ls , i 5 3 0 In i ng G r a y ( 1 90 7 ) 2 4 S C 5 5 4, ho w e v e r ,
. . K
. .
V
.
.
.
. .
t he C o u r t a do pte d t he de c is io n in t he E n glis h c ase o f H erm a n n V .
Cha r lesw or th [ 1 9 0 5 ] 2 K B 1 2 3 , an d t h is w as fo llo w e d in Hu r w i tz . . V .
Ta y lor [ 1 9 2 6] T P D 81 I n L i ver a G on s a lves ( 1 9 1 3 ) 1 7 N L R

. . . . V . . . .
5 t he Ce y lo n Co urt fo ll o w e d i n g v Gr a y S e e a lso D e S i lva K . . V .
Ju a n A ppu ( 1 9 2 8) 29 N L R 41 7 . . . .
11
We sse ls , i 5 3 8 if an d c ase s c ite d . . .
12
G r 3 l 2 7 ; Co he n v Herm a n ( 2 Ca na r d ( 1 9 0 4) 2 1 S C 6 2 1 ;
. .
'
. .
V
. .
Wi en er E s t M cK en zi e [ 1 9 2 3 ] C P D a t p 5 82 A li e n a t i on s in
. . . . . . .
fra u d o f c r e di t or s m a y b e a v o ide d b y t he a cti o p a u lia na ( Wi e n e r v .
E s t M cK en zi e u bi su p a t p 5 7 9 ; su pr a , p 1 43 , n
. as w e ll . . . .
as u n de r t h e In so lv e n c y A c t .
240 THE LAW OF OBLIGATI ON S
Agr e e m e n ts in frau d of a stat u te ( i n fr a u dem legi s )

10 . .
1
1 1 K n ock o u t a gr ee m e n t s a t a sa l e by a u ct ion
.
2 -
.
1 2 Agr ee m e n t s r e l a t i n g to a fu t u r e r igh t of su cce ssio n

.
o r li m i t in g fr e e do m of te st a t io n
3
.
This is a h e a d of ill e ga li t y de r ive d fr o m the R o m a n L a w .
A s e xpo u n de d b y V o e t t he la w r e p r ob a te s a n y a gr ee
'
m e n t r e la t in g t o t he su cce ssio n of a n a sc e rt a in e d pe rs o n
st ill a live e v e n t ho u gh m a d e wit h su ch p e r s o n s co n se n t
’
, .
Su c h a gr ee m e n t s a re c on t r ar y t o p u blic policy a s in volvin g

’
a d a n ge r o u s sp e cu l a t ion o n a p e r s o n s d e a t h a n d t e n d
in g to r e str i ct t he fr e e do m of te st a m e n t ar y di spo sit ion 2

.
Conse qu e n t ly a p e r son c a nn ot con t r a ct t o m a ke a n o t h e r ,
2
hi s h e ir ; n or ca n t w o p e r so n s m u t u a lly a gr e e t h at t he y
’
2
sh a ll su c ce e d t o o n e a n o t h e r B u t if t w o p e r so ns c on t r a ct .
a s t o t he su c ce ssio n t o a t hir d a n d su c h t hir d p e r so n ,
as se n t s a n d doe s n o t su b se qu e n t ly r e vok e hi s a sse n t t he ,
7
c o n t r a ct i s a ll ow e d t o b e good .
The ge n e r a l r u l e e xt e n d s t o le g a cie s so t h a t a p r o m ise t o ,
le a ve m on e y by will c a n n o t b e e n for ce d a ga in st a de ce a se d
p e r son s e st a te n or foun d a n a cti o n for da m a ge s A n
’
, .
”
a gr e e m e n t how e v e r r e l a t i n g t o t he e st a te of a n u n ce r t a in
, ,
1
D a do o L td . V K
r u ge r s do rp M u n i cip a l C ou n ci l [ 1 9 20 ] A D
. . .
5 3 0 ; Co lon i a l B a n ki n g dc Tru s t C o Hi ll s Tr u s tee [ 1 9 2 7 ] A D

’
. V . . .
488; R ex V
G i lle tt [ 1 9 2 9 ] A D 3 6 4; Com m of Cu s toms
. Ra ndles . . . V .
B r os [ 1 9 41 ] A D 3 6 9
. . . .
2
Neu geba u e r ( E C o H er ma n n [ 1 9 2 3 ] A D 5 64 In E n glan d . V . . . .
t his he a d o f ill e ga l it y is s t a t u t o r y A u c t io n s ( B iddi n g A gr e e m e n ts ) .
A ct 1 9 2 7 .
2
D ig 45 l 6 1 ; Co d 2 3 I 5 ; 8 3 8
. . . 4 ; G r 3 l 41 ; L e e , . . . . . . .
C om m e n ta r y , a d l o c ; V d 47 9 ; V o e t , 2 1 4 1 6 ; C e ns F or 1 4 . . . K . . . . . . .
3 1 5 ; B ijn k O T i 2 9 5 , 3 6 0 ; u n e ss su c h a gr e e m e n t is c o n ta in e d
. . . . . l
in a n a n te n u pt ia l c o n t r ac t V d 2 3 5 ii F o r S o u t h Afr ic a se e . . .K . .
V
J on es G olds chm idt ( 1 881 ) 1 S C 1 0 9 ; E ks tee n v E ks teen [ 1 9 2 0 ]
. . . .
O P D 1 9 5 ; Ni e w en hu i s v S cho em a n s E s t [ 1 9 2 7 ] E D L 2 66
’
. . . . . . . .
V
.
B u t in Va n J aa r sve ld Va n J aa r sve ld s E s t [ 1 9 3 8] T P D 3 43
’
. . . .
G r e e n b e r g J P a n d S chr e in e r J h e l d t ha t a pr o m ise t o le a v e
. . .
pr o pe r t y b y w ill , t ho u gh u n e nfo r c e a b’ le , is n o t ill e ga l o r c o n t r a

b o n o s m o r e s C on tr a , J a mes v J a mes E s t [ 1 9 41 ] E D L 6 7
. . . . . . .
2
Co d 2 3 3 0 ; V o e t , u bi su p
. . . .
2
H all Con s iv 3 0 . . .
-
.
2
V o e t , u bi su p B u t see S chor e r ad G r 3 1 4 1 1 Mu t u a l w ill s . . . . .
ar e fre e fr o m o b e c t io n , b e c a us e w ills a re n o t co n t ra c t s j .
7
Co d u bi su p ; V o e t , u bi su p
. . .
2
V oe t , l o c c it a d fin Nie w e n hu is S choema n s E s t , u bi sup
.
’
. V . . .
b e fore o r a fte r t he de t e r m in a t ion of t he e ve n t be fore it

1
ha s b ee n p a i d ov e r t o t he winn e r a n d if t he sta k e hold e r ,
n e ve r t h e le ss h a n d s i t ove r to t he w inn e r m a y m a in t a in ,
a n a ct io n fo r i t sv a lu e
2
A p e r son who ha s m a de b e ts fo r .
2
m e a s m y a ge n t m u st h an d ove r t he w inn in g s ; a n d m o n e y
2
le n t t o m a ke o r t o pay b e t s ca n b e r e c ove r e d A p e r so n
4
.
t o whom a n e go t ia bl e in st ru m e n t ha s b e e n give n in r e spe ct

of a g a m in g o r w a ge r in g t r a nsa cti on c a nn ot r e c ove r u po n
it b u t a bon a fide hold e r fo r v a l u e wo u ld p r ob a bly n o t be
,
u n d e r t he s a m e di sa bilit y .
A t t he C a p e A ct N O 3 6 of 1 9 0 2 re p r od u cin g t he pr o .
,
vi sion s of t he E n gli sh G am in g A ct of 1 845 ( 8 a n d 9 Vi c .
c . by se c 1 1 e n a ct s .
All b a l o r i n w r it in g m e n ts w he t he r
‘
c o n t r a ct s [or ] a gr e e , ver ,
by w a y o f ga min g o r w a ge r in g shall be n u ll a n d void a n d n o , ,
su i t shall b e br o u ght or m a in t a in e d in a n y c ou rt o f la w for
r e co v e r in g a n y su m o f m o n e y o r v a lu a bl e t hi n g a ll e ge d t o b e
w o n u p o n a n y w a ge r o r w hi ch ha s b e e n de p o sit e d i n t he ha n ds
,
o f a n y p er s o n t o a bi de t he e v e n t o n w hi ch a n y w a g e r ha s b e e n
m a de : Pr ov ide d a lw a ys t ha t n o thi n g in t hi s se ct io n shall b e

de e m e d t o a pply t o a n y su b s cr iptio n or co n tr ibu ti o n o r a gr e e
m e n t t o su bscri b e o r co n tr ibu t e for o r t ow a r ds a n y pl ate priz e , ,
o r su m Of m on e y t o b e a w a r de d t o t he w inn e r of a n y la w fu l
ga m e spo rt pa st im e o r e x er cise
, , , .
’
1
E v e n if t he w a ge r o r co n t e st is ille ga l V o e t , 1 1 5 9 ; Cla r ke v . . . .
B ru n i ng [ 1 9 0 5 ] T S 2 9 5 . . .
2
S loma n v B er kovi tz ( 1 89 1 ) 1 2 N L R 2 1 6 ; V o e t , lo c c it
. . . . . .
2
D odd V
Had ley , u bi su p
. .
2
V o e t , 1 1 5 4 Con tr a V a n L e e u w e n , 4 1 4 5 I n B i lj oen v
. . . . . . .
P eter s en [ 1 9 2 2] N P D 6 3 m o n e y le n t t o b e u se d a s st a ke s in a gam e
. . .
o f po ke r w a s h e ld t o b e r e c o v e r a b le Th e r a ti o decide nd i w as t ha t .
po ke r is n o t a ga m e o f cha n c e pr o h ib ite d b y L a w No 2 5 o f 1 87 8 . .
The c as e , o f c o ur se , is v e r y diffe r e n t if b y s t a tu te t he par t icu l a r

‘
kin d O f w a ge r in g is m a de il le ga l a n d c r im in a l ( p er D o v e Wils o n
’
J This se e m s t o di st in gu is h t he c a se fr o m S a nd e ma n V .
S o lom on ( 1 9 0 7 ) 2 8 N L R 1 40 , in w hi ch m o n e y le n t for t h e pu r po se
. . .
q
o f di s c ha r gin g a c h e u e giv e n in pa ym e n t o f a ga m b lin g d e b t w a s
h e l d t o b e ir r e c o v e r a b le In G las e r B lo tn i ck [ 1 9 41 ] C P D 40 3
. V . . . .
Su t t o n J fo llo w in g V o e t ,
. he ld t ha t m o n e y le n t b y a
w inn in g pl a y e r t o t he lo se r fo r t h e pur po se o f t he ga m e c o u l d n o t
be r e c ov e red .
2
This m a y b e in fe rr e d fr o m D odd H ad le y a n d B i ljoen v V . .
P ete r s en The po in t doe s n o t se e m t o b e a b so lu te ly c o v e r e d b y

.
de c isio n .
F ORMATI ON OF CONTRACT
SE CTI ON G
The p a rti es mu s t be comp ete n t to con tr a c t
I n ca p a cit y t o c on tr a ct a tt a ch e s in gr e a te r o r le ss de gr e e C pa city a
o f par t ie s
t o t he followi n g c la sse s of p e r so n s
.
1 Min or s
_
. 2 Marr i e d W o m e n
. . 3 I n sa n e P e r s o n s
. . .
4 P r o di g a l s
. 5 Ju r i st i c or Ar t ificia l P e r so n s
. . 6 In . .
s olv e n t s .
Mo st of t he se c ase s h a ve b e e n co ns ide re d u n de r t he
he a d of the L a w of Pe r so n s Wit h re g ar d t o in solve n t s
.
t he la w of So u t h Afr ic a ha s be e n sta te d in t he followin g

te r m s
Al tho u gh in s o l v e n cy i m pose s m an y disa bili tie s u po n the

‘
de bto r he is n o t de priv ed Of hi s co n tr a ct u a l ca pa city Su ch .
ca p a cit y i s, h o w e v e r , limi te d i n se v e ra l r e spe cts a n d is so m e
j
t im e s m a de su b e ct t o co n di t i on s a n d o bli ga t io n s Ge n e ra lly .
spe a kin g t he in solv e n t m a y m ake a v alid co n tr a ct if he does

,
n o t pu r po r t t he r e by t o di spo se o f a n y pr o e r t y Of his in sol v e n t

p
1
’
est a te .
1
Mar s
T he L a w of I ns o lve n c y i n S ou t h Afr ica
, p 29 1 .
F a i r lie V
Ra u ben he i me r [ 1 9 3 5 ] A D 1 3 5 ; P r i es t
. Cha r les [ 1 9 3 5 ]
. . V .
A D 1 47 ; G eor ge
. . V
L ew e [ 1 9 3 5 ] A D 2 49 . . . .
II
O PE RATI O N OF C O NT RACT
IN t his h a p te r w e sh a ll con side r
c
I The p e r so n s affe cte d by a c o n tr a ct

. .
II The d u ty O f p e r for m a n ce
. .
III The c o n se qu e n ce s of n o n p e rfor m a n ce

.
-
.
SE CTI O N I
The P er son s
fi ected by a Con tr act a
A con tr a ct p r i m a r ily a ffe ct s t he p ar t ie s t o it a n d n o ne

o t he r In o t he r wor ds n o o n e c a n b e bou n d o r be n e fite d
.
,
by a c o n tr a ct t o which he i s n o t a p art y Su ch w a s t he .
R o m a n L a w e xp r e sse d in t he m a xim s N e m o pr o m itte r e

‘
‘
po te st pr o a lte r o Al te r i stipul a r i n e m o pote st
Ne m o Nemo p r om i tter e p otes t p ro a lter o Thi s m e a n s t h a t a .
p r o m ise m a de by A c a nn ot i m po se a b ur de n o n B for ,
2
n o o n e ca n b e bo u n d by a n ot h e r m a n s co n t r a c t
’
.
In t he Ro m an L a w t he ru l e w a s c arr ie d so fa r t h at
a p r o m i se by A t h a t B wo u ld do s o m e t hi n g w as d e st i tu te
2
’
of le ga l e fl e ct n o t bin di n g A b e c a u se it w a s n ot inte n de d
,
t h a t it sho u ld n o t bin di n g B b e cau se it w as n o t hi s ,
pr o m ise H owe ve r su ch a p r o m i se wou l d n o w ge n e r a lly

.
,
b e c o n st ru e d a s a p r o m i se by A t h a t he wo u ld p r o cu r e B
2
to do t he t hin g in qu e st ion It m u st b e n ote d fur t h e r .
,
t h a t t he ru le n owa d a ys ha s n o a pplic a t i ont o t he r e la t ion

of p r in cip a l an d a ge n t A se r va n t or a ge n t a ctin g wi thi n .
,
hi s a u t hor i t y c on t ra c t s for hi s p r in cip a l a n d bin ds his

,
p r in cip a l by hi s con tr a ct Mor e ove r t he r e a r e ce r t a i n

2
.
,
le ga l r e la t ions o t h e r t h a n t h a t of p r in cip a l a n d a ge nt
whi ch give t o o n e p e r son in gr e a te r o r le ss m e a su r e t he
1
V d L 1 14 3
. . . . . .
2
Ce r t is s im u m e nim e st e x a lte r ius c o n t r a c t u n e m in e m o b ligar i .
Co d 4 1 2 3 ; G r 3 1 2 8 V a n L e e u w e n , 4 2 4
. . . . . . . .
2
Ins t 3 1 9 3 ; V inn i u s , a d lo c D ig 45 1 83 pr
. . . . . . . .
2
G r 3 3 3 ; V an L e e u w e n , 4 2 5 ; G r o e n de leg a br ad In s t
. . . . . . . . .
3 19 3 ; V o e t , 45 1 5 ; A r on owi tz v A tki ns on [ 1 9 3 6] S R 45
—
. . . . . . .
2
V an L e e u w e n , 4 2 6 7 . . .
t h at t h e r e m u st b e on side r a t io n m ovin g fr o m t he
s om e c
or igin a l p r o mi se e B u t t hi s qu a lifica t io n m u st be r e j e cte d

.
,
s i n c e co n sid e r a t io n i n t he E n gli s h se nse of t he wo r d doe s
n o t for m p a rt o f t he la w of So u t h Afr i ca
1
Ap a r t fr o m t his .
t he p r in ciple t h a t a t hir d p a r t y m a y t a ke t he be n e fit of a
st ip u l at i o n m a d e in hi s fa vo u r if i t w as t he in te n t io n of ,
2
t he co n tr a ct in g p a rt i e s t h a t he shou ld do so is n ow
firm ly e st a bli sh e d by j u di c i a l d e cisi on The j ur idic a l b asis .
” ,
of t he r e l at i o ns t he re by cr e a te d ha s b e e n m u ch de b a te d
in t he l e g a l lite r a t u r e of o t h e r cou n t r ie s b u t has hi t h e rt o ,
r e c e i v e d li t tle a t te n t io n fr o m t he S o u t h Afri c an Co u r ts .
2
So m e qu e sti o n s of in te re st r e m a in for fu t u re dis cu ssion .
Cessi on a nd Tra n sm i ssi on of A cti on s It has b ee n sa id .
a bov e t h a t a co n t r a ct p r i m a r il y a f fe ct s t he p ar t ie s t o it
a n d n o n e o t h e rs B u t p e r son s n o t o r igi n ally p ar t ie s m a y
.
b e c om e so e it he r by a gr ee m e n t ( ces si on of acti on s ) o r by
,
op e r at io n Of la w ( tr a nsmi ssi on of acti ons ) .
By a gr e e m en t co n tr a ctu a l r igh t s a n d d u t ie s m ay b e
,
t r a ns fe rr e d so a s t o su b stit u te a n ot h e r pe r s on in pl a ce of
t he ori gi n a l p a r t y B u t t h e r e is a gr e at diffe r e n ce b e t wee n
.
a ssi gn m e n t of d u t ie s a n d assign m e n t of r ight s .
Co n tr a ctu a l d u t ie s c a nn o t b e t r a n sfe rr e d e xce p t in

c o n se qu e n ce of a su b st i t u t e d c o n t r a ct ( n ova ti on ) whi ch ,
r e qu ir e s t he co nse n t of t he o r igin a l p a r t i e s a n d of t he
su b st it u te d d e b t o r The e ffe ct i s t o dis ch ar g e the or igin a l

.
d e b t or fr om fu r t h e r li a bili t y t he su b st it u te d d e b t o r t a kin g
,
his pl a ce .
Co n t r a ct u a l r ight s a r e n ow wit h som e e xce p t ion s fr ee ly , ,
t r a n sfe r a ble by ce ssio n of a ct io ns Su ch is t he re sul t of a .
lon g pr oce ss of le ga l de ve lop m e nt The Rom an L a w n e ve r .

,
it see m s qu i te r e a ch e d t his poin t Fo r t hou gh in it s l ate st

,
.
p e r iod a n a ssign e e w a s all owe d : ( 1 ) to se cu r e t o hi m se lf

‘
1
S u pr a , p 226 .
V
.
2
We sse ls , i 1 7 5 5 ; B a i ki e P r etori a M u n ic [ 1 9 2 1 ] T P D 3 7 6
. . . . . .
G o ldfoo t VM yer s on [ 1 9 2 6] T P D 2 42
. . . . .
2
E n glish L a w se e m s t o b e m o v in g in t he sa m e dir e c t io n L a w .
Revi si on Com m i tte e , Sixt h In te r im Re po r t ( 1 9 3 7 ) Cm d 5 449 . .
2
Se e A ppe n di x G Fo r Ce ylo n see J i n adas a
. S i lva ( 1 9 3 2 ) V .
3 4 N L R 3 44
. . . .
OPE RATI ON OF CONTRACT 247
t he b e n e fit of t he O bliga tion e ve n b e for e b r in gin g an ,
a ct i o n by givin g the de b t or n ot i ce of t he a ssign m e n t

,
( Cod d h g o r s n am e
’
8 4 1 . a n ( )
2 t o s
.u e n o t in t e a s s
.i n ,
b u t in hi s o wn by a ct i o u t ili s y e t it is di sp u te d wh e t h e r
‘
,
t he e ffe ct of t he c h a n g e w a s t o m a ke t he a ssi gn e e sol e s
c r e di t or o r wh e t h e r in r e l a t i o n t o t he d e b t or he di d n o t
, , ,
st ill l e g a ll y c o n tin u e a m e r e a g e n t e n fo r cin g by a c t i o n in ,
his o w n n a m e t he r ight of a n ot h e r ; in ot h e r wo r d s wh e t h e r ,
a g e n u i n e a ssi gn m e n t by wh i c h t he a ssi gn e e si m ply a n d
a ct u a lly st e pp e d in t o t he sho e s of t he assi gn or who si m u l ,
t a n e ou sly dr opp e d a lt oge t h e r ou t of t he m a t t e r w a s ,
r e c ogn i z e d a t a n y t im e i n R o m a n L a w
This dou b t do e s n o t e xi st in t he m ode rn la w fo r n OW in the

”
'
l Co n tr a ct u a l r igh t s a n d r igh t s a r i sin g fr o m b r e a ch of D3

. 23
L aw
con tr a ct e x ce p ti on s a p a rt m a y b e ce d e d w i tho u t t he
, ,
'
2
c o n se n t a n d a g a in st t he will of t he d e b t o r .
2 The ce ssi on ca n g e n e r a lly b e e ffe cte d by b a r e a gr ee

.
m e n t w it ho u t for m a li t y a n d w it hou t n o ti ce t o t he de b t o r ;
2 2
,
b u t t he la w re qu ir e s t h a t t he i n te n t i o n t o e ffe ct t he
ce ssi o n s ho u ld b e cl e a r a n d b e yo n d do u b t a n d th at n o ,
fu rt he r a ct o n t he p ar t of t he ce de n t sho u ld b e n e c e ssa r y
t o m a k e t he ce ssi o n c o m pl e t e ; i e he m u st h a ve don e . .
e ve r yt hin g in hi s powe r t o di v e st hi m se lf of hi s r i gh t of
2
a ct io n .
Mo y le I ns ti tu tes of Ju s ti n i a n pp 482 —3
1
, , . .
S a n de , D e a c ti o n u m ces s i on e , c a p ix , se c 5 ; P a ter s on s E x or s
2 ’
. .
V
.
.We bs ter , S tee l db C o ( 1 881 ) 1 S C a t p 3 5 5 p er D e V ill ie r s C J . . . . . .
Ca n a po r i o n o f a de b t b e c e de d t 54 p 40 ; y e s , . .
B ezu ide n hou t v Va n C r a a n [ 1 9 3 8] T P D 3 3 1 ; n o , S p i es v

. . . .
V
.
Ha n sfor d [ 1 9 40 ] T P D l ; a n d se e H iddi ngh C om m i ss i o n er for

. . . .
I n la nd R even u e [ 1 9 41 ] A D a t p 1 20 . . . .
2
S a n de , c a p ii , se c 1 ; Wr i ght as C O v C o lon i a l G ov t ( 1 89 1 ) 8
. . . . .
S C a t p 2 6 9 ; Cu tti ng v Va n de r H aven [ 1 9 0 3] T E a t p 1 1 7 ;
. . . . .
V
. .
E x p a r te Na ru n s ky [ 1 9 2 2 ] O P D 3 2 ; E s t G r e enber g Ros en ber g . . . .
V
.
ck G r e e n ber g [ 1 9 2 5 ] T P D at p 9 2 9 ; J effe ry P o lla k [ 1 9 3 8] . . . . .
A D a t p 22
. . . .
2
V o e t , 1 8 4 5 ; J a co bsohn s Tr u s tee v S ta nda r d B a n k ( 1 89 9 )
’
. . .
1 6 S C at p 2 0 3 L ove ll
. . P a x i n os [ 1 9 3 7 ] W L D 84
. V . . . . .
2
M i lls db S on s v B enja m i n B r os Tr u s tees [ 1 87 6 ] B u ch 1 1 5 ;
’
. . .
W i ght cf: C v Co lon i a l G overn m e n t, u bi s u p ; M c G r egor s

r o . .
’
V
.
Tr u s tee s S i lber ba u er ( 1 89 1 ) 9 S C 3 6 ; Va n de M er w e v F r a n c k
. . . .
( 1 885 ) 2 S A R 2 6 ; G r a af R ei n e t B oa r d of E x or s
. . .E s t E r la n k -
. V . .
[ 1 9 3 3 ] C P D 41 J efi e ry v P o lla k, u bi su p a t p 2 4
. . . . . . .
2 48 THE LAW OF OBLIGATI ONS
Whe r e a ri ght
xists in de pe n de n tly o f a n y wri tte n
o f a ct io n e
in stru m e n t t he cessi on Of su ch r ight m ay b e e ffe cte d wi t ho u t

,
cor p or e a l d eli v e r y O f a n y do cu m e n t Wher e how e ve r t he so le .

, ,
pr oo f o f a de bt is t he in stru m e n t w hi ch r e cor ds it t he ce ssio n

, ,
O f t he de bt is n o t co m pl e te u n t il t he ins t ru m e n t i s de li ve r e d t o
t he ce ssio n ar y I a m n o t pr e pa r ed t o say t hat cir cu msta n ces

.
'
m a y n ot a r ise u n de r w hi ch a c essio n o f a ct io n m ay b e co m ple te d

w i t hou t de li v e r y o f t he in st ru m e n t w hi ch c on st it u te s t he pr oo f
o f t he d e b t The do cu m e n t m a y for inst a n ce b e l ost an d in
.
, , , ,
su ch a case if t he ce de nt ha s don e e ver yt hin g in his p o w e r

,
t o di v e st hims e lf o f hi s r ight of a cti on t he r e i s n o r e a so n w hy ,
t he c e ssi on sho u ld n o t b e he ld t o b e co m ple te B u t a m o n g t he .
t hi n gs r e qu ir e d u n der su ch cir cu m sta n c e s t o b e do n e by t he

, ,
ce de n t w o u l d ce r t a in ly b e t he n o tifi ca t i o n o f t he ce ssion t o
t he de b tor ( D e Villi e r s C J in Jaco bsohn s Tru ste e v S ta nda rd

’ ’
. . . .
B a n k 1 6 S C at pp 2 03
, . . .
3 . ffe ct of ce ssion is t o su b st itu te the ce ssion a r y

The e
in pl a ce of t he ce d e n t a s cr e di t or in r e sp e ct of t he oblig a
t i o n c e de d a n d t o v est i n t he ce ssi o n a r y a ll t he ce de n t s
1 ’
,
2
r igh t s a g a in st t he d e b t o r .
4 Th e r e fore t he d e b t o r a fte r c e ssi o n is n o lo n ge r li a bl e

.
,
t o t he c e de n t a n d ca n n ot b e r e qu i r e d by hi m t o p e r for m t he
2
c o n t r a ct n o r b e su e d by him in c a se of n o n p e r fo r m a n c e
,
-
.
Afte r n ot i c e or kn owle dge of t he ce ssi on t he de b t or m us t ,
1
F ick V
B i e rm a n ( 1 882 ) 2 S C a t p 3 4 B y t h e c o n s t it u t io n
. . . . .
P e r di ver sas ( Co d 4 3 5 c o m m o nl y kn o w n a s t he lex A n a

. . .
s tas ia n a , e n ac t e d b y t h e E m
pe r o r A n ast as iu s ( A D 5 0 6 ) a n d c o n . .
fir m e d b y Ju st in i a n ( Co d 4 3 5 a c e ssio n a ry o f a de b t c o u ld
. . .
n o t re c o v e r fr o m t he d e b t o r a su m in e x c e ss o f t ha t fo r w hi c h h e
q
had ac u ir e d t he de b t fr o m t he c e de n t G r 3 1 6 1 4; V o e t 1 8 4 . . . .
, . .
1 8 Th e le n
. s A n a s tas i a n a has b e e n d e c la r e d t o b e o b so le t e in
S o u t h Afr i c a S ea vi lle v Co lle y ( 1 89 1 ) 9 S C 3 9 ( Ca pe ) ; M ac ha ttie

. . . .
v F i lme r ( 1 89 4) 1 O R 3 0 5 ( Tr a n s v aa l ) I t se e m s d ou b t fu l w h e t he r
. . . .
a n d ho w fa r i t o b t a in s in Ce y lo n Pe r e ir a , p 6 5 4 . . .
2
San de , c a p ix , se c 1 The in te n t io n , ho w e v e r , m a y b e n o t t o
. . .
t r an s fe r t h e de b t , b u t m e r e ly t o in di ca te a s o u r c e fr o m w hic h t he
c r e dit o r o f t h e so c a ll e d a s sign o r m a y r e c e iv e pa ym e n t
-
Th e .
c iv ilia n s c a ll t hi s as si gn a ti o It m u s t b e d ist in gu ishe d o n t he o n e .
h an d fr o m de lega ti o , w h ich is a spe c ie s o f n o v a t io n ( i nfr a p 2 7 , .
a n d o n t he o t h e r h a n d fr o m c e ss io n o f a r ight o f a c t i o n , w h ic h is
t h e c ase de a lt w ith in t he t e xt A s signa tio do e s n o t dis c har ge t he .
a s si gn a n s n o r r e n de r t h e as si gn a tu s l ia b le G r 3 44 5 ; V d K
83 7 —
. . . . . . .
8 ~
.
2
V o e t , 1 8 4 1 5 Fi ck . B i erm a n , u bi su p
. V . .
7 . A io n ar y cann ot ge n e r ally b e in a b e tte r po sit ion

ce ss , ,
1
t h a n his ce d e n t Th e r e for e a ll d e fe n ce s whi ch m ight h a ve
.
b e e n ple a de d a g a in st t he ce de n t a t t he d a te O f c e ssion m a y
2
e qu a lly b e ple a d e d a g a in st t he c e ssi o n ar y .
8 G e n e r a lly sp e a kin g a n y r ight m a y b e ce d e d wh i ch

.
,
is tr a ns m itte d by t he de a t h of t he p a r t y e n t it l e d This ru le .
e x c l u d e s p e n a l a c t io n s ex de li cto in p a r t i cu l a r t he a c t i o ,
in ju r iaru m b u t t h e r e is n o r u le t h at a ct ion s ex deli cto in

,
2
g e n e r a l a re n o t a ssi gn a ble It e xclu de s c ase s in which t he .
de b t or s d u t y of p e r fo r m a n c e do e s n o t e xt e n d b e yon d t he
’
p er son of the cr e dit or an d the de b t o r t he r e for e m ay , , ,
de c lin e t o re co gni z e a s e n t it le d a ny o t he r t h an t he cr e di t or
in p e r son ( delectu s p er son a e ) 2
A c re di t or m ay di sa ble hi m .
se lf by t he t e r m s O f t he c o n tr a c t fr o m c e di n g hi s r igh t
(pactu m de n on ceden do ) so t h a t t he r ight whi ch t he

‘
,
cr e di t o r ob t a in s b e in g c ir cu m s cr i b e d by t he te r m s of hi s
,
a gr e e m e n t wi t h t he d e b t o r b e co m e s by t he a gr e e m e n t ,
b e t we e n t he p a r tie s a str ict ly p e r son a l r igh t a n d ca nn ot ,
b e c e de d 5
Nor c an a r ight t o a li m e n ts i e a n a llow
’
.
,
. .
a n c e fo r m ain te n a n ce a n d su ppo rt b e c e d e d
2
Wit h t he se , .
1
A nde r son s A ssi gn e e A n der son s E x or s ( 1 89 4) 1 1 S C a t
’
V .
’
. . .
p 440 ; V o e t , 1 8 4 1 3 ; B i ggs v M o tej e [ 1 9 1 0 ] C P D 2 42 ; Ya tes

. . . . . . .
v . A u kla n d P a r k S p or ti n g Clu b dc R oberts [ 1 9 1 5 ] W L D 5 5 ; . . .
S a mpson v . U
n i on a n d R hodesi a Who les a le L td [ 1 9 2 9] A D a t . . .
p 482
. .
2
S an de , c a p x iii A t a ll e v e n t s e x c e pt io n e s in r e m m a y b e so
‘ ’
. .
c o m pe n sa t io n S m i th v H ow s e ( 1 83 5 )
‘
ple ade d ( se c
’
su c h a s . . .
2 M e n z 1 6 3 ; Wa lker
. V
S yfr e t N O [ 1 9 1 1 ] A D a t pp 1 6 0 a n d 1 6 2
. . . . . . .
The c a se o f Na ti on a l B a n k M a r ks dc A a r on son [ 1 9 2 3 ] T P D 69 V . . . .
is n o t in co ns ist e n t w i t h t his , fo r t he de b t w a s illi u id a n d t he r e q

fo r e t he r e w as n o c o m pe n sa t i o n }
2
S a n de , cap v , se c s l , 2 , a n d 1 1 Pe rs o n a l s e rv it u de s c a nn o t
. . .
b e c e de d E as te rn R a nd E xp lor a ti on C o v Ne l [ 1 9 0 3 ] T S a t p 5 1
. . . . . .
Wi llou ghby s Cons olida ted Co

’
Cop tha ll S tor es [ 1 9 1 3 ] A D a t . V . . .
2 8 2 —3 er Inn e s J
pp .
p .
2
Cu lli n a n v P i s tor i u s [ 1 90 3] O R C a t p 3 8; D eu ts chm a n n
. . . . . V .
M p e ta [ 1 9 1 7 ] C P D a t p 81 . . . . .
2
P a i ge s v Va n Ryn G old M i n es E s ta tes L td [ 1 9 2 0 ] A D a t
. . . .
p 6 1 6 I n t his c a se t he Co ur t he ld t ha t a n a gr e e m e n t , w he r e b y an
. .
e m plo y e e u n de r t o o k n o t t o c e de o r a ssign w a ge s du e t o h im w it h
o u t t he c o n se n t O f his e m plo y e r , c o u ld b e r a is e d b y t he e m pl o y e r
a s a de fe n c e t o a n a c t io n b y a c e ssio n a r y t o r e c o v e r t he a m o u n t o f
w a ge s c e de d t o h im b y t he e m pl o y ee .
2
S chi er hou t v Un i on G ovt [ 1 9 2 6] A D a t p 2 9 1
. . . . . .
OPE RATI ON OF CONTRACT 25 1
e x ce p t ion s it se e m s t h a t a ll co n tr a ctu a l r ight s m a y b e

,
ce de d wh e t h e r b e for e or a fte r b r e a ch wh e t h e r a r isin g o u t ,
of li qu id or illiqu id cla im s w h e t h e r oblig at i on s t o gi ve ,
o r obli g a t i o ns t o do Con tr a r y t o t he Ro m a n L a w t he
.
,
R o m a n D u t c h L a w p e r m i t s t he t r a ns fe r of a t hi n g in
-
1
lit ig ati on (r es li ti gi osa ) .
9 A ce ssi on m a y b e a b solu te or by w a y of c h a r ge
. If .
a ce ssi o n i s i n te n d e d to t a k e e ffe ct m e r e ly i n se cu r it a te m
d e biti it wil l b e so c on str u e d t ho u gh in te rm s a b solu te

, , ,
2
a n d do m i ni u m will r e m a in wit h t he ce d e n t .
It ha s b e e n sa id t h at e x ce p t i o n s a p a rt a ce ssion of
S
ni fi
ig
, ,
a c t i o n ca n b e e ffe cte d by b a r e a gr e e m e n t The p r in re qm r ed .
c ipa l e x ce p t i on s ar e : ( l ) n e go t i a bl e in s tru m e n t s ( wh i c h ar e in 8 111

2
0
0
e
tr a n sfe rre d by d e live r y or i f n o t p a y a ble t o b e a r e r b y
, , ,
de live r y a n d e n dor se m e n t ) a n d ( 2 ) t he t r a nsfe r o f sh a re s ,
in c o m p a ni e s whi ch a r e c o m m o n l y r e g u l a te d by st a t u te .
B y op e r a t i on of la w c o n t r a ct u a l r igh t s a r e t r a n sm it te d Tr n s
,
a
02
The e ffe ct of se qu e st r a t i on of 33 23 2
3 1
o n in s olve n c y a n d d e a t h .
the e st a te of a n ins olve n t is t o di ve st t he in solve n t of his

‘
e st a te a n d t o v e st it i n t he Maste r u n t il a t ru ste e ha s b e e n
a ppoin te d a n d u po n t he a ppo in t m e n t of a t ru s te e t o v e st
,
2
t he e st a te i n him ; a n d e ve r y sa t is fa ct i o n in whole o r in
’
p art of a n y O bliga t ion t he fu lfil m e n t w h e r e of w as du e o r

t he c a u se Of whi ch ar o se b e for e t he se qu e str a t i on of t he
de b t or s e st a te if m a de t o t he in solve n t a fte r su ch
’
se qu e st r a t i o n is voi d u nl e ss t he d e b t o r p r ove s t h a t i t
, ,
w a s m a de in good fa it h a n d wi t ho u t k n owl e dg e of t he
se qu e st r a t i o n
2
Wit h re gar d t o t he e ffe ct of de a t h o n
.
c o n t r a ct it m a y b e s ai d t h a t a ll c o n t r a ct u a l r ight s a n d
,
d u tie s u nl e ss t he y b e O f a p u r e ly p e rson a l ch ar a cte r p a ss

, ,
u po n d e a t h t o t he r e p r e se n t a t i ve s O f a d e ce a se d p e r so n ,
who m ay su e or b e su e d in r e sp e ct of t h e m In t he m ode r n .
law t he ir li a b i lit y in n o ca se e x ce e d s t he a sse t s of t he

e st a te .
1
S u p r a , p 2 41 , n 5 . . .
0
1
Na ti on a l B a n k of S A v Cohe n s Tru s tee [ 1 9 1 1 ] A D 2 3 5
’
. . . . . .
0
Als o b y m a r r ia ge in c o mm u ni t y , for w hi c h see a b o v e , p 7 0 . .
6
In so lv e n cy A c t , 1 9 3 6, se e 2 0 ( 1 ) ( a ) . .
0
Ib id , se c 2 2
. . .
THE LAW OF OBLIGATI ONS
SE CTI O N II
The D u ty o f P erfor m a n ce
The du t y of a p a rt y t o a co n t r a ct is fa it hfu lly t o pe r

for m his p a r t wi t h the c ar e a n d dilige n ce p r op e r in t he
c ir cu m st a n c e s a n d wi t h du e r e g a r d t o a n r u l e s of la w
, y
or l a wfu l cu st o m s by which t he ch ar a c te r of t he p e r form
a n ce du e fr o m hi m i s d e te r m in e d .
G e n e r all y sp e a kin g t he p a r t i e s t o a co n t r a ct m a i
G e ne r al y
l , y n
22152
1 7 2188
3
co r po r a t e in i t a n y t e r m s t h e y pl e as e a n d e a c h i s bo u n d ,
t he ir o wn t o t he o t h e r t o do wh a t he has u n d e r t a k e n Whe n t he .
m 8
p art ie s h a ve e xp r e ssly a gr e e d a n d the obj e c t c on te m
'
pl a te d is n o t un l a wful the fu n ct ion Of t he Co u rt is li mi te d

,
t o in te r p r e t in g t he te r m s e xp re sse d The ru le s of in te r .
p r e t a ti o n for m t he su bj e c t of a l a t e r c h a p te r .
G e n e r a lly t he Cou rt will n o t m a ke a c on t r a ct for t he

,
p ar t ie s The y m u st m a ke u p t h e ir m in ds wh at t h e y
.
m e a n a n d t h e y shou ld e xp re ss t h e ir m e an in g cle a r ly a n d
,
fu lly B u t withi n li mi ts law a n d u sage O p e r a te t o de te r

.
m in e the c o n te n t o f t he co n tr a ct a n d t h e r e for e t he d u t ie s
of the p a rt ie s .
a b so If a r u le of law is i m p e r at ive t he p art ie s m u st c on for m

t o it Th e y c a n n o t con t r a ct t h e m se lv e s o u t of a n e xp r e ss
.
le ga l du t y B u t if a s ofte n h a pp e n s t he law m e r e ly l a ys
.
, ,
down rul e s whi ch a r e t o gove rn a p ar t ic u l a r t r a n sa ct io n

in t he a b se n ce of a gr e e m e n t t o t he con tr a r y it i s op e n t o ,
t he p ar t ie s t o m o di fy or t o de p a rt fr o m t he ru l e a t t h e ir
o r in t he di s cr e t i on for con v e n t io vin cit l e ge m The sa m e r e m a r k
,
a pp li e s t o cu st o m s wh e t he r loc a l or re la t in g t o so m e
,
a gr e e
»
p a r t i cu lar t r a de o r b u sin e ss Th e y b in d o n ly so far a s t he

m e nt
.
p a rt ie s h a ve n o t se e n fit t o e x clu d e t he ir op e r a ti on
'
In t hi s c h a p te r w e sh a ll sp e a k O f v ar io u s ru l e s of la w
by w hi ch t he du t y of p e r for m a n ce is d e te r m in e d wh e r e t he
p art ie s h a ve n o t de p a rt e d fr o m t he m by e xpr e ss a gr e e m e n t .
All c o n tr a cts a r e c o m m onl y r e fe rr e d t o o n e or ot h e r of

t w o cl a sse s : vi z ( a ) con t r a c t s t o gi ve ( b) c on tr a c t s t o do
.
,
1
o r t o a b st a in fr o m do in g B u t it is e vide n t t h at bot h of
.
1
G r 3 3 9 8; V d L 1 1 4 6 ; P o t hie r T r a i té des Obliga ti ons
. . . . . . . .
, ,
se c . 53 .
’
or c ur a t or s au thor it y If he d oe s so t he su m of m o ne y o r .
,
o t he r t hin g ali e n a te d c a n be r e cove r e d by vi n di ca t io n if ,
st ill e x t a n t ; if it ha s b e e n co n su m e d t he d e b t i s d e e m e d t o ,
1
b e disc h ar g e d This o nly a pplie s howe ve r if t he de b t in
.
, ,
mi no rs , qu e st io n sp r in g s fr o m a v a lid c ivil Ob lig at io n If a m in or .
ha s con t r a cte d wi t hou t hi s t u t or s a u t hor it y t he t hin g

’
2
de live r e d o r its v a lu e ca n a lwa ys b e r e c ove r e d A m arr ie d
, , .
wo m a n b e in g in la w a mi n or a n d u n a ble t o c o n tr a ct
,
2
wi thou t he r h u sb a n d s au t hor it y is a lso u n a ble t o m a ke ’
a v a li d p a ym en t Conse qu e n t ly m one y p a id by he r m ay
.
,
b e re cove re d by t he h u sb an d s ta n te ma tr im on i o or by ,
he rse lf a fte r its di ssolu t io n She m ay e ve n r e c ove r m o n e y .
p a id a fte r t he dissolu t io n of t he m a rr i ag e in re sp e ct of a
de b t co n tr a cte d d u r in g it s c on t in u a n ce p r ovide d t h at she ,
m a d e t he p a ym e n t in ign or a n c e of he r r ight s a n d u n d e r
-
2
t he m i st a k e n id e a t h a t she w a s e ffe ct ive ly bo u n d .
P a ym e n t m ay b e m a de t o t he cr e di t or o r his n o m in e e
o r t o a n y p e r s o n t o who m p a ym e n t i s a gr e e d t o b e m a d e ,
su ch p e r s o n b e in g re g a r d e d a s t he cr e di t o r s m a n d a t a r y
’
2
t o r e ce ive p a ym e n t P a ym e n t m a y in a n y c a se b e m a de
.
t o t he cr e di t o r s a g e n t if t o r e ce ive p a ym e n t fa ll s w it hin
’
t he s c op e of his a u t hor it y or fe ll wit hi n it a n d t he d e b t or ,
2
ha s n ot r e c e iv e d n ot i ce t h a t t he a u t hor it y i s re vok e d .
P a ym e n t m a de t o a p e r son who ha s n o a u t hor it y t o r e

ce iv e p a ym e n t o n b e h a lf of t he c r e di t o r will b e co m e good
ex p ost facto if t he cr e di t o r r a t ifi e s t he t r a n sa ct io n o r if t he
m on e y p a id i s a pplie d t o hi s u se 7
P a ym e n t t o se r v a n t s is .
2
v a lid if it is wi t hin t he ir au t hor it y t o r e ce ive it Pa y
, .
m e n t of a d e b t du e t o a m in or is v a li dl y m a d e t o hi s
gu ar di a n u nl e ss t he d e b t is of l ar ge a m ou n t in whi c h
,
c a se a n o r de r of Co u r t is de sir a ble If t he mi n or s fa t h e r .
” ,
1 2
G r 3 3 9 1 1 ; V o e t , 4 4 2 1 a n d 46 3 1
. . . V o e t , l o c c it
. . . . . . .
2
Thi s is t he ge n e r a l r ul e F o r e x c e pt io n s se e su pr a , pp 65 ff . . .
2
a n d i nfr a , A ppe n dix D Voet , 1 2 6 19
. . . .
2
G r 3 3 9 1 3 V oe t , 46 3 2 ; V d L u bi su p Su ch a pe rs o n is
. . . . . . . . .
sa id t o b e s olu ti on i s ca u s a a dj e ctu s D ig 45 1 5 6 , 2 Cf M u t ua l . . . . . .
L ife I nsu r a nce Co of New Yor k v H o tz [ 1 9 1 1 ] A D a t p 5 6 6

. . . . . .
2 7 2
V o e t , 46 3 3 V d L u bi su p
. . . V o e t , 46 3 4 . . . . . . .
2
G r 3 39 1 4; V o e t , 4 4 22 ( a d
. . . H oll Cons i 1 67 ; . . . . .
v i 1 27
. .
OPE RATI ON OF C ONT RACT 2 55
is alive p a ym e n t t o hi m a s n a tu r a l gu a r di an m ay be m a de
,
w i t ho u t h a vin g hi m fir st c o n fir m e d a s gu ar di an by t he
Co u r t P a ym e n t t o a m arr ie d wo m a n o f a de b t du e t o
1
. ,
he r o r t o he r h u sb an d m a d e wit hou t his kn owle dge or ,
a g a i n st his w i ll i s i n v a lid u nl e ss it ha s b e e n a ppl ie d t o

, ,
hi s u se or u nl e ss it is O f sm a ll a m ou n t a n d m ay b e su p
,
po se d t o h a ve b e e n a pplie d by t he w ife to t he p ur po se s of
t he ho u se hold 2
P a ym e n t m a y sa fe ly b e ma d e t o a fidu
.
ci ar y p e n di n g t he co n di t io n of a fide i co m m i ssu m
2
In t he .
e ve n t of t he cr e dit o r s d e a t h p a ym e n t m u st b e m a d e t o
’
4
( his he ir s a n d n o w t o ) his p e r so n a l r e pr e se nt a t ive s Whe n .
t w o p e r s o n s cl a im p a ym e n t of t he sa m e d eb t p a ym e n t ,
c a n n ot sa fe ly b e m a de t o e it h e r The de b t or sho u ld .
de po sit t he m on e y in Cou r t o r if he p a ys t o o n e of t he
r i v a l cl a i m a n t s t a k e fr o m h1 m se c u ri t y a g a i n st t he c l a i m
,
2
of the ot he r P a ym e n t t o a cr e dit o r s c r e di t o r a p a rt fr o m
.
’
e xp r e ss a u t hor it y ca n o nl y b e j u st i fie d if a t a ll o n t he , , ,
gr o u n d of n e go ti or u m ge st io B u t a su ble sse e m a y pa y .
a h e a d l e sso r t o a vo i d a n e x e c u t io n u po n hi s o w n goods .
P a ym e n t m a de in good fa it h t o a n in v a din g e n e m y u n de r
pr e ssu r e of v is m a j or e ffe c ts a di sch ar ge 2
.
Whe n a de b t or is bo u n d by c on tr a ct t o de live r a thin g Obligatio

2 11 2 2 21
of a ce rt a in ge n u s he m u st d e live r a t hi n g of t he kin d of 2
,
7
a v e r a ge qu a lit y .
Whe n a su m t o be p a id u n de r a c on t ra ct is sta te d in
fore ign cu r r e n cy in t he a b se n ce O f pr ovi sio n t o t he co n
,
t r a r y p a ym e n t m a y ( m u st ?) b e m a d e i n t he c u rr e n c y of
,
1
Se e Va n Rooyen v . Wern er ( 1 89 2 ) 9 S C . . at p . 430 ; su p r a ,
p 37
. .
2
G r o e n , ad G r 3 39 1 4; V oe t , 2 3 2 5 0 a n d 46 3 5 ; Ne o
. . . . . . .
s t a d iu s , S u p r Cu r D e cis , n o 88 O f c o u r se , if t he m a r it a l po w e r
. . . . .
is e x c lu de d , a m a r r ie d w o m a n is c o m pe t e n t t o r e c e iv e pa ym e n t o f a
de b t du e t o he rse lf 2
V o e t , 3 6 l 63 a n d 46 3 5
. . . . . .
2
V d L u bi su p
. . . .
2
V o e t ( 46 3 6 ) sa y s c o n sign a n du m a c de po n e n du m in u su m
‘
. .
v ic t o r ie
’
In t e rple a de r w ith pa y m e n t in t o Co u r t is t he m o de rn
.
q
e u i v a le t
7
n .
2
V o e t , 46 3 7 . . .
V o e t , 46 3 9 ( ad . G r o e n de leg a br ad D ig 1 7 l 5 2 B u t
. . . .
q
. . . .
B ru n n e m an , a d lo c , sa y s : In o b liga t io n e ge n e r is lib e r a t u r
‘
. u is
pr ae s t a n do v iliss irn u m G r o e n e w e ge n han c le ge m pu t a t a b o lita m ,

.
s e d n u ll o fu n da m e n t o
’
.
t he lo cu s solu t io ni s a t t he r a te of e x ch a n ge ru lin g whe n

p a ym e n t falls du e 1
.
The cr e di t o r m ay if he choo se s d e m a n d b u t t he d e b t o r , , ,
is n o t c om p e ll a bl e t o r e n de r n or t he cr e di t or t o a c ce pt , ,
p art p e r for m an ce 2
P a r t p e r for m a n ce if a c ce p te d pro
.
, ,
ta n to e x tin gu i sh e s t he d e b t a n d in t he c a se of a m o n e y
2
d e b t p r e ve n t s pr o ta n to t he fu r t h e r a ccru a l of in te r e st .
Al te rna Wh e n on e of t w o p e r for m a n ce s is a gr e e d t o b e r e n de r e d
in t he a lte r n a t ive t he c hoic e r e st s wit h t he d e b t or u n le ss
, ,
it ha s b e e n e xp r e ssly give n t o t he cr e di t or 2
.
Su b st itu te d p e rfor m a n c e m ay b e m a de wit h t he conse n t

2
of t he cre dit or b u t n ot o t he r wi se It ha s t he sam e e ffe ct
, .
as p e r fo r m a n c e of t he t hin g o r igin a lly a gr e e d t o b e do n e .
The e ffe ct of p e r for m an c e i s t o di s ch ar ge fr o m fur t he r

li a bili t y t he pr in cip a l d e b t or his co de b t or s if a n y an d ,
-
, ,
2
a ll p e r s o n a l s u r e t i e s a n d r e a l se cu r i t i e s fo r p e r fo r m a n c e .
B u t if o n e of se ve r a l cO d e b t or s or a su r e t y p a ys t he -
, ,
de b t he m ay d e m a n d fr o m the cr e di t or a ce ssio n of a ct ions

,
7
a g a in st o t h e r p a rt ie s li a bl e a n d t hu s k e e p t he d e b t a live .
If t he t hin g give n in p a ym e n t o r o n e O f se ve r a l t hin gs ,
give n in p aym e nt is r e cove re d fr o m t he cr e dit or by a ,
t hir d p a r t y ( evi cti on ) t he p a ym e n t is r e n de r e d void a n d , ,
a ll fo r m e r r igh t s r e viv e u nl e ss t he cr e di t or p r e fe r s t o s u e ,
t he de b t or for da m a g e s o n t he gr o u n d of e vict ion The .
sa m e r e sul t follow s if t he d e b t o r ha s fr a u d u l e n t ly mi s
2
r e p r e se n t e d t he v a l u e of t he p r op e r t y giv e n in se t t l e m e n t .
Pr o of o f P a ym e n t m a y be p r ove d by a n y l a wfu l e vide n ce a n d ,
1
B a r r y Co ln e Co ac ks on s L td [ 1 9 2 2] C P D 3 7 2 . V . J ’
. . . .
°
B assa L td v E as t A si a tic ( S A ) Co L td [ 1 9 3 2 ] N P D 3 86 ,
. . . . . . . . .
J ofi e
'
V
Afr ica n L ife A ssu r a n ce L td [ 1 9 3 3] T P D 1 89 Ma y pa y
. . . . . .
m e n t b e m a de in t he fo r e ign cu r r e n c y ? B a rr y Co ln e dc C o v . .
J ’
ac ks on s L td le a v e s t h e u e st i on o pe n
. S e e D ic ey R u l e 1 81 q . .
L e ga l t e n de r in S ou t h A fr ic a is de n e d b y A c t No 3 1 o f 1 9 22 , fi .
se e 3 , a n d in S o u t h e r n R ho de sia b y A c t NO 3 2 o f 1 9 38, s e c s 1 3 , 1 5
. . . .
2
G r 3 3 9 9 ; V o e t , 46 3 1 1 ; V d L u bi su p
. . .
,
. . . . . .
2
V d L 1 18 1 . . . . . .
2
D ig 1 8 1 2 5 pr ; 2 3 3 1 0 6 ; V o e t , 45 l 2 2 ; V d L 1 1 4 9
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
May t he pe r s o n w ho ha s m a de his e le c t io n r e ca ll it V o e t , l o c c it .
G r 3 42 4—
.
2
.5 ; V o e t , 46 3 1 0
. . . . .
7
2
V o e t , 46 3 1 18 1
. . V d L u bi su p . . . . . . .
2
a b se n ce of e xpr e ssio n t o t he con tr ar y t he p ayee is su p

po se d to a pply t he p a ym e n t t o hi s o w n cl a i m for ch a r it y ,
b e gins a t ho m e du m or din a t a ch a r it a s a se ip sa in cipit ; 1
( 3 ) F a ilin g a pp r op r i a t io n by d e b t o r o r cre di t or the law

'
a pp r op r i a te s t he p a ym e n t a s follow s : viz ( a ) to in te r est .
b e for e p r in cip a l ; ( b) t o t he de b t w hi ch t he de b t o r a t t he
t im e of p a ym e n t is le g a lly co m p e ll a ble to pay r a t h e r t h a n
t o a m e r e ly n a t u r a l oblig a t i on ; a n d if m or e t h a n o n e d e b t
i s of t hi s n a t ur e t h e n ( 0 ) t o t he d e b t whi c h l a ys t he ,
h e a vi e st b u r de n o n t he d e b t or i e t o t h a t de b t whi ch it , . .
2
i s m ost in hi s in t e r e st t o di s ch ar g e ; a n d su bj e ct t h e r e t o
d d b d f r o m him a s p r in cip a l in p r e fe re n ce
( ) t o a e t u e
t o a d e b t du e fr o m hi m a s sur e t y ; a n d su bj e ct t h e re t o
3
( e ) t o t h e d e b t wh i c h i s e a r li e r i n t im e ; a n d i n c a se of
d e b t s of e qu a l d a te fin a lly (f) to all su ch de b ts p r opor ,
2
ti on a te ly to t h e ir a m o u n t .
Inte rest .
The su bj e ct of p a ym e n t su gge st s t he su bj e ct of in te re st .
Thi s m a y b e e it h e r a gr e e d b e twe e n t he p a r tie s or a llowe d ,
by t he la w a s d a m a ge s if o n e or o the r p ar t y is in de fa u lt
( d a m a g e i n te r es t) A s
-
r e g a r d s t h e l e g a l r a te of in te r est
.
,
G r o tiu s sa ys t h a t or di n ar y cit i z e n s we r e a llowe d to stipu

la t e fo r o ne six te e n t h i e 6 } pe r ce n t pe r a nn u m Me r
-
2
, . . . .
ch a n t s by the P e r pe tu a l E di ct o f 1 5 40 (Ar t
,
e n j oye d .
t he p r ivil e ge O f st ip ul a t in g for in t e r e st u p t o t we lve pe r

2
ce n t .
I n S ou t h Afr ic a it w a s for m e r ly h e ld t h at t h e r e w a s n o
ge n e r a l le ga l r a te Of in te r e st a n d t h a t n o a gre e d r a te of
in te r e st c ou ld b e p r o n ou n ce d u su r io u s e xc e p t in vi e w of ,
7
t he c ir cu m st a n ce s of t he p art icu l a r ca se ; bu t n o w t he
1
Voet, u bi su p .
2
Wa term eyer
E xor e Wa ter m e yer s E x or [ 1 87 0 ] B u ch 6 9
’
s . V .
’
. .
Wi lhe lm s Tru s tee S hepston e ( 1 87 8) 6 N L R

’
l V
Va n Wyk . . . .
v L eo [ 1 9 0 9 ] T S a t p 7 9 5
‘
. . . . .
2
V o e t , u bi su p ; S co tt S ytn e r ( 1 89 1 ) 9 S C 5 0 . V . . . .
G r 3 3 9 1 5 ; V oe t , u bi su p
. . . .
2
G r 3 1 0 1 0 ( ad . L o e n D ec ia G as 2 1 ; V oe t , 22 l 3
. . . . . . .
V d K 5 45
. . . .
2
1 G P B 3 1 7 V an der K e esse l ( Th 5 47 ) sa y s t ha t t his
. . . . .
r iv il e ge w as di s u se d s o e ar ly as 1 5 9 0
p .
7
D yas on V
Ru thven ( 1 860 ) 3 S 2 82 R e u te r. Ya tes [ 1 9 04] T S . V . . .
85 5 ; Cloete v Rober ts ( 1 9 03 ) 20 S C 41 3 The la w is t he sa m e in

. . . .
OPE RATI ON OF CONTRACT 259
Usu r y A ct 1 9 2 6 de fin e s t he p e r m it te d r a te s of in te r e st
, ,
o n lo a n s of m o n e y a n d t he su m r e c ov e r a bl e u po n a n y
su c h c o n t r a ct The ru l e Of t he R o m an D u t ch L aw pr o
.
-
1 2
hib iti n g c o m po u n d in te r e st is n o lo n ge r in for ce ; bu t it C m o
i s st ill la w t h a t t he a m ou n t of in te r e st r e c ove r a bl e in a n y f ftfitfiit .
o n e a ct i o n ( si m u l et sem el ) ca nn o t u n d e r a n y cir cu m st a n ce s
3
e x ce e d t he a m o u n t of t he p r in cip a l .
In t he a b se n ce of a gr e e m e n t n o in te r e st ca n b e c l a im e d N ,
o
2
e x ce p t w h e n t he la w a llo w s i n te r e st by w a y of d a m a ge s .
Wh e r e in t e r e st ha s b e e n a gr e e d t o b e p a i d b u t n o sp e cifi c pt by ,
e x ce
8. re
r a t e of i n t e r e st ha s b e e n fix e d t he c u r r e n t r a te of I n te r e st “i n ? ,
is p a ya bl e Th is is d e t e r m in e d V o e t sa ys p r i ma fa ci e by
.
, , ,
t he le x lo ci c o n tr a ct u s
2
The m e r e p a ym e n t of in te re st .
for se ve r a l ye a r s wi tho u t a n y p r e vi ou s a gr e e m e n t in t h a t
b e h a lf do e s n o t c on fe r a n y r ight t o h a ve su ch p a ym e n t
c o n t in u e d
2
A c o n t in u e d p a ym e n t O f le ss th a n t he a gr e e d
.
in t e r e st m a y b e c o n st ru e d a s a t a cit a gr e e m e n t fo r t he
le sse r a m o u n t b u t n o n p a ym e n t is n o t e vide n ce of a n
,
-
7
a gr e e m e n t n o t t o pa y .
The O bli g a t i o n t o pa y i n te r e st i s d e te r m in e d : ( 1 ) by H w t h o e
2 O blig t i n a o
re l e a se ; ( 2 ) by p a ym e n t of t he p r in cip a l d e b t ( b u t wi t ho u t t o
p y a
Ce y lo n P u lle . V
Ca n do e ( 1 87 5 ) R a m a n a t ha n , 1 87 2—6 , p 1 89 P e ri a
. .
Ca r p e n
1
V
H e rft ( 1 886 ) 7 S C C 1 82
. . . . .
G r 3 10 10. . Vo e t , 22 l 20
. . . .
2
Na ta l B k v u r a n da [ 1 9 0 7 ] T H
. . K
1 5 5 ; Rya n dc B u r ton v . . .
T hor n to n [ 1 9 1 2 ] E D L a t p 1 7 3 I n a re ce n t ca se t he Su pr e m e . . . . .
Co ur t o f Ce y lo n a rr iv e d a t t he sa m e c o n c lu s io n b y a m a o r it y o f j
t hr e e t o t w o M a r i ka r . S u pr a m a n i a n Che tl i a r 1 9 43 ) 43 N L R 40 9 V . . .
V
. .
2
V o e t , 2 2 1 1 9 ; V d K 5 49 ; R o be rts
. . B ooy ( 1 884) 4 E D O . . . .
U
. . .
2 2 ; Va n D i gge le n v T r i ggs [ 1 9 1 1 ] S R 1 5 4 Se e n o w t he n io n
. . . .
U su r y A c t 1 9 2 6 , se c 2 , fo r S o u t h e r n R ho de s ia , R S ca p 2 2 8, . . . .
a n d fo r Ce y lo n R S c a pp 6 6 , 6 7 In
, n i o n G ovt
’
J or da a n s
. . . . U . V .
E xor [ 1 9 1 6 ] T P D 41 1 it w a s s a id t h a t n o in t e r e st r u ns a ft e r
. . . .
q
t h e a m o u n t i s e u iv a le n t t o t he a m o u n t o f t he c a pit a l S e e a lso .
S o lom o n v J ca r ey [ 1 9 2 1 ] C P D 1 0 8 S ed qu ae r e G r o e n , de leg
. . . . . . . .
a br a d Co d 4 3 2
. 2 7 1 ; V o e t , u bi s u p ; V d K
. . D i cta t a d G r
. . . . . . .
3 10
. . 10 .
2
H a ve m a n n V
O lda cr e B r os ( 1 9 0 5 ) 2 6 N L R 5 6
. . . . . .
2
V o e t , 22 1 8: a d e a m qu a n t it a t e m o bliga t io u su r ar u m
. .
c o n t r a c t a in t e lligit u r , u a e e x m o r e r e gi o n is in
qu a c o n v e n t io q
c e l e b r a t a pr ae st a r i so le t .
2 7
Voet , 22 1 1 3 . . Vo e t , 2 2 l 1 4
. . . .
2
V o e t , 2 2 1 1 5 B y t he R o m a n D u t ch co m m o n la w r e n t is ip s o
. . .
-
ju r e r e m i t te d in ca se o f ho st ile in cu r s io n an d o the r ca lam i t ie s, b u t

p re j u di ce t o t he r ight t o r e c ove r i n te r e st a lr e a dy a c cru e d

du e ) ; ( 3 ) by j u dg m e n t A cl aim for d a m a ge —
1
i n te r e st is .
m e r ge d in t he j u dgm e n t b u t a c c or di n g t o V o e t t hi s do e s ,
2
n o t a pply t o in te re st st ip u l a t e d for in a c o n t r a c t .
Te n de r . Te n de r is a n offe r of p a ym e n t which t o b e e ffe ct ive

‘ ’
, , ,
m u st b e m a d e t o a p e r so n who i s co m p e te n t a n d a u t hor
‘
i z e d t o r e ce ive p a ym e n t a n d m u st b e in str ic t co n formi t y

wit h t he te r m s of t he o r ig in a l c o n tr a ct V o e t s a ys t h a t a
m e r e t e n de r of p r in cip a l a n d i n te r e st doe s n o t p r e ve n t
i n t e r e st co n t i n u i n g t o r u n u n l e ss a cco m p a n ie d by c o n
4
sign a t io n a n d d e po si t In t he m ode r n la w con sign a t ion .
i s n o t in u se The sa m e e ffe c t n o w r e su l t s fr o m sim ple

.
t e n de r if r e gu l a r ly m a d e a n d a for ti or i fr o m p a ym e n t
, ,
2
in t o Co u r t .
The law l a ys down sp e ci a l r u l e s a s t o pl a c e a n d t i m e of

p a ym e n t by wh i ch in t he a b se n c e Of co ntr a r y e xpr e ssion , ,
t he p a r t i e s ar e bo u n d A s r e g ar d s p lace p e r for m a n ce .
,
m u st p r i m a faci e b e m a d e wh e r e t he O bli g at io n w a s co n
t r a cte d u n l e ss a n ot h e r pl a ce of p e r for m a n c e ha s b ee n
,
.
2
e xp r e ssly or i m pli e dly a gr e e d B u t wh e r e a thi ng i s in .
,
qu e sti on t he de b t or is n o t a s a ru le bou n d t o b r in g it to
,
t he ho u se of t he cr e dit or Su c h a t le a st i s t he op ini o n of .
7
V o e t who s a ys t h at ot h e r s t hin k diffe r e n t ly
,
It follows .
t h a t in t he a b se n ce O f a gr e e m e n t o r cl e a r p r oof of c u st om
t o t he co n t r a r y i t i s in cu m b e n t o n t he cr e di t or e ve n wh e n ,
t he p a r t ie s ar e livin g in t he sa m e pl a c e t o se e k o u t t he
de b t o r fo r p a ym e n t an d t he pl a ce fo r de live r y of goods ,
” ,
a s im ila r in du l ge n c e in t he m a tt e r
t h e l a w do e s n o t , a s a ru le , giv e
1
o f in t e r e st . C ens F or 1 4 4 3 0
. . . . . .
2
Voe t , 22 . 1 16. .
4 M aa s do rp , p 1 7 1 ;
2
e sse ls , i 2 33 2 if i nfr a , p 2 7 3
. W . . . .
2
V o e t , 2 2 1 1 7 F o r c o n sign a t io n ide i nfr a , p 2 7 4
. . . V . .
2
I nfr a , p 2 7 3 -
. .
2
G r 3 3 9 9 , a n d S ch o r e r ad l o c ; V o e t , 46 3 1 2
. . . in ds c he id , . . . W
11 2 82 ; C o lle t v E va [ 1 9 2 6 ] C P D 1 87 ; a lker v
. Ta ylor [ 1 9 3 4] . . . W .
V
.
W L D a t p 1 1 4 ; H a z is
. . . T r a n s va a l dc D e la goa B a y I n ves tm e n t
. .
C o [ 1 9 3 9 ] A D a t p 3 9 1 ( p er St r a t fo r d ( Ce y lo n ) H a n ifia v
'
. . . . .
Ocea n A cci de n t Corp ( 1 9 33 ) 3 5 N L R 2 1 6

-
. . . . .
7
V o e t , u bi s u p Se e a ls o S cho r e r a d G r o t l o c c it , a n d V a n
L e e u w e n , 4 40 6 ; Ce n s F or 1 4 3 2 1 4—
. . .
V
.
. 1 5 ; S ega l
. M a zzu r . . . . . .
[ 1 9 20 ] C P D a t p 640
. . . . .
2
S hapi r o otle r cf V K
c Rabi n ow i tz [ 1 9 3 5 ] W L D
. 60 B u t see . . . .
t im e s ip u l at io n a s t o t im e is i m plie d fr o m a n a gr e e
a st
m e n t a s t o pl a ce ; for if a pl a ce is n a m e d for p e r fo r m a n ce
1
e n o u gh t i m e i s u nd e r st ood t o b e a llowe d t o e n a ble t he
p r o m i sor con ve ni e n tly t o r e a ch t he pla c e de st in e d fo r pe r

fo rm a n ce 2
u n l e ss it a pp e ar s t h a t t he m a tte r ha s b ee n
,
p r e vio u sly a rr a n ge d so a s t o a llow of pe r for m an ce t a kin g

pla c e by m e a n s of a ge n t s a t t he pl a ce i n te n de d E ve n 3
.
wh e n a c on tr a ct fix e s a d e fin ite t im e for p e r for m a n ce t he

Co u r t will co n side r in vie w of t he cir c u m st a n ce s of e a ch ,
p ar t icu l a r c ase whe t h e r t he t r u e in t e n t i o n of t he p a rt ie s

,
a t t he t i m e of co n t r a ct in g w a s t o fix a r e a s o n a bl e t im e or t o
2
m a k e t im e of t he e sse n ce of t he c o n t r a ct Thi s se co n d .
2
a l te r n a t iv e i s u su a lly i n t e n d e d i n m e r ca n t il e co n t r a ct s .
Ju st a s a d e b t or ca n n o t b e co m p e ll e d t o p e r for m b e for e
p e r for m a n c e fa ll s du e so it w o u ld se e m re a so n a ble t h a t
2
,
a c r e di t or sho u ld n o t b e c o m p e ll a bl e t o a c c e p t p e r fo r m a n ce
b e for e t he t im e a gre e d B u t t h e r e is a t e x t in t he D ige st 7

.
whi ch se e m s t o i m ply t he co n tr ar y for Ve n u le iu s sa ys ,
‘
qu od in d ie m de b e t u r a n te s olvi po te st li ce t p e t i n o n ,
po te st V o e t su gge sts t h a t t hi s di ct u m sho u ld b e li m ite d

t o t he c a se wh e r e po stpo n e m e n t of p a ym e n t ha s b e e n
2
a gr e e d u pon fo r t he e x cl u s iv e b e n e fi t of t he d e b t o r It .
wo u ld n o t a pply for in st a n ce wh e r e m o n e y ha d b e e n le n t
a t i n t e r e st fo r a fix e d p e r iod
10
,
S chore r a d mi t s p r e p a y
,
.
”
m e n t in t hi s c a se a l so b u t it m u st in clu de p a ym e n t of ,
fu t u r e in te r e st a s we ll a s Of in te r e st a lr e a dy a ccr u e d du e .
W he r e t he r e is an a gr e e m e n t for p a ym e n t by in st alm e n t s
2
1
G r 3 3 53 . . . . D ig 45 1 7 3 pr . . . .
2
D ig 45 1 1 41 , 4; V o e t 45 1 1 9
. . .
, . . .
2
B e r gl dc C o v Tr ott B r os ( 1 9 0 3 ) 2 4 N L R a t p 5 1 8 p e r
. . . . . . .
B a le C J ; Cr o o k v P eder s en L td [ 1 9 2 7 ] W L D a t pp 7 6 if
. . . . . . . .
Oli vi e r V
P aschke [ 1 9 2 8] S W A 1 1 6 ; We sse ls , i 2 2 47 ff
. . . . . .
2
A lgoa M i lli ng C o A r ke ll ck D ou gla s [ 1 9 1 8] A D a t p 1 6 7 ; . V . . . .
L ew i s dc Co . V
M a lki n [ 1 9 2 6 ] T P D 6 6 5 ; B la tt v S w a kop m u nd e r
. . . . .
B a n kver e i n [ 1 9 2 9 ] S W A 9 0 2
V o e t , 46 3 1 2
. . . . . . .
7
D ig 45 1 1 3 7 2 . . Sa n de , D ec ie F r i s 3 1 6 l
. . . . . . .
2
D ig 5 0 1 7 1 7 : in s t ipu l a t io n ib u s pr o m isso r is gr a t ia t e m pu s
. . .
a dic it u r So V d L ( 1 1 4
. . . . . .
2
V o e t 1 2 1 2 0 ; V a n L e e u w e n , 4 40 5 ; C en s F or 1 4 3 2 1 6 ;
, . . . . . . .
K V
. .
V d K 5 42 ;
. . . e lly H olm es B r os L td [ 1 9 2 7 ] O P D 2 9 ; M cCa be . . . . . .
V” B u r is ch [ 1 9 3 0 ] T P D a t p 2 6 5
. . . . . .
1
A d G rot 3 39 . . .
a p u r ch a se r is n o t e n title d t o m a k e p r e m atu r e p aym e n t s

u nl e ss po ssibly t oge t h e r wi t h i n te r e st o n fu t u r e in st a l
, ,
m e n ts .
1
SE CTI O N III
The Con sequ en ces f
o Non -
p er for ma n ce
In t he
la st se cti on w e discu sse d t he du t y of p e r fo r m a n ce In w hat .
We ar e n o w t o c onside r w h a t h app e n s if t h a t du ty 1 s n ot gam e to e ,

B
ca rr i e d o u t If a p a r t y fa ils t o p e r fo r m o r fa ils In p e r fo r m Pe rfor m 19

.
ju t’fie d
i n g wh at he has u n d e r t a ke n e it h e r he can j u sti fy hi s ,
fa ilur e or he can n ot If he can he in cur s n o li a b ilit y

'
. .
,
If he ca nn ot he ha s b r oke n his co n tr a ct a n d m u st su ffe r

,
the c o n se qu e n ce s .
The gr o u n d s on whi ch n o n p e r form a n ce i s j u st ifie d -
sc a r ce ly p e r h a p s a dm it of for m a l cla ssi fic a tion They

, ,
.
in clu d e e ve r y c a se in wh i ch a d e fe n d a n t can pl e a d t h at
the c on t r a ct o n wh i ch a c ti o n i s b r o u gh t is vo i d or void
a ble ; vo i d o n t he gr o u n d of m i st a k e i m po ssib ili t y of ,
2
p e r for m a n ce ille ga lit y ; vo id a ble
,
o n t he g r o u n d of
fr a u d or m in or it y A n o t he r c a se is the op e r a tio n of a
, .
su sp e n siv e c o n di t io n If a p e rs on ha s u n de r t a ke n t o pe r
.
form in a ce rt a in e ve n t it is pl a in t h a t u nl e ss a n d u n t il , ,
t h a t e ve n t h a pp e n s p e r for m a n ce c a nn o t be d e m a n d e d
,
2
.
2
B ern i tz V
E u vr a r d [ 1 9 43 ] A D 5 9 5
. . . .
Im po ssib iliu m n u lla o b liga t io e st , D ig 5 0 1 7 1 85 I m po ssi . . . .
b ili t y c a nn o t b e as sign e d t o a n y o n e plac e in t he t he o r y o f co n

t r ac t I t m a y b e o f su c h a c ha r ac t e r a s t o n e ga t iv e a n y se r io u s
.
in t e n t io n t o c o n t r a c t ( su p r a , pp 2 1 3 , o r m a y o pe r a t e t o .
m a ke t he c o n t r a c t v o id a b i n i ti o ( su pr a , p o r m a y a r ise .
q
su b s e u e n t ly t o t h e c o n t r a c t , in w h ic h c a se it w ill s o m e t im e s
dis ch a r ge t h e pr o m i so r fr o m lia b il it y ( i nfr a , p Whe n pe r .
fo rm a n c e is im po ss ib le a b i n i ti o , t he ge n e r a l r u le is t ha t if
t he im po ssib il it y is a b so lu t e ( i e im po ssib le fo r e v e r y b o dy ) t he . .
pr o m is or in cu r s n o lia b ilit y ; if it is r e la t iv e ( im po ssible fo r t he

pr o m iso r , n o t fo r e v e r y b o dy ) he w ill b e b o u n d D ig 45 1 1 3 7 , 5 : . . . .
s i a b e o st ipu la t u s s im , qu i e ffi c e r e n o n po s s it , c u m a li o po ss ib ile
s it , j
u r e fa c t a m o b liga t io n e m S a b in u s s c r ib it B u t e v e n in t he .
fi rst case t h e pr o m isor w ill b e b ou n d , if h e has co n t r a c t e d in t e r m s
w hi ch im po r t a w arr a n t y t ha t pe r fo r m a n ce is po ssib le Se e o n .
j
t he w ho le s u b e c t Mo y le , I ns ti tu te s of Ju s ti n i a n ( 5 t h p 41 1 .
Win dsche id , ii 2 6 4 . .
2
Unl e ss h e h im se lf de l ib e r a t e ly a n d in b a d fa ith pr e v e n t s t he
fu lfihn e n t o f t h e c o n dit io n D ig 45 1 85, 7 : Qu i cu m qu e su b . . . .
264 THE LAW OF OB LIGATI ONS
F ina lly ,
t h e r e i s t he
qu e st io n O fte n diffi c u l t of t he e ffe ct , ,
of de fa ul t o n t he p art of t he ot he r con t r a ctin g p a rt y .
Whe r e p e r for m an ce s a r e du e fr om bot h p art ie s t o a co n

t r a ct t he d u t y Of p e r for m a n c e by o n e is u su a lly con di
,
t i o n a l u pon p e r for m a n ce by t he ot h e r It may b e t h at .
o n e is t o p e r fo r m b e for e t he o t h e r o r t h a t b ot h a r e t o ,
p e r fo r m con cu rre n tly In t he fir st c a se p e rfor m an ce o n .
t he o n e s id e i s sa i d t o b e a con di t io n p re ce de n t of t he d u t y
of p e r for m a n c e o n t he o t h e r In t he se con d c a se e a ch pe r .
fo r m a n ce i s a co n cu rr e n t co n di t io n of t he ot h e r Th u s if .
,
I a m t o b u y yo ur ho u se p r ovide d t h at y o u fir st pu t it in
r e p a ir if yo u fa il t o r e p a ir I a m n o t bo u n d t o b u y
,
Again .
,
in a n o r di n ar y c o n t r a ct O f s al e in t he a b se n ce of a gr e e m e n t ,
t o t he c o n tr a r y p a ym e n t a n d d e live r y a re c on cu rre n t
,
con di t ion s I n e e d n o t d e live r u nle ss y o u a r e re a dy an d

.
,
willi n g t o pay You n e e d n ot pa y u nl e ss I a m r e a dy a n d

.
,
1
wi llin g t o de live r If t he o n e p art y su e s for de live r y .
wit ho u t te n de r in g p a ym e n t or for p a ym e n t w it hou t ,
te n de r i n g de live r y t he o t h e r p a r t y i s u n de r n o li a bilit y,
t o p e r for m On c e m or e : I a m n o t bou n d to con t in u e re a dy

.
a n d willi n g t o p e r fo r m if y o u o n yo u r sid e m a k e i t pl a in ,
t h a t y o u do n o t in te n d t o do yo u r p a rt Th e r e for e if yo u .
,
r e fu se t o p e r for m o r di sa bl e yo u r se lf o r m e fr o m pe r,
for m in g o r an n ou n ce yo ur i n te n tio n n o t t o p e r for m I o n

, ,
2
m y side a m re le a se d fr o m t he d u t y of p e r for m a n c e If .
o u do n o t who lly d e c lin e t o p e r for m b u t p e r fo r m b a dl y

y ,
o r in co m pl e te ly it is a qu e st i o n of fa c t in e a ch c a se wh e t h e r
,
c o n di c i o n e O b liga t u s mi n u s
c u r a v e r it n o c o n di c io e x i s te r e t n ihil o
B ow ern v G ow a n [ 1 9 2 4] A D 5 5 0 ; M a cdufi dc Co v
‘
O b liga t u r . . . . . .
J oha n n es bu r g Con s olida ted I n ves tm e n t Co [ 1 9 2 4] A D 5 7 3 M ow le m . . .
v M or r i s [ 1 9 30 ] B D L a t p 9 7 ; L or e n z v Ra bi n owi tz [ 1 9 3 3] C P D
. . . . . . . . .
a t p 1 48. oe n ig v K
J ohn s on dc Co [ 1 9 35 ] A D 2 6 2 . . . . .
1
Tr i cha r dt v M u ller [ 1 9 1 5 ] T P D a t p 1 7 8; c f Wo lp er t v
. . . . . . .
S teen ka mp [ 1 9 1 7 ] A D 49 3 ; L a nda u v Ci ty A u c ti on M a r t [ 1 9 40 ]
. . .
A D 2 84 B u t in S o u t h Afr ic a t he ge n e r a l pr in c iple is t e m pe r e d b y
. . .
q
t he e u i t a b le do ct r in e t ha t n o o n e m a y b e u n u st ly e n r iche d a t j
’
a n o t he r s e x pe n se H a u m a n Nor tj e [ 1 9 1 4] A D 2 9 3 ; A m br ose dc
. V . . .
A i tken v J ohn s on ( I?) F letcher [ 1 9 1 7 ] A D a t p 3 43 ; S p en cer v

. . . .
G os te low [ 1 9 2 0 ] A D 6 1 7 Vi ljo e n Vi s ser [ 1 9 2 9 ] C P D 47 3 ;

. . V . . . .
Kam N O . . V
U du r n [ 1 9 3 9 ] W L D 3 3 9 ; [ 1 9 40 ] W L D 1 3 7
. . . . . . . .
2
B e r gl cfc C o v Tr o tt B r os ( 1 903 ) 2 4 N L R a t p 5 1 5 ; M c Ca be
. . . . . . .
v . B u r i s ch [ 1 9 30 ] T P D 2 6 1 Re pu di a t io n b e fo r e pe r fo r m an c e
. . . .
( b) D am a ge s m u st n ot b e to o r e m ote ;
1
( c) The st a n d ar d is a co m m e r cia l st a n d ar d . The pl a in

t iff s a ffe ct io ns a n d fe e lin g s a r e n o t
”
’
t a k e n in t o
a cc o u n t .
Fo r t he of d a m a ge s in t he m ode rn Ro m an
r e st , t he la w
D u t ch L aw is su b stan ti a lly t he sa m e as in E n glis h L aw .
I t is n e ce ssar y in e a c h c ase t o i n qu ir e w h e t he r t he la w
l a ys down a sp e ci a l rul e a s to t he m e asu r e of d a m a ge s
in t he cl ass of con tr a ct s in qu e st ion Th u s in a c o n tr a c t .
,
of sa le wh e n t he p u r c h ase r r e fu se s t o t a k e d e live r y a n d
,
t he p r op e r t y is r e s old a t a lo ss t he m e a sur e of d a m a ge s ,
r e c ove r a bl e fr o m t he o r i gin a l p u r ch a se r i s t he diffe r e n ce
b e t wee n the co n tr a ct p r i ce a n d t he am o u n t r e a li z e d on
t he r e s a l e .
The followin g p a ssa ge fr o m t he j u dg m e n t of Inn e s C J . .
in Vi ctor i a F a lls a nd T r a ns vaal P ow er Co v Consoli da ted . .
L a ngla a gte M i nes L td c on t a in s a u se fu l su m m ar y of t he

2
.
la w r e l a t in g t o t he m e a su r e O f d am a ge
‘
The gr e e m e n t w as n o t o n e fo r t he sa le o f good s o r of a
a
c o m m odi t y pr o cu r a ble e lse w he r e So t ha t w e m u st a pply t he .
ge n er a l prin ciple s w hi ch go v e r n t he in v e st igat ion o f t hat m o st

diffi cu lt qu e st io n o f fa ct—t he a sse ssm e n t o f c o m pe n s at io n for
br e a ch o f co n t r a ct The suffe r e r by su ch a br e a ch sho u l d b e
.
pla ce d in t he p ositio n he w o u ld ha v e o ccu pie d ha d t he con

t r a ct bee n p e rfo r m ed so fa r a s t ha t ca n b e d o n e by t he pa y
,
m e n t Of m o n e y a n d w it hou t u n du e har ds hi p t o the de fa u l ting

,
p art y The r e in sta t e m e n t ca nn o t inv a r ia bly b e co m ple te for

.
,
it w o u ld b e in e qu it a bl e a n d u n fa ir t o m ake t he de fau l te r lia ble

for spe cia l con se qu e n ce s w hi ch c ou ld n o t ha v e b e e n in hi s
co n te m pl a t i on w he n he e n t e r e d i n t o t he c o n t r a ct The l a w s .
o f H o ll a n d a n d E ngla n d ar e in su b st a n t i a l a gr ee m e n t o n t hi s
po in t Su ch da m age s o n ly a r e a w a r de d a s flo w n a t ur ally fr o m
.
t he br e a ch o r a s m ay r e a so n a bly b e su pp o se d to ha v e bee n
,
in t he c o n te m pla t io n Of t he con t r a ct in g par t ie s a s like ly t o

r es u lt t he r e fr o m ( se e V o e t 45 1 9 ; P o t hie r Oblig se c 1 60 ; , . .
,
. .
Hadle y v B axenda le 9 E x ch p 3 41 ; E lmsli e v Afr i ca n

.
,
.
, . .
1
K otz e V . John s on [ 1 9 2 8] A D 313
. . .
V o e t , 45 1 9 ; M e yer . . v . J ackie R H 1 9 44 ( 2 ) J 1 4 . .
[1 9 1 5] A D a t p 22 . . . .
M er cha n ts ,
L td .
, 1 9 0 8, p . 82 , Mor e o v e r ,
it i s
t he du t y Of t he c om plain a n t t o t a ke a ll le g a l ste ps t o mi t iga t e
t he lo ss co n se B ri tish Wes ti nghou se
qu e n t on t he br e a ch ( see
Coy v Un dergr ou nd Ra i lwa y Coy , 1 9 1 2 A O , p
. It .
,
. . .
fo llo w s t ha t da m a ge s for loss o f pr o fits c an onl y b e a w ar de d

w he n su ch loss is t he dir e ct n a t u r a l , o r c o n te m pla t e d r e su lt ,
o f n o n p e r form a n ce
’
-
.
If t he c a u se of a ct io n is a b r e a ch of p r o mi se t o pa y
a fix e d su m of m o n e y a pl a in t iff c a nn o t r e c ove r a n yt hi n g ,
b e yon d t he a m ou n t of t he de b t wit h in te re st A cl a im
”
.
fo r g e n e r a l d a m a ge s is n o t a llow e d .
It m a y h a pp e n t h a t a pl a in tiff p r ov e s a b r e a ch O f co n No mi n l a
Da m ge s a
t r a ct b u t fa ils t o p r ove t h a t he ha s su st a in e d a n y d a m a ge
.
o r t o e st a bli sh t he a m o u n t of t he d a m a ge su st a in e d The .
qu e sti o n t h e n a r ise s W h e t he r he is e n t itle d a t a ll e ve n t s t o , ,
n o m in a l d a m a ge s In s o m e c a se s t he So u t h Afr i ca n Cou rt s .
h a ve a war de d d a m a ge s for a m e re ly te ch ni ca l b r e a ch of
2
c o n t r a ct I n o t h e r s t h e y h a ve r e fu se d t o e n te r t a in t he
.
a c t i o n e x ce p t o n p r oof of a ct u a l d a m a ge
2
Thi s se e m s t o .
b e m ore in a cc or d a n c e w it h t he p r in ciple s O f t he R o m a n
D u t ch L aw A pl ain tiff m u st fu rn i sh r e a son ably su fli cie n t
.
pr oof t h a t he ha s su ffe r e d so m e d a m a ge It is ofte n e x .
ce e di n gly di ffic ul t t o v a l u e t he d a m a ge in te r m s of m o n e y ,
‘
b u t t h a t d oe s n o t r e lie ve t he Co u rt of t he d u t y of do in g
2
so u po n t he e vid e n ce pl a c e d b e fo r e i t ;
’ ‘
an d w he n a
pl a in tiff is in a po sit io n t o le a d e vi de n ce w hi ch will e n a ble
t he Co u r t t o a sse ss t he figu r e he sho u ld do so an d n ot ,
2
le a ve t he Co u r t t o g u e ss a t t he a m o u n t ’
.
If t he p ar t ie s t o a c on tr a ct h a ve a gr e e d for a p e n a lt y Pe n alty
1
S e e al so L a very dc C o v J u ng he i n r ich [ 1 9 3 1 ] A D 1 5 6 . . . . .
2
B e cker v S tu s s er [ 1 9 1 0 ] C P D a t p 2 9 4 ;
. och v P a n o vs ka . . . . K .
[ 1 9 3 4] N P D 7 7 6 . . . .
2
S a u e r m a n n v E n gli s h a n d S co ttis h L a w L ife A ssu r a n ce A sso ci a
.
ti on ( 1 89 8) 1 5 S C a t p 88 ; L or d Gi llw a ld [ 1 9 0 7 ] E D C 64
. . . V . . . . .
2
S tee n ka mp V
J u ri a a ns e [ 1 9 0 7 ] T S 9 80 ; B lu m be r g v B u ys cf:
. . . .
M a lki n [ 1 9 0 8] T S a t p 1 1 81 ; S i lber ei s en B r os v L a m on t [ 1 9 2 7 ]
. . . . .
T P D 3 82
. . . .
2
S a n dler v Who les a le C oa l S u pp li e r s L td [ 1 9 41 ] A D a t p 1 9 8
. . . . . .
2
K lopp er v M a lo ko [ 1 9 30 ] T P D a t p 86 5 p er T in da ll J
. . . . . .
A ppa r e n t ly da m a ge s a r e m o r e r e adil y gr a n t e d w he n t he y a re
c la im e d m e r e l
y a s an a lt e r n a t iv e t o sp e c i c pe r fo rm a n c e F a r m er s
’
fi
Co op S oc v B er ry [ 1 9 1 2 ] A D a t pp 3 5 1 —
.
-
. . . 2 . . . .
THE LAW OF OBLIGATI ONS
a nd in t he ve n t of n o n pe r form a n ce t he p e n a lt y is in cu rr e d
e -
liq i da t e d
,
u
d m ag s
a e
by
.
t h e p a rt y in d e faul t S u ch a t l e a st w as t he r u l e in .
t he D u t c h L aw wi t h t he qu a lific at io n t h a t if t he
,
p e n alt y w a s m u c h l ar ge r t h a n t he a ctu al lo ss it w as
1
wit h in t he co m p e te n c e of t he Co u r t t o r e du ce it ; o n
t he o t h e r h a n d if t he p e n a lt y p r ove d in su ffici e n t t o cove r
,
t he d a m a g e s t he a ggr i e v e d p a rt y m ight fa ll b a ck o n hi s
2
o r igin a l cau se of a cti on The m ode rn la w ha s t a ke n ove r .
t he E n glis h di st in ct io n b e t we e n P e n a lti e s a n d L i qui d a te d

D a m a ge s 2
.
2 S pe c i fi c P e r fo r m a n c e I n R o m an L a w du r in g t he
. .
,
fo r m u la r y p e r i od c o n d e m n at ion w a s a lw a y s p e cu ni ar y
,
.
A d e cr e e of Co u rt o r de r in g a de fe n d an t t o car r y o u t a co n
t r a ct sp e cifi c ally or t o h a n d ov e r p r op e r t y t o t he pl a in t iff
'
w a s u n kn own t ho u gh sp e c ifi c pe r fo r m a n c e w a s in ce rt a in
,
c a se s p r oc u r e d i n dir e c t ly by m e a n s of t he fo r m u l a a r bi
1
t r a r ia I n t he p e r iod of t he e x tr a o r di n a r i a co gni ti o t hi s
‘
w a s ch a n g e d a n d t he Co ur t wo u ld in ce r t a in c a se s or d e r
,
t h a t a n a ct sho u ld b e do n e an d e m ploy t he a r m e d for ce

5
a t i t s di spo sa l t o se e t h a t it s o r d e r s w e r e ob e ye d Su c h i s .
t he a c c ou n t O f t he m a t te r wh c h i s ge n e r all y a cce p t e d
i
( b) Du t ch a t t he p r e se n t day B u t t he old D u t c h w r i te r s w e r e .
L aw .
divide d in O pin ion o n t he qu e sti o n w he t h e r t he la w pe r

m it te d a de cr e e of sp e c ifi c p er for m an c e e x ce p t in t he c a se of
a p r o m i se t o m a rr y To say t h at it do e s n o t do so a m ou n t s
.
1
G r o e n , de leg a br a d Co d 7 47 , . 1 0 ; V o e t , 45 l 1 3 ( i n fin e )
. . . . .
a n d se e B ijn ke r sho e k , Q J P lib ii , ca p x iv See ( Ce y lo n )

. . . . .
F er n a nd o v F ern a nd o ( 1 89 9 ) 4 N L R 2 85 Wh e n a pe n a l r a t e
. . . . .
o f in t e r e st i s s t ipu la te d fo r , t h e am o u n t r e c o v e r a b le m a y n o t
e x c e e d t he a m o u n t o f t he pr in c ipa l V d K 481 an d D i cta t ad . . . . .
2
G r 3 1 42
. . . . V o e t , 46 2 4 . . .
2
( S o u t h Afr ica ) P ea r l A ssu r a nc e C o v n i on G o vt [ 1 9 33 ] . . U .
A D 2 7 7 P ea r l A ssu r a n ce Co
. . G ovt of the n i on of S ou th A fr i ca . V . . U
[ 1 9 3 4] A O 5 7 0 ; [ 1 9 3 4] A D 5 60 ; D u r ba n Corp
. . M cNei l [ 1 9 40 ]
. . . V .
A D 6 6 ; We ss e ls , i i 9 7 4 ( e dit o r s n o t e ) ; ( Ce y lo n ) Webs te r
. . .
’
V .
B osa n qu e t [ 1 9 1 2 ] A O 3 9 4 Th e fo r fe it u r e c l a u se in a c o n t r ac t
. . .
O f s a le ( le x comm i s s o r i a ) , e g o f in s t a lm e n t s in t he e v e n t o f fa il ur e
. .
t o c o m ple t e , b e l o n gs t o a diffe re n t c a t e go r y , a n d t he u e s t io n q
w h e t he r i t is in t he n a t u r e o f pe n a lt y o r li u ida te d d a m a ge s is q
ir r e le v an t A r bor P r op e r ties v B a i le y [ 1 9 3 7 ] W L D 1 1 6
. . . . . .
2
G ir ar d , p 1 0 85 . .
2
G ir a r d , p 1 1 45 . .
B u t t ha t i s di ffe r e n t t hin g fr o m sa yin g th a t a de fe nda n t w ho

a
ha s br ok e n hi s u n de r t akin g ha s t he O p t ion t o pu r g e hi s de fau lt

by the pa ym e n t Of m on e y Fo r in t he w or ds o f St or y ( E qu i ty
.
“
Ju r i sp r u de nce s e c 7 1 7 ( a ) )
, . i t i s a ga in st c o n s ci e n c e t ha t a
pa r t y sho u ld ha v e a r ight o f e l e ct io n w he t he r he w o u ld pe rform
his co n tr a c t or o nl y pa y da m a ge s fo r t he br e a ch Of i t
” The .
j
e l e c t i on i s r a t he r w i t h t he in u r e d p a r ty su b e ct t o t he dis j
cr e t i o n o f t he Co u rt
’
.
Fr o m t he
bove p a ssa ge w e sh a ll p e r h a p s b e j u stifi e d
a , ,
i n c o n c lu din g t h a t t he t h e or y of sp e cifi c p e r fo r m a n c e is n o t
t he s a m e in So u t h Afr ic a n a s i n E n gli sh L a w In S o u t h .
Afr i ca a pl a in tiff ha s a r igh t t o cla im t hi s r e m e dy su bj e ct ,
t o t he di s cr e t io n O f t he Co u r t t o r e fu se it I n E n gl a n d he .
has n o r igh t t o t hi s r e m e dy e xce p t so fa r as t he Co u rt m ay

se e fit t o gr a n t i t i n a c co r d a n c e wi t h t he se t t l e d p r in ci pl e s
by wh i ch t h is e qu i t a ble j u r i sdi ct io n is e x e r cise d Wh e r e .
d a m a ge s ar e a n a de qu ate r e m e dy sp e cifi c p e r fo r m a n ce ,
1
will n o t b e gr a n te d P e r h a p s t he p r a c tic a l r e su l t is n o t
.
ve r y di ffe r e n t in t he tw o syste m s b u t it is i n te r e st in g t o ,
n o te t he d i ffe r e n ce of a pp r o a c h I n e i t h e r sy ste m t he m o st
.
fr e qu e n t c a se for a de cr e e of sp e cific p e r for m a n c e is a co n

2
t r a c t fo r t he sa le or le a se of l a n d .
1
Rya n v . M u tu a l
T ont i n e A ss o cia tion [ 1 89 3] 1 Ch at .
p 1 2 6 The r e aso n , o f c o u r se , lie s in t he s u pple m e n t a r y n a t u r e o f

. .
q fi
t he e u it a b le r e m e dy o f spe c i c pe r fo r m a n ce The c o m m o n la w .
c o u r t s o r igin a lly ga v e da m a ge s o n ly .
2
j
S e e A ppe n di x I , w he r e t he s u b e c t is de v e lo pe d in gr e a te r
de t a il .
III
INTE R P R ETATI ON OF C O NT RACT
IE an a br o u gh t u po n a c o n tr a ct t he pla in tiff m u st Pr oo f o f
ct ion is ,
202 2 22
pr ove it s te r m s a n d ide n tify t he de fe n d a n t a s t he p a r ty
,
22
li a ble The pr oof of co n tr a ct is p art of t he la w of e vide n ce

.
a n d lie s o u t side t he s c op e of t hi s wo r k L e t i t su fli ce t o .
point t o t he ge n e r a l r u le t h a t in e ve r y ca se t he b e st e vi
de n ce m u st b e p r odu ce d In t he case of a wr it te n co n tr a c t .
t hi s m e a ns t he or igin a l in stru m e n t t og e t he r wi t h so m u ch
p ar ol e vide n ce a s is n e ce ssar y t o e xpla i n t he cir cu m st a n ce s
of t he c o n t r a ct a n d t he n a tu r e of t he li a bili ty a lle ge d .
Whe n t he wr itte n c o n t r a ct has b e e n p r odu ce d t he n e x t Inte r ,
21 2 22 212 “
st e p i s fo r t he Co u r t t o i n t e r p r e t i t s m e a ni n g i e to co n 1 , . .
st ru e i t s l an g u a ge a n d t o d e te r m in e i t s l e g a l e ffe c t To con tr ac t . .
a ssi st t he j u dge i n t h is t a sk t he la w l a ys do w n ce r t a in ru l e s
of co n stru ctio n whi ch ho w e ve r m u st b e re g ar de d n o t a s

, , ,
r u l e s of la w fr o m wh i ch t h e r e is n o e s ca pe bu t r a t h e r as ,
fin ge r po st s o r i ndi ci a wh e r e by t he Co u r t m a y a rr ive a t
-
,
t he i n te n t i o n of t he a u t ho r of t he ins t ru m e n t I t is tr u e .
t h a t a m a n m u st b e t a ke n t o m e a n wh a t he sa ys a n d as a , ,
ru le if he u ses t e ch ni c a l phr ase s he w ill b e u n de r st ood t o

,
h a ve u se d t h e m in t he ir t e ch ni ca l m e a nin g No n e t he le ss .
( wit hin lim it s) t he p art ie s ar e t he ir o w n i n te r p r e te rs a n d

, ,
a ru l e of c o n stru ct io n howe ve r re spe cta ble will n ot be

, ,
a llow e d t o ov e rr id e a r e a so n a ble i n fe re nce of in te n t io n t o ,
b e colle cte d fr o m a n e x a m in a t i o n of the whole a n d of e ve r y

p ar t of the in st ru m e n t in qu e stion a n d e ve n so m e tim e s ,
fr o m t he co n du ct of the p art i e s sho w in g t he co n str u cti o n ,
1
w hi ch t h e y a gr e e d t o pl a c e u po n i t .
The followin g r u l e s of c o n stru c t io n ar e t a k e n fr o m V an Ru le s o f

2 22 ”
de r Lin de n s I ns ti tu tes 2 ’
.
$1
1
B r eed v Va n de n B er g [ 1 9 3 2 ] A D a t p 2 9 2 ; S hi l l v M iln e r
. . . . .
[ 1 9 3 7 ] A D a t p 1 1 0 Cf G re e r L J in W T L a mb ck S ons v
. . . . . . . . . .
G or i ng B r i ck C o [ 1 9 3 2 ] 1 K B a t p 7 2 1
. . . . .
2
V d L 1 1 4 4 ( Ju t a s t r an s la t io n ) The se r u l e s a r e a lm o s t
’
. . . . . . .
ide n t ica l w i t h t he la n gu a ge o f t he Fr e n ch Co de ( A r t s 1 1 5 6 .
w hi c h t he D u t c h Co de fo llo w s ( A r t s 1 3 7 9 .
1 . gr e e m e nt s w e sho u ld co ns ide r wh at w a s t he
In a
ge n e r a l i n t e n t io n of t he c o n tr a ct in g p ar tie s r a t he r t h an
follow t he l ite r a l m e a n in g of t he wor ds .
2 Wh e n a stip ul a t i o n is ca p a ble O ft w o m e a ni n g s it sho u ld

.
r a t h e r b e c o n st r u e d i n t h a t se ns e in w hi ch i t ca n h a v e
s o m e op e r a t io n h a n in t h a t in whi ch i t c a nn o t h a v e a n y
1
t .
3 Wh e n e ve r t he wo r d s Of a c o n tr a ct a r e c a p a ble of t w o
.
m e a ni n gs t h e y sho u ld b e co ns t r u e d i n t h a t se n se w hi ch is
m o st c o n so n a n t w i t h t he n a t u r e of t he a gr e e m e n t 2
.
4 Th a t w h i ch a pp e ar s a m big u o us i n a c on tr a ct s ho ul d
.
be c o ns tr u e d a c c o r din g t o t he u s a ge of t he pl a ce wh e re t he
3
con tr a ct w a s m a de .
5 U sa g e ha s su ch w e igh t in t he c o n stru c t io n of a gr ee
.
m e n t s t h a t t he u su a l stip ul a t io ns a r e u n d e r st ood t o b e
i n clu de d i n t h e m a lt ho u gh n o t e xp re ssly m e n tion e d
, .
6 A st ip ul a t ion m u st b e c o n st r u e d by t he a id of t he
.
o t he r stip u l a tio n s co n t a i n e d in t he co n tr a ct wh e t he r t he y ,
p re c e de or follo w it .
7 I n ca se s of a m b ig u it y a st ip u l a t i o n m u st b e co nst r u e d
.
a g a in st t he p ar t y who ha s st ip u l a t e d for a n y t h in g a n d i n ,
fa vour of t he r e le a se Of t he p art y who ha s c on tr a c te d t he

2
oblig a ti on .
8 H o w e ve r g e n e r a l t he e xp r e ssio ns m a y b e in whi ch a n
.
a gr e e m e n t i s fr a m e d t h e y o nl y i n clu d e t he m a tte rs i n ,
r e sp e c t of w h i ch i t a pp e ar s t h a t t he c o n t r a ct in g p a r t i e s
i n t e n d e d t o c o n t r a ct a n d n o t t ho se whi ch t h e y did n o t
5
con te m pla te .
9 Un d e r a g e n e r a l te r m ar e c o m p r e h e n de d a ll t he
.
sp e c ifi c m a tte r s w hi c h c o n st i t u te t hi s ge n e r a li t y e ve n ,
t ho se of whi c h t he p ar t i e s ha d n o k n owle dg e .
1
K o tz e V . F r e n ke l cf: Co .
[ 1 9 2 9] A D . . 41 8; A n n a mm a v . M o odle y
[ 1 9 43] A D p 5 39. . at . .
2
Wes t Ra nd E sta tes L td
.
Ne w e a la nd I nsu r a n c e Co { 1 9 2 5 }
2
. V . Z .
A D at p 26 1
. . . . D ig 5 0 1 7 3 4 . . . .
2
D ig 45 1 3 8, 1 8; 45 l 9 9 pr ; G r 3 3 5 4; P oyn ton v Cr a n
. . . . . . . . . .
[ 1 9 1 0 ] A D a t p 2 1 3 ; Cor on a ti on Co llie r i es C o M a la n [ 1 9 1 1 ] . V .
V
. . .
A D a t p 6 1 2 ; Va n P le ts e n
. . . H en n i n g [ 1 9 1 3 ] A D a t p 1 0 2 . . . .
B o n A ccor d I r r i ga ti o n B oa r d B r a i n e [ 1 9 2 3] A D a t p 486 ; V . . . .
C o he n V
Ra p ido l L td [ 1 9 3 4] A D 1 3 7
. . . . .
2
E s t S ha rp v S cheep er s [ 1 9 1 9 ] C P D 2 6 L a nfea r
. . D u T oi t . . . V .
[ 1 9 43] A D 5 9 . . .
2 74 THE L AW OF OB LIGATI ONS
co u r se of in te r e st u nl e ss it to ok the form of co n signa t ion

a n d d e po sit
1
.
Co nsign a t ion a n d de posit w as a n in st itu t ion n o lo n g e r ,
2
in u se whi ch p e rm i tte d a d e b t or wi t h t he a pp r ov a l of t he
,
Co ur t to se a l a n d de po sit a sp e cifi c thi n g o r su m of m o n e y

wi t h s o m e t h ir d p e r s on t o hold fo r t he b e n e fi t of t he
cr e di t or a n d a t his r isk Su ch de posi t v a lidly m a de a n d .
,
n o t re vok e d by t he d e b to r ha d t he sa m e l e g a l e ffe ct as ,
p a ym e n t 2
.
2
Con fu sio n o r m e r ge r t a ke s pla ce wh e n by su c cee di n g‘ ’
t o t he cl a im or li a bili t y Of a n o t h e r a pe rs o n who owe s t o ,
t h a t o t h e r a d u t y o r ha s a g a in st t h a t ot h e r a cl a im
b e co m e s in hi s o w n p e rs on bo t h cr e di t or a n d d e b t or in
r e sp e c t of t he sa m e p e r for m a n ce wi t h t he re su l t t h a t t he ,
O bli g a t io n is e x t in gu i sh e d This u su ally h app e ne d whe n .

,
wi t ho u t b e n e fi t of in ve n t o r y t he cr e di t or su c c e e de d as h e ir ,
2
t o t he de b t or or vi ce ver sa Sin ce u ni ve r sa l su cce ssi o n is
, .
u n kn own i n t he m od e r n law c o n fu sio n of t hi s kin d n o ,
2
lon ge r occ ur s a s a dir e c t con se qu e n ce of de a t h B u t it is .
st ill po ssibl e i n t he c ase of a r e si d u ar y l e g a te e who has a ,
c l a i m a g a i n st t he e st a t e ; fo r if t he e st a t e is s olve n t he m ay
n o t t h in k i t wor t h hi s whil e t o a n t i cip a te t he dist r ib u t io n
of asse t s by de m a n di n g p a ym e n t fr o m t he e x e cu t or of t he
de ce ase d An ot he r c ase of c o nfu si o n o ccu r s wh e n a p r in
.
cipal d e b t o r b e c o m e s sur e t y o r a sur e t y b e c o m e s p r in ci p a l ,
1
G ro t iu s ( 3 40 2—3 ) c a lls i t on de rr e cht leggi ng Qu a e r e w he t he r
. .
-
.
te n de r m a de in c o u r t pr e v e n t e d m o r a in t e r e st fr o m r u n n in g V o e t , .
u bi su p ; V a n L ee u w e n , 4 1 1
. 3 ; Ode nda a l D u P lessi s [ 1 9 1 8]
. . V .
A D a t p 47 6
. . . .
2
We sse ls , i 2 3 3 5 In t he D u t ch L a w t e n de r w as r st m a de
. . fi
t hr o u gh a n O ffi c e r o f t he Co u r t o r a n o t a r y w it h t w o w i t n e sse s m e t
‘
B o e y , Woor de n to lk, su b voce

’
o pe n e b e u r s e e n klin k e n de ge lde .
-
Co n s ign a t ie Th e n a t u r e a n d e fi e c t o f t e n de r in t he m od e r n
.
la w is di s cus se d in Odend a a l v D u P les s i s , u bi s u p ; a n d se e . .
H a rr is v P i e ter s [ 1 9 2 0 ] A D 6 44 ; L e vi s eu r
. S cott [ 1 9 2 2 ] O P D
. . V . . . .
1 3 8; A yo b cf c Co v Clou ts [ 1 9 2 5 ] W L D 1 9 9 ; Nevi lle v P las ke t

. . . . . .
2
[ 1 9 3 5j C P D 1 1 5 . . . G r 3 40 3 ; V o e t , 46 3 2 9
. . . . . . .
2
V e r m e n gin g, S chu l dv e rrn e n gin g G r 3 40 4 ; V o e t , 46 3
1 8—
. . . . . .
2 7 ; V d L 1 1 8 5 ; B o e y , Woor de n to lk, su b voce Co nfu s ie ;

. . . . .
-
2
Po t hi e r , se c s 641 ff . G r 3 40 5 ; V o e t , 46 3 2 7
. . . . . . .
2
4 Maas do rp, p 2 34; ( Ce y lo n ) D i a s v S i lva ( 1 9 3 7 ) 39 N L R
. . . . .
35 8 .
DETE RMINATI ON OF CONTRACT 2 75
d e b t or in r e sp e ct of t he sa m e de b t w it h t he r e su lt th a t t he
, ,
a cce sso r y obli g a t i o n i s e x t in gu ish e d

1
.
Co m p e n sa tio n or se t O ff t a ke s pla ce w h e n a de b t or Co m
2 -
ha s a c ou n te r cl aim a g a in st his cr e di t or If t he cr e di t or
-
.
su e s his d e b t o r a n d t he d e b t o r pl e a ds c o m p e n sa t i o n t he ,
cr e di t o r s c l a im is d e e m e d t o h a v e b e e n e x t i n gui sh e d or
’
re d u ce d by t he a m o u n t of t he c o u n te r cl a i m fr o m t he -
m om e n t wh e n t he r igh t t o e n fo r c e t he c o u n te r cl a im by -
2
a c t io n ve ste d i n t he d e b t o r Co m p e n sa ti o n is o n ly a llo w e d .
whe r e bo t h cla im a n d c o u n te r cl a i m ar e l i qu i d i e ca p a ble -

,
. .
2
of sp e e dy a n d e asy p r oof u n co n diti o n a l a n d pr e se n t ly , ,
2 2
e n fo r ce a bl e a n d r e l a te t o fu n g ibl e t hi n g s e u s dem gen er is
, j .
Thu s m o n e y m a y be se t O ff a ga in st m o n e y o r win e a g a in st
,
win e b u t n o t w in e of o n e qu a lit y a g a in st w i n e of a n o t he r
,
.
’
A n a t u r a l de b t is a v a ila ble a s a se t O ff e x ce p t in ca se s -
w h e r e t he la w fo r b i d s it I n ce r t a i n case s c o m p e n sa t i o n i s .
di sa llo w e d on gr o u n ds of p u bl i c poli cy Th u s a p e r s on who .

,
ha s go t po sse ssio n of p r op e rt y by t h e ft o r o t h e r wr o n gfu l

a ct m a y n o t pl e a d a se t o f f a g a in st t he own e r s cl a im t o
’
-
r e c ov e r wh a t b e lo n g s t o him ; n o r i s t h is d e fe n ce a v a il a bl e
t o o n e who is i n d e b t e d t o t he St a te o r t o a lo ca l gove r n
2
m e n t fo r t a x e s o r r a te s ; a n d t h e r e ca n b e n o co m p e n sa t ion
in i n solve n cy p r o ce e din g s u n l e ss m u t u a li t y b e t w e e n t he
O ppo sin g cl a im s e x ist e d a t t he d a te of se qu e str a t i o n .
”
V o e t , 46 3 2 0 ; n o t if s e c u r e d b y m o r t ga ge D ig 46 3 3 8, 5
. . . . . . .
V e r ge ly kin g, c o m pe n sa t ie , s chu ld v e r e ffe n in g G r 3 40 6 ff -

. . . .
V o e t , 1 6 2 1 ; V d L 1 1 8 4 ; S chie r hou t
. . n i on G ovt [ 1 9 2 6 ]
. . . . . V U . .
A D 2 86 ; Whe la n v O os thu i ze n [ 1 9 3 7 ] T P D 30 4
. .
( Ce y lo n )
. . . . .
M u ttu n a ya ga m v S en a thi r aja ( 1 9 2 6 ) 2 8 N L R 3 5 3 . . . . .
2
V o e t 1 6 2 2 A c o u n t e r c la im is in e ffe c t u a l a s co m pe n sa t io n
, . . .
-
f in t he c a pa c it y in w hic h he
u n l e s s it i s a v a il a b le a ga in st a pla in t if
is su in g D e Vi lli er s v Com m a i le ( 1 846 ) 3 Me n z 5 44

. . . .
2
Na t B a n k v M a r ks ck A a r on son [ 1 9 2 3] T P D 6 9 ; B a s ki n ck
. . . . .
B a r n e tt V
B a r n a r d [ 1 9 2 8] C P D 5 8; P e ter s en L td v I nag Afr i ca n
. . . . . .
I n du s tr i a l Co [ 1 9 3 4] C P D 1 41 . . . . .
2
Co d 4 3 1 1 4 1 ; G r 3 40 8; V a n L e e u w e n , C en s F or 1 4
. . . . . . . . . . .
2
36 3 ; V oet , 1 6
. 2 17 . Vo e t , 1 6 2 1 8
. . . . .
7
V o e t , 1 6 2 1 3 ; a s t o pr e sc r ib e d de b t s se e b e l o w , p 2 81
. . . .
2
G r 3 40 1 1 ; V o e t , 2 1 6 1 6 In t he R o m a n L a w c o m pe n s a
. . . . . .
o
t io n co u ld n o t b e ple a de d t o a n a c t io d e po sit i dir e c t a This d o e s .
n o t h o ld go o d in t he m o de r n la w 4 M aas do r p , p 2 2 6 . . .
2
Na tion a l B a n k of S A v Cohen s Tru s te e [ 1 9 1 1 ] A D a t p 2 5 4
’
. . . . . . .
The c t of co m p e ns a t io n ( which how e ve r m u st b e

e ffe , ,
sp e ci a lly ple a de d ) is t o e x t in g u i sh t he cr e di t o r s cl a i m i n
’
l
2
whole or in p ar t a n d in t he sam e m e a su r e t o a rr e st t he ,
a ccr u a l of i n te r e st t o se t fr e e su r e t i e s a n d r e a l se c u r i t ie s , ,
a n d t o r e l ie v e t he d e fe n d a n t fr o m a p e n a l t y t o whi ch he
wo u ld o t h e r wise b e li a ble p r ovide d t h a t t he r ight of co m ,
p e n sa t i o n h a s v e st e d b e fo r e t he d a t e wh e n p a y m e n t wo u ld ,
b u t for t he c o m p e n sa t io n h a ve fa ll e n du e 3
Fu rt he r if a , .
,
d e b t o r ha s p a id his cr e di t or w i thou t cla im in g c o m p e n sa

ti o n he m a y ge t his m o n e y b a c k t o t he e x t e n t of t he co m
pe n sa t io n by t he c o n di c t io in de bi t i
4
Whe r e a r ight of .
a c t io n ha s b e e n ce d e d t he d e b t o r m a y se t u p a g a in st t he ,
ce s sio n a r y a n y co m p e n sa t io n a v a il a bl e t o hi m a g a in st t he
c e d e n t ; for sin ce c o m p e n sa ti o n if ple a de d t a ke s e ffe ct , ,
ips o ju r e t he a m ou n t of t he d e b t i s m e ch a n i c a lly r e du c e d
,
by t he a m ou n t of t he se t o ff fr o m t he m o m en t wh e n t he -
5
r i gh t t o a sse r t i t fi r st v e st e d i n t he d e b t or B u t a de b t or .
c a nn o t c o m p e n sa t e a g a i n st t he ce ssi o n ar y a cl a i m whi c h
ha s v e st e d i n hi m a fte r n o t i ce of t he ce ssio n I n o t h e r .
wor d s c o m p e n sa t io n i m pli e s t he c o e x iste n c e of m u tu a l

6
de b ts .
7 8
2 Re le ase
. . 2 Re l e a s e
. A d e b t m ay b e r e le a se d by w a y of gift .
,
i e a s a n a ct of lib e r a li t y o n t he p ar t of t he cr e d it o r o r in
. .
,
9
e xch a n g e fo r so m e a dv a n t a g e In t he a b se n ce of p r oof t o .
1
G r 3 40 7 ; V a n L e e u w e n , 4 40 2 ; V o e t , 1 6 2 2 ; V d L l
. . . . . . . . . . .
1 8 4 ; S ti ll v No r ton ( 1 83 8) 2 Me n z 2 0 9 ; 4 M a as do r p, p 2 3 2
. . . . .
2
G r 3 40 7 ; V o e t , ib id V a n de r K e e sse l ( Th, 82 7 ) c it e s a
. . . .
de c is io n t o t h e e ffe c t t ha t c o m pe n sa t io n m a y b e se t u p, a fte r
se n t e n ce , a ga in st e x e c u t io n o f a u dgm e n t Cf V o e t , u bi su p j . . .
3
4
D ig 1 6 2 1 0 l ; V o e t , u bi s u p ; V d L u bi su p ; u n le s s t he
. . . . . . . . .
pa ym e n t w a s m a de in o b e die n c e t o a u dic ia l de cr e e j .
5
V o e t , 1 6 2 4 The pr in c iple t ha t c o m pe n sa t io n t a ke s e ffe c t
. . .
ip s o ju r e , t ho u gh fo r m a lly a cc e pt e d b y t he Fre n ch an d D u t c h
Co de s 1 290, B W E 1 46 2 ) is in e x a c t I t w o u ld b e m o r e . . . .
c o r r e c t t o sa y t ha t , if ple a de d , it h as r e t r o a c t iv e e ffe c t We sse ls , -

.
i 2 49 3 Cf D ig 1 6 2 2 : U n u s qu is qu e c r e dit o r e m su u m e u n de m
. . . . . .
qu e de b it o r e m pe t e n t e m su m m o v e t , s i pa r a tu s e s t c o m pe n s a r e .
6
S m i th v H ow s e ( 1 83 5 ) 2 M e n z 1 6 3 ; Ou dts hoor n T own C ou n c i l
. .
v .S m i th [ 1 9 1 1 ] C P D 5 5 8; C on s olida ted F i n a n ce C o v Re u vid . . . . .
[ 1 9 1 2] T P D 1 0 1 9 . . . .
7
Q ju i t sc h e ldin — A c ce p t il a t io — L ib e r a t io We sse ls , i 2 3 42 if
g . . .
8
G r 3 41 5 . . . .V o e t , 46 4, 1 . .
ple ase e n te r in t o a n e w co n tr a ct p u ttin g a n e n d to an

, ,
or igi n a l li a bili t y a n d su b sti tu tin g a n e w li a bili ty in i ts

,
pla c e Thi s is ca lle d n ova t io n It m ay a ssu m e o n e of

. .
t hr e e fo r m s v iz a n a g r e e m e n t ( 1 ) t o e x t in g u i sh a n e xist in g
‘
.
,
d e b t a n d t o su b sti t u te a n e w de b t in it s pl a ce ( 2 ) t o su b st i
t u t e a n e w d e b t or ; ( 3 ) t o su b stit u te a n e w cr e di t or 1
Any .
2
a gr e e m e n t i n t h a t b e h a lf e xp r e ss o r t a ci t i s su ffici e n t ;
3
b u t in ca se ofdo u b t a n in te n t io n t o n ov a te i s n o t p r e su m e d .
Thu s a cr e dit o r i s n o t h e ld t o n ovate his de b t m e re ly by

a llowin g hi s d e b t o r a n e x te n s io n of t im e for p a ym e n t .
Su ch an a ll ow a n c e t h e r e for e doe s n o t se t fr e e sur e t ie s o r

, ,
4
di sch ar g e a m o r t g a ge Nova tio n fa ils t o t a ke e ffe c t if t he .
se co n d co n t r a ct i s ip so ju r e void ; o r co n di t io n a l a n d t he
c o n di t io n i s n o t im pl e m e n te d ; o r if t he t hi n g whi ch fo r m s
5
t he su bj e ct of t he n ov a t in g con tr a c t ha s p e r ish e d whi le
t he co n di t io n is still p e n din g .
A n y d e b t m a y b e n ova te d a s we ll n a t u r a l a s civil a n d ,
wh e t he r ar i sin g fr o m c o n tr a c t o r d e li ct or j u dgm e n t The 6

.
e ffe c t of n ov a t io n is t o di s ch ar g e t he old li a bili t i e s wi t h a ll
t h e ir in cid e n t s su ch a s in te r e st r e a l a n d p e r so n a l se cur i
, ,
t i e s a n d t o p u r g e a n y p r e vi o u s m o r a
,
7
Nova t io n m ay .
con sist as m e n tio n e d a bove n o t onl y in t he su b st i tu tion of

, ,
o n e d e b t for a n o t h e r b u t a l so in t he su b st i t u t io n of o n e ,
de b t or for a n ot he r Thi s w a s kn own in Ro m a n L a w a s .

.
8 9
de le g at io n The con se n t of a ll t hr e e p art ie s is r e qu ir e d ;
.
for t hou gh the law a llow s t he a ssignm e n t of a cl a im wit h

o u t t he co n se n t o f t he d e b t o r so t h a t a n e w cr e di t or t a k e s ,
t he pl a ce of a n old o n e t he la w do e s n o t a ll ow the d e b t o r ,
t o m a ke ove r hi s li a bili t y t o a t h ir d p ar ty u nl e ss t he ,
cre di t or a n d of co ur se t he t hir d p ar t y a gr e e In t hi s
10
.
, , , ,
1
We sse ls i 2 3 7 5
G r 3 43 3 ; V o e t 46 2 2 —
. .
,
. . 3 ; 4 Maas do r p p 2 0 1
.
, . .
, . .
Gr 3 43 4 ; V d K 83 5 ; B r e n n e r
. . . H a r t [ 1 9 1 3] T P D a t
. . . V . . . .
6 1 6 B h a na Na n a v P a te l [ 1 9 2 9 ] W L D 2 3 4
p .
; . . . . .
G r 3 43 4 ; V d K 83 6 ; n o r do e s a su b se u e n t st ipul a t io n
. . . . . . q
fo r a pe n a lt y ( V oe t , 46 2 o r fo r pa y m e n t in kin d a n d n o t in
. .
m o n e y , o r fo r in t e r e st , o r fo r a highe r r a t e o f in te r e st ( V oe t ,
46 2 . . V o e t , 46 2 7 V o e t , 46 2 9 —10 . . . . . .
7
V o e t , 46 2 1 0 ; H a ll Con s n 1 2 6
O v e r z e tt m g—D e le ga t ie G r 3 44 2
. . . . .
3
. . . . .
1°
V oe t , 46 2 1 1 . . . G r 3 44 3 . . . .
DETE RMINATI ON OF CONTRACT 279
c ase a s in t he fir st t he in te n ti o n t o n ova te m u st cle ar ly

, ,
a pp e ar The m e r e a ssig nm e n t by a d e b t or t o his cre di t or

.
of t he de b t or s cl a im a ga in st a t hir d p art y e ve n t hou gh t he

’
t hir d p a r t y c o n se n t s do e s n o t in i t se lf e ffe ct a n ov a t ion ,

.
The su b stitu ti o n by n ov a t i on of a n e w cr e di t or ( the t hir d

kin d of n ova tion m e n tio n e d a bove ) w i ll se ldo m b e me ce s
sary fo r g e n e r a lly a ssig n m e n t w hi c h do e s n o t r e qui r e t he
, , , ,
con se n t of the de b t or se r ve s the sa m e p u r po se , .
The a bov e ar e a ll ca se s of volu n t ar y n ov a t io n An No tio

‘ ’
. va
nm m
.
o th e r c a se of n ovat io n t o whi ch t he c o m m e n ta t ors h a ve ,

‘
give n t he n a m e of n e c e ssary n ov a tio n w a s in cide n ta l t o ‘ ’

,
j u di cia l p r oce e di n g s1 a n d t ook pl a ce a t t he m o m e n t of li ti s

2
con te st a ti o This tho u gh a d m it te d by Gr o t iu s di d n o t
.
, ,
e n t a il t he u su a l co n se qu e n ce s of n ov a t io n ? a n d m a y t h e re
for e be le ft ou t of a ccou n t .
Fr om de le ga tion pr op e r ly so ca lle d m u st be distin gu i she d Assigna

4 t on l
a ssi gn a ti o n which t a ke s pl a ce wh e n A r e qu e sts B t o pa y ’
C or r e fe rs C t o B fo r p a ym e n t If A is C s d e b t or his
, .
’
5
de b t t o C is disch ar ge d i f a n d o n ly if C is p a id by B , , , ,
u n l e ss of co u r se C a gre e s t o a c c e p t t he a ssig n a t io n in fu ll
, ,
6
dis ch a r ge In o t h e r wo r ds a ssig n a t i o n i s as a r u le a
.
, , ,
co n di tio n a l de le g at io n In the m ode r n law t he sa m e re su lt .
u su a lly follow s if a d e b t or give s hi s cre di t o r a c h e qu e
dr a wn on hi s b an ke r or o t he r su ch in stru m e n t in p a ym e n t
7
of a pr e e xi stin g de bt -
.
4 Im po s s i b i li t y o f P e r fo r m a n c e
. If a co n tr a c t 4 1m po s .
, ,
S ib il t y O f
poss ble wh e n m a de su b se qu e n t ly b e c o m e s i m po ssible of j
i ,
i
p e r for m a n ce t he p ar tie s a r e som e tim e s dis ch ar ge d fr o m
,
fu tur e li a bili ty Whe t he r t his will b e so o r n o t de p e n ds .
u po n t he n a t ur e of t he c o n t r a ct a n d t he cir cu m st a n ce s
8
of e a ch p ar t i cul a r ca se The E n glis h law on thi s su bj e ct .
1 2
G a iu s , 111 1 80 ; D ig 46 2 2 9 G r 3 43 3 . . . . . . . .
3
V o e t , 46 2 l . . .
A e n w i jz in g— A ss igna t ie G r 3 45 1 B r en n e r Ha rt [ 1 9 1 3 ] . . . . V .
T P D at p 6 1 2
. . . . .
5
G r 3 44 5 . . . .
V a n L e e u w e n , 4 40 1 0 ; V o e t , 46 2 1 3 . . . . .
7
K
a p la n V
S chu lm a n [ 1 9 33] C P D 5 44; M i ln e r
. We bster . . . V .
[ 1 9 3 8] T P D 5 9 8 . . . .
H er sm a n v S hap i r o dc Co [ 1 9 2 6] T P D 3 6 7 . . . . . .
w as st a t e d by B l a ckb ur n , J in te r m s . whi ch ar e e qu a lly

a pplic a ble t o t he R o m a n -
D u t ch L aw
Whe r e t he r e i s a p o sitiv e c o n t r a ct t o do a t hi n g , n ot i n i t se l f
l
u n a w fu l , t he p e rfo r m it o r pa y da m age s fo r
c o n t ra c t or m u st
n o t do i n g i t a l tho u gh in co n se qu e n ce o f u nfor e se e n a ccide n
,
ts
t he pe r fo r m a n c e o f hi s c o n t r a ct ha s b e co m e u n e x pe ct e dly
bu r t he n so m e o r e v e n im po ssible B u t t his ru le i s o nl y a ppli .
c a bl e w he n t he c o n t r a ct i s p o sit i v e a n d a b so lu t e a n d n o t su b
j c e t t o a n y co n ditio n e ithe r e x pr e ss o r im pli e d 1

.
’
Su ch o n di t ion e x e m p t in g a p ar t y fr om li a bili t y whe n

a c ,
t hr ou gh n o fa ul t of his o wn a c o n tr a ct ha s b e c o m e i m
po ssible o f p e r for m a n ce ha s b e e n t a ke n t o b e i m plie d in ,
t he e ve n t of t he d e stru ct i on of so m e sp e cifi c t h in g whi ch

2
in t e r m s of t he c o n tr a ct he w a s bo u n d t o d e liv e r ; o r wh e n
t he par tie s c o n t e m pl a t e d a s t he fo u n d a t io n of t h e ir co n
t r a c t so m e c on di t io n o r st a t e of t hi n g s w hi ch has sin ce
ce a se d t o e xi st or ha s n o t b e e n r e a li z e d ( fru str a t io n of
’
3
c o n t r a c t ) : o r wh e n a p ar t y i s di sa bl e d by illn e ss or pr e ,
ve n te d by vis m a j o r o r ca su s for t u i tu s Me r e difficu lt y

4
.
5
of p e r for m a n ce fu r ni s h e s n o e xc u se fo r n o n p e r for m a n ce -
.
B u t a c on tr a c t i s dis ch ar g e d i fp e r for m a n ce b e c o m e s le g a lly

i m po ssible ( e g if the t hin g t o b e give n p asse s e x tr a co m
. .
m e r ciu m ) or ill e g a l
6
, .
5 C o n d i t io n S u b s e q u e n t A con tr a ct m a y in clu de
. .
,
e i t h e r e xp r e ssly o r by i m plic a ti o n a p r ovisi o n fo r i t s ,
1
Ta ylo r V
Ca ldw e ll ( 1 863 ) 3 B . S a t p 83 3 , a do pt e d b y . . .
Maas do r p J A in A lgoa M i lli ng Co . . A r ke ll cfc D ou gla s [ 1 9 1 8] . V .
A D at p 1 7 1
. . . .
2
D ig 45 1 2 3 a n d 3 3 ; G r 3 47 1 In t he se c as e s t he di s
. . . . . . .
t in c t io n b e t w e e n a b s o lu t e a n d r e la t iv e im po ss ib ili t y ( su p r a , p 2 63 , .
n .2 ) d o e s n o t a pply M o y le , p 41 1 Win ds c he id , i i 2 6 4 . . . .
3
Afr i ca n Rea lty T r u s t H o lm e s [ 1 9 2 2 ] A D a t p 40 0 ; V . . . .
C on s ta n ti n e ( J os ep h) S te a m s hip L i n e L d I mp e r ia l S m e lti ng . V .
C orp or a ti o n L d [ 1 9 42 ] A C 1 5 4; D e n n y , M o tt db D i cks on L d v
. . . . .
J a m es B F r a s er ( fa C o L d [ 1 9 44] A C 2 65 . . . . .
V K
.
P e ter s , F la m ma n ( 2 C o o ks ta d M u n i cip a li ty [ 1 9 1 9 ] A D . . . .
427 ; S chle n gem a n n V

M eye r , B r idgen s di Co [ 1 9 20 ] C P D 494 . . . . . .
F o r t he e ffe c t o f m o r a s e e A ppe n di x H .
5
D ig 45 l 2 2 ( ad . No n fa c it in u t ile m st ipu la t io n e m
. . .
V
.
diffi c u l t a s pr a e st a t io n is ; A lgoa M i lli n g C o A r ke ll dc D ou glas ,

u bi s u p a t pp 1 70 —
. .
. 1 . .
11
G r 3 47 1 a n d 4
. . . .
be se t o f
fa g a in st a de b t whi ch c a m e in t o e xiste n ce afte r
t he l a p se of t he p e r iod of p r e s cr ip tio n ; a n d ( ii ) is su ffi
1
’
c ie n t t o su ppo r t a co n t r a c t of su r e t yship n e ve r t h e le ss ,
a ft e r t he l a p se o f t hir t y ye a r s fr o m t he d a te o n w hi ch
'
‘
the r igh t of a ct ion in r e sp e c t t h e r e of fir st c a m e int o

2
e xi st e n c e i t n o lo n g e r ha s t h e se e ffe cts .
The p er i od s of p r e scr ip tion ( or lim i t a t io n ) of a c t ion s fix e d

by t he R o m a n a n d t he Ro m an D u t ch L a w va ri e d gr e a tly 3 -
.
I n t he l a tte r in t he a b se n ce of p r ovi sion t o t he con tr ar y

, ,
t he te r m of p r e s cr ip t ion w a s a t hir d of a ce n t u r y or a s ,
so m e sa id t hir t y ye ar s
,
The se co n d a l te r n a t ive i s n o w
.
st a t u t o r y b u t u su a lly t he t e r m s a r e m u c h sho r te r
,
Th u s .
,
t o se le ct a fe w in st a n ce s fr o m t he So u t h Afr ic a n st a tu t e ,
a c t io n s fo r d e fa m a t io n t he a c ti o r e dhi bi t o r i a a n d t he a c t io
,
qu a nt i m in or is a r e p r e s cr ib e d in o n e ye ar or a l c on tr a c ts in ,
t hr e e ye ars wr i tt e n co n tra ct s i n clu di n g bill s of e x c h a n g e

, , ,
1
in six
‘
Whe n cr e di t or i s a pe r son u n de r di sa bili ty ( m in ors

t he ,
pe r sons u n de r c ur a t or ship &c ) p re s cr ip tion do e s n o t , .
b e gin t o ru n u n t il the d a te on whi c h di sa bili ty ce a se s a n d ,
whe n the de b t or is a b se n t fr o m t he Un ion n o t u n til t he

5
d ate of hi s re tu r n Pr e scr ip tion is su sp e n de d dur in g dis
.
a bili t y o f t he cr e dit or a b se n ce of t he d e b t o r fr o m t he
,
Un ion for a p e r iod e xce e din g six m o n t h s a n d in som e o t he r ,
6
c ase s Pr e s cr ip t ion is in te rr u p te d t h a t i s t o say t he t im e
.
,
which ha s a lr e a dy r u n is blo tte d o u t by a ckn owle dgm e n t ,
of t he de b t se r vice o n the d e b t or of a ny p r oce ss by whi ch

,
a c t io n i s i n st i t u t e d a n d i n so m e o t h e r c a se s
7
, I n t e rr u p t ion .
a g a i n st a p r i n cip a l d e b t or i s d e e m e d t o b e a n in te rr u p t io n
a s a g a in st a su r e t y
8
Whe n a p r in cip a l de b t is p re s cr ib e d
.
,
9
i n te r e st on t he de b t is p re s cr ib e d wi t h it .
1
Ab r o ga t in g S w a n ep o e l V
Va n de r Wes thu i zen [ 1 9 30 ] T P D . . . .
80 6 ; a n d P ent e cos t V
Cap e M ea t S u pp ly Co [ 1 9 33 ] C P D 47 2
. . . . . .
Pr e sc r ipt i o n A c t , 1 9 43 , se e 3 1’
V oe t , 44 3 5 —7
. . . .
Pr e s cr ipt io n A c t , 1 9 43 , se c 3 F o r Ce y lo n s e e O r d No 2 2 o f . . . .
1 87 1 a n d Ca dija mm a U V
S D on M a n is A pp a [ 1 9 3 9 ] A O 1 3 6
. . . . .
5
V o e t , 44 3 9 ( ad . Pr e scr ipt i on A c t , se cs 9 , 1 0
. . .
Pr e scr ipt io n A c t , sec 7 . .
7
V o e t , u bi su p ( i n m ed ); P r.e s c r ipt i o n A c t , se c 6 3
Ib id . . .
5
V o e t , 2 2 1 1 6 ; E st Ober meyer
. . E st Wolhu ter [ 1 9 2 8] C P D 3 2
. V . . . . . .
DETE RMINATI ON OF CONTRACT 2 83
A ye a r s t e r m of pr e scr ip ti o n for ce r t a in cl a im s
tw o
’
w as o r d a i n e d by Ar t 1 6 of t he P e r p e t u a l E di ct of
.
Thou gh a lr e a dy in t he se ve n te e n t h ce n t u r y Va n L e e u we n
11
t hou gh t t h a t t hi s ar t i cle w as a bol ish e d by d i su se it ,
r e m a in e d t o e m b ar r a ss t he la w of S o u t h Afr i ca Re p e a l e d .
3
in C a pe Colo n y in 1 86 1 a n d w i t hdr a w n fr o m op e r a t i o n in
.
t he Tr a n sv a a l in 1 9 0 8 i t has b e e n fi n a lly e lim in a te d by t he

4
Pr e scrip tion A ct ,
1 G P B 3 1 9 ; G r 3 46 7 ; L ote rym a n db C o
1
. . . . . . . V C ow i e [ 1 9 04]
.
T S 5 9 9 A t r a n sla t io n w ill b e fo u n d in e ar lie r

. . . e di t i o n s
b ook .
1
V an L e e u w e n , 2 8 1 1 . . .
1
A c t No 6 o f 1 86 1 , s e e 4
. . .
A c t No 2 6 . .
5
Se c 1 5 . .
V
P L U R AL IT Y OF C R E D IT ORS AN D D E B T ORS
THE p a rt i e s to a co n tr a c t ar e e n t i t le d o r li a ble as co
cre di t or s o r c o d e b t o r s ( cor r e i stip u la n di vel cr ederuli —cor
-
r ei pr om i ttendi vel debendi ) wh e n t w o or m o r e st ip u l a te
o r p r o m i se a s p r i n cip a l s a n d n o t a s sur e t ie s a t t he sa m e
t im e in r e sp e ct of t he sa m e p e r for m an ce wi t h t he in te n
t i o n of b e c o m in g t h e r e by e n t it le d o r li a bl e se v e r a lly in
r e sp e c t of t he whol e p e r for m a n ce ( si ngu li i n s oli du m a n d
)
n o t m e r e ly p ro r a ta p a r te 1
.
The po sit ion of a c o d e b t or m u st b e di st in gu i sh e d fr o m

-
t h a t of a su r e t y E a ch c o de b t or is li a ble a s p r in cip a l
.
-
.
The li a bili t y of t he sur e ty as su ch is m e r e ly a c c e ssor y a n d , ,
se co n d ar y To co n stit u t e t he r e la ti on of co cre di t or o r co
.
-
de b t or a s a bove d e fi n e d it is n o t e n o u gh t h at t w o o r m o r e
, ,
p e r so n s shou ld stip ul a te for o r p r o m ise t he sa m e t hin g a t

t he sa m e t im e u n l e ss t h e y do so wi t h t he i n te n t io n of
,
b e co m in g e a ch e n t it le d or e a ch li a ble in r e sp e ct of t he
whole de b t I n t he a b se n ce of e vide n ce of su ch in te n t ion
.
,
t he p a r t i e s e v e n in t he e ar lie r civil la w w e r e n o t c orr e i b u t

, ,
we r e e a ch e n t it le d or li a ble o nl y in r e sp e ct of hi s r a te a ble
sh ar e
2
In t he R o m an D u t ch L aw followin g h e r e in t he
.
-
,
l a te st R o m a n L a w a co de b t or c a nn ot as a r u l e b e m a de
,
-
li a bl e in solidu m u n le ss t h e r e is a sp e ci a l a gr e e m e n t t o t h a t
e ffe c t
3
Th u s if W illi a m Tho m as a n d Ja m e s j oin t ly co n
.
, ,
t ra ct t o pa y a h u n dr e d a u r e i t o Ru dolph in t he a b se n ce of ,
sp e ci a l a gr e e m e n t e a ch of t h e m is li a ble o n ly fo r o n e t hi r d
,
-
V o e t , 45 2 1 , a n d Compe ndi u m , 45 2 1
1
. . . . .
2
D ig 45 2 1 1 1 —2 ( Pa pin ia n )
. . . . .
2
A u t he n t a d Co d 8 3 9
. . 2 H o c it a si pac t u m fu e r it
. .
spe c ia le u n u m qu e m qu e t e n e r i in so lidu m S in a u te m n o n c o n .
q
v e n e r in t spe c ia li te r , e x a e u o su s t in e b u n t o n u s S e d e t si c o n v e n e .
r in t , u t u t e r qu e e o r u m s it o b liga t u s : s i a m b o pr a e se n t e s s in t e t
i do n e i , s im u l c o ge n di su n t a d so lu t io n e m Se e G r o e n e w e ge n , a d .
l o o The a u t he n t ic a is t a ke n fr o m No v 9 9 c 1 ( A D
. w hic h . . . .
o n ly r e fe rs t o s u r e t ie s , b u t is n e v e r t he le ss , a c c o r di n g t o t he
ge n e r a l o pin i o n an d c o m m o n c o ns e n t , e x te n de d t o t w o o r m o re
j o in t pr in c ipa l de b t ors V a n L e e u w e n , 4 4 l V d K 49 4; Tu cke r
. . . . . .
V .Ca r ru the r s [ 1 9 41 ] A D a t p 2 5 4 . . . .
1 ‘
di sch ar ge s t he
whole li a bil i ty for in u tr a qu e o b li ga t io n e ,
u n a r e s v e r t i t ur ; e t v e l a l t e r d e b i tu m a c ci ie n do v e l a l te r
p
s olve n do o m n i u m pe r i m i t o b li ga t i o n e m e t o m n e s lib e r a t
'
B u t a n a gree m e n t n o t t o su e o n e of se v e r a l d e b t o rs b e in g ,
m e r e ly p e r so n a l in i t s in ci de n c e ha s n o e ffe ct u pon t he ,
3
li a bili ty of t he o th e r s e x ce p t t h a t t h e ir li a bi lit y is pr o ,
p o r t i o n a t e ly r e d u c e d i e t o t h e e x t e n t t o which t he y h a ve
, . .
lo st t h e ir r igh t t o cla im c o n tr i b u t io n fr o m t he de b t o r
4
r e l e a se d The d e b t o r o n hi s si d e u n t il b u t n o t a fte r
.
, , , ,
a c t io n b r o u gh t m a y pa
y a n y c o cr e di t o r t h a t he pl e as e s
-
, .
I n c ase of plu r ali t y of d e b t or s t he cr e di t o r m ay p r o ce e d

a g a i n st a n
y o n e of t h e m fo r t he whol e o r an y p ar t of t he
de b t ; a n d hi s e le ct ion to su e o n e do e s n o t p r e clu d e hi m
fr o m goin g a g a in st a n o t h e r sin c e it is n o t his e le ct io n bu t , ,
o nl y p a ym e n t o r it s e qui va le n t or n ova t io n whi ch di s , ,
ch ar ge s the li a bili ty of t he o the r co c o n t r a c t or s If o n e -

.
co d e b t o r ha s volu n t a r il y p a id p art b u t n o t t he whole of

-
, ,
t he d e b t t he cr e di t or i s n o t p r e clu d e d fr o m sui n g hi m fo r
,
t he b a l a n c e u nl e ss he has e xp r e ssly or t a ci t ly a gr ee d t o
,
t h a t e ffe ct The c a se is diffe r e n t if t he cr e di t o r has t a ke n

.
p r o ce e di n g s a g a in st o n e co de b t or in r e sp e ct of his r a te a ble -
sh ar e of t he d e b t ; for by s o doin g he p r e cl u d e s hi m se lf
fr o m t a ki n g fr e sh p r o ce e di n gs a g a in st hi m for t he b a l a n ce .
If o n e co cr e dit o r r e cove r s t he whole de b t o r if o n e cc

-
,
d e b t or p a ys t he whole de b t t he o t he r cc cr e di t or s in t he ,
-
o n e ca se m a y su e a n d t he o t h e r co d e b t o r s i n t he o t h e r -
,
ca se m a y b e su e d in r e sp e ct of t h e ir r a te a bl e sh ar e of t he
,
b e n e fi ts o r lo ss Su ch is t he m ode rn la w In t he R o m an
. .
L a w n o a ct io n for co n tr ib u t io n lay e x ce p t b e t w e e n p a rt
5
n e r s a n d in s o m e o t h e r c a se s .
1
V o e t 45 2 4 , . . . In st 3 1 6 1 2
. . . .
5
. . . . j
G r 3 3 8 A u di c ia l de m a n d b y o n e c o c r e di t o r o r a ga in s t o n e -
c o de b t o r in te rr u pt s pr e s c r ipt io n in fa v o u r o f e v e r y c o c r e d it o r
- -
o r a ga in s t e v e r y c o de b t o r V o e t , 45 2 6 B y t he Pr e scr ipt io n
-
. . . .
A c t , 1 9 43 , se e 8: Pr e sc r ipt io n sha ll n o t b e a ffe ct e d in r e spe c t

‘
.
of on e j
o in t d e b t o r b y a n y fa c t w h ic h w o u ld a ffe c t pr e sc r ipt i o n
j
in r e spe c t o f a n y o t he r o in t de b t o r , e x c e pt in t he c ase o f de b t o r s
l ia b le i n s o lidu m
’
Jo in t c r e di to r s I ‘
V
.
D w y er G o ldse ller [ 1 9 0 6] T S a t p 1 2 9 ; D e Cha r moy ( if: S t

. . . . .
P ol V D ho oko o [ 1 9 2 4] N P D 2 5 4 ; We sse ls ,
. . . .
5
G r 3 3 8; V o e t , 45 2 7 We ss e ls, i 1 5 81
. . . . .
°
. .
VI
SPE CIAL C ONT RACT S
To u n d e r ta ke a de t a ile d sta te m e n t of t he la w appli In

_
ca bl e t o t he v ar i o u s k in d s of c o n t r a ct in t o whi ch m e n m a y
1 ” 2
133121
e n te r lie s o u t si d e t he s c op e of a n e l e m e n t ar y t r e a t i se A s L w ll . a a
ob se r ve d a bove in Ro m a n D u t ch L a w a ll c o n tr a ct s ar e 322??n
,
-
c o n s e n su a l . The di ffe r e n ce s of t he R o m a n L a w b e tw e e n s n su a l e .
c o n t r a c t s r e v e r b is lit t e r is a n d c o n se n su h a v e i n a gr e a t
, , ,
m e a su r e lo st t he ir signi fi ca n ce ; a n d t he a n ci e n t di st in cti o n
b e twe e n c o n tr a ct s a n d n u de pa cts is e qu a lly a thi n g of the
p a st I t follow s t h a t t he pr in ciple s whi ch h a ve b e e n st a t e d
.
wi th r e g ar d t o co n tr a ct s in ge n e r a l a pply to e ve r y ki n d of
c o n tr a c t e x ce p t so fa r a s t he p ar t e s h a v e c ho se n t o d e p a r t
, i
fr o m t h e m o r t he law a t ta che s sp e cia l r u l e s t o c o n tr a cts of
,
the ki n d in qu e sti on A ll c o n t r a ct s p a r t a k e of t he sa m e
.
n a t ur e ,
a n d a ll t a k e a sp e ci a l c olo u r fr o m t he su bj e c t
m a tte r wi t h wh i c h t he y d e a l If w e se l e ct so m e c o n tr a c t s .
for sp e ci a l t re a t m e n t it i s b e ca u se t h e y c o n ce r n c e r t a in
r e l a t i o n s of m a n kin d w hi ch a r e of su ch fr e qu e n t o ccu r r e n c e
t h a t e ve r y r e a so n a bly e qu ipp e d l a w ye r m u st b e p r e p ar e d
t o d e a l wi th t h e m .
I n t hi s c h a p te r w e d e scr ib e in b r ie f o u t li n e so m e of t h e se Spec i l a
c o n t r a c t s of fr e qu e n t o ccur re n ce We sh a ll sp e a k of .
5 5 5 5" 0 11 5 2
( )
1 D o n a t i o n o r G i ft ; ( )
2 S a l e ; ( )
3 Ex c h a n g e ; ( 4 ) H ir e ;
( 5 ) Ma n da te o r Age n cy ; 6 ) P art n e r sh ip ; ( 7 L o a n for

Co n su m p t i on ; ( 8) Lo a n for u se ; ( 9 ) D e po sit ; ( 1 0 ) Ple dge ;
( )
1 1 S u r e t y sh i p o r G u ar a n te e ; ( )
1 2 C a rr i a g e by w a t e r a n d
by l a n d It m u st b e r e m e m b e r e d t h a t in ge n e r a l the
.
, ,
r u l e s g i v e n b in d t he p ar t i e s o nl y so fa r a s t h e y h a v e n o t
se e n fi t t o d e p a r t fr o m t h e m by e xp r e ss a g r e e m e n t .
1 D o n a t i o n o r G i ft is r e g ar d e d in R o m an D u t ch L a w 1: D on
1
P”
-
a
a s a c o n tr a c t A di stin ct i o n is dr a wn a s i n t he ca se o f sa le SE
.
, ,
b e twe e n t he c o n t r a ct whi ch b in ds t he p ar tie s a n d the

, ,
1
i — Sc he n c kin
( a a t o g ) G r 3 2 1 V a n L e e u w e n , lib iv ,
. . . . ca p .
x xx ; V o e t , 3 9 5 1 ; V d L l 1 5 1 ; 3 Maas do r p, cha p 7
. . . . . . . . .
1
h a n din g ove r whi ch p a sse s t he p r op e rt y A n y p r o m i se
, .
t o giv e i s e nfo r c e a bl e p r ovide d t h a t i t is m a d e wi t h a ,
2
se r io u s a n d d e lib e r a te m i n d A s i n o t h e r c o n t r a ct s n o .
,
oblig a t io n ar ise s un til a c ce p t a n ce by t he do n ee o r by som e ,
3
p e r so n qu a li fi e d t o a c ce p t o n hi s b e h a lf I t is a ge n e r a l .
r u l e t h a t a do n a t io n is n o t p r e su m e d b u t m u st b e p r ov e d ,
4
by t he p e r so n who r e lie s u po n it The c a p a city of p a rt ie s .
i s t he sa m e g e n e r a ll y a s in o t h e r c o n tr a c t s Th u s m in or s
, , .
,
ca n n ot m a k e a g ift
5
n or c a n gu a r di a n s i n t h e ir n a m e , .
A cc o r din g t o G r o ti u s p ar e n t s c a n n o t m a k e gift s t o t h e ir ,
u n e m a n cip a te d c hildr e n
5
bu t t hi s p r opo si t io n doe s n o t ,
hold good a t t he p r e se n t day I n t he Ro m a n L a w gift s .
7
b e tw e e n hu sb a n d a n d wife we r e i n v a lid u n t il c o nfi r m e d by
1
Gr . 3 D o n a t io n i s a n ac t o f lib e r a lit y w h ich m a y
. 2 . 14 .
a ssu m e a gr e a t v a r ie t y o f fo r m s I n t his c ha pte r w e spe a k o n ly o f .
t he n o r m a l c ase , gift o f a c o rpo r e a l t hin g .
2
G r o t iu s sa y s ( 3 2 l 1 ) t ha t a gift i n ter vi vos o f a ll o n e s go o ds
’
. .
pr e se n t a s w e ll a s fu t u r e
— is b ad o m da t he t m a e cke n v an de
‘
u it e rs t e w ille da e r d o o r w e r d b e le t S o a ls o V a n L e e u w e n , 4 3 0 6 . . .
C on tr a , V o e t 39 5 1 0 V a n de r K e e sse l sa y s ( T h
, . . Ju r e . .
q
R o m a n o u ide m e x sa n i o r i do c t r in a o m n iu m b o n o r u m do n a t i o n o n
fu i t pr o hib it a : se d c u m c o n t r a r ia se n t e n t ia o lim u r i c iv ili m a gi s j
c o n se n t a n e a ha b e r e t u r , e a d e m a pl e r is qu e in fo r o r e c e pt a e t n o st r i s
q qu o u e pr o b a t a ide t u r V
I n M ey er v R u d olp h [ 1 9 1 7 ] N P D a t . . . . .
p 1 7 7 B r o o m e J de liv e r in g t he u dgm e n t o f t he Co u r t , sa id : In
.
‘
j
m y o pin io n t h e w e ight o f a u t h o r it y i s in fa v o u r o f pe r m it t in g a
,
d o n a t io n o f t his kin d a n d t he r e a so n s giv e n fo r fo r b iddin g it ha v e

I n t his c a se t he r e w a s a gift m o r t is c a u sa o f a ll
’
ce ase d t o o pe r a t e .
’
t h e d o n o r s e st a t e .
5
G r 3 2 1 2 A fa t he r m a y a c c e pt o n b e ha lf o f his m in o r s o n
. . . . .
B a r r e tt v O Ne i l s E x or s ( 1 87 9 )
.
’
o tz e a t p 1 0 8
’
. K . .
M e yer V
R u do lp h s E x or s [ 1 9 1 8] A D a t p 7 6 ; Ti m o n y do
.
’
. . . .
K i ng v . K
i n g [ 1 9 2 0 ] A D 1 33 ; S m i th s Tr u s te e v S m i th [ 1 9 2 7 ]
’
5
. . .
A D 482 ( gift o f hu s b a n d t o w ife )

. . Gr 3 2 7 . . . . .
5
D ig 41 6 l 1 ; G r 3 2 8 In S o u t h Afr ic a a pa r e n t , b e in g
. . . . . . . .
so lv e n t , m a y m a ke a v a lid gift t o a c h ild w ho , if a b o v e t h e a ge o f ,
p u b e rt y , m a y a c ce p t o n h is o w n b e ha lf I f he is b e lo w t ha t a ge t h e .
fa t h e r a c c e pt s o n h is b e ha lf b y do in g so m e a c t w hic h pu t s it o u t
S e e S lab be r s T ru s tee v Ne e z e r s
’ ’
o f hi s po w e r t o r e v oke t h e gift . .
E x or ( 1 89 5 ) 1 2 S C 1 6 3 F o r Ce y lo n se e We lla ppu
. . M u da li ha m i
. . V .
( 1 9 0 3 ) 6 N L R 2 33 ; S i lva v S i lva ( 1 9 0 8) 1 1 N L R 1 6 1 ; B aba i

. . . . . . .
ha m y v M a r ci n a ha m y ( 1 9 0 8) 1 1 N L R 2 3 2
. . . . .
7
Mo de r a te gift s o f e w e lle ry , & c , a r e e x c e pt e d fr o m t he ru le j . .
V o e t , 2 4 1 1 1 The r e a r e o t he r e x c e pt io n s Wagen a a r
. . . Wa ge . V .
n a a r [ 1 9 2 8] W L D 30 6 ; L e e , C o m/ m en ta r y , p 2 3 3
. . Th e R o m a n
. . .
D u t c h w r ite r s e xp e r ie n ce d dif c ul t y in de c idin g w he t he r a gift t o fi

a co n cu b in e w as v a li d S e e d e H aas ad C e n s F or ; 1 3 4 41 . . . . . .
1
d es cr ib e d as an im p r a ct ic a ble su gge stio n a n d it is not e asy
‘ ’
,
t o say wh e n gift s ca n p r op e r ly b e d e s cr ib e d as re m u n e r a t o r y .
App are n t ly t h e y m a y b e so de scr ib e d wh e n e ve r th e y a r e n ot ‘
in spir e d sole ly bya dis in te r e ste d b e n e vole n ce b u t are as a , ,
r u l e m a d e i n r e c ogn i t io n of o r in r e c o m p e n se fo r b e n e fit s or
, , ,
se r vi ces r e ce iv e d a n d t h e re fo r e are a kin t o a n e x ch a n g e or

,
di sch ar ge of a m or a l oblig a t io n It is sa id t h a t r e gi str a t io n

i s re qu ir e d wh e n se ve r a l gifts a r e m a de by t he sa m e p e r son
a t t he sa m e t i m e t o di f fe re n t pe r so n s whi ch in t he a ggre g ate ,
3
e xce e d t he li m i t b e low whi c h r e gist r a t io n is u nn e ce ssar y .
Re m ovin g dou b ts r a i se d by s o m e e ar lie r case s t he

App e lla te D ivisio n has de cid e d t h a t t he rul e re qu ir in g
re gi st r a t io n e xi st s for t he p r o te c ti o n n o t m e re ly of cr e di
t or s b u t a lso or p r in cip a lly of t he don or so t h at : ( a ) it

, , , ,
hold s good b e twe e n do n or a n d do n e e a n d ( b) a pplie s t o a ,
gift of m ova ble s p e rfe cte d by de live r y An u n re giste re d

4
.
5
gift b e t we e n hu sb a n d a n d wife is n o t co n fir m e d by de a t h .
A gift b e in g gr a tu i t ou s t h e r e is n o im plie d gu ar a n tee,
5
a g a ins t e vic t io n o r a g a i n st l a te n t d e fe ct s If t he pr ope rt y .
7
give n doe s n o t b e lon g t o the give r t he gift is void , .
5
Gift s a s a r ul e a r e irr e voca ble The r e fore if a don or fa ils .
,
t o h a n d ov er p r op e r t y p r o m i se d by w ay of gift he m ay b e
2
su e d for b re a ch of co n t r a c t ; a n d if p r op e r t y ha s bee n
h an de d over by t he don or he c a nn o t r e cl a im it B u t bo t h , .
t h e se state m e n ts a dm i t of s o m e qu a lifi c a t ion I n t he fir st .
c ase ,
t he do n or m ay d e fe n d a n a c tion o n t he gr ou n d of
wa n t of m e ans ( benefici u m comp eten ti ae ) a n d the cl a im s ,
of cre di t ors by o n e r ou s t i tle a r e p re fe rr e d to t he cl ai m of

1°
t he don ee I n the se co n d c ase t he gift m ay b e r e vok e d
.
1
A vi s v Ver s epu t , u bi su p a t p 3 5 2 p er Wa t e r m e y e r A C J
. . . . . .
2
Ib id a t p 3 5 3
. . .
2
V o e t , 39 5 1 6 . . .
2
C or o ne l s Cu r a tor v E s t C or on e l [ 1 9 41 ] A D a t p 3 42
’
. . . . . .
5
Ha i n es E xor
’
. V
Ha i nes [ 1 9 1 7 ] B D L 40 . . . . .
7
V oe t , 39 5 1 0 . . D ig 39 5 9 , 3 ; G r 3 2 5
. . . . . . . .
Gr 3 2 16
. . . .
2
S tep hen s V
I/iebn e r [ 1 9 3 8] W L D 9 5
. The m ea su re o f . . . .
da m ag e s is ( as in t he c ase o f sa le ) t he v a lu e o f t he pr ope r t y o n t he
da y w h e n de liv e ry sh o ul d ha v e b e e n m a d e Ib id . .
15
D ig 39 5 1 2 : Qu i e x do n a t io n e se o b lig a v it , e x re sc r ipt o di v i
. . .
q
Pii in u a n t u m fa ce r e po te st c o n v e ni t u r Se d e n im id u o d cre di . q
SPECIAL C ONTRACTS 29 1
1
an d t he p r op e rt y r e claim e d : if t he don e e fa ils to give
2
ef fe c t t o a di r e ct i o n a s t o it s a pplic a ti o n ( don a ti o su b m odo ) ;
3
( 2 ) o n t he gr o u n d of t he don e e s gr o ss in gr at itu de ; ( 3 ) if
’
a t t he t i m e of t he gift t he do n or w as c hildl e ss a n d a fte r ,
w ar d s b e ca m e t he fa t h e r of a le gi tim a te child by birt h o r

le git im a ti o n In t he Rom a n L a w t hi s gr o u n d of r e vo ca ti on
4
.
w a s li m ite d t o t he c a se of gift s m a de by p a t r o ns to fr e e d
m en 5
. I n t he Ro m a n D u t ch L a w a c co r di n g t o t he pre ~
5
va ilin g opini o n i t w a s a vail a ble t o a ll don or s b u t n o t t o , ,
’ 7
t he do n o r s childr e n o r h e ir s .
The se t w o la st gr o u n ds of r e voc a ti o n do n o t a pply t o

r e m u n e r a t o r y gift s n or t o gift s in m a rr i a ge se t t l e m e n t s
8
.
,
A sp e ci a l ki n d of gift is t he do n a t io m o rt i s c a u sa Do nat io 2
,
11 15 1 515
whi ch p ar t a ke s of t he n a tu r e bo t h of co n tr a ct a n d of
le ga cy L ike t he o r din ar y c on tr a ct of do n a tio n it is pe r
.
fe cte d by a gr e e m e n t b e t wee n t w o pe rs o ns of whom on e ,
t o r ib u s de b e t u r de t r a he n du m ; ha e c v e r o , de ui b u s e x e a de m
o r it q
c a u sa [s oi l do n a t io n i s ] u is o b st r ic t us e s t , n o n de b e b it de t r a he r e
. q .
V oet , 35 9 1 9 . . .
1
No do u b t t he gr o u n ds o f r e v o c a t io n w o u ld b e e u a lly a v a ila b le q
as a de fe n c e t o a n a c t io n o n t he c o n t r a c t .
2
Co d 4 6 8 ; G ir a r d , p 1 00 2 I n E x p a r te Tru s te es of the P r e
. . . . .
tori a H e br e w C on gr ega ti on [ 1 9 2 2 ] T P D 2 9 6 t he Co u rt de c la r e d . . .
j
t ha t it ha d n o u r is d ic t io n t o r e le ase a d o n e e fr o m a co n di t io n
a t t ache d t o a gift V d K ( Th 488) a dm i ts a pe r so n a l ac t io n o nl y ,
. . . . .
n o t a v in di ca t io n S e e B u c kla n d , T e x tbo o k, p 2 5 4 . n de r so m e . . U
m o de r n Co de s ( e g B G B Ar t 5 2 7 ) t he d o n o r is n o t e n t it le d t o
. . . . . .
r e v o ke t he gift , b u t m a y c la im fr o m t he d o n e e t h e am ou n t b y w h ic h
j
he has b e e n u n us t ly e n r iche d b y his fa ilu r e t o gi v e e ffec t t o t he
m o dus F o r a m o du s im po se d b y w ill se e E a: p a r te The D u tc h
.
Refor med Chu r ch of D ew ets do rp [ 1 9 3 8] O B B 1 3 6 . . . .
5
Wha t a m o u n t s to in gr a t it u de is spe c ifi e d in Co d 8 5 5 10 . . .
Se e G r 3 2 1 7 ; V a n L e e u w e n , 4 3 0 7 ; V o e t , 3 9 5 2 2 ; V d L
. . . . . . . . . .
u bi su p ; M u lliga n
. M u lliga n [ 1 9 2 5 ] W L D a t p 1 82 Fo r V . . . . . .
Ce y lo n se e S i va r a si p i lla i v A n thon yp i lla i ( 1 9 3 7 ) 39 N L R 47 . . . . .
V o e t , 39 5 2 7 . . .
5
Co d 8 5 5 . .8 .
5
G r 3 2 1 8 L e e , Com m e n ta r y , a d lo c V oe t , 39 5 2 6
. . . . . .
( Ce y lo n ) G u n e r a tn e v Ya p a ( 1 9 2 6 ) 2 8 N L R 3 9 7 . . . . .
7
V o e t , 3 9 5 3 1 V d K 49 0 . . . . . .
5
V o e t , 39 5 2 5 a n d 3 4; A vi s . Ver s ep u t [ 1 9 43 ] A D 33 1
. V . . . .
G r 3 2 2 2 ff V o e t , lib 3 9 , t it 6 ; V d K 49 2—3 ; 1 M aas do r p,

. . . . .
V
. . . .
c ha p 3 1
.
( Ce y lo n ) P a r a m p a la m A ru n a c ha la m ( 1 9 2 7 ) 2 9 N L R . . . .
2 89 B u ckla n d ( T ex tboo k, p 2 5 7 ) de sc r ib e s i t a s a gift m a de in

‘
. .
e x pe c t a t i o n o f de a t h , e it he r
ge n e r a l o r o n a c e r t a in e v e n t , t o b e
a b so lu t e o nl y if an d w he n t he e x e c t e d de a t h o cc u r r e d
’
p .
1
i n te n d s t o give t he o th e r t o a c ce p t wh a t is give n ; an d a s
, ,
in t he ca se of o r di n a r y co n tr a ct s t he p r op e r t y doe s n o t ,
2
p as s u n t il de live r y .
On t he o t h e r h a n d a g ift m or tis c au sa re se m ble s a le g a cy

in t h a t i t t a k e s e ffe ct o n d e a t h i s r e vo ca bl e d u r in g t he ,
do n or s life t i m e is ip so ju r e r e voke d by t he d e a t h of t he
’
do n e e b e fo r e t he do n or a n d is po st pon e d t o the cla im s of

5
a ll cr e di t or s of t he d e c e a se d I n fo r m to o i t m u st c o m ply .
wi t h t he r e qu ir e m e n t s of te st a m e n t a r y di spo sit ion whi ch

4
,
in t he m od e r n law u su a lly i m plie s e x e cu t io n by t he do n or

5
in t he p r e se n ce of a t l e a st t w o wi t n e sse s Thi s r e qu ir e .
m e n t m u st be u n de r st ood of a p r om i se t o give I t do e s n o t .
e xcl u d e a n y a ppr O pr i a t e m e t hod of t r a n sfe rr in g t he pr o
p e rt y whi ch for m s t he su bj e ct of t he gift .
The di st i n cti o n b e t w e e n a g ift m or t i s c a u sa a n d a gift

in te r vivo s i s ofte n diffi cu l t t o dr a w A gift m or t is c au sa .
i s n o t n e ce ssar i ly m a d e by a dyin g m an o r e v e n by a m a n
who is in i mm e di a te d a n ge r of d e a t h p r ovide d t h a t it is
5
m a de in c o n t e m pl a t io n of d e a t h n o r is a gift m ade by a ,
7
dyin g m a n n e c e ssa r i ly a g ift m ort i s ca u s a I t is a qu e st io n .
of in te n t io n I n ca se of do u b t t he p r e su m p tion i s in fa vo u r
.
of a gift i n te r vivo s If a m a n sa ys I give a fte r m y de a t h .

‘
5
t ho u t m or e i t i s a gift i n t e r vivo s t o t a ke e ffe c t o n d e a t h
, .
A gift m ort is c au sa m ay c o nsist e i th e r in a p r om ise t o

give a cce p te d by the do n e e whi ch of c o u r se le a v e s t he , , ,
2
p r op e rt y in t he do n or ; o r in a c tu a l d e live r y t o t he don ee ,
1
V o e t , 39 6 6 ; E x or E s t . om e n v D e H e er ( 1 90 8) 2 9 N L R
. . . K . . . .
487 ; M e yer v Ru do lp h s E x or s [ 1 9 1 8] A D a t p 7 7 p er In n e s C J
’
. . . . . . .
2 ’
So sa y s V o e t , b u t u n de r Ju s t in ia n s le gis la t i o n a do n a t io
m o r t is c a us a e x e cu t e d b e fo r e fi v e w i t n e ss e s ( t he fo r m r e u i r e d q
fo r c o di c ils ) t o o k e ffe c t o n de a t h like a l e ga c y w it hou t t r a ns fe r o f
p o sse ss i o n B u c kl
. a n d , p 2 58 . .
5
.
’
V o e t , 3 9 6 4 B r i n k s T r u s te es M ec ha n ( 1 864) 1 R o sc o e a t
. .
4
V .
p 212
. . V oe t , ib id .
5
M eyer v Ru do lp h s E x or s u bi su p , pp 84 if p er S o lo m o n J A
’
. . . . . . .
Wi ley v The M aste r [ 1 9 2 6 ] C P D a t p 1 0 3

. . . . . .
5 ‘
V o e t , 3 9 6 l ; V o e t a d ds : a c n e c e sse
. . ide t u r u t a liqu a in V
do n an do m o r t a lit a t is a u t r e dhib it io n is m e n t io fi a t
’
.
D ig 3 9 6 42 1 ( i n fin e ) , P a pin i a n u s : r es po n di c u m qu i
7
. . .
q
.
a b so lu t e do n a r e t n o n t a m m o r t is c a u sa u a m m o r i e n t e m do n a r e .
5
V o e t , 3 9 5 4; 39 6 2 . . . . .
2
G r 3 2 2 2 ; K ome n s E x or
. . .
’
D e H ee r u bi su p . V . .
The o n tr a c t of sa le is c o m ple te so soon as t he p art i e s

c
c on t r ac t 1
are a g r e e d a s t o t he p r i ce ; i e so s oon as t he p r ice i s . .
co m ple te .
ce rt a in o r r e a dily asc e rt a in a ble I n E n glish L a w wh e n .
,
n o p r i ce i s fix e d t h e r e i s a p r e su m p t io n t h a t t he p a r t i e s
,
in te n de d t o c o n t r a c t fo r a r e a son a ble p r i ce I n t he R o m a n .
D u t ch L aw su ch a co n tr a ct wo u ld n o t pe r h a p s sa t isfy , ,
2
t he r e qu ir e m e n t s of t he d e fi ni tio n of sa l e B u t t h is is a .
qu e sti on of w or d s The Co u r t s wo u ld give e ffe ct t o it a s .
a n inn o m in a te co n tr a ct o r a ct io n a bl e p a c t .
The p r op e r t y in t hin g s sold p a sse s as a ru le u po n , ,
de live r y B u t : ( a ) if t he sa le is m a de su bj e c t t o a su s
.
p e n sive c o n di ti o n t he p r op e r ty do e s n o t p a ss u n til t he
c o n di t io n i s sa t i sfi e d ; a n d ( b) wh e r e c r e di t ha s n o t b e e n
give n the p r op e rt y do e s n o t p a ss u n til p a ym e n t of t he

2
p ur ch a se p r ic e It follows t h a t a n u n p a id ve n dor who .
,
has r e a so n t o fe ar t h a t he will n o t ge t his m o n e y fr o m t he

p u r ch a se r m a y r e cl a im t he pr op e rt y e ve n in the h a n ds of a
,
t hir d p e r son t o who m t he p u r ch a se r ha s r e s old i t o r t o ,
who m t he v e n dor m a y h a ve co n sign e d i t a t t he pu r

4
ch a se r s r e qu e st B u t he m u st do so wi thin a r e a son a ble
’
.
t im e w hi ch i s u su a lly b u t n o t n e c e ssar ily u n de r st ood t o

5
, , ,
b e t e n d a ys Thi s is t he p e r i od wh i c h i s a ll owe d by t he
.
In solve n cy A ct in t he p ar a lle l ca se of t he u n p a id v e n do r
u n d e r a co n t r a c t for p a ym e n t a g a i n st d e live r y r e c l a i m i n g ,
5
his p r op e rt y i n t he e ve n t of t he p u r ch a se r s in solve n cy
’
.
I t m u st b e n o te d t h a t a sa l e m a y b e a c a sh sa l e t ho u gh
n o t e xp r e ss ly st a t e d t o b e so a n d t he m e r e d e liv e r y ,
1
In st
3 2 3 pr : E m pt io e t v e n dit io c o n t r a hitu r sim u l a t u e de
. . . q
t i c n n e r it Th e a r t ie s m u st a lso b e a t o n e a s t o t he r e s
p r e o o v e p . .
A s t o a u ct io n sa le s s e e M a r cu s S ta mp er ( f: Z ou te n dij k [ 1 9 1 0 ] V .
A D 5 8 D em er a r a T u rf C lu b L td
. . Wi ght [ 1 9 1 8] A C 6 0 5 , a n d . V . . .
Neu geba u er dc Co v H er m a n n [ 1 9 2 3] A D 5 64 . . . . .
2
G r 3 1 4 l and 23 . . . .
5
In st 2 l 41 ; G r 2 5 1 4; V o e t , 1 9 1 1 1 ; Ne w m a r k L td v
. . . . . . . . . .
C e r ea l M a n ufac tu r i n g Co L td [ 1 9 2 1 ] C P D 5 2 . . . . . .
2
V a n L e e u w e n , 2 7 3 ; 4 1 7 3 ; L a i n g v S A M i lli ng C o . . . . . . . .
[ 1 9 2 1 ] A D 3 87 . . .
5
G r o e n a d G r 2 5 1 4 ; V d L 1 7 2 ; D a n ie ls
. . Coop er ( 1 880 )
. . . . . . . V .
1 E D G 1 7 4; S a di e v S ta n da r d B k ( 1 889 ) 7 S C 87 ; M a cke u r t an ,
. . . . . . .
p 2 62
. .
5
Ins o lv e n c y A ct , 1 9 36 , se e 3 6 . .
S PECIAL CONTRACTS 295
of good s r a ise s n o p re su m p t ion t h a t cre di t has b ee n

1
give n .
Pr ope rt y sold is a t t he p u r ch a se r s r isk fr om the m om e nt Whe n the ’
‘
t h a t the sa le is p e r fe c t Ge n e r a lly thi s m e a n s whe n t he ’
.
,
2
c o n t r a ct i s c o n cl u de d so as t o b in d t he p art i es B u t t his .
is n o t n e ce ssa r ily so The c on tr a ct m a y h a ve b ee n c o n .
c lu d e d su bj e ct t o a su sp e n si ve con di t i o n o r so m e t hin g ,
m a y r e m ain t o b e do n e to d e te r m in e t he p r i ce o r wh a t is
sold ; fo r in st a n ce if t he p r i ce is t o b e fix e d by a t hir d
,
p e r son a n d the t hi r d p e r so n has n o t fix e d it o r b a le s are ,
sold a t so m u c h p er b a le a n d t he b a l e s h a ve n o t b e e n
c o u n te d o r a h u n dr e d b a l e s a r e s old fr o m t he st ock in a
,
w ar e ho u se an d t he b ale s h a ve n o t b een a pp r op ri a te d t o
t he c o n t r a ct Th e se r e qu ire m e n t s ar e su mm e d u p in a
.
p assage in t he D igest whe r e P au lu s sa ys

It is n e ce ssa r y t ha t w e sho u ld kn o w w he n a sa le is pe r fe ct ,
for t he n w e sha ll kn o w who se i s t he r i sk for w he n t he sa l e is ,
p e rfe ct t he r isk will a tt a ch to t he pu r cha se r Sho ul d it a ppe ar .
w ha t i s so ld of w ha t qu a lit y a n d in w ha t qu a n t it y a n d t he
, ,
5
pr i c e is fix ed a n d t he sa le is u n co n dit ion a l t he sa le is pe rfe ct
, ,
.
So lon g as a n y o n e of t h e se r e qu ir e m e n ts is n o t sa tisfi e d ,
t he sa le i s im p e r fe ct a n d t he r isk doe s n o t p ass

‘
The
‘ ’
.
co n tr a ct m ay b e qui te co m ple te for t he p u rpo se of pr o

du cin g t he oblig a t io ns w hich or di n a r ily re sul t fr o m it an d
”
,
“
e t n o t p e r fe c t for t he p u r po se of t r a n sfe rr i n g t he r isk
y
"
1
fr o m t he ve n dor to t he p ur ch ase r The r igh t to t he fr ui ts .
a n d o t h e r a dv a n t a g e s of t he p r ope rt y in clu di ng re n ts ,
5
a ccru i n g du e u n de r a n e xi st in g l e as e a cco m p a n ie s t he ,
5
r isk .
1
V d K 2 0 3 ; S a di e v S ta nda r d B a n k ( 1 889 ) 7 S C 87
. . . . . . .
2
I ns t 3 2 3 3 ; V oe t , 1 8 6 1 ; V d K 6 39 ; H om e v H u tt
. . . . . . . . .
[ 1 9 1 5 ] C P D 33 1 . . . .
5
D ig 1 8 6 8 pr : Ne ce ssa r io sc ie n du m e st , u a n do pe rfe c ta
. . . . q
s it e m pt io : t u n e e n im s c ie m u s , c u u s pe r ic u lu m s i t : n am pe r fe c t a j
e m pt io n e pe r i cu l u m a d e m pt o r e m r e spi c ie t e t s i id u o d v e ni e r it . q
a ppa r e a t u id u a leq q q
u a n t u m s it , sit e t pre t iu m , e t pu r e v e n it ,
pe r fe c ta e st e m pt io .
2
Mo yle , Con tr a ct of S a le i n the Ci vi l L a w , p 7 6 . .
5
De ock K V
F i ncha m ( 1 90 2 ) 1 9 S C 1 3 6 ; Wa lker
. Wa les . . V .
. . . K
[ 1 9 2 2 ] C P D 49 ; idn e y v G a r n er [ 1 9 2 9 ] C P D a t p 1 6 9 . . . . . .
G r 3 1 4 34 3 1 5 6
. . . . . .
I t is i m pli e d c o n di tio n in t he c on tr a ct of sa le
n ot an
t h a t a v e n dor shou ld m a k e a good t i tl e 1

A m an m ay .
2
con tr a ct t o se ll r e s a lie n a n o l e ss t h an r e s su a B u t he .
m u st give v acan t po sse ssion t o t he p u r ch a se r 3

If he fa ils .
t o do so o r if a ft e r d e live r y t he p ur ch a se r i s e vi ct e d by
,
su p e r io r t i t le t he v e n dor i s li a ble i n d a m a g e s
, H owe ve r . ,
a sa l e by a v e n do r of wh a t t o his kn owl e dg e do e s n ot , ,
b e lon g t o him t o a p u r ch a se r who is i gn or a n t of t he fa c t ,
i s r e g ar ded a s a fr a u d u pon t he p u r ch ase r who m a y a t ,
on ce m a in t a i n a n a cti o n o n the c o n tr a ct wi t hou t w a itin g

2
for e vict ion .
In c ase of e vi ct io n t he p u r ch a se r m ay c l a im a re fu n d
of the p r ice or d a m a ge s (if the p r ice ha s n o t b e e n p a id
, ,
d a m a ge s o n ly ) m e a sur e d by t he v a lu e of t he p r op e rt y a t
5
t he d a t e of e vic t io n le ss a n y com p e n sat ion which t he ,
p u r ch ase r a s bona fide po sse ssor m a y b e e n t it le d a n d a ble

t o r e c ove r fr o m t he t r u e ow n e r
5
Ma cke u rt a n in his book .
The S a le of G oods i n S ou th Afr i ca a dd s a fur t h e r qu a lifi ca

t io n The p r op e r ty m a y h a v e i n cr e ase d in v a lu e owi n g t o
.
a for t u i t o u s e v e n t e g i n t he c a se of t he sa l e of l a n d if , . .
gold ha s b e e n di scove r e d u pon i t o r a r a ilwa y b r ou ght t o ,
i t I t wo ul d be u n fa ir t o c h ar g e the ve n dor wi t h t hi s
.
in cr e a se in v al u e D a m a ge s t h e re for e sho u ld b e li m ite d .

, ,
t o su ch d a m a g e as wo u ld n e ce ssar ily flow fr o m t he b r e a ch

irr e sp e ct ive of a ccide n t a l cir cu m sta n ce s Thi s e xclu de s .
a n in cr e a se in v a l u e which t he se lle r did n o t c o n t e m pl a t e
o r c o u ld n o t r e aso n a bly h a ve co n t e m pl a t e d a t t he t i m e of
7
t he sa le If the p u r ch ase r ha s kn owin gly bou ght a t hin g
.
whi ch did n o t b e lon g t o t he ve n do r ( re s a li e n a ) in the a b se n ce

1
Ma cke u r t an pp 2, 1 9 3 , Gr 3 14 9. .
2
. . . .
5
T he r on v S cho om bi e ( 1 89 7 1 4 S C 1 92 ; L ou r ens on
. S w a rt . . V .
[ 1 9 2 8] C P D 40 2 ; S a u e r la n der v T ow ns end [ 1 9 30’] C P D

. . . . . . .
2
D ig 1 9 l 3 0 , l ; K leyn ha ns B r os v
. . . ess e ls Tru s te e [ 1 9 2 7 ] . . W
A D at p 2 90
. . . .
5
I f t he pr ic e has n o t b e e n pa id a n d t he v a lu e has fa lle n t he
da m a ge s w i ll b e n i l .
5
G r 3 1 5 4 ; M a cke u r t a n , p 3 7 7
. . . . .
7
M a cke u r t an s o pin io n is b a se d u po n D ig 1 9 l 43 ( i n fin e )
’
. . .
l a n e si in t a n t u m pr e t iu m e x ce di sse pr opo n as , u t n o n s it c o git a

p
t u rn a v e n dit o r e de t a n t a su m m a in iqu u m ide t u r in m a gn a m V
qu a n t it a te m o b ligar i v e n dit o r e m .
c on clu de d t he co n tr a c t he m a y by t he a cti o r e dhi bi to r i a , , ,
re sci n d t he sa l e r e st o r in g t he p r op e r t y a n d r e cov e r t he
p u r ch a se m o n e y wi th in te r e st fr o m t he d a te of p aym e n t 1
a n d a n y e xpe n ses n e c e ssa r ily i n cu rr e d a bo u t t he t hin g
s old
2
b u t n o t d a m a g e s fo r lo ss of pr o fit
,
5
D e fe cts whi ch .
are se r io u s e n o u gh t o giv e r i se t o t h is re m e dy are t e r m e d
r e dhibi t o r y d e fe c t s I n t he a l te r n a t i ve t he p ur ch ase r m ay
.
su e fo r r e d u c t io n of t he p r ice in t he a c t io ae st im a to r i a o r
qu an t i m m or ls Th e se a ct i o ns a r e kn own a s t he ae dili t i a n
.
a c t io n s b e c a u s e t h e y c a m e in t o t he R o m an L a w t hr o u gh
t he e di ct of t he c ur u le ae dil e s .
The ae dili tia n a c t io n s w e r e r e st itu t or y n o t co m pe n ,
sa t or y in ch a r a ct e r a n d w e re su pple m e n t ar y t o t he pur
, ,
c h ase r s c ivil la w r e m e dy t he a c t i o e m pt i o r e x e m pto

’
.
,
This lay for d a m a g e s fo r b re a ch of t he c o n tr a ct b u t g a ve ,
n o d a m a g e s for d e fe c ts in t he t hin g sold u n l e ss t he se lle r
e i t h e r : ( 1 ) kn e w of t he d e fe c t or a t l e a st ha d r e as o n a bl e ,
gr o u n d fo r su sp e ctin g it a n d did n o t m a ke it kn ow n to ,
2
t he p u r ch ase r ; o r ( 2 ) e xp r e ssly w arr a n te d t he a b se n ce of
5
de fe c ts In t he se tw o c a se s b e side s r e qu ir in g the ve n do r
.
,
t o t a k e b a ck the t hin g a n d r e fu n d t he p r ice t he p u r ch ase r ,
c o u ld su e fo r co n se qu e n t i a l d a m a g e s I n o t h e r c a se s he .
c o u ld n o t I n E r as mus v Ru ss ell s E x or whi c h c a m e b e fore

’
. . .
t he Tr a n sv aa l Su p r e m e Co u rt in 1 9 0 4 it w as h e ld t h a t a ,
p u r ch a se r w it h a n e xp r e ss wa rr a n ty w a s in n o b e tte r
po sitio n t h a n o n e w ho ha d bou gh t wi tho u t w arr a n t y The .
a r gu m e n t w a s t h a t t he e xp re ss w arr a n t y g a v e hi m n o
m or e t h a n w a s a lr e a dy give n him by t he w arr an t y im plie d

by law Co n se qu e n tly wh e n a p u r ch a se r bo u gh t c a t tle
.
,
wit h a n e xp r e ss w arr a n t y a g a in st di se a se a n d t he b e a sts

1
V oe t , 2 1 l 4 ; J on e s v C o tts ck Co ( 1 9 0 2 ) 2 3 N L R 2 6 9
. . . . . . .
( de fe c t iv e r ic ksha w t yr e s ) ; Cohe n ck le i n v D u nca n , G r a y ck CO , K . .
u bi su p ( c a sh r e gis t e r m a c hin e w hic h fr e u e n t ly a mm e d )

. q j .
2
Nou r s e V
M a la n [ 1 9 0 9 ] T S a t p 2 0 5 ;
. i r s ten Ni la n d . . . K V .
[ 1 9 2 0 ] B D L 87 M ac ke u r t a n , p 3 2 1
. . . . .
2
S eggi e V
P hi lip B r os [ 1 9 1 5 ] C P D 2 9 2
. . . . . .
D ig 1 9 l 1 3 pr ; P o t hi e r , C on tr a t de Ve nte , se c 2 1 3 ; E r as
. . . . .
m us v Ru ss e ll s E x or [ 1 9 0 4] T S a t p 3 7 3
’
. . . . . .
5
D ig 1 9 1 6 , 4; E va n s ck P low s v Wi llis ck C o [ 1 9 2 3 ] C P D
. . . . . . . .
49 6 .
we r e in fa ct with t i ck fe ve r whi ch w a s co m
in fe cte d -
m u n i c a t e d t o t he r e st of t he p u r ch a se r s h e r d wit h h e a vy
c o n se qu e n t ia l lo ss it w as h e ld t h a t he w a s e n t i t l e d t o a
,
1
r e fu n d of wh a t he ha d p a id b u t n o t t o d a m a g e s B u t t h is , .
do e s n o t r e p r e se n t t he p re se n t st a te of t he la w E r a sm u s s .
’
case m u st n o w b e t a k e n t o b e b a d la w i n so far a s it d e a ls
wi t h t he m e asu r e of d am a ge s o n b re a ch of an e xp r e ss
2 ’
warr a n ty .
On t he o t h e r h a n d t h e r e a r e p ar t i cul a r cir cu m st an c e s in
whi ch d a m a ge s m ay b e r e cove r e d fo r b r e a ch of a n im plie d
warr a n t y ; vi z wh e n t he se ll e r is t he m a n u fa ct u r er of t he
.
5
de fe ctive ar t i cle o r i s a m e r ch a n t se lli n g goods in wh ich
,
2
he m a ke s i t hi s b u sin e ss t o d e a l Thu s a p r ovisio n d e a le r .
-
w as h e ld li a ble fo r t he sa le of a de fe c t i ve t o n g u e in a t in
whi ch he sold to a cu st o m e r in t he st ate in w hi ch he ha d
r e ce ive d i t fr o m t he m a n u fa c t ur e r
5
.
The ae dili t i a n a cti on s ar e lim ite d by shor t pe r iod s of Pe i ods o f r
p re scr ip ti on B y t he D u t ch L aw t he a c t io r e dhib it ori a m u st 1i2;

.
1 m .
8
b e b r o u gh t w ithi n six m o n t h s of t he d a te of t he sa le ,
t he a c t i o qu a n t i m in or i s wi t hi n t w e lv e m o n th s u nl e ss i n ,
e i t h e r ca se t he Co ur t sa w fi t t o p r olo n g t he t e r m
5
The .
7
pe r i od is n o w o n e ye ar fo r bo t h a ct i o n s The p u r ch ase r .
m a y pl e a d a n e x c e p t io qu a n t i m in or is in a nswe r t o t he
’
v e n dor s a c t io n fo r t he p r i ce Thi s is n o t su bj e ct t o t he .
.
5
shor t p re scr ip t io n whi ch b a rs t he a c t io n .
The qu e st io n m a y b e ask e d wh a t is t he m e asu r e of The a t io c
re d u ct i o n in t he ac ti o qu a n ti m i nor is The R om an te x t s
313323
1
.
sp e a k in di f fe re n t ly of t he l e ss p r i ce t he p ur c h a se r wo u ld
h a ve g iv e n ( qu a n t o m in ori s e m pt u ru s fu e ri t ) a n d the le ss
2
1
E r asm u s V
Ru sse ll s E x or [ 1 90 4] T S 3 6 5
.
’
. . . .
2
Ma c ke u r t an , p 2 1 7 , n 80 . . .
5
S eggi e v P hi lip B r os [ 1 9 1 5 ] C P D a t p 3 0 6
. . . . . . .
2
P o t hi e r , C o n tr a t de Ve nte , se c 2 1 4 M a c ke u r t a n , pp 3 2 1 , 3 2 4 .
V
.
M a r a is . C om m e r ci a l G en er a l A gen cy L td [ 1 9 2 2 ] T P D a t p 444
-
.
V
. . . . .
5
You ng s P r ovi si on S tor es
’
Va n Ryn e ve ld [ 1 9 3 6 ] C P D 87 . . . . .
5
V o e t , 2 1 l 6 ; Nou r s e v M a la n [ 1 9 0 9 ] T S 2 0 3
. . . . . .
7
Pr e sc r ipt i o n A c t , 1 9 43 , se c 3 ( 2 ) fo llo w in g Tr a n sv aa l A c t 2 6 o f
.
1 9 0 8, se c 3. . U
n de r t hi s A ct it w as h e ld t ha t t h e Co u r t ha d n o
di s c r e t io n t o a ll ow a n e x te n s io n C lu ley M u ller [ 1 9 2 4] T P D 7 20 V .
V
. . . . .
5
M cD a id D e Vi lli er s [ 1 9 42 ] C P D 220
. . . . .
2
D ig 1 9 l 1 3 pr ; 2 1 2 3 2 , 1
. . . . . . .
1
v a lu e ( qu a n t i m in or i s r e s fu e r i t ) So u t h Afr i can p ra ct ice .
ha s a dop te d a n o t h e r st a n d ar d v iz t he di ffe r e n ce b e t w e e n , .
t he p u r ch ase p r i ce a n d t he v a l u e of t he t hin g in its d e fe ct ive

c o n di t io n a t t he d a te of sa le ( o r d e liv e r y
I n H oll a n d by g e n e r a l cu st o m t he Cou n t ha d a r igh t

, ,
of pr e e m p t io n ove r fe u d s ; a n d by loca l cu sto m r e la t ive s

-
, ,
a n d o t h e r s ha d a sim il ar r i gh t ove r o t h e r im m ov a ble

3
p r op e r ty This r igh t w as c a ll e d na as tin g o r ju s r e tr a ctus
. .
I t ha s n o e qu iv a le n t in t he m ode r n la w b u t a r igh t of ,
pr e e m p t io n m a y b e t he su bj e ct of e xp re ss st ip u l a t i o n
-
2
( c o n v e n t io n a l r e t r a ct u s ) .
The su bj e ct of lae sio e n o rm is ( whi c h in t he R o m a n

D u t c h L a w is n o t lim i te d t o t he con tr a ct of sa le ) ha s b e e n
5
m e n t io n e d in a n e ar li e r ch a p te r .
3 E x c ha n g e
.
5
The r u l e s a pplic a bl e t o t he co n tr a ct of
.
s a le a r e i n g e n e r a l a pp li c a bl e t o t he co n t r a c t of e x c h a n g e .
I n t he R o m a n L a w e x ch a ng e w a s a r e a l c o n t r a ct i e , , . .
n o oblig a t i o n ar o se u n t il o n e p a r t y ha d d e live r e d p r op e rt y
t o t he o t h er I n the m ode r n la w a n a gr e e m e n t t o e x c h an ge
.
,
i s a c t io n a ble p er I n t he R o m a n L aw t he p r op e r t y
e xch a n g e d m u st b e r e s su a n o t r e s a li e n a a n d i n t h is , ,
r e sp e c t e x c h a n ge di f fe r e d fr om sa le 5
I n t he m od e r n la w .
,
t h e r e se e m s n o r e a so n why if y o u a gr e e t o give m e t he ,
hor se of Titiu s in e xch a n g e for m y ox y o u sho u ld n o t b e ,
bo u n d by yo u r a gr e e m e n t .
4 Hir e .
2
I n t he R o m a n L a w t he con tr a ct loc at io
.
,
1
D ig 2 1 l 3 8 pr a n d 1 3
. . . . .
S A Oi l ck F a t I n du s tr ies v P a r k Ryn i e Wha li n g C o [ 1 9 1 6]

2
. . . .
A D a t p 41 3 Ma c ke u r t a n , pp 33 8, 3 82
. . . . .
5
G r l ib iii , c a p x v i ; V o e t , 1 8 3 9 fi
. . . . . .
2
3 Maa s do r p , p 1 48; Robi n s on R a n dfon tei n E s ts G M Co
. V . . . . .
[ 1 9 2 1 ] A D a t p 1 88; S her v A lla n [ 1 9 2 9 ] O P D 1 3 7

. . . . . . . .
5
S u pr a , p 2 3 4
P e r m u t a t io— R u ili n g G r 3 3 1 6 ; V o e t , l ib x ix , t it 4
. .
5
. . . . . . .
7
Wor ces ter M u n i cip a li ty C o lon ia l G ov t ( 1 9 0 9 ) 3 B u c h A pp V . . . .
5
Ca s a t p 55 3 Voet 19 4 2
L o ca t io c o n du c t io — H u ir e n de V e r hu ir in g G r lib iii , c a p
. . .
. . . ,
2
. . . .
x ix ; V a n L e e u w e n , lib iv , ca pp x x i—x x ii ; V o e t , l ib x ix , t it 2
. . . .
V d L l 1 5 1 1 ; 3 M aas do rp, c ha ps 1 7—2 1 Wille

. . . . . M illin , c ha p . .
3 ; Wille L a n dlo r d a n d T e na n t i n S ou th A fr ica ( 2n d c d ,

,
.
F o r hir e pu r c has e s e e t he H ir e Pu r c hase A c t , 1 9 42 a n d M A D i e

- - . .
m o n t , T he L a w of H i r e P u r chas e i n S ou th A fr ica ( Ju t a Co - .
The d u t ie s of t he l e ssor a r e : ( l ) t o de live r t he su bj e ct

1
of t he le ase t o t he le sse e ; ( 2 ) a fte r de live r y to a b sta in
fr o m i n te r fe r in g wit h t he le sse e s o c cu p a t io n a n d e n j oy ’
m e n t a n d t o g u ar a n t e e hi m a g a in st j u st ifi a ble in te r fe r
,
2
e n c e by o t h e r s ; ( 3 ) t o d e live r a n d m a i n t a in t he su bj e c t
of t he l e ase i n su c h a st a te of r e p a ir t h a t it m a y b e c o n
v e ni e n t ly u se d by t he l e sse e for t he p u r po se co n te m pl a te d
by t he le a se Wh e n a l a n dlor d r e fu se s t o e x e cu t e t ho se
3
.
r e a so n a bl e r e p a ir s which t he c o m m o n law r e qu ir e s him t o
do t he t e n a n t m a y e ffe ct su c h r e p a ir s hi m se lf a n d de du ct
,
t he n e c e ssar y co st fr o m t he r e n t ; ( 4) t o se e t h a t t he su b
2
j c e t of t he le a se is fre e fr o m su c h de fe c t s a s will p r e ve n t
it s b e in g p r o pe r ly a n d b e n e fici a lly u se d fo r t he p u r po se
5
for whi c h i t w a s l e a se d ; ( 5 ) t o pa y a ll t a x e s im po s e d
5
u po n t he p r op e r t y .
The d u t ie s of t he le sse e ar e : ( l ) t o pa y t he a gr e e d r e n t
7
in te r m s of t he co n tr a ct ; ( 2 ) t o t a ke p r op e r car e of t he
—
p r op e r t y l e ase d t hu s n o t t o i n j u r e o r de str oy it ; ( 3 ) n o t5
,
t o u se i t fo r a n y p u r po se o t h e r t h a n t h a t fo r which it w as
2
l e a se d ; ( 4) t o re t a in t he le a se d p r op e r t y u n t il t he l e a se
10
e xpir e s ; ( )
5 t o r e st o r e i t t o t he l e s s o r i n a p r op e r st a te of
11
r e p a ir o n t he e xp ir y of t he l e a se .
1
Voet , 1 9 2 2 6 ; V d L 1 1 5 1 2 . . . . . . . .
2
V d L ib id ; Wille , L a n dlor d ck T e n a n t, pp 1 3 2 ff
. . . . . .
5
G r 3 1 9 1 2 ; V o e t , 1 9 2 1 4 ; V d L u bi su p ; P oyn ton v
. . . . . . . . . .
Cr a n [ 1 9 1 0 ] A D a t p 2 2 1 ; H en n i n g v L e R ou x [ 1 9 2 1 ] C P D 5 87 ;
. . . . . . .
C a p e T ow n M u n i c P a i n e [ 1 9 2 3 ] A D a t p 2 1 8 A m i n v E br a hi m
. V . . . . .
[ 1 9 2 6] N P D 1 . . . .
2
G r u bi su p P oyn ton
. Cr a n , u bi su p . V . .
5
H a n na y P a rfitt [ 1 9 2 7 ] T P D 1 1 1V . . . . .
5
G r 3 ] 9 1 5 S ecu s if c ha r ge d u po n t he fru it s V a n L e e u w e n ,
. . . . .
4 2l
.
-
. 5 .
7
V o e t , 1 9 2 2 2 S t r i c t ly spe akin g, w h e r e n o r e n t is a gr e e d
. . .
t he r e is n o c o n t r ac t o f l e t t in g an d h ir in g, b u t t he o w n e r o f t he
n t it le d t o co m pe n s a t io n fo r
‘
u se a n d o cc u pa t io n
’
p r o pe r t y is e .
M u rp hy v L on don ck S A E xp lo r a ti on Co ( 1 887 ) 5 S C 2 5 9
. . . . . .
P e r e ir a , p 6 6 7 Cf V o e t , 1 9 2 7
. . . . .
5
G r 3 1 9 1 1 ; V o et , 1 9 2 2 9 He m ay n ot
. . . c o n v e r t pas . . . .
t u r e in to a r a b le l a n d , V a n L e e u w e n , 4 2 1 4 ; V d K 6 80 ( m i s . . . . .
2
t r a ns la t e d b y L or e n z ) V d L u bi su p . . . . .
15
G r 3 1 9 1 1 ( i n fin ) I s t he le sse e b o u n d t o t a ke po sse ss io n ?
. . . .
No t in F r e n ch o r G e r m a n la w F o r R o m a n L a w t he re is n o .
a u t ho r it y L ee , E le m e nts of R om a n L a w , p 3 1 7 , n 34
. . . .
11
Vo e t , 1 9 2 32 . . .
Ge n e r a lly sp e a kin g n e it h e r p art y t o t he con tr a ct is No

,
li a ble u n le ss he ha s b e e n gu i l ty of dolu s or cu lp a Thu s t he $33

1
3 .
l e sso r of a ho u se 1 s n o t a n swe r a ble fo r a cci de n t a l d e str u o dolu s Of

c u lpa
1
t io n by fir e a n d 1 s n o t bo u n d t o r e b u ild Sim il a r ly a l esso r .
is n o t i n p r in cipl e a n swe r a ble for u n di sclo se d de fe cts of

whi ch he n e it h e r kn e w n or ou ght t o h a ve kn own ; b u t if
t he t hi ng is in su ch a st a te t h a t it do e s n o t se r v e fo r the
or din ar y u se s of su ch t hin g s t he le ssor is r e spo n sible n o t , ,
‘
o n t he gr o u n d of n e gli g e n ce b u t fo r n o t su pplyin g wh a t ,
2 ’
he co n tr a cte d t o su pply .
A s r e g ar d s t he l e sse e s li a bili ty for i n j ur y t o t he p r op e r t y

’
a p art fr o m mi n o r c as e s of disre p a ir su ch as a r ise o r di n a r ily ,
fr o m t he fa u lt of t he l e sse e s of t h e ir fa m ilie s or of pe r son s , ,
who m t h e y in tr od u ce in t o the hou se a n d whi ch do n o t

ar i se fr o m t he a ge or b a d qu a li t y of t he d e te r io r a te d
ar t icle s a l e sse e will n o t b e a n sw e r a bl e

,
u nl e ss t he di s ,
r e p a ir is shown t o b e t he r e sul t of his w r o n gfu l ac t or

2
n e gli g e n ce .
If a le sse e r e m a in s in po sse ssio n a fte r e xpir y of t he Tac it re lo

c t io n a
l e ase wi t hou t obj e ct io n o n t he p a rt of t he le ssor t he re 1 s
, ,
h e ld t o b e a re n e wa l of the le a se fo r a p e r iod wh ich va r ie s ,
wi th t he te r m s of t he o r igi n a l hir in g a n d o the r cir cu m

2
st a n ce s ( t a ci t re lo ca t i o n ) I n t he c ase of a ye a r ly t e n an cy .
of a ru st ic t e n e m e n t t he r e n e w a l will u su a ll y b e for a ye ar 5
.
A s r e g ar ds u r b a n te n e m e n t s : I n t he C a p e P r ovin ce
‘
i t ha s b e e n r e p e a t e dly h e ld t h a t wh e r e t he or igin a l le ase

p r ovide s for a m o n t hly r e nt the r e loc a tio n b e co m e s a ,
1
Win dsche id i i 40 0 , n 5 , . . .
2
V o e t , 1 9 2 1 4 i n fi ne ; B u ckl , p 5 00 , c it in g D ig 1 9 1 6 , 4
. . .
-
. . . . .
5
A B R eid ck C o v F ed era l S u pp ly C o ( 1 9 0 7 ) 2 4 S C 1 0 2
. . . . . . .
( b r o ke n p l a t e gl ass w in d o w — n o in fe r e n c e o f n e glige n c e ) ; B r es ky V .
Vi vi e r [ 1 9 2 8] C P D 2 0 2 I f t he le ss e e has c o v e n an t e d t o re pa ir ,
. . .
t ha t t h e b u il din gs m u s t b e le ft in t he s t a te
‘
t he o r din ar y r u le is
o f r e pa ir in w hi c h t he y w e r e d e liv e r e d t o t h e le sse e D e B e er s .
Con s o lida ted M i n es V

L ondo n ck S A E xp lo r ati o n C o ( 1 89 3 )
. . .
V
.
1 0 S C a t p 3 7 3 ; P oyn ton
. . . Cr a n [ 1 9 1 0 ] A D a t p 2 3 8 . . . . .
2
V o e t , 1 9 2 9 ; T i op a i z i v B u la w a yo M u n i c [ 1 9 2 3 ] A D a t
. . . .
V
. .
p 3 2 5 ; Ts ha ba la la
. Va n der M erw e [ 1 9 2 6 ] N P D a t p 7 9
. . . . . .
5
S em ble , D ig 1 9 2 1 3 , 1 1 ; G r 3 1 9 8; V o e t ,
. . . 2 10 . . . .
J ap htha V
M i ll s E x or s [ 1 9 1 0 ] E D C a t p 1 5 5 ; L e e , Com
’
. . . . . .
me n ta r y, pp 3 0 3—4 . .
m o n t hl y te n a n cy te r m in a ble m on t h o ti ce wh e t h e r
’
on a s n ,
t he ori gin a l le a se w a s fo r a ye ar thr ee ,

ye ar s six ye ar s o r , ,
1
s o m e o t h e r p e r iod
’
.
The l e sse e m a y in ce r t a in c ase s cl aim a r e du ct io n or

r e m i ssi o n of r e n t Th e se a r e : ( 1 ) if the le ssor fa ils t o .
2
d e live r t he whole of t he p r op e r ty a gre e d to b e le a se d ;
5
( )
2 if t he l e sse e i s e v i c t e d or i f hi s u se o r e n j oym e n t i s ,
2
in te r fe r e d w it h e i t h e r by the le ss or o r by s o m e t hi r d
, ,
5 5
p e r so n in the e x e r cise of a le g a l r igh t ; ( 3 ) if the l e ssor
7
fa ils t o ke e p in r e p a ir ; ( 4) if t he le ssor fa ils t o se e t h a t t he
5
t hi n g le a se d is fr e e fr o m d e fe cts ; ( 5 ) if t he p r ope r t y
5
le a se d ha s b e e n de str oye d c om pl e te ly or t o su ch a n ,
e x t e n t a s t o b e u se l e ss fo r t he p u r po se for whi c h i t w a s
le t ; ( 6 ) if t he l e sse e has a b a n do n e d po sse ssio n fo r j u st

o r if hi s e n j oy m e n t of t he p r op e r t y has b ee n
10
cau se ,
se r iou sly i n te rr u p te d by fir e flood o r foe or o t h e r c au se s , ,
1
Wille p 50 , . .
2
V o e t , 1 9 2 2 6 The sa m e pr in c iple a pplie s t o t he hi r e o f
. . .
se r v i c e s A n e m pl o y e e w ho fa ils o w in g t o illn e ss t o r e n de r t he fu ll
.
se r v ic e w hic h h e h as u n de r t a ke n t o pe r fo r m c a n r e c o v e r t h e a gr e e d
sa la r y o n ly p r o r a ta p a r te T h e r e is s o m e m it iga t io n o f t his ru l e in .
fa v o u r o f do m e st i c se r v a n t s V o e t , 1 9 2 2 7 ; B oyd S tu ttafor d . . . V .
[ 1 9 1 0] A D 1 0 1 . .
V
.
5
V o e t , 1 9 2 2 6 ; D on n iger T horp e [ 1 9 3 0 ] T P D 839
. . . . . .
V
.
2
Bau m R ode [ 1 9 0 5 ] T S 66. . . .
5
V o e t ( 1 9 2 2 3 ) giv e s a s an in s t a n ce t he c as e o f t he le ss o r
. .
a l ie n a t in g t h e pr o pe r t y b e fo r e t he le as e ha s e x pir e d B u t t hi s .
w o u ld o nl y h o ld a t t he pr e s e n t d a y in c as e s in w hi c h ko o p gaa t v o o r
hu u r 1 15 An o t he r c a s e is s i n o n c o m m o du s s it —
r a e st it u s r e i u su s —
. .
’
e g if a le sse e s light s a r e w h o lly o b s cu r e d b y a
p . .
n e ighb o u r ( V o e t , 1 9 2 b u t slight in te r fe r e n c e do e s n o t e n t it le
. .
t he le s se e t o r e lie f D ig 1 9 2 2 7 pr ; V o e t , 1 9 2 1 8 I t m a y b e . . . . . . . .
n e c e ssa r y for t h e le ss o r t o de pr iv e t h e l e sse e o f po sse ss io n for t he
pu r po s e o f e ffe c t in g r e pa ir s The le ss ee w hile so o u t o f po ss e s s io n .
p a y s n o r en t , Voe t, 1 9 2 1 6 S h ap i r o Y u ta r [ 1 9 30 ] C P D 9 2 ; . . V . . . .
u n l e ss he e n t e r e d in t o t h e le a se w it h kn o w le dge o f t he c ir c u m
st a n c e s r e n d e r in g r e pa ir s n e c e ssa r y L a r ki n v Ja co bs [ 1 9 2 9 ] . .
T P D 6 9 3 ; Or s m o nd Va n H e e r den [ 1 9 30 ] T P D 7 2 3 V . . . . .
K
. . .
5
Rex v S ta mp ( 1 87 8) 1 . o t z e, 6 3 .
7
G r 3 1 9 , 1 2 ; Voe t , 1 9 2 23
. . . . .
5
D ig 1 9 2 1 9 , 1 ; V o e t , 1 9 2 1 4
. . . . .
2
D ig 1 9 2 9 , 1 ; V d L 1 1 5 1 2 ; N or th Wes te r n H o te l Co v
. . . . . . . . . .
Ro lfes , Ne be l ck C o [ 1 9 0 2 ] T S a t p 3 3 1 . . . .
V
.
1°
S u ch a s gho s t s— spe c t r a in ae dib u s do m in a n t ia ( Rex .
Z i lla h [ 1 9 1 1 ] C P D a t p o r if t he h o u se b e co m e s ru i n o u s o r
. . . .
da n ge r o u s V o e t , 1 9 2 2 3 . . . .
st ru c tu r e s ( geti m m er ) a nn e x e d t o t he l an d wi t h t he le ssor s ’
1
co n se n t a n d fo r plo u g hin g t illi n g sowin g a n d se e d co rn
, , , ,
-
.
His cl a im t o c o m pe ns at io n a fte r v a c at in g po sse ssio n i s , ,
e n fo r c e a ble by a c t io n a n d is se cu r e d by a st a tu t o r y hypo
t he c u pon t he l a n d He ha s n o r igh t t o r e t ai n po sse ssion .
2
u n til hi s c l a im is sa t isfie d .
Com p e ns a t io n is a sse sse d o n a sin gu lar ly u n ge ne r o u s

‘
s c a le The law p r ovid e s t h a t a cc o u n t sh a ll b e t a k e n o n ly
.
of t he b ar e m a te ri a ls wi t ho u t san d lim e a n d wor km e n s , , ,

’
w a ge s su c h a s t h e y sh a ll a ct u all y b e wo r t h a t t he t im e
,
of t he sa id a sse ssm e n t j u st a s if t h e y we r e r e m ove d fr o m ,
5
I n o t h e r wor d s t he le ssee g e t s wh a t t he
’
t he gr ou n d .
,
m a te ri a l s woul d b e wor t h t o a ho u se b r e a k e r a fte r d e stru o

ti on a n d r e m ov a l He i s e n t i t le d t o n o c o m p e n sa t ion
.
’
wh a te ve r if a stru c tur e w as e r e c te d wi t ho u t t he l a n dl or d s
con se n t or if an im p r ove m e n t c a nn o t be b r ou gh t u n de r t he
d e scr ip t io n of a stru ctu r e He m ay r e m ove a n y fix tu r e .
2
a nn e x e d t o t he l a n d wi t h or wi t ho u t co nse n t be fo re b u t ,
n o t a fte r t he d e te r m i n a t io n of t he l e a se
, This is lim i te d .
t o c ase s in whi ch r e m ov a l ca n b e e ffe cte d wi t hou t se r iou s

5
i n j ur y t o t he p r e m i se s an d su bj e c t t o t he d u t y of re sto r in g ,
5
t h e m t o t h e ir or igin a l con di t ion Wh e n it is sa id t h a t t he .
r igh t of r e m ov a l c a nn o t b e e x e r ci se d a fte r t he d e te r mi n a
t io n of t he le a se t his m u st b e u n de r st ood of fix t u r e s which

h a ve b e co m e i m m ov a ble by a nn e x a ti on t o t he soil If t h e y .
r e m a i n m ov a bl e t h e y m ay b e r e m ov e d b e for e o r a fte r t he
,
7
d e te rmi n at io n of t he t e n an cy .
1
P la ca a t, A r t 10 Tho u gh t he t e x t o f t he P lac aa t spe a ks o f
. .
a n a gr i c u lt u r a l t e n a n t s r i ght t o c o m pe n sa t io n i s n o t
‘ ’
st ru c t u r e
c o nfi n e d t o s t r u c t u r e s in t h e n a t u r e o f b u i ldin gs , b u t e x te n ds t o
o t h e r st ru c t u r e s o r i m pr o v e m e n t s , as w ir e fe n c es , b r i dges , da m s ,
& c Von H o ld t v B r ew er [ 1 9 1 8] C P D 1 6 3
. . . . . .
2
P la c aa t, A r t s 1 0 a n d 1 1 . .
5
P la ca a t, Ar t 1 1 ; D e B ee r s C on s olida ted M i n es
. L o ndon ck V . .
S A E xp lor a ti on C o ( 1 89 3 ) 1 0 S C a t p 3 68 S te i n bac h
. . . S chm idt . . . V .
[ 1 9 30 ] S 8 WA
D e B ee r s a t pp 3 7 0 —
. . . .
2
3 H as t he la n dlo r d t he O pt io n t o r e ta in
. .
i t pa y in g c o m pe ns a t io n ? Win ds c he id , ii 40 0 ; B a r n a r d Co l . V . .
5
G ovt ( 1 887 ) 5 S C 1 2 2
. . .D e B e er s , lo c c it . . .
5
D ig 1 9 2 1 9 , 4
. . . .
7
A br a ha ms v I s aa cs ck C o ( 1 887 ) 5 S C 1 83 ; M cI n tyr e v
. . . . .
Johns ton ( 1 89 5 ) 2 Off R e p 2 0 2 ; Will e , p 2 6 3

,
. . . .
SPECIAL CONTRACTS 3 07
The bove cons ide r a ti on s do n o t a pply t o n e ce ssar y im

a
p r o v e m e n t s as t o wh ,i c h t h e Pl a ca a t i s sil e n t I n t hi s c ase .
t he c o m m o n la w a pplie s a n d t he l e sse e is e n t it le d t o c o m
1
e n a t i o n o n t he sa m e b as i s a s a bo n a fi de po sse ss or a n d
p s ,
ha s p e r h a p s a r i gh t of r e t a ini ng posse ssio n u n t il his c la im

, ,
i s sa tisfi e d b u t n o r igh t of r e m ov a l I t se e m s t h a t c o m
, .
pe n sa tio n is du e wh e t h e r su c h i m p r ov e m e n t s w e r e m a d e
wi t h o r wi t hou t t he l a n dlor d s c on se n t The m e asur e of ’
.
c o m p e n sa t i o n for i m p r o v e m e n ts d e p e n ds n o t u po n t he ‘
c o st of e r e c t i o n n o r u po n t he v a l u e of t he m a te r i a l s
‘
a n n e x e d b u t u po n t he e x te n t t o whi c h t he v a l u e of t he
,
2 ’
la n d ha s b e e n e n h a n ce d .
The we igh t of j u di cia l op ini o n i s in fa vour of t he vi e w

t h a t t he p r ovi sio n s of t he Pla c a a t are t o b e t a k e n t o a pply
5
t o ho u se s a s w e ll a s t o a gr ic u l t ur a l p r op e r t y .
The le sse e i s n o t e n t i t l e d t o c o m p e n sa t ion fo r t re e s Co m pe n

50 5
pl an te d by him u n le ss he ca n pr o ve t h a t he pla n te d t h e m
’
a t t he l e ssor s i n st a n ce ( las t ende bevel ) a n d e v e n i n t h a t pl n te d a
y ess ee
,
ca se is e n t i t le d t o b e c o m p e n sa t e d o n ly fo r t he c o st of t he
'
“
t r e e s a t t he t i m e of pl a n t in g a n d fo r t he l a bo ur of pl a n t
5
1 ng . On ce pl an t e d t he t r e e s a cce de t o t he soil a n d m ay
5
n o t b e r e m ove d o r cu t do w n .
1
D e B ee r s a t p 3 6 9 . .
2
Wi llou ghby s Con s o ld Co v Cop tha ll S tor es [ 1 9 1 8] A D a t p 2 0
’
. . . . . . .
5
D e B e e r s ( 1 89 3 ) 1 0 S C 3 5 9 a ffi rm e d in a ppe a l t o R C . .
, .
1 2 S C 1 0 7 ; [ 1 89 5 ] A C 45 1 ; Ru bi n v B o tha [ 1 9 1 1 ] A D a t p 5 7 9
. . . . . .
V
. .
( p e r Inn e s c on tr a , B u rr ow s M cE voy [ 1 9 2 1 ] C P D a t p 2 3 4
K
. . . . .
e r o t ze J P
p . .
2
P la ca a t, A r t 1 3 ; Oos thu i ze n . Oos thu i z e n s E s t [ 1 9 0 3 ] T S a t V .
’
. . .
9 2 —3 ; L e e , Com m en ta r ,
pp . 6 y p 95 . .
5
R as v Ver m e u le n [ 1 9 2 7 ] O P D 5
. . . . .
5
D e B e er s a t p 3 6 9 B u t a l e sse e m a y c u t si lva ca e du a i e
. .
, . .
t r e e s w hic h spr o u t a n e w fr o m t he r o o t s , su c h a s blu e gu m t r e e s ,

H ou ghton E s t Co . . V
M cH a tti e ck B a rr a t ( 1 89 4) 1 O ff R e p a t p 1 0 3 ;
. .
V Z
. .
un le s s pla n t e d fo r o r n a m e n t , B r i c e u r che r [ 1 9 0 8] T S 1 0 82 ; .
K
. .
a n d i n B u rr o w s v M cE vo y u bi su p , . otze J P he ld t ha t t he
, . . .
le ss e e o f a n u r b a n t e n e m e n t m a y du r in g his t e n a n c y a n d o n it s
de t e rm in a t io n b u t n o t a ft e r r e m o v e ga r de n fl o w e rs a n d v e ge
, ,
t a b le s B y Ar t 1 4 o f t he P lac aa t , fru i t t r e e s an d t im b e r t r e e s
. .
( v r u cht b a r e B o o m e n O ft e o pga e n de H o u t ) a r e n o t t o b e lo ppe d o r

c u t d o w n w i t ho u t t he l a n d lo r d s w r i t te n co n s e n t ( op ga e n d e hou t,
’
ho c e s t a r b o r e s pr o c e r es Chr is t in a e u s a d l egg M e chl x v 4

.
, . . . .
V a n de r K e e sse l sa y s in ge n e r a l t e r m s ( Th Plan t a t ae in .
THE LAW OF OB LIGATI ON S
Assign The in te r e st s of t he le ssor a n d le sse e r e sp e c t ive ly a r e
t 1
a ssign a bl e by a ct of p a rt y The e ffe c t of assign m e n t by .
a l e sse e i s t o su b st i t u te t he a ssig n e e ( ces si on a r h

y) in t e
pl a ce of t he o r igi n a l le sse e who t he r e u po n c e a se s t o b e ,
2
bou n d o r e n t i tle d u n de r t he c on tr a c t A su ble ase has n o .
’
su c h e f fe ct It i s a c o n t r a ct wh e r e by t he ori gi n a l l e sse e le t s
.
5
t he p r op e rt y t o a t h ir d p a r t y fo r t he whole or for a p a rt of
t he u n e xpir e d te r m of t he or igin a l l e a se A s b e twe e n le sse e .
a n d su bl e sse e t h e r e is a ce ssio n of t he l e sse e s r igh t s of u se

’
a n d e n j oym e n t ; b u t t he l e sse e do e s n o t c e a se t o b e li a bl e
2
t o t he l e ssor n o r doe s t he su ble sse e b e co m e li a ble t o or
, ,
a c qu ire a n y r igh t s a g a in st t he l e sso r A s b e tw e e n l e ssor , .
5
a n d su bl e sse e t h e r e i s n o p r ivi t y of c o n t r a ct .
Sin ce t h e n a ssign m e n t ha s t he e ffe ct of dis c h a r gin g

, ,
t he o r igin a l l e sse e fr om hi s li a bili t ie s u n d e r t he le ase i t ,
i s in a c cor d a n c e wi t h p ri n cipl e t o hold t h a t it can o n ly

’
t a k e pl a ce w i t h t he l a n dlor d s co n se n t a n d t h a t t his i s ,
e qu a lly t he c a se wh e t h e r t he su bj e c t m a t t e r of t he l e as e -
is a hou se o r l a n d ( u r b a n o r r u r a l p r op e r t y ) The la w of .
So u t h Afr i ca m a y n o w b e t a ke n to b e se t tl e d i n t hi s
se n se
5
. B u t if t he l e a se i s e xp r e sse d t o b e m a d e wi t h
fu n do c o n du c t o a r b o r e s so lo c e du n t n e c c a r uru pr e t iu m d o m in u s
qu i pl a n t a r i n o n ju ss it r e st i t u it .
1
I f t he le ss o r a ss ign s , t h e l e sse e m u st pa y t he r e n t t o t he a s
s ign e e e v e n t h o u gh h e m a y h a v e pa id t he le sso r i n a dv a n c e Voe t , .
19 2 19
. . B u t se e D e We t v
. n i on G ov t [ 1 9 3 4] A D 5 9 a n d . U . . .
Wille p 1 66 . .
2
Re ede r s ck Wep en e r v J o ha n n es bu r g T ow n C ou n c il [ 1 9 0 7 ] T S
. . .
a t pp . 6 5 2 , 6 5 4 ; J as s a t v L e wi s [ 1 9 2 4] T P D 11 . Th e t e r m . . . .
a s s ignm e n t is a n im po r t a t io n fr o m E n glish L a w w hi c h has

‘ ’
,
‘
Th e w o r d c e ss io n is
’
e s t a b lish e d i t s e lf in S o u t h Afr i ca n u sa ge .
u se d in t h e sa m e se n se .
5
S e cu s in E n glish L a w Wh a r t o n s L a w L exic on s u b voce
’
.
U n der le as e-
V
.
2
D u n ma n T r a u tm a n ( 1 89 1 ) 9 S C a t p 1 7 p er de V illie rs C J
. . . . . .
5
V o e t , 1 9 2 2 1 ; G r e en v Gr ifilths ( 1 886 ) 4 S C 3 46 ; Will e ,
. . . . .
p 103
V V
.
5
R o lfes Ne be l ck C o Z w e igen haft [ 1 9 0 3 ] T S 1 85 ; J as sa t
. . . . .
fi
,
L ew i s , u bi su p The r e s e e m s t o b e n o su f c ie n t r e a so n fo r d is
.
t in gu ish in g in t his r e spe c t b e t w e e n sho r t le a se s a n d lo n g l e as e s .
We sse ls , ho w e v e r , doe s s o ( i n o r b e t w e e n r u r a l a n d u r ba n
.
te n e m e n ts D e V illie rs C J ho w e v e r , do e s so G r een v G r ifii ths

. . . . . .
,
u bi su p a t p 3 5 0
. . .
f
u s u ru ct u ar y o r fidu cia r y ; ( 3 ) by de stru ct ion of the
1
su bj e ct m a tte r -
( )
4 by m e r g e r of t he t i t l e s of l e s s o r a n d
2
le ssee i n o n e p e r so n ; ( 5 ) by m u tu a l a gr e e m e n t ; ( 6 ) by
r e n u n ci a t io n by e i t h e r p ar t y fo r j u st c a use ; i n w hi c h c as e
t he p ar t y r e n o u n cin g m a y if he t hinks fit a pply t o t he , ,
5
Cou r t for c a n ce ll a tio n of t he l e a se A j u st c a u se e xi sts if .
the c o n du ct of e i t h e r p ar t y a m o u n t s t o a r e p u di a t io n by
him of hi s d u t ie s u n de r t he con tr a ct Su ch woul d b e a n .
e n t ir e fa i l u r e t o k e e p i n r e p a ir by t he p ar t y li a bl e for
5
r e p a ir s } o r o n t he p ar t of t he l e sse e
, a ct s of w aste or a
5
co n tu m a cio u s r e fu sa l of r e n t It i s sa fe r howe ve r ins te a d .
, ,
of le a vin g t he la w t o de te r m ine wh e t h e r a c a u se of fo r
fe it ur e ha s o ccu r r e d t o p r ovid e for t he e v e n t by e xp re ss ,
7
a gr e e m e n t B u t i n n o c ase m a y t he l e ssor ( or a n y o t h e r
.
p e r so n who wish e s t o e j e ct t he le sse e ) t a ke t he la w in t o hi s

o w n h a n ds He m u st a pply t o the Cou r t t o d e cl ar e t he
‘
le a se for fe i te d a n d t o r e pla ce him in po sse ssio n I t has ,

5
.
b e e n h e ld t h a t a So u t h Afr ic a n Co ur t ha s n o e qu i t a ble
j ur isdi ct ion t o r e li e ve a g a in st a c a n ce ll a tio n stip ul a te d for
in t he l e a se b u t t he Co ur t will b e g u id e d by co n side r a t io ns
,
of e qu it y in de t e r m i n in g wh e t h e r a b r e a ch e n t it lin g a p art y
1
V oe t , 1 9 2 1 7 . . .
2
V d L u bi su p ; G r ootc hw a i n g S a lt Wo r ks L td
. . . Va n T onde r
. . V .
[ 1 9 2 0 ] A D 49 2 . . .
5
3 M a a sdo r p, p 2 7 0 . .
2
G r 3 1 9 1 2 ; B lide n v Ca r as o v [ 1 9 2 7 ] C P D 2 ; S hap i r o
. . . . . . . V .
Yu ta r [ 1 9 3 0 ] C P D 9 2
V oe t , 1 9 2 1 6—
. . . .
5
18 . . .
5
G r o t iu s ( 3 9 1 1 ) a n d D e cke r a d V an L e e u w e n , u bi su p , sa y ,
. . .
if t he r e n t is m o r e t ha n t w o y e ar s in a rr e a r D ig 1 9 2 5 4, 1 5 6 ;
‘
.
V
. .
b u t s e e S o lo m o n Va n Zij l ( 1 90 8) 2 5 S C 9 74 In t he . . . .
R o m a n an d D u t ch L a w a l e s so r m ight a lso r e su m e t he pr o pe r t y in
c as e o f pr e ssin g n e e d if h e s h o w e d t h a t i t w a s n e c e ssa r y fo r his o w n
,
u se . Co d 4 6 5 3 ; G r 3 1 9 1 1
. . V an L e e u w e n , 4 2 1 7 ;
. . . . . .
V oe t , 1 9 2 1 6 V a n de r K e e s se l ( T h 6 7 5 ) do u b t s In a n y e v e n t
. . . . .
t h is i s n o lo n ge r la w in t he Ca pe Pr o v in ce s in c e t he G e n e r a l L a w
A m e n dm e n t A c t o f 1 87 9 , se e 7 , n o r in t he O F S , Or d 5 o f 1 9 0 2 , . . . . .
se e .5 .
7
See , e g V o e t , 1 9 2 5 ( c la u se fo r fo r fe it u r e in t he e v e n t o f su b
. . . .
l e tt in g w it ho u t le a v e ) B u t fo r fe it u r e m a y b e e nfo r c e d e v e n in t he .
a b s e n c e o f su c h c lau s e in c a se o f b r e ac h o f c o v e n a n t n o t t o su b le t
o r as sign w it ho u t t he pr e v i ou s c o n s e n t i n w r it in g o f t he le s so r .
A bdu lla ck C o . V K
r a m e r B r os [ 1 9 2 8] C P D 42 3 . . . . . .
5
Voe t, 1 9 2 1 8 . . .
SPECIAL CONTRACTS 31 1
1
to c a n ce ll a tion has or ha s n o t in fa ct b e e n c omm itte d .
A le sse e who ha s b e e n e vi cte d m ay su e for ca n ce lla tion ,
b u t a m e r e a pp r e h e n si on t h a t he m a y b e e vi cte d do e s n o t
2
j us t ify a r e p u dia t i o n of t he le a se .
The e ffe ct of t he in solve n cy of l e ssor or l e sse e a ccor di n g Inso l

5
t o V a n de r K e e sse l w ho ci t e s a n u m b e r of loc a l keu r en ,
l; 31 ,
w a s t o b r in g t he l e a se t o a n e n d a t t he n e x t e ns ui n g d a t e l sse e e .
5
a t whi c h p e ople co m m o nl y ch a n ge d ho u se I n So u t h .
Afri ca a le a se is n o t de te rmi n e d by t he l e ssor s in solve n cy ’

.
If t he le ssee b e c o m e s i n solve n t t he tru st e e m ay de t e r mi n e

the le a se ( by n o t i ce in wr i tin g ) a n d i s d e e m e d t o h a ve ,
don e so a t t he e n d of t hr ee m o n t hs fr o m hi s a ppoin t m e n t ,
if in t he in te r va l he ha s n o t n o tifie d t he le ssor of hi s
2
in t e n t i on t o ke e p it a li v e o n b e h a lf of t he e st a te A .
st ip ul a t io n i n a l e ase t h a t t he l e a s e s h a ll te rm in a te o r b e
v a r ie d u po n t he se qu e st r a t i o n of the e sta te of e i t h e r p ar t y
5
t o t he le ase i s n u ll a n d void .
5 M a n da t e o r A g e n c y The R o m a n D u t ch wr i te r s 5 Man
5 - .
. .
(1
r e fie ct t he in a d e qu a te t re a t m e n t of a g e n cy m e t wi t h in
t he R o m a n L a w a n d t ypifi e d in t he fa ct t h a t t he wo r d
m a n d a te poin ts p rin cip a lly to t he r e l a tio n b e twe e n
‘ ’
p r in cip a l a n d a ge n t wh ile t he wor d a ge n cy po in ts r a t h e r ,

‘
t o t he j u r i sti c r e l a t ion e st a blis he d by t he a g e n t b e tw e e n

7
hi s p r in cip a l a n d t h ir d p ar tie s I n t his st a te of t h in g s in .
,
a ll j u r i sdi c t io n s wh e r e t he R o m a n D u t ch la w i s a dm in i s -
t e re d a t t he p r e se n t da y t he E n gli sh la w of a g e n cy ha s ,
E s t T hom as
1
. V K
er r ( 1 9 0 3 ) 2 0 S C 3 5 4 ; H u m a n V
. R i e s e ber g . .
‘
V
.
[ 1 9 22 ] T P D 1 5 7 ; G lu c km a n
. . G oodw or ths L td [ 1 9 2 8] B D L 9 5 ;
.
V
. . . . .
G A F i cha r dt L td
. B r a nd [ 1 9 2 8] O B B 5 6 . .
V
. . . . .
2
D on n ige r Thorp e [ 1 9 30 ] T P D 839 . . . . .
5
V d K 67 6 . . .
2
ns o lv e n c y A c t , 1 9 3 6 , se c 3 7
. I . .
5
I
b id , se c 3 7 . .
5
M an da t u m — L as t ge v in g G r lib iii , c a p x ii ; V an L e e u w e n , . . . .
l ib i v , c a p x x v i ; V o e t , lib x v ii , t it l V d L 1 1 5 1 4 ; 3 Ma as
. . . . . . . . .
d o r p , c ha ps 2 3 5 ; Wille M illin , c ha p 9 ; D e V il lie rs a n d

.
-
.
M a c in t o sh , T he L a w of A gen c y i n S ou th A fri ca ( u t a CO , J .
7
T he R o m an D u t c h L a w , ho w e v e r , w a s t e n di n g t o o r had
-
r e a c h e d t h e sa m e r e su l t a s t he E n lis h L a w F o r s o m e r e m a r ks o n
g .
t he his t o r ica l de v e l o pm e n t o f t he la w o f a ge n c y s e e B low e r v Va n .
Noor de n [ 1 9 0 9 ] T S 89 0 Th e sa m e c as e c o ns ide r s a n d a d o pts

. . .
t he a c t io n fo r t he b r e a c h o f a n im pl ie d w a r r an t y o f a u t ho r it
y
( Colle n V W
r ight ( 1 85 7 8E
. B S e e V d K 47 8, 5 7 2 . . . . . .
1
b e e n su b sta nt i a lly a dop te d a n d followe d Su ch diffe r e n ce s .
a s e x i st b e t we e n t he t w o syste m s b e lo n g t o t he t h e o ry of
co n tr a ct i n g e n e r a l or ar e m a t t e r of de t a il u po n whi ch w e ,
h a ve n o t sp a ce to e n t e r .
2
6 P a r t n e r s hi p
. I n C e ylon t he E n glis h law of p art .
n e r ship fo r t he t i m e b e in g in fo r ce ha s b e e n i n t r od u ce d by
5
st a t u t e I n S o u t h Afr i ca t he law of p ar t n e r shi p de p e n d s
.
p a rt ly o n t he Ro m a n D u t ch c o m m o n law p art ly o n st a t u te -
, .
B u t i t i s v e r y far fr o m b e i n g t he c a se t h a t t he p ar t n e r ship
la w of S o u t h Afri ca diffe r s e n t ir e ly fr om t he p ar tn e r shi p
la w of E n gl a n d D e ve lope d fr om a c omm on so u r ce v iz
.
‘
, .
t he m e r c a n t il e c u st o m of E u r op e t he tw o sy ste m s e xhi bi t ,
a gr e a t sim il a r i t y t og e t h e r wi t h s o m e n o t a bl e di f
,
fe r e n ce s .
F u r t he r the in flu e n ce of E n glish c ase la w has te n de d

,
t ow ar ds assim il a t io n The E n gli sh r ul e s h a v e st ood t he .
t e st of p r a ct ice whil e m u ch of t he R o m a n D u t c h L a w o n
,
-
“
t hi s su bj e ct is p u r e ly t h e or e t ica l The c h a nn e l of r e c e p
”
.
t io n for t he E nglish L aw i s m er c a n t il e cu st o m which in ,
t he m a t te r of p ar tn e r shi p i s m u ch t he sa m e in S o u t h
"
1
Afric a a s in E n gl an d .
The la w of So u t h Afr i ca r e cog n iz e s v ar io u s ki n ds of

part ne r
p ar tn e r shi p in a ddi tion t o j oin t st ock co m p a ni es whi ch
,
-
1
In Ce y lo n Or d No 2 2 o f 1 866 in t r o du c e s t he E n glis h l a w o f
. .
pr in c ipa ls a n d a ge n t s for t he t im e b e in g in for c e .
2
S o c ie t a s S o c ie t e it Co m pa gn i e sc hap Ma e t sc ha p Ven
n o o ds c ha p G r lib i i i, c a p x x i ; V a n L e e u w e n , lib iv , c a p x x iii ;
. . . . . .
V o e t , l ib x v ii , t it 2 ; V d K 6 9 8 fi ; V d L 4 1 1 1 ; 3 M aa s do r p,
. . . . . . . . . . .
c ha ps 2 6—8 Wille
. Millin , c ha p 8 The e sse n t ia ls o f a pa r t n e r sh ip . .
a r e c o n s ide r e d in J ou ber t T a r r y ck C o [ 1 9 1 5 ] T P D 2 7 7 ; V . . . .
V V
.
Wu lfsohn T a ylo r [ 1 9 2 8] T P D 9 9 ; R ho des i a l

.
ys Com m . . . . . .
of T a x es [ 1 9 2 5 ] A D at p 465 A c o lo n u s pa r t ia r iu s is n o t a
. . . .
pa r t n e r ( B lu mbe r g 0k S u ls ki v B r ow n ck F r e i ta s [ 1 9 2 2 ] T P D 1 30 ; . . . .
C as se ls V L ove [ 1 9 2 4] E D L
. b u t a le sse e D u P r e ce . . . . V .
S teen ka mp [ 1 9 2 6] T P D 3 6 2 . . . .
5
O r d No 22 o f 1 866 B y Or d No 7 o f 1 840 , se c 2 1 , w r i t in g a n d
. . . . . .
s ign a t u r e o f t he par t ie s a r e re u ir e d fo r e s t a b lishin g a pa r t n e r shi p q

w he n t he c a pit a l e x c e e ds £ 1 0 0 P a te P a te [ 1 9 1 5 ] A C 1 1 0 0 . V . . . .
2
The C o m m e r ci a l L a w s of the Wor ld ( S ou th A fr i ca ) v o l x v ,
—
.
,
—
p a r t ii , pp 8 4 5 I n a n e a r ly Ce y lo n c ase , B oyd v S ta bles ( 1 82 1 )
. . .
R a m a n a t ha n , 1 82 0 3 3 , a t p 2 1 , G iffar d C J o b se r v e d u po n t he . . .
af fi n it y o f t he c o m m e r c ia l la w o f E n gla n d w it h t h a t o f H o ll an d,
a n d a dde d : We lo o k u po n e v e r y d e c is io n o f t he Co u r t s o f We s t
‘
m in st e r u po n c o mm e r c ia l s u b e c t s a s a c o m m e n t a r y u po n t he j
D u t c h Co m m e r c ia l L a w , t he l a w w hic h w e ar e b o u n d t o o b se r v e
’
.
co n t a in in g ( i n ter ali a ) t he n a m e s an d r esi de n ce s of a ll t he

ge n e r a l a n d sp e cia l p art n e r s A n o n a ct ive p ar tn e r m ay .
-
n o t in a n y e v e n t c o m p e t e wi t h t he cr e di t or s of t he fir m
, ,
in r e sp e ct of d e b t s du e t o hi m fr om t he o t h e r p ar t n e r s 1
.
2—
7 8 L o a n fo r C o n s u m pt i o n .
5
L o a n fo r U s e All .
t hi s is R om a n la w S o m e m a tte r s conn e cte d wi t h m o n e y .
lo ans a n d t he p e rm it te d r a te of in te r e st h a ve b e e n c o n
2
side r e d in t he c h a p te r o n Op e r a t io n of Co n t ra c t .
5
9 D e po s i t . This t o o is e sse n ti all y R o m an L aw B u t . .
t he dou ble p e n a lt y in ca se of d e po situ m m ise r a bil e is n o

5
lo n g e r in u se A so c a lle d d e po si t wi t h a b a n k is n o t .
-
7
d e po sit b u t lo a n .
1 0 Pledge
. . 1 0 Pl e dge 5
The c on tr a ct of pl e dg e whi c h d e fin e s
. .
,
t he p e r son a l r e l at io n s b e t we e n ple dgor a n d ple dg e e i s ,
1
Wa ter me yer V . K e r de l s T ru s tees
’
1 83 4) 3 Me n z . 42 4; S e lla r
B r os C la r k ( 1 89 3 ) 1 0 S C 1 6 8
v
M u t u u m —V e r b r u ickle e n in g G r lib iii , c ap x V a n L ee u w e n ,

. . . . .
2
. . . .
li b iv , c ap V i ; V d L 1 1 5 2 ; 3 M aa sdo rp , c ha p 1 0
. . . . . . . . .
2
Co m m o da t u m — B ru ic kle e n in g Gr lib iii , c a p ix ; V an . . . .
L e e u w e n , lib iv c a p x ; V o e t , lib x iii , t it 6 ; V d L 1 1 5 4 ;

. . . . . . . . . .
D ou be ll v T ipp er ( 1 89 2 ) 1 1 S C 2 3 G on s ta n a
. I/udidi D u n a ( 1 89 2 ) . . V .
7 E D O 60 ; E n s li n
. . M e yer [ 1 9 2 5 ] O B B 1 2 5 ; 3 Maasdo rp, c ha p 9
. V . . . . . .
2
S u pr a , p 2 5 8 Th e S C Ma ce do n i a n u m o f t he r e ign o f V e s
. . . .
pas ia n fo r b a de lo a ns o f m o n e y t o fi liifa m ilias Th e f f m ight . . .
r e n o u n ce t h e b e n e t o f t h e S C a ft e r fu ll a ge fi
I t has b e e n d o u b te d . . .
w h e t he r , a n d ho w fa r , t he S C ha s pl a c e in t he m o de r n la w I t is , . . .
o f c o u rse , n o t a pplic a b le t o a f f o f fu ll a ge B u t in c as e o f m in o r it y . . .
t he r e is a ge n e r a l in c lin a t io n t o ho ld t ha t i t m a y s o m e t im e s b e
u se fu lly pl e a de d G r o e n de leg a br a d Co d lib iv , t it 2 8; V o e t , . . . . . . .
14 6 5 . . C omp en di u m , 1 4 6 5 ; Ce n s F or 1 4 3 1 2 ; . . . . . . .
V d K 47 5 , a n d D i c ta t ad G r 3 1 2 6
. . . . . . . .
5
D e po s it u m — B e w a e r ge v in g G r lib iii , c a p V 1 1 ; V a n L e e u w e n , . . . .
li b iv , c a p x i ; V d L 1 1 5 5 ; S a ka z i v G u rr [ 1 9 0 6] T S 303 ;
. . . . . . . . . .
R a ma Na r ota m v Na tha D u lla bh [ 1 9 1 4] N P D 2 2 7 ; 3 Maas . . . .
d o r p, c ha p 8 D e po s itu m se u e st r e a n d c o ns ign a t io n ( su pr a ,
. . q
p . 2 74 ) a r e v ar i e t i e s o f d e po s it G r 3 7 1 2 ; V d L l 1 5 6, . . . . . . . . .
T hor n ton v P r i es t s T ru s tee [ 1 9 3 2 ] C P D 2 9 6

’
10 0 c it . . . . . . .
5
G r o e n de le g a br a d D ig 1 6 3 1 ; V o e t , 1 6 3 1 1
. . . . . . . . .
7
D ig 42 5 2 4 2 : A li u d e st e n im c r e de r e a liu d de po n e r e Cf
. . . .
, . .
V o e t , 2 0 4 1 4 ; 46 2 5 .The se pa ssa ge s spe a k e x pr e s sly o f a

. . . .
de po sit w it h a b a n k w hic h b e ar s in t e r e st B u t ( sem ble ) in t he .
m o de r n la w if t he m o n e y is t o b e u s e d b y t he b an k t he c o n t r ac t is
in e v e r y ca se a m e r e lo a n 3 M aas do rp , p 1 1 0
Pign u s—P a n dge v in g O ft e V e r z e tt in g—On de r z e t t in g G r l ib
. . .
5
. . .
ii i , c a p v iii ; V a n L e e u w e n , lib iv , c a p x i i ; V o e t , lib x iii , t it 7

. . . . .
V d L 1 1 5 7 ; 2 Ma as do r p, c ha p 2 9 ; Will e
. . . . . Millin , c ha p 5 , . .
Wille , M or tgage a nd P ledge i n S ou th Afri ca .

gove rn e d by the r ul es of R om a n L a w The re a l r ight s .
1
cr e a t e d by pl e dge h a v e b e e n di s c u sse d in B ook II .
2
1 1 S u r e t y s hi p o r G u a r a n t e e A c o n tr a ct of su r e ty 1 1 Sur ety . .
8 ip o r
shi p i s a c o n t r a ct w h e r e by o n e p e r so n u n de r t a k e s a
gu ar an tee .
se c o n d a r y o r c oll a te r a l li a b i li t y for t he de b t or d e li ct of
5 2
a n o t h er pe r s o n who is p r im ar ily li a bl e The p r in cip a l de b t .
5
m ay b e ci vil o r n a t ur a l b u t m u st n o t b e vo i d o r ille g a l , .
An y m a le p ers o n ca p a bl e of co n tr a c t in g m ay c o n cl u d e a
c o n t r a c t of su r e t yshi p
5
B u t by t he w ell kn o w n e n a ct .
-
m e n t s , Se n a t u s co ns u lt u m Ve lle ian u m an d A u t he n t i ca si
qu a m u lie r ,
wo m e n
pr ohib ite d fr o m b in di n g t he m ar e
se lv e s a s su r e t ie s a n d in p ar t i cu l ar m ar r i e d w o m e n ar e Spe c i l
, , ,
a
as es
p r ohi b ite d fr o m b in di n g t h e m se lve s a s sur e tie s for t h e ir to w o m e n
7
hu sb a n ds The poli cy of t he la w e x te n ds t o t he case of a sur e ties
.
.
wo m an b in din g h e r se lf a s p rin cip a l de b t o r fo r a n o t h e r or

5
t a ki n g a n o t h e r s de b t u po n he r as he r o w n
’
The e ffe ct of .
t h e se l a w s i s so far r e a ch in g t h a t m o n e y p a id by a wo m a n
-
u n de r a co n t r a c t of sur e t yshi p m a y b e r e cov e re d b a c k i f

2
she w a s ig n o r a n t of t he b e n e fi t co nfe rr e d by t h e m an d ,
e v e n su b su r e t ie s i e p e r so ns who h a v e bo u n d t h e m selv e s
-
, . .
a s su r e ti e s for t he fe m a le su r e t y m a y ple a d t h e m as a ,
d e fe n ce 10
The re ar e howe ve r so m e e xce p t ion s fr o m t he
.
, ,
1
S u pr a , pp 1 90 , 1 9 9
F ide u s s io —B o r gto gt G r lib iii , c a p iii ; V a n L e e u w e n lib
. .
2
j . . . .
, .
i v , c a p iv ; V o e t , lib x lv i , t it l ; V d L l 1 4 1 0 ; 3 M a as d o rp
. . . . . . .
3 0—
.
c ha ps . 2 ; Will e Mil lin , c ha p 7 ; We sse ls ii , c ha p x x i ff , .

, . .
Ca n e y , T he L a w of S u r e tyship i n S ou th Afr i ca .
2
5
G r 3 3 12 G r 3 3 2 1 ; V o e t , 46 l 7
—
. . . . . . . . . .
5
G r 3 3 2 2 ; V o e t , 46 1 1 0 1 1
. . . . . .
5
E v e n m i n o rs w it h t h e a u t h o r i t y o ft he ir gu a r di a n s V oe t 46 l 5 .
, . . .
7
The se n a t u s co n s u lt u m w as pas se d in t h e c o n su ls hip o f M a r cu s
S il an u s a n d V e lle iu s Tu t o r ( A D D ig 1 6 l 2 Th e a u t he n t ic a . . . . . .
is a glo ss o n Co d 4 2 9 2 2 , giv in g t he e ffe c t o f No v 1 3 4 c 8

. . . .
, .
(A D. .
( The su ppo se dly o ffi c ia l c o lle c t io n o f t he No v e ls w as
kn o w n as t he A u then ticu m H e n c e t h e n a m e A u the nti ca ( s oi l lex . .
”
o r c o n s ti tu ti o ) giv e n t o t h e se su m m a r i es ) T he r u l e t h a t a m a r r ie d .
w o m an m i ght n o t
‘
in t e r ce de fo r he r hu s b a n d w as o lde r t ha n
’
t he se n a t u sc o n su lt u m Ju s t in i a n r e e n ac te d it in t he No v e l S e e
.
-
K
.
o t z e, Va n L e eu w e n , v o l ii , p 6 1 6 . . .
5
V an L e e u w e n , u bi s u p ; i e i t in c lu de s b o t h c u m ul a t iv e . . .
i n te r ces si o a n d pr iv a t iv e i n te r cess i o ( B u c kla n d T ex tboo k, p

V K
, .
a n d s o m e o t h e r c as e s as w e ll S ta nda r d B u i ldi n g S o oy e ller . . .
m a n n [ 1 9 30 ] T P D 7 9 6 . . .
2
V oe t , 1 6 1 1 2
. . . .
1°
V oe t , 1 6 1 2 . . .
ru el of n o n li a bili t y Th e se are p r i n cip ally t he followin g

-
.
( 1 ) if t he wo m a n ha s a c t e d fr au d u l e n t ly a n d in p ar t i c u l a r ,
1
if she ha s pr ofe sse d h e r se lf t o b e a co p r i n cip a l de b t o r ; -
2
( 2 ) if she has b e n e fit e d by t he p r in cip a l co n tr a c t or if she ,
3
ha s go n e su r e t y fo r he r cr e di t o r ; ( 3 ) if a ft e r t he l a p se of ,
t w o y e ar s she ha s co n fi r m e d he r sur e t y shi p by a n e w

,
a gr e e m e n t ; ( 4) if b e in g a p u bli c t r a d e r
2
she ha s b e c o m e , ,
sur e t y i n r e l a t io n t o he r b u si n e ss ;
5
( 5 ) if e xp re ssly a n d ,
wit h fu ll kn owle dge of wh a t she w a s doin g she has re ,
n o u n ce d t he b e n e fi t s of t he se n a t u s c o ns u lt u m a n d of t he
a u the n ti ca
5
A wo m a n who has r e n o u n ce d t he b e n e fi t of
.
t he fi r st will n o t b e h e ld by i m pli ca t io n t o h a ve r e n o u n ce d
t he b e n e fi t of t he se c o n d Th e r e m u st b e a se p ar a t e a n d .
di st in ct r e n u n ci a t io n of e a c h if a m a rr i e d wo m a n is t o b e
7 ’
h e ld li a ble for he r hu sb an d s de b t s .
5
Th e se b e n e fi ts h a ve b e e n a bolish e d in Ce ylo n a n d in the
opi nion of the l a t e Sir Joh n We sse ls C J i t is high t im e . .
t h a t t h e y w e r e a boli sh e d in S ou t h Afr i c a
°
Wo m e n a re .
‘
r e g a r d e d a t p r es e n t as t he e qu a ls of m e n a n d w e m ay v e r y ,
Gr 3 3 1 5 ; Voe t, 1 6 l 1 1
. . . . . .
e g . if she ha s r e ce iv e d c o n s ide r a t io n fo r b e c o m in g su r e t y
. .
V o e t , u bi su p a n d 46 l 3 2 ; R i c hte r . Tr a nsvaa l G ovt [ 1 9 0 6] T S . . V . . . .
1 46 ; P e tte r s e n V
Ya tes [ 1 9 2 8] N P D 45 3 ; Afr i ca n G u a r a n te e C o
. . . . .
V . R a bi n ow i tz [ 1 9 3 4] W L D 1 5 1 ; S ou ther n I/ife A ss o ci a ti on of . . .
Afr i ca v Wr i ght [ 1 9 43 ] C P D 1 5
.
5
Gr 3 3 16 . . . . . . . .
2
Co d 4 2 9 2 2 1 ; G r 3 3 1 7 ; V o e t , 1 6 l 1 1
. . . . . . . . . .
5
V o e t , u bi s u p Sc ho r e r a d G r 3 3 1 8; Oa k v L u msden ( 1 884)
. . . . .
3 S C a t p 1 48
. . . .
5
G r 3 3 1 8; V o e t , 1 6 1 9 ; V d L u bi s u p M a cke lla r
. . . B on d . . . . . . V .
( 1 884) 9 A pp Cas 7 1 5 ( in a ppe a l fr o m Na t a l )

. n oc ke r v S ta nda r d
. K .
B k [ 1 9 3 3 ] A D 1 2 8; S ou ther n L ife A ss oci a tio n

. . . Wr ight, u bi su p V . .
I t w as , a n d poss ibly st il l is , a n u n se t t le d u e st io n w he t he r t he q
r e n u n c ia t io n m u s t b e n o t a r ia lly e x e c u t e d S e e V d K 49 6 a n d . . . .
’
t r an s la t o r s n o te , ad lo c ; o t z e, Va n L eeu w e n , v o l ii , p 6 1 7 , . K . .
w he r e a ll t he a u t hor it ie s a r e c o lle c t e d In Na t a l L a w 40 , 1 884pr o .
v i de s a for m O f r e n u n c ia t io n Ca n e y s a y s ( p t he r e s e e m s n o
‘
. .
q u e s t io n t ha t o u t s ide o f Na t a l a n u n de r h a n d r e n u n c i a t i o n su f c e s fi
7
Gr 3 . Voe t, 1 6 1 10
. . . .
5
O r d No 1 8 o f 1 9 2 3 , s e c 2 9
. . . .
2
We sse ls , ii 387 2 B y t he B ill s o f E x c ha n ge A c ts ( e g Ca pe
. . . .
A c t 1 9 o f 1 89 3 , se c 5 4) r e n u n c ia t io n o f t he b e n e t s is n o t r e u i s it e
. fi q
t o t h e v a lidi t y o f a b ill a c ce pt e d o r e n dor se d b y a w o m a n Bu t .
t his do e s n o t a pply w he n a w o m a n s ign s a n a v a l ( M o ti ck Co v

‘
. .
Cas s i m s Tru s te e [ 1 9 24] A D 7 2 0 ) o r e xp r e ssly a s su r e t y Na tio na l

’
. . .
A cc ep ta nc e C o v Ro be rts on [ 1 9 3 8] C P D 1 7 5 . . . . . .
318 THE LAW OF OBLIGATI ONS
R om an -
D u t ch L aw , as in t he R o m an , su re t e s i m ay l o
a s
in voke t he b e n e fi ci u m
divisio n i s a n d t he b e ne fi ciu m 1
c e de n da ru m a ct io n u m
2
All t h e se b e n e fi ts m a y b e r e .
5
n o u n ce d I n t he m ode r n la w o n e of se ve r a l j oin t su r e t i e s
.
,
who ha s p a id t he whole d e b t a n d p e r h a p s who ha s p a id ,
m or e t h a n a r at e a ble sh a r e of t he d e b t is e n t i t l e d t o go ,
a g a in st his c o su r e t i e s for c o n t r i b u t io n wi t ho u t ce ssi o n of

-
a c t io n s
}
He m a y a ls o in t he a b se n ce of a gr e e m e n t t o ,
t he co n t r ar y e qu a lly wit ho u t c e ssion of a c t io n cl a im

, ,
r e i m b ur se m e n t fr o m t he p r in cip a l d e b t o r b u t he is n o t ,
obli ge d t o go a g a in st t he p r i n cip a l de b t or b e for e t a kin g

5
p r oc e e din g s a g a in st t he co sur e t y -
.
A c o n tr a ct of sur e t yshi p i s dis ch a r ge d— n o t t o sp e a k of

in cide n t s whi ch a ffe c t a n y c o n tr a ct su ch a s a t i m e lim it or
a r e s ol u t iv e c o n di t io n — b y a n y e v e n t w hi c h e x t in gu ish es
t he p r i n cip a l d e b t a n d by a n y m a t e r i a l v a r i a t io n of t he
5
p r in cip a l c o n tr a ct If a cr e di to r ha s r e le a se d o n e of .
se v e r a l su r e ti e s t he r e st a r e d is ch ar g e d t o t he e x te n t to
whi ch t he y ar e t h e r e by p r e clu de d fr o m r e cove r in g c o n tr i

7
b u t i o n fr om t he r e l e a se d su r e t y .
G r 3 3 2 8; V o e t , 46 1 2 1 V d L l 1 4 1 0
. . . . . . . . . . .
G r 3 3 3 1 V o e t , 46 l 2 7 V d K 5 0 6 ; in c lu din g a n y c la im s
. . . . . . . .
w h ic h t h e c r e di t o r m a y h a v e a ga in st a t h ir d pa r t y in r e spe c t o f
t h e d e b t o r de fa u l t t o w hich t he su r e t y sh ip r e la t e s Yo r ks hi r e .
I n s u r a nc e C o v B a r c la y s B a n k [ 1 9 2 8] W L D a t p 2 1 0 ; Afr i ca n
’
. . . . . .
G u a r a n te e C o v Thor p e [ 1 9 3 3 ] A D 3 30 . . . . .
5
G r 3 3 2 9 ; V d K 5 0 2 ; a n d , in so m e pla c e s , s a y s V a n de r
. . . . . .
K e e sse l ( T h a r e t a ke n t o h a v e r e n o u n c e d t h e m
. if t he ,
s u r e t ie s b in d t he m s e lv e s e a c h fo r a ll o r e a c h as pr in c ipa l de b t o r
‘
Cf G r lo c c it a n d Va n de r Vyve r
. . . D e Wa ye r ( 1 86 1 ) 4 Se a r le
. V .
2 7 F o r d e l c r e d e r e c o n t r a c t s se e V d K 5 0 4
. . . . .
2
Th is is s t a t u t o r y in Na t a l ( L a w No 9 o f b u t t he la w is .
t he s a m e in t he o t he r P r o v in c es r oo n E n s che de [ 1 9 0 9 ] T S . K V . . .
3 7 4 ; Nosw or thy v Yo r ke [ 1 9 2 1 ] C P D 40 4; E s t S tee r . S te er . . . . V .
[ 1 9 2 3 ] C P D 3 5 4 ; P ea r ce
. . D e J age r [ 1 9 2 4] C P D 45 5 ; L e ve r
. V . . . . V .
B u hr m a n n [ 1 9 2 5 ] T P D 2 5 4 ; M oosa v M a ho m e d [ 1 9 3 9 ] T P D . . . . . . .
27 1 .
E s t S teer v S tee r , u bi s up ; R u to wi tz s F lo u r M i lls

5
. . T he .
’
V .
M a s ter [ 1 9 3 4] T P D 1 63
V
. . . .
5
B r i n km a n M c G i ll [ 1 9 3 1 ] A D 3 0 3 ; I r w i n v D a vi es [ 1 9 3 7 ]
. . . .
C P D 442 As t o t he e ffe c t o f a n e x te n s io n o f t im e giv e n b y t he

. . . .
c r e dit o r t o t he d e b t o r s e e E s t L i e be n be r g v S ta n da r d B k [ 1 9 2 7 ] . . .
A D 5 02
. .
V
.
7
M oosa M a hom ed , u bi su p , a t p 2 85 . . . .
SPECIAL CONTRACTS 319
12 Ca r r i a ge b y l a n d a n d b y w a te r
. In t he R o m an 12 Ca r .
1
.
L a w t he se ct ion of t he p r ae t or s e di ct — de n au tis , st a b u {3
151 21 3
6 ’
larii s — m a de c a rr ie r s by wa te r a lon g wi t h b y w a te r
e t cau po n ib u s ,
st a bl e k e e p e r s a n d in n k e e p e r s t he in su r e r s of good s e n
-
2
t ru st e d t o t h e m E xc e p t in case of d am n u m fa t a le o r of .
5
v i s m a j or t h e ir li a bili t y w a s a b s olu te The l a n g u a g e of .
t he e di ct do e s n o t i n t e r m s c ove r t he c ase of c a rr i e r s by
l a n d b u t in t he m ode r n la w t he y m u st b e t a ke n t o b e
,
2
in clu de d wit h in its sc op e If it we r e n o t so t he y wo u ld b e .
li a ble a s c on du c tor e s op e r is t o show t he h igh e st dilige n ce ,
5
b u t n o t a n swe r a ble i n d a m a g e s e x ce p t o n p r oof of cu lp a .
C ar r ie r s st a ble ke e p er s inn ke e p e r s a n d ke e p e r s of
,
-
, ,
bo ar di n g hou se s m a y r e t a in t he goods of t he i r cu st o m e r s
-
5
u n t il t h e ir r e a so n a bl e c h a r g e s a r e sa t i sfie d .
1
Gr 3 8 9 ; V a n L e e u w e n , 4 2 9 ; V o e t , lib iv , t it 9
. 3 . . . . . .
3 M a a s do r p , c hap 2 2 ; Wille Millin , c ha p l l .
q
. .
2
D ig 4 9 1 pr A it pr a e t o r n a u t a e c a u po n e s s t a b u lar ii u o d
. . . .
c u ju s qu e s a lv a m fo r e r e c e pe r in t n is i r e s t it u a n t in e o s u dic iu m _
j
da b o .
5
D ig 4 9 3 , 1 A s t o v is m a o r se e Ne w H e r i o t G M C o V
. . . . n i on j . . . . U
G o vt [ 1 9 1 6 ] A D 41 5 A s t o c o n t r a c t in g o u t , B u r ge r v C e n tr a l
. . . . .
S A l
. .
ys [ 1 9 0 3 ] T S 5 7 I ; S A l ys v C o n r a di e [ 1 9 2 2 ] A D
. . .
’
. . . . . .
1 3 7 A n o t ic e po s t e d u p in a n h o t e l pu r po r t in g t o lim it t he pr o
.
pr ie t o r s lia b ilit y has n o e ffe c t w it h o u t pr o o f t h a t t he c lie n t a gr ee d

’
t h e r e t o D a vi s
’
V
L ocks ton e [ 1 9 2 1 ] A D 1 5 3 I n S o u t h Afr ic a t he
. . . . .
P r a e t o r s E d ic t ha s b e e n a pplie d t o t he c a s e o f a n h o t e l pr o pr i e t o r
i n D a vi s L o cks ton e , u bi su p V S e e a lso G lo ve r v F i n ch [ 1 9 2 1 ]
.
K V
. .
C P D 3 5 8 ; T o y v B la ke [ 1 9 2 3 ] C P D 9 8 ;
. . . o en i g G odbo ld . . . . .
[ 1 9 2 3] C P D 5 2 6 . . . .
2
T r egidga ck C o S i ve w r i ght N O ( 1 89 7 ) 1 4 S C 86 p er ( 16 . V . . . . .
V illie r s C J a n d B u c ha n a n . di s s e n ti e n te M a a s do r p
. T his i s J J .
a lso t h e o pin i o n o f Mr T E D cn e s in h is c a r e fu l st u d ; The L i a

g y . . .
bi li ty for S afe C a rr i a ge of G o ods i n R o m a n D u tch L a w ( u t a CO , -

J .
T he S o u t h A fr ic a R a ilw a y A dm in ist r a t io n is l ia b le t o t he
e x t e n t a b o v e m e n t io n e d A c t No 2 2 o f 1 9 1 6 , s e c 1 8 ( l )
-
. . . .
Va n Ni e ker k [ 1 9 1 8] C P D 3 7 8 I n
5
P os tm a s te r G e n e r a l v . . . . .
Ce y lo n b y O r d No 2 2 o f 1 86 6 t he la w o f E n gla n d fo r t he t im e . .
b e in g i s m a de a ppl ic a b le t o a ll u e s t io n s r e la t in g t o c a r r ie r s b y q
la n d F o r in n ke e pe r s se e H o t e l
. e e pe rs L ia b il it
’
y O r d No 1 9 o f K . .
1 9 1 6 ; fo r Ca r r ia ge o f G o o ds b y S e a , O r d No 1 8 o f 1 9 2 6 . . .
5
V a n L e e u w e n , 4 40 2 , a n d C e n s F o r 1 4 3 7 8 a n d 9 ; . .
'
V
. . . . .
A n der s on ck C o P i e n a a r ck C o [ 1 9 2 2 ] T P D 43 5 ( c a r t a ge c o n
. .
V
. . . .
t r a c t o r s ) ; R e ed B r os F or d [ 1 9 2 3 ] T P D 1 5 0 ( liv e r y sta b le .
-
V
. . . .
ke e pe r ) ; Ma r a is A n dr e w s [ 1 9 1 4] T P D 2 9 0 ( in n ke e pe r — b o a r d
. . . . .
in g ho u se ke e pe r ) ; H o lm e s G a r a ge L td v L e vi n [ 1 9 2 4] G W L 5 8
-
V
. . . . .
( in n ke e pe r ) S A P hi lip s ( P ty ) L td Ve r m ou th [ 1 9 3 2 ] C P D 3 7 7
. . . . . . .
( b o a r d in
g h ou se ke e e r
p )
-
.
PA R T II
OB L IGAT ION S A RI SING FROM D E LICT
The la w THE se c n o d p i p l cl a ss of oblig a t io ns is t h a t whi c h
r n ci a
o f de li c ts
a r se s r m i fo
e ct d li A de li ct is a wr on gful a ct which
i s pr in
.
c i pa lly g o d
r u n s a n a c t i n in a o f vo u r of the p e r so n in j ur e d In t hi s .
Ro m a n in
b r a n ch of law a s in o t he r s t he ju s civil e w a s r e ce ive d in
, ,
H olla n d I n t he p a ge s of Gr ot iu s a n d occ a sion a lly of V o e t

.
w e d e t e ct i n dic a t io n s of a diffe r e n t o r d e r of id e a s d e r ive d

fr o m Te u t o ni c so u r ce s B u t t he R om an L a w dr ove t he
.
n a t i ve la w o u t of t he fi e ld In t he t e x t book wr i te r s a n d
.
,
p r ob a bly a lso in t he p r a ct ic e of t he Cou r t s of t he e igh te e n t h ,
c e n u r y t he R o m a n D u t c h la w of d e li ct s w as b a se d u po n
t -
t he R o m a n L a w e xpou n d e d in t he I n st itu te s a n d t he
Dig e st .
The R o m a n la w of d e li ct d e r iv e d fr o m t he X1 1 T a ble s
,
a n d fr o m a st ill m or e p r im i t ive c u st o m a r y la w ca m e i n ,
t i m e t h a n k s t o t he di r e ct i n g i n fl u e n c e of j ur i st s a n d of
,
p r a e t ors t o e xp r e ss a co m p r e he n sive t he or y of civil

,
li a bili ty A fe w sim ple p r i n ci pl e s cove re d t he w hole

.
gr o u n d a n d a dop te d i n m ode rn cod e s h a v e b e e n fou n d

, ,
su ffi ci e n t t o p r ovi d e fo r t he c o m pl e x i t i e s of m od e r n life .
D o lu s A m a n m u st se e t h a t he do e s n o t w ilq y i n va d e a n o t h e r s ’
a n d c u lpa
r igh t o r i n b re a c h of a d u t y wilfu lly o r car e l e ssly c a u se
.
, , ,
hi m p e cu n i ar y lo ss If he do e s e i t h e r of t h e se thi n gs he i s
.
E x ce p a n sw e r a ble i n d a m a g e s Th e r e m ay a lso b e case s r e st in g

.
,
t io n a l
u po n a m or e a r ch a i c p r in ci pl e i n w hi c h he i s a n sw e r a bl e
c ase s o f ,
a b so lu te a b s ol u t e ly fo r d a m a g e w hi c h he ha s c au se d t ho u gh wi t ho u t ,
lia bili t y
in te n ti o n a n d wi t ho u t n e glig e n ce Su ch in a fe w wor ds i s
.
t he R o m a n t h e or y of d e lict u a l li a bili t y .
In o n e r e sp e c t the R o m an la w of d e li ct s ha s su ffe r e d
fr o m t he sim plici t y of i t s p r in ciple s n a m e ly i n its v o ca b u
, ,
l ar y I t i s c o n ve ni e n t t o di stin gu ish by diffe r e n t n a m e s

.
t he v a ri o u s gr o u p s of cir cu m st a n ce s whi ch give r ise t o

li a bili ty The E n gli sh L a w — poor in p r i n ciple r i ch in
.
,
d e t a il— doc s so It distin gui sh e s v a r io u s h e a ds of lia

.
bili ty u n d e r t he n am e s of a ssa ul t t r e sp a ss li b e l sl a n de r
, , , ,
wr o n gfu l a ct or o m i ssion whi ch gr oun ds a n a c tio n

An y ,
i e a ny a ct or o m ission which i s wr o n gfu l in law is kn own

. .
,
in Ro m an L aw a s a n i n j ur y
‘
G e n e r ali te r in j ur i a di citur
.
o m n e qu od n o n j ur e fit 1
An in j ur y m ay o r m a y n o t c au se
.
’
p e cu ni ar y lo ss ( da mn u m ) b u t e ve r y in j ur y give s r ise to a
,
claim for p e c u ni ar y co m p e n sa t io n ( id qu od i n ter es t schade

en i n ter essen —d a m a g e s ) I n so m e c a se s t h e r e is n o in j u r y
.
a n d r igh t of a c t io n u nl e ss p e cu ni ar y lo ss i s p r ov e d ; in
o t he r ca se s t he r e is a n in j ur y a n d ri ght of a ct ion wh e the r ,
p e cu ni ar y lo ss is p r ove d or n o t ( i nju r i a si n e da m no ) ; in
o th e r s p e cu ni ar y lo ss m ay b e pr ove d a n d ye t n o a ct ion ,
lie s ( da mn u m sin e i nju r i a ) b e ca u se the law doe s n o t co n

,
de m n e i t h e r t he a ct in it se lf or t he a ct t og e t h e r wit h t he
2
con se qu e n t lo ss as c on st itu t in g a le g a l wr on g .
The cl a ssifi c a t ion of de lic t s is a m a tte r of s om e difficul t y .
In t he R o m a n L aw t he p r i n cip a l de lic t s we r e four in

n u m b e r : v i z ( 1 ) fur t u m ; ( 2 ) r a p in a ; ( 3 ) d a m n u m 1 n jur 1 a
.
d a tu m ( 4) in jur i a ( sp e cifi ca lly so c a ll e d ) Sin ce r apin a w as -

.
m e r e ly an a ggr a v a t e d for m of fur t u m t he pr in cip a l h e a ds ,
of d eli ct m a y b e r e du ce d t o t hr e e Thi s cl a ssifi ca t ion .

,
howe ve r is by n o m e an s e xh au stive Th e r e we r e o the r

,
.
gr o u n ds of li a bili t y su ch as dolu s a n d t he re we r e ce rt a in ,
qu a si de li ct s whi ch di ffe r e d fr o m tru e de li cts in li tt le bu t

-
in n am e .
I n wr i tin gof de lic ts pr op e r G r o t iu s a n d Van Le e u we n

5
a dop t a di f fe re n t a rr an g e m e n t I n t h e ir syste m d e lict .
( m i sda a d ) i s d ir e c t e d : ( )
1 a g a in s t life ; ( ) a ga in st t he
2
pe r son ; ( 3 ) a g a ins t fr e e do m ; ( 4) a ga in st hon our ; a n d ( 5 )
a g a ins t p r op e r t y B ot h t he se wr i te r s t re a t t he su bj e ct of
.
wr o n gs pr in cip a lly fr om the poin t of vi e w of cri m e Va n .
de r Lin de n follow s t h e ir le a d e x ce p t t h a t he in clu d e s

4
‘
wr o n gs a ga in st fre e do m u n de r t he h e a d of wr on g s a g ain st
ho n our t hu s m a kin g four cl a sse s in pla c e of fiv e
,
.
1
Inst
4 4 pr .
V
. .
2
Thu s in G r eyven s te yn Ha tti ngh [ 1 9 1 1 ] A C 3 5 5 ; [ 1 9 1 1 ] A D
. . . . .
3 5 8 it w a s he ld t ha t n o a c t io n la y a ga in st a n a d o in in g o w n e r w ho j
hin de r e d l o c u st s fr o m se t t lin g o n his o w n la n d w i t h t he r e sul t t ha t
t h e y se tt le d o n t he lan d o f t he a ppe lla n t .
2
5
G r 3 33 1 ; V a n L e e u w e n , 4 3
. . . 2 9 V d L 1 16 1
. . . . . . . . .
OB LIGATI ONS A RISING FR OM DELICT 323
N e ithe r t he Ro m an n or t he Du t ch arr an ge m e n t is com Classifi
ple te ly i f c t or y
sa t s a . I n t hi s ch ap te r we h a ll sp e a k of :
s
in t his
1 . Wr on gs a gai n st the p e r son ;
N Wr ongs a gain st pr op e r ty ;
O
O Wr ong s a ga in st r e pu t a t ion ;
N
i
- Wr on g s a ga in st the do m e sti c r e l a ti on s ;
h
C B re a c h of a st a tu t or y or c o m m on la w d u t y ;
6 . Wr on gs o the r t h a n the a bove m e n tion e d .
Bu t first a fe w wo r d s m u st be sa i d a bo u t t he the o r y of G e ne r al
de li ctu a l li a bili t y 1 n ge n e r al whi ch 1 s e sse n ti ally the sa m e £ 11
, n {If
5
a s in R o m a n L a w
£331
.
11
I n t he m ode rn la w t he Ro m a n t e r m in ology se r ve s as a L a w
ge n e r a l t ou ch st on e of li a bili t y The u n de r lyi n g p r in ciple s .
of inj u r i a a n d d am n u m in j ur i a d a tu m a r e a pplic a ble t o a ll

ki n d s of d e li ct Toda y a ll de lictu a l li a bili tie s ( wi t h fe w Dolus a nd
.
e xc e p t io n s ) ar e r e fe r a ble t o o n e o r o t h e r of t h e se t w o cul pa
he a ds I a m a n sw e r a ble for wilfu l a ggr e ssio n o n a n ot he r s

.
’
r i gh t ( i nju r i a ) t ho u gh i t m ay n o t ca u se p e c u n i ar y lo ss
, I .
a m a n sw e r a bl e for wilful or c a r e le ss a gg r e ssio n o n a n o t h e r s

’
r igh t whi c h c a u se s p e c u ni ar y lo ss ( da m n u m i nju r ia da tu m ) .
I n t he fi r st c a se I a m li a ble for se n t im e n t a l d a m a ge s Da m ages

‘ ’
,
i e I m u st c o m p e n sa te t he pl a in t i ff for t he a ffr o n t u po n 3
. .
3 2
2
1
11 0“
1
hi s p e r son di gni ty o r r e p u t a ti o n t he as se ssm e n t of t he an d Pat i
, , ,
t
m oni l a
d a m a ge s b e in g in the di scr e ti on of the Co u r t I n the .
se c o n d c ase I a m li a ble fo r p a tr i m o ni a l d a m a ge s i e I‘ ’
. .
,
m u st c o m p e n sa te t he pl a in t iff for t he re du ce d v a lue of his

p a tr im on y ( o r e st a te ) c on se qu e n t u pon m y wr o n gfu l a ct ,
whe t h e r t hi s c on sists in po sitive lo ss di r e ct o r in dir e ct

( d a m n u m e m e r ge n s ) or in lo ss of p r o sp e ct ive g a in ( l u cr u m
ce ssa n s ) I n a ddi t ion t o t hi s the D u t c h L a w di ffe r in g fr o m

.
, ,
t he R o m a n L a w a llow e d a pl a in t i ff u n de r t he h e a d of
,
d a m n u m t o cla im co m p en sa t ion for physi c a l p a in a n d dis

figu r e m e n t
2
Fr om t his it is e vide n t t h a t a wilfu l wr on g
.
m ay giv e r ise t o a cl aim u n de r bot h h e a d s of li a bili t y a n d ,
j
O m n e m qu e in u r ia m [L a b e o a it ] a u t in c o rpu s in fe rr i a u t a d
1
di gn it a te m a u t a d in fa m ia m pe r t in e r e D ig 47 1 0 1 2 . . . . . .
2
Gr 2,
. n i on G o vt U . V
Wa rn eke [ 1 9 1 1 ] A D a t p 6 65
. . . . .
by t he m od e rn p r a c tice cla im s u n der bo th h e a d s m a y be

a sse r t e d in t he sa m e a ct io n
1
.
I t i s c o m m o n t o bo t h h e a d s of li a b i li ty t h a t t h e re m u st
h a ve b e e n a n a n te ce d en t d u ty owe d by t he de fe n da n t t o
t he pl a in t i ff fo r wh e r e t h e r e i s n o d u t y t h e r e is n o r igh t
, ,
a n d t h e r e ca n b e n o i n v as io n of a r igh t If t he wr o n g is .
in te n t io n a l t h e r e i s li t t le di ffi cul t y b e c au se t he lis t of ,
i n te n tio n a l wr o n g s is fa ir ly a ccur a te ly d e fi n e d B u t t he r e
is m ore diffi cu l t y in de t e r m
.
in in g t he s cope of t he d u ty t o
t a ke c ar e A t te m p t s to fin d a po sit ive for m u la h a ve n o t
.
2
pr ove d ve r y su c ce ssfu l The de gr e e of c ar e whi ch a m an .
i s c a ll e d u po n t o e x e r ci se v a r ie s wi t h t he c ir cu m st a n ce s ,
a n d i s t he ca r e w hi c h in t he cir c u m st an ce s wo u l d b e
e x e r ci se d by t he r e a so n a ble m an .
Le gal n e glige n c e co n sists in a fa ilu r e t o e x e r cise tha t de gr ee

o f c a r e w hi ch u n de r t he cir cu m sta n ce s i t w a s t he du ty of t he
, ,
t he pe r so n co n ce r n e d t o u se t o w ar ds a n ot h e r Su ch a du t y .
m a y a r ise in v a r iou s w a ys It m a y be spe cially i m po sed a s by .

,
a st a t u te ; bu t sp e a kin g g e n e r a ll y i t e it he r springs fr o m a
, ,
pr ivi t y o f r e la tio n ship ( co n tr a ct u a l o r o the r ) be t w e e n the

part ie s co n ce r n e d o r it is cr e a t e d by t he cir cu m st a n ce s o f
,
’5
t he ca se .
‘
It ha s pe a t e dly b e e n la id d o w n in t his Co u r t t hat a c co u n t
re
a bili t y fo r u nin t e n t i on a l in j u r y de p e n ds u p o n cu lp a —t he
fa ilu r e t o o b se r v e t ha t de gr e e o f car e w hi ch a r e aso n a bl e m a n

w ou ld ha v e ob se r v e d I u se t he t e r m r e a so n a ble m a n t o d e n ote
.
i
t h di l gens p
e a te rfa m i lia s of R om a n L a w — the a v e r a ge pru d e n t
pe r so n . On c e i t i s cle a r t ha t t he da n ge r w o uld ha v e
b e e n fo r e se e n a n d gu ar de d a ga in st by t he di ligens p aterfa m i lias ,
t he du t y t o t a ke car e i s e st a bli she d a n d it o nl y r e m a in s t o ,
2 ’
as cer t a in w he t he r i t ha s b e e n di scha r ge d .
I t ha s b e e n sa id t h a t t he d u t y t o t a k e c are is wid er in
R om a n D u t ch L aw t h a n in E n gli sh L aw The di ffe r e n ce
-
.
,
so far a s t h e r e i s a n y co n si st s n o t in t he p r in cipl e t o b e ,
a ppli e d fo r t he bo n u s p a t e r fa m ili a s i s h ar dl y di st in g u i sh
,
1
M a tthew s V
You ng [ 1 9 22 ] A D a t p 5 0 5
. . . . .
2
McK e r r o n p 39 . .
Un i on G ovt
,
5
. V
Na ti on a l B k of S A [ 1 9 2 1 ] A D
. . . . . . at p 1 2 8p er
.
Inn e s CJ
P a i n e [ 1 9 2 3 ] A D a t pp 2 1 6— V
. .
2
C a p e T ow n M u n i cip a li ty 17 . . . .
p er In n e s C J ; S tr ide v R eddi n N O , 1 9 44 ( 1 ) R H O 1
. . . . . .
e xpl a n a t ion of the a c cide n t whi ch e it he r e x clu de s n e gli ,
ge n ce o n his p ar t o r is e qu all y c on siste n t wi t h n e gli ge n ce ,
1 ’
o r n o n e glig en ce B u t a s has ofte n b e e n poi n te d o u t
.
, ,
t h e re is n o shi fting of t he b u r d e n of p r oof I t i s a lwa ys .
in cu m b e n t o n t he pla in t iff to m a k e o u t his case .
The m o st fr e qu e n t d e fe n ce in a ct io n s fo r n e glig e n ce is
t h a t t he d a m a g e w as du e wholl y or in p a rt to t he pla in t iff s
’
o w n n e glig e n c e This is wh a t is ca ll e d t he ple a of c o n tr i

.
b u to r y n e glige n ce ; a n d the la w which has gr own u p wi th

re g a r d t o i t is kn ow n a s t he doc tr in e of co n t r ib u t o r y
n e gli g e n c e To day it ha s fe w if a ny fri e n ds a n d sho u ld

.
-
, , ,
b e su p e rse de d by t he Adm ir a lt y r u l e of a ppor t io n e d re spo n

2
sibili ty . I t i s u nfor tu n ate t h a t t hi s doc tr in e has be e n
a dm i tte d in t o t he la w of S o u t h Afr ic a
5
.
So far w e h a ve c on side r e d t he g e n e r a l p r in ciple s of

de li ctu a l li a bili ty in R o m a n D u t ch L a w whi ch ar e d e r ive d -
,
fr om the de lic ts in j ur i a an d d a m n u m in j ur i a da tu m a n d
t he c orr e spon di n g a c tion s B e tw ee n t h e m t h e y cove r .
n e ar ly t he whole fi e ld of d e li c t B u t as will b e se e n t h e r e .
, ,
ar e c ase s i n w hi c h bo t h dol u s a n d d a m n u m m u st b e
pr e se nt in or de r t o c o n st itu te le g a l li a bili t y a n d t h e r e ar e
a fe w c a se s of a b s olu te li a bili t y We n ow p r oce e d t o con .
sid e r sp e cifi c d e li c t s a s cl assi fi e d a bov e .
1 W r o n g s a g a i n s t t he pe r s o n To t his h ea d m ay b e
.
f
r e e rr e d t he
wr on g s which in E n gli sh L aw ar e kn own a s
a ssa ul t b a t te r y fa l se i m p r i so nm e n t m a li ci o u s a rr e st
, ,
If ,
.
t he wr o n gfu l a ct i s a n i n te n t io n a l a ggr e ssi on t he pl a in t i ff

r e c ove r s d a m a g e s m e asur e d i n t he di s cr e t io n of t he Co ur t
by t he n a t u r e of t he o u tr a ge If t he a ct is u n i n te n t io n a l .
b u t car e l e s s t he pl a in t i ff i s e n t it le d t o c om p e ns ati o n fo r
1
M cK e rr o n p , . 47 .
2
Thi s has in e ffec t b e e n do n e fo r E n gla n d a n d S c o t la n d b y t he
L a w R e fo r m ( Co n t r ib u t o r y Ne glige n c e ) A c t , 1 9 45 .
5
M c K e r r o n , pp 5 9 —7 5 Th e fo llo w in g r e ce n t c a se s m a y b e
V
. .
c o n s u lt e d : S u the r la n d B a n w e ll [ 1 9 3 8] A D 47 6 ; B ow e r v H ea r n
. . . .
[ 1 9 3 8] N P D 3 9 9 ( c o n t r ib u t o r y n e glige n ce o f c hild o f t e n de r
. . .
y e ar s ) ; P r e tor i u s v A fr i ca n G a t e ck F e n c e W or ks L td [ 1 9 39 ] A D . . .
K V
.
5 7 1 ; F r a n co v lu g [ 1 9 40 ] A D 1 2 6 ; B o n a P i e r ce
. . .H a u M on .
1 9 44 ( 1 ) P H , O 1 0 Ca us a t io n a n d L e ga l R e
‘
. . . a n d se e
spo n s ib ili t y , b y A u a r iu s , 62
’
q p 1 2 6 . .
OB LIGATI ONS ARISING FR OM DELICT 32 7
a c tu a l d a m a ge if pr ove d In t hi s case the a ct ion is u su a lly

, .
te r m e d a n a c t ion fo r n e gli ge n ce .
I n p r i n ciple t h e n t h e re is n o li a bili t y wi t ho u t dolu s o r

, ,
cu lp a B u t in S o u t h Afr i ca i t will b e n o de fe n ce t o a n a c t ion

.
fo r fa lse imp r ison m e n t t o pl e ad t h at t he de fe n d a n t a ct e d in

1
go od fa it h a n d withou t n e glige n c e This is a de p ar tur e .
fro m p r in ciple du e t o t he fa ct t h at t hi s a cti on like t he

,
,
a ct i o n fo r m a li ci o u s arr e st a n d t he a ct i o n for m a li ci o u s
p r o se cu t io n ( of whi ch w e sh a ll sp e a k h e r e a fte r ) is de ri ve d
fr o m E n gli sh L a w a n d gove rn e d by E n gli sh p re ce de n t s .
The a cti o n fo r se du c ti on ( deflor a ti e ) m ay b e co n ve ni e n t ly A cti n fo r o
se du c m n
.
m e n ti on e d u n de r t he h e a d of wr o n g s a g a in st t he p e rson
’
I t is a n a c t ion d e r ive d fr o m t he C a n on L a w by w hi ch a
m a n who se d u ce d a v ir gin w as r e qui r e d t o give he r a
dowe r a n d t o m arr y he r—d o t ab it e arn e t h abc hit u xor e m .
By t he la w of m a n y p ar t s of G e rm an y a n d of H oll a n d t he
se d u ce r w a s g ive n t he a l t e r n a t ive A u t w a s su b st itu te d .
fo r cl 2
B y t he D u t ch L a w a vir gin who ha d b e e n se d u ce d
.
m ight b r in g an a cti o n r e qu ir in g t he de fe n d an t to m ar r y
he r or if he wo u ld n o t do so t o c o m p e ns a te he r for t he lo ss
, , ,
of he r vir gin it y an d if she we re wi t h child a lso for he r

,
5
lyin g in e xp e n se s ( kr aa m kosten ) The m a n w as bo u n d
‘
- -
.
"2
a u t du cor s a u t do ta r e t he op t io n of choi ce b e i n g hi s a lo n e
, .
I n t he m ode r n law t he a cti o n lie s for d a m a ge s onl y 5

This .
a ct i on ha s n o r e se m bl a n c e t o t he E n gli sh a cti on fo r se du o
t i on w hi ch a fa t h e r ca n b r in g for t he p r e te n de d lo ss of his
d au ghte r s se r vice s B u t t he fa the r m a y su e for lying in
’
. .
-
e xpe ns e s if he has d e fr a ye d o r m a de hi m se lf li a ble fo r
t he m 5
.
V o e t sa ys t h a t the a c ti on for se d u cti on doe s n o t lie if t he
1
Mc K e r r o np 1 24 , . .
2
S t o b b e , D e u ts ches P r i va tr echt, iii 5 3 0 .
V
.
P e ach [ 1 9 3 9 ] W L D 1 5 3
5
G r 3 3 5 8; V o e t , 48 5 3 ; B otha
. . . . . . . . . .
2
B e ns i mon v B a r ton [ 1 9 1 9 ] A D a t p 1 7
. . . . .
5
A s t o w h a t m a y b e c la im e d u n de r t h e h e ad o f da m a ge s s e e
M Gu n i v M tw a li [ 1 9 2 3 ] T P D 3 68; E ls v M i lls [ 1 9 2 6 ] E D L
’ ’
. . . . . . . .
3 46 A s t o t he t e r m o f pr e scr ipt io n in t he ac t i o n fo r se du c t io n se e
.
C a r e ls e V
E s ta te D e Vr i es ( 1 9 0 6 ) 2 3 S C a t p 5 3 9 The t e r m is
. . . . .
n o w t hr e e y e ars Pr e s c r ipt io n A c t , 1 9 43 , se e 3 vi)

. 0 ( . . .
5
Webb v L a nga i ( 1 884) 4 E D C 6 8
. . . . .
wo m a n kn e w t h a t t he m a n w as m arr i e d or d e clin e d t o ,
m arr y him or c o u ld n e ve r l a wfu ll y m arr y him o r had

, ,
m arr i e d s om e on e e ls e 1
In S o u t h Afr ica t he Appe ll a te .
D ivision has he ld by a m a j or ity t ha t t he fa ct t h a t t he

pla i nt iff kn e w a t the t im e of he r se du ct ion t h a t he r se du ce r
w a s a m a rr i e d m a n is n o b ar t o t he a c tio n
2
The se d u ce r .
is li a bl e in a n y e ve n t fo r lyi n g in e xp e nse s fo r r e as on a ble -
m a in te n a n ce fo r t he c hild a n d for fu n e r a l e xp e n se s if , ,
5
t he c hild die s B u t t hi s li a bili t y is a c o nse qu e n ce n o t of
.
2
se d u c t io n b u t of p a te r n i t y .
2 Wr o n g s a g a i n s t pr o pe r t y A n y wr on gfu l in v a
. .
’
s io n of a n o t h e r s r igh t t o o w n to po ssess o r t o d e t a in is , , ,
5
a ct io n a bl e .
The c orr e spo n di n g a ct ions in E n gli sh law a r e co n ve r

sio n ,d e t in u e t r e sp a ss t o l a n d a n d t o goods , .
D am a ge t o p r op e rt y falls u n de r the sa m e h e a d I n t his .
ca se if t he a ct whi c h c au se d t he d a m a ge w a s u n in te n t io n a l
,
b u t n e glig e n t t he a ct ion i s u su a ll y te r m e d a n a c t ion fo r

,
n e gli ge n ce .
The law of n ui sa n ce ha s b e e n bo rr owe d fr o m o r c o in ,
5
c id e s wi t h t he E n gli s h law , .
1
V o e t , 48 5 4 . . .
2
B en si m o n v B a r ton [ 1 9 1 9 ] A D 1 3 Th e o ppo sit e . i e w w as . . . V
t a ke n b y t he Ce y lo n S C in M ee n a dchip i lla i v S a n m u ga m ( 1 9 1 6 ) . . .
1 9 N L R 2 09 . I t has b e e n h e ld in t w o c as e s ( M u lho lla n d v

. . . .
S m i th ( 1 9 1 0 ) 1 0 H C G 3 3 3 ; D e lp or t v A h Yee [ 1 9 1 3 ] E D L 3 7 4) . . . . . . .
t ha t t he Marr ia ge O r de r in Co u n c il ha v in g a b o lis h e d t he a c t io n
t o c o m pe l m a r r ia ge , a n o ffe r o f m a rr ia ge o n t he pa r t o f t he d e fe u
da n t i s n o l o n ge r a de fe n c e t o pla in t iff s a c t io n fo r da m a ge s O n
’
.
t his po in t In n e s C J r e se r v e d h is o pini o n B en si m o n v B a rton a t

. . . .
p 23 .
K
.
5
V o e t , 48 5 6 ; V d L 1 1 6 4 ; . a la m i o v
. A r m a di e n [ 1 9 2 9 ]
. . . . . .
C P D 49 0
. . .
2
Ja cobs L or en z i [ 1 9 42 ] C P D 39 4
. V . . . . .
5
G r 3 3 7 5 ; V o e t , 9 2 1 0 ; M a r a is bu r g D i vi s C ou n ci l v
. . . . . . .
Waa genaa r [ 1 9 2 3 ] C P D 9 4 A pe r s o n in poss ess io n o f a c a r u n de r . .
fi
. .
a hir e pu r c h ase a gr e e m e n t has su f c ie n t t it le t o su e for da m a ge

-
t o t he c a r S u la i ma n v A m a r di e n [ 1 9 3 1 ] C P D 5 0 9
. . . . . .
5
S e e for in s t an c e D em e r a r a E lectr i c Co L td v Whi te [ 1 9 0 7 ] . . .
A C 33 0 ( B r it G u i ) ; B loemfon te i n T ow n C ou n c i l
. . . Ri chte r [ 1 9 3 8] V .
A D a t p 2 2 9 ; M c K e rr o n , p 2 1 5 B u t t he lia b ili t y o f a n o w n e r
. . . . .
o f l a n d in r e sp e c t o f e x c a v a t i o n s n e a r a pu b li c r o a d w hic h m a y
b e a s o u r c e o f da n ge r is de te r m in e d b y t he la w o f cu lpa , n o t , a s
in E n glish L a w , b y t he l a w o f n u is a n ce Tr a n s v ck Rhodes i a n . .
E s ta tes L td v G o ldi ng [ 1 9 1 7 ] A D p er Inn e s C J a t p 2 8

. . . . . . . .
1
se r vic e s of hi s m in o r child a n d a h u sb a n d for t he lo ss of ,
2
t he se r vi ce s of his wife B u t i t has b e e n h e ld t h a t a wife .
ha s n o c orr e spo n din g r igh t of a ct ion i n r e sp e ct of in j u r ie s

su st a in e d by he r hii sb an d t he gr o u n d of t he d e c i sio n b e in g ,
t h a t t he h u sb a n d ca n r e c ove r com p e nsa t io n fo r his di m i

ni she d e a r ni n g c a p a ci t y a n d t he wi fe wo u l d b e n o wo r se
5
of f t h a n she w a s b e for e I n a ll t h e se c a se s i t m u st a pp e a r
.
t h a t t he p e r so n kill e d o r i n j u r e d owe d a le g a l d u ty t o
fur ni sh m a in te n an ce o r se r vi ce s } a n d t he plain t i ff m u st
a ll e g e in hi s d e cl ar a t io n t h a t he w a s u n a bl e t o su ppo r t
him se lf a n d t h at t h e r e w as t hu s a n e ce ssit y for the m a in

5
t e n a n ce a ll e g e d t o b e lo st The m e a su r e of d am a ge s i s .
t he a m o u n t by which t he re so u r ce s of t he pla in t iff a ctu a l ,
a n d pr o sp e c tiv e h a ve b e e n dim in i sh e d i n c o n se qu e n ce of
,
5
t he d e a th o r in j u r y or t he c o st of r e pl a c in g t he ser vi ce s
,
of whi ch he has b e e n de p r ive d W h e r e de at h is the ca u s e

7
.
of a c t io n it is n o d e fe n c e t o show t h a t t he n e glige n ce of the

5
de ce a se d w a s a co n tr ib u t or y cau se of t he fa t al a ccide n t .
5
( It se e m s t h a t t hi s do e s n o t a pply t o n o n fa t a l in j ur i e s ) -
.
No r i s it a n y de fe n ce t h a t t he de ce a se d b e for e hi s de at h
a cc e p te d a su m of m o n e y i n ful l sa t i sfa c t io n of hi s cl a im
10
for d am a ge s .
3 W r o n g s a g a i n s t Re pu t a t i o n All t he au t hor it ie s
. .
a gr e e t h a t an a c t io n li e s for wr i t t e n or spok e n d e fa m a t io n .
G r o ti us de vo te s a shor t ch ap te r t o laster i ng o r m isda ed

‘
f eg e n s eer which h e d e s c r ib e s a s a n o u t r a g e u po n t h e
1
G r 3 3 4 3 ; V oe t , 9 2 1 1
. . . . .
; A bbott v . B e rgm a n [ 1 9 22 ] A D
. . at
p 56
. .
2
A bbott v B e r gma n , u bi s u p . .
5
D e Waa l v M essi ng [ 1 9 3 8] T P D 3 4 . . . . .
2
U
n i on G ov t . V
Wa rn e ke , u bi su p a t p 666 p er In n e s J A
. . . . .
In t he sa m e c ase ( p 6 7 2 ) D e V illie r s J P s a id t ha t a du t y ex p i e ta te
. . .
w o u l d b e e n o u gh , b u t t h is ie w has n o t pr e v a il e d V .
5
Wa ter son v M a yber ry [ 1 9 3 4] T P D 2 1 0 ; Oosthu i zen v S ta n le y
. . . . .
[ 1 9 36] W L D 1 1 0 . . . .
5
V o e t , 9 2 1 1 ; J a m es on s M i n or s v u bi su p
’
. . .
Hu tley V
C ox [ 1 9 2 3 ] A D 2 3 4 ; S m a r t v S A l
.
ys [ 1 9 2 8]
. . . . . .
N P D 361
. . . .
7
U
n i on G ov t v Wa rn e ke , u bi su p a t p 66 9
. . . . .
5
U
n i on G o v t L ee , u bi su p . V . .
1°
D e Waa l M ess i ng, u bi su p V . .
E x p a r te Olip ha n t [ 1 9 40 ] C P D 5 3 7 . . . .
OB LIGATI ON S AR IS ING FR OM DELICT 3 31
Va n Le e u we n in 1
’
good O pini o n whi ch o t he r s h a ve of u s .
,
his c orr e spon di n g ch a p te r sp e a ks of ou tr a g e u pon a m an s

’
2
‘
hon o ur a n d good n a m e B o t h t h e se wr ite r s e vide n t ly
’
.
r e g ar d d e fa m a t io n a s a sp e cie s of in j u r i a whi ch a s w e , ,
r e a d in t he D i ge st i s a wr on g dir e cte d a g a in st a m an s
’
5
p e r son o r a ffe ct in g hi s di g ni t y or r e p u t a t i on If t h is .
i de n t ifi ca t io n i s corr e c t t he a ni m u s in ju r ia n di i s of t he
e sse n c e of t he d e li c t Thi s howe ve r is n o t t he law ; for The .
, , ,
n
if t he l a n g u a g e c o m pl a i n e d of is c le a r ly d e fa m a t o r y in f fiizd;
nj
c h a r a ct e r t he i n te n t i o n t o in j ur e will b e p r e su m e d } a n d
,
pr oof t h a t a de fa m a t or y st a te m e n t c o n ce r ni n g t he pla in
t ifl w as m a de wi th n o in te n t i o n o fin ju r in g him is n o d e fe n ce
5
t o a n a ct ion fo r d e fa m a ti o n The Co ur t c a nn o t dive in t o
‘
.
the m in d of a d e fe n d a n t ; it ca n o nl y i n te r p r e t hi s la n
gu a g e a s it wo u ld b e u n d e r st ood by r e a so n a ble m e n ; he i s
a ssu m e d t o h a v e m e a n t wh a t hi s l a n gu a g e t h u s in te r p re te d
woul d c on ve y 5
In shor t t he in j u r io u s m in d r e qu ir e d by
’
.
, ,
the m ode rn R o m a n D u t ch L a w in c a se s of d e fa m a t io n -
,
a m o u n t s t o li tt le if t o a n y t hin g m or e t h a n t he i m plie d, ,
m a li ce of E n gli sh L aw The e sse n t ia l t hin g is p u blic at i on .

,
a n d t he wr o n g of d e fa m a t io n c o n si st s in t he p u b lic a t io n
‘
of de fa m a t or y m a tte r co n ce rn in g a n ot he r wi t ho u t l awfu l
7
ju stifi ca ti on I n o t h e r r e sp e ct s t oo t he E n glish L a w i s
’
.
,
followe d clo se ly o r wi t h var i a t io n s B u t in tw o i m port a n t, .
p ar ti cu lar s t he r e is a diffe r e n ce b e t we e n t he tw o syste m s

( )
1 t he R o m a n D u t c h L a w do e s n o t di st i n g u
-
i sh b e t w e e n
spok e n a n d wr i tte n de fa m a t i o n Wh e r e wor ds a r e de fa m a .
t or y t h e y are p r i ma faci e a ct io n a ble a n d it i s u nn e ce ssa r y ,
wh e t h e r t h e y b e spoke n or wr itte n t o give p r oof of sp e cial ,
1
G r 3 36 1 . . . .
2
L ib i v , c a p x x x v n
. Fo r de fa m a t io n o f t he de a d a n d c o n s e
q
. .
u e n t a c t io n s s e e V o e t , 4 1 0 5 ; S p endifi v E as t L on don D a i ly . . .
D esp a tch L td [ 1 9 2 9 ] B D L 1 1 3 ; a n d D r F P Wa lto n in J ou r n

. . . . . . . .
C omp L eg . v o l i x , pt i
.
5
S u pr a , p 3 2 3 . . . . .
T o thi ll v F os ter [ 1 9 2 5 ] T P D 85 7
2 5
V o e t , 47 1 0 2 0 . . . . . . . .
5
S u tter v B r ow n [ 1 9 2 6] A D a t p 1 63 p er In n e s C J T he
. . . .
q
. .
u e st io n w he t he r Hu lton v J on es [ 1 9 1 0 ] A C 2 0 c a n b e r e c o n c ile d . . .
w it h t he la w o f So u t h A fr i ca ( M c K e rr o n , p 1 7 5 ) ha s b e e n r e .
o pe n e d b y Ne w s te ad v L ondon E xpr ess Ne w sp ap er L td [ 1 9 40 ] . .
1 K B 377
. . .
7
M c K e r r o n , p 1 65 . .
1
d a m age ; a n d ( 2 ) t he t ru th of a d e fa m a t or y sta te m e n t is
n o t ( it see m s) p er se a d e fe n c e in a n a c t io n for d e fa m a t io n .
2
The p r in cip a l de fe n ce s t o an a ct io n fo r de fam a tio n are

t he sa m e a s in E n gli sh L a w ; vi z Ju stific a t io n P r ivil e g e }
5
.
,
a n d F a ir
5
Co m m e n t B u t t he re ar e di ffe re n c e s of de ta il . .
1 Ju s t i fi c a t i o n I t is g e n e r a lly h e ld t h a t t ru t h in
. .
i tse lf is n o t a j u stifi ca tion I t m u st b e shown t h a t t he .
5
p u bli ca t io n of t he tr u t h w a s fo r t he p u blic b e n e fit The .
la w of S ou t h Afr i ca m a y p e r h a p s b e t a k e n t o b e se tt le d
7
in t his se n se t ho u gh i t ha s b e e n sa id t h a t te ch nic a lly
‘
”
,
“
i t i s st i ll a n op e n qu e st io n wh e t h e r p u blic b e n e fit is a
5
B u t t he
’
n e c e ssa r y p a r t of a d e fe n c e of ju st ifi ca t i o n .
t ru t h of a d e fa m a t or y st a te m e n t m a y b e ple a d e d in m it i
ga tio n of d a m a ge s
5
I n Ce ylo n t he qu e stion see m s t o .
b e n o t m e r e ly te ch n i c a lly O p e n fo r in a c ase a pp e a le d t o
‘ ’
,
t he Pri vy Co u n cil L or d Aln e ss sp e a kin g fo r t he B o a r d , ,
The e xi st in g law wou ld a pp e ar fr om t he ar g u m e n t

‘
sa id ,
which t he ir L o r dship s h e a r d t o b e far fr o m cle ar a n d o n it

1°
t h e ir Lor d ship s o ffe r n o O p in io n
’
.
2 Pr i vil e g e
. The o nl y c ase of a b sol u te p r ivile g e ce r
.
t a inl y a d m i t te d by t he la w of So u t h Afr i c a i s t he st a tu t or y
pr o te ct io n e x te n de d t o sp e e ch e s in P ar li am e n t a n d t o
p a p e r s p u b lishe d by au t hor ity of P ar lia me n t a n d its co m
11
m i t te e s Oth e r c ase s ar e c a se s Of qu a lifie d p r ivil e ge i e
.
, . .
1
4 Maas dor p , p 1 3 6 ( Ce y lo n ) Wi ckr e m a n a ya ke . The Ti m es V .
of C e y lo n ( 1 9 3 7 ) 3 9 N L R Mc K e rr o n , p 1 6 5
2
5 47 . . . . . .
5
J ohn s on V
R a nd D a i ly M a i ls [ 1 9 2 8] A D 1 9 0
. . . .
2
D e Waa l v Z i er voge l [ 1 9 3 8] A D 1 1 2
. . . .
5
M o olma n V
Cu ll [ 1 9 39 ] A D 2 1 3
. . . .
5
G r 3 3 6 2 ; V o e t , 47 1 0 9 S e cu s , V d K 80 3 ( L e e , C om m en
. . . . . . . .
K
.
ta r y , p 3 42 ) a n d se e
. o t z e, Va n L e e u w e n , v o l 2 , p 2 9 6 . . .
7
B o tha v B r i n k [ 1 87 8] B u c h a t p 1 2 3 Ce y l o n la w i s t he sa m e
. . . .
Che lli a h V F e rn a n do ( 1 9 3 7 ) 3 9 N L R 1 3 0
-
. . . . .
5
T o er i e n v D u n ca n [ 1 9 3 2 ] O P D a t p 1 45 p er de V illie r s P . . . . J . .
V
.
2
L ei bengu th Va n S tr a a te n [ 1 9 1 0 ] T P D 1 2 0 3 ; Wi llou ghby v
. . . . .
M c Wa de 66 .
S aba p a thi v Hu n tle y ( 1 9 3 7 ) 39 Ce y lo n N L R 3 9 6

1°
. . . .
11
P o w e r s a n d Pr iv ile ge s o f P a r lia m e n t A c t , 1 9 1 1 , se cs 2 , 8, 2 9 . .
The r e m a y b e o the r c as e s If t he du t y to c o m m u n ica t e a t hir d

‘
.
s s t a t e m e n t t o a n o t h e r i s a b s o lu t e , t he n i t se e m s t o m e , t he
’
p a r t y
pr iv ile ge m u st b e a b s o lu t e S a ther v Orr [ 1 9 3 8] A D a t p 43 9
’
. . . . .
p er S t r a t fo r d C J . .
Ot h e r de fe n ce s h ar dl y if a t a ll di st in gu ish a ble fr o m , ,
1
r i x a are r e t o r s io n o r se lf de fe n ce a n d co m pe n sa t io n -
, ,
whi ch re st s u pon t he p r in ciple of tit for t a t — p a r i a de

’
‘
2
li ota m u tu a co m pe nsa tion e t o llu n t u r B u t t he e sse n ce .
of t he t hi ng is t h a t wor ds spoke n in a n ge r are n o t t a ke n

se r io u sly by im p ar t i a l h e a r e r s a n y m o r e t h a n wor d s
5
spoke n in j e st .
Pu bli ca The qu e sti on has b e e n r a ise d wh e t h e r p u blic a t ion is

t ion t he
n e ce ssa r y t o gr o u n d a n a c t io n for d e fa m a tio n a n d ha s b e e n
esse n ce o f
de f m a
a a nsw e r e d a ff i r m a t ive ly 2
B u t t he qu e st ion r e st s u pon a
.
t io n
m is co n ce p tio n D e fa m at i o n is an in j ur y t o r e p u t a t io n
.
.
,
whi ch n e ce ssa r ily im plie s p u bli ca tion I m ay a lso h a ve a n .
a c t io n for i n j ur y t o m y fee lin g s b u t t h a t is a n o t h e r m a t te r ,
t o b e con sid e r e d b e low .
The la w o f Fr om wh a t ha s b e e n sa id it will be a pp ar e n t t ha t if t he
de fa m a
fo u n d a t io n of t he S o u t h Afri c a n law of d e fa m a t io n i s t o b e
t i on
lar ge ly so u gh t in t he R o m a n D u t c h L a w t he su p e r st ru c t u r e c o n
-
,
E n gli sh
in si st s in v e r y l ar g e m e asu r e of m a te r i a l t a k e n fr o m t he L aw
c har a c t e r 5
.
of E n glan d .
Ma li ci o u s pr o se cu t io n is a ki n t o de fa m a t io n a n d sho u ld
b e gov e rn e d by t he s am e r u l e s In H oll a n d p r iv a te p r o se .
ou t io n s for cr i m e w e r e in fr e qu e n t a n d t he book s sp e a k o n ,
t his t opic wit h u n ce r t a in voi ce The w r i te r s of t he se ve n .
te e n t h c e n t ur y giv e so m e in dic a t io n s t h a t a ny p r o se cu t o r
who fa ile d to se cu re a con vi ct io n e xpo se d hi m se lf to a n
a c t i o n for d a m a g e s I n t he e igh t e e n t h ce n t ur y it se e m s
.
pr ob a ble th at he w oul d n o t h a ve b e e n li a ble in t he a b se n ce

of a ffir m a t ive pr oof of in j u r i o u s in te n t H ow e ve r t his m a y .
b e t he qu e st io n i s m e r e ly of hi st or i c a l i n t e r e st for t he
, ,
m ode r n R o m a n D u t ch L a w has a dop te d t he E n gli sh la w

-
1
Wi lki ns on v . T r e ve tt [ 1 9 2 2 ] C P D 39 3 ; Ti e tz e v
. . . . Wos chn i tzo k
[ 1 92 9] S W A 39
. . . .
2
H a ll C ons. 81 L ac hter v G las e r [ 1 9 1 4] T P D 46 1 ; H a rr is
. v . . . . .
v A
. C Whi te C o L td [ 1 9 2 6] O P D 1 0 4
. . . . . . . .
5
Mc K e r r o n , p 1 9 8 . .
2
Ha ll v Zi etsm a n ( 1 89 9 ) 1 6 S C 2 1 3 ; Va n Vlie t s Co llecti on
.
’
. .
A gen c y v S chr eu de r [ 1 9 3 9 ] T P D 2 65
. . . . .
5
S o m e m o r e c ase s r e la t in g t o spe c ia l aspe c t s o f t he la w o f
de fa m a t io n a r e c o lle c t e d in a n A ppe n dix t o t his c ha pt e r .
OB LIGATI ONS ARISING F R OM DELICT 33 5
of m a liciou s p r o se cu t i on whi ch r e qu ir e s t he pl ain t iff t o ,
e st a blish n o t m e r e ly t he e l e m e n t of m a li c io u s in te n t i o n b u t
a lso t he a b se n ce of r e as o n a ble cau se

1
The sa m e p ri n ciple s .
a pply t o o t h e r a b u se s of l e g a l p r o ce ss su c h as m a li cio u sly

2
in stit u t in g c ivil p r oce e din g s .
In H oll a n d a n d Ge r m a n y a ct io ns fo r in j ur y we r e b r o u gh t
ve r y fr e qu e n t ly a n d u pon t he slighte st o cca sio n B y his .
st a t e m e n t of cl a im t he pl a in t iff a ske d fo r a m e n de ho n or a
‘
5
b e l a n d a m e n d e pr o fit a b e l The fir st w a s a n a pology A m e n de
’ ‘ ’
.
fr o m the de fe n d a n t The se con d c o ns i ste d in a su m of 2 3323

1 1 1
.
1 1
m on e y t o b e p a id t o t he pl a in tiff or a ppli e d t o t he u se of ta be l .
t he poor I n t he m ode r n la w t he a m e n de ho n or a b e l i s n o
.
lo n ge r in u se ; t he a ctio n for d a m a ge s r e m a in s .
The a ct i on for de fa m a t io n i s o nl y o n e a spe ct of t he a cti o Afi r ont

'
in ju r i a r u m wh i ch la y a ls o for a n o u tr a ge u po n a p e r so n s
’
di gni ty T hi s is in j u ri a in t he sp e c ifi c se n se of c o n tu m e li a
.
( D u t ch hoon )
2
T h e g i st of t h e a c t i o n i s t
. h e a flr o n t I n .
t he m ode r n la w t he a ct io n for d e fa m a t io n has p u sh e d t he

a cti o n fo r a ffr o n t in t o t he b a c kgr o u n d o r o u t of sight Bu t .
5 5
it u n qu e st io n a bly e xists a s i n S c o t s L a w t ho u gh i t i s ,
n o t a n a c ti o n w hi c h o n e w o ul d w i sh t o see e n co ur a g ed .
I n t he R om a n L a w a n in j ur y to wife c h ild o r se r v a n t Inj ur i e s , ,
w as c o nst ru e d as a n in j u r y t o t he hu sb a n d p a re n t o r child a w , , .
,
m a ste r 7
Th e r e ar e Sou t h Afri ca n ca se s in w h i ch a n in su lt
.
t o or de fa m a ti o n of a wife ha s b e e n h e ld t o give t he
, ,
5
h u sb a n d a ca u se of a ct io n .
1
C or e a V
P e i r i s [ 1 9 0 9 ] A C 5 49 ; M c K e r r o n , p 2 46
. .
V
. . .
2
B os hofi v Va n Z yl [ 1 9 3 8] C P D 41 5 ; Co le s E s t
'
’
. O li ve r
V
. . . . .
[ 1 9 3 8] C P D 46 4; ( Ce y lo n ) C o or a y
. . .F er na ndo ( 1 9 41 ) 42 N L R . . . .
329 .
5
G r 3 3 5 2 ; 3 3 6 3 ; V o e t , 47 1 0 1 7 ; V d L 1 1 6 4
. . . . . . . . . . . . .
2
G r o t iu s di s t in gu ishe s hoon an d la s te ri n g ( G r 3 3 5 a n d . .
V a n L e e u w e n ( 4 3 7 1 ) do e s n o t . .
5
Whi tti ngton v B ow les [ 1 9 3 4] B D L 1 42 ; M u lo ck B en tley v . . . .
-
.
Cu r to ys [ 1 9 3 5 ] O B B 8; Wa lker v Va n Wez e l [ 1 9 40 ] W L D 6 6 . . .
V
. . . . .
5
M a c ka y llc a n ki e , 1 883 , 1 0 R 5 3 7 . . .
7
In st 4 4 2 ; a n d se e G r 3 3 5 6 a n d V o e t , 47 1 0 6
. . .
V V
. . . . . .
5
B a n ks A yr es ( 1 888) 9 N L R 3 4; Ja cobs
. M acdon a ld
V
. . . .
[ 1 90 9 ] T S 442 In t he Ce y lo n c as e o f A ppu ha m i
. . . K i r i ha m i .
( 1 89 5 ) 1 N L R 83 i t w as sa id t ha t a fa t he r is n o t e n t it le d to su e
. . .
fo r w o r ds de fa m a t o r y o f his d a u ght e r , a lt ho u gh he m a y ha v e fe lt
pa in e d a n d di s t re sse d Se e a l so M i lle r v A br a ha ms [ 1 9 l 8] C P D 5 0 . . . . . .
4 . Wr o n g s a ga in s t t he do m e s t i c r e l at i o n s . An
a ct ion fo r d a m a ge s li e s a g a inst a n a d ul te r e r whi ch is ,
u su a ll y b u t n o t n e ce ssa r i ly co m bin e d w i t h t he a c t io n fo r
, ,
1
divor ce a g a in st t he gu ilt y spou se b u t n o a ct io n for ,
d a m a ge s li e s a ga in st a gu ilt y wife or h u sb a n d I n t he 2
.
a c t io n a g a in st t he a d u l te r e r t he h u sb a n d m a y c l a im n o t
o nl y se n t im e n t a l b u t a lso p a tr im o ni a l d a m a g e s ; t he fir st
, ,
o n t he gr o u n d of t he in j u r y o r con tu m eli a infli c te d u po n

‘ ’
hi m t he se co n d o n t he gr ou n d of t he lo ss of t he comfo rt
‘
, ,
’
s o c i e t y a n d se r vi c e s of his wife If he c o n do n e s his wife s ’
.
,
a d u l te r y a n d c o n t in u e s t o liv e wi t h he r t he se co n d gr o u n d ,
of d am a ge fa lls a wa y bu t n o t n e ce ssar ily t he fir st The , .
m e asu re of d a m a ge s ( if a n y ) r e cove r a ble u n de r t hi s h e ad

de p e n ds u pon t he cir cu m st a n ce s Wh e th e r a n in j u re d wife
5
.
ca n m a in t a in a n a ct io n fo r d a m a g e s a g a inst a fe m a le co re -
spo n de n t re m a in s u n ce r t a in
1
The d e cision s a re co n fli ct ing
‘
. .
Ap ar t fr om a du lte r y a h u sb a n d has a n a ct ion a g a in st o n e

who in b a d fa i t h de p r ive s hi m of t he c o ns or t i u m of hi s wife
( a bd u c t io n — h ar bo ur in g )
5
Wh e t h e r a wif e ha s a n a ct io n .
for t he lo ss of t he s ocie ty of he r h u sb an d m u st be re g ar de d
5
as a n O p e n qu e st io n A fat h e r ( sem ble ) ha s a n a c tio n
.
a g a in st o n e w ho in b a d fa i t h t a ke s fr o m hi m hi s chi ld
7
.
5 B r e a c h o f a S t a tu t o r y o r C o m m o n L a w D u t y In
. .
e i t h e r c as e t he p e rs o n c o m m i tt i n g t he de li ct i s li a bl e to
a n a ct io n a t t he su i t of a n y o n e of t he p u bli c who ha s
sus t a in e d sp e ci a l d a m a g e in c o n se qu e n ce
5
Thu s it is the .
d u t y of a g a ole r to kee p sa fe ly e ve r y p r is on e r l a wfu lly

c o nfi n e d If he ill e g all y a llow s hi s p ri son e r t o e sca pe he is
.
G r 3 3 5 9 ; Nor ton
1
. S p oon er ( 1 85 4) 9 MO O P C C 1 03 ;
. V . . . . .
K
.
S u tc lifie v S u tc lifi e [ 1 9 1 3 ] T P D 6 86 ; Vi vi er s v i lia n [ 1 9 2 7 ]

'
‘
. . . . .
2
A D 449
. . . E x p a rte A B [ 1 9 1 0 ] T S 1 33 2 . . . . .
5
Vi vie r s v i lia n , u bi su p . K 2
Mc K e r r o n , p 1 6 1 . . .
5
Un i on G ovt . V
Wa rn e ke [ 1 9 1 1 ] A D a t p 6 6 7 ; ( Ce y lon ) D e
. . . .
S ilva V
D e S ilva ( 1 9 2 5 ) 2 7 N L R 2 89
. . . . .
5
Mc K e r r o n , p 1 6 4; r e c e n t ly de c ide d a f r m a t iv e ly b y B lac k
. fi
w e ll J in Ros en ba u m
. V
M a r go lis , 1 9 44 ( 1 ) P H , B 33 . . . .
7
Th e t he ft o f a fil iu s o r o f a sla v e c o n st it u t e d t he c r im e o f
pla giu m w hi ch w as s e v e r e ly pu n ishe d V oe t , 48 1 5 Th e r e is a . . .
st rang e w a n t o f a u th o r i t y fo r a c iv il a c t io n .
5
B ege ma n n V
Ci r ota [ 1 9 2 3 ] T P D 2 7 0 ( ac t io n b y sho pke e pe r
. . . . .
a ga in s t ha w ke r fo r il le ga l t r a din g in b re ac h o f s t a t u t e ) .
un de r st ood n o t c on tu m e li a b u t wr o n gfu l i n t e n t io n as in , ,
t he a c tio l e gis A qu ili ae 1

L ike t he a ct ion for m ali cio u s .
p r o se cu ti o n it is a n i m por t a t i o n fr o m E n gli sh L aw It is .
n o t a n a ct io i n ju i i ar u m
2
.
”
It ha s b ee n sa id a bove t h a t a m a n i s li a ble fo r in te n d e d
wr o n gs a n d for n e gli ge n ce w hi ch cau se s d a m a ge Are
, .
t h e r e a lso ca se s in whi ch his li a bili t y m u st b e st a te d hi gh e r ,
vi z a s a n a b s ol u te d u t y n o t to cau se in j ur y e v e n i n cir
.
cu m st a n ce s w hi ch e x cl u d e dol u s a n d cul p a ? A m a n s li a
’
b ili t y for m i schi e f do n e by hi s a nim a ls is of t hi s ch ar a ct e r .
If m y dog bite s y o u y o u m ay ob t a in d a m a ge s wi t ho u t ,
5
p r oof of sci en ter o r of n e glige n ce I t is dou b t ful wh e t h e r .
4
t h er e is a n y o t h er c a se of a b s olu t e li a bili t y Th e r e a r e .
ca se s in whi c h t he d u t y of t a ki n g c a r e i s v e r y hi gh a n d t he
li a bili ty fo r c ar e le ssn e ss pr oport i on a te ly gr e a t B u t t h e se .
fa ll u n d e r t he h e a d of n e glige n ce a n d c on for m a s a r u l e
5
t o En gli sh L a w .
1
A E i cha r dt L td
G . . The F r i e nd New sp a p e r s L td [ 1 9 1 6 ] . V . .
A D 1 ; Va n Z yl
. . V
Afr i ca n T he a tr es L td [ 1 9 3 1 ] C P D 6 1 . . . . . .
2
B r ode ll V
P i e n a a r [ 1 9 2 4] C P D 2 0 3
. . . . .
5
O Ca lla gha n N O v Cha p li n [ 1 9 2 7 ] A D 3 1 0 ; S A l
’
.
ys . . . . . . .
a nd Ha r bou r s v E dw a r ds [ 1 9 30 ] A D 3 ; Gr eydt Ridge wa y v

. . .
-
.
H opp er t T P D ( 1 9 3 0 ) 1 5 P E J 1 4; M ehn e r t
. . . M or r i s on [ 1 9 3 5 ] . . . V .
T P D 1 44 ; S m i th v de S m idt [ 1 9 3 7 ] T P D 8; B r ow n v L a i ng
. . . . . . . .
[ 1 9 40 ] E D L 7 5 ; B a tcho o v Cr ick [ 1 9 41 ] N P D 1 9 ( n oxa cap u t

. . . . . . .
s equ i tu r u n kn o w n t o t h e m o de r n l a w ) F o r t he R o m a n L a w se e L w, .
E le me n ts of R om a n L a w , se c 6 2 6 No te t ha t in M ow br a y S yfr e t . . V .
[ 1 9 3 5 ] A D 1 9 9 t h e c au se o f a c t io n w a s n e gli ge n ce , n o t pa u pe r ie s
. . .
Th e a c ti o de p as tu p e cor u m ( V o e t , 9 l 1 ) m a y h a v e im pli e d
2
. .
c u l pa I n a n y ca se i t ha s b e e n su pe r se de d in S o u t h A fr i c a b y t he
K V K
.
P o u n ds A c t s M c K e rr o n , p 2 43 ; . ock le i n [ 1 9 3 3 ] C P D 1 9 4 . . . . . .
The Ju di c ia l Co m m i tt e e can sc ar c e ly b e su ppo se d t o ha v e in c o r

po r a t e d t he r u l e in Ry la nds F le tcher in t o t he la w o f S o u t h Afr ic a V .
b y E as te r n ck S A T e legr ap h C o L td v C ap e T ow n T r a m w a ys
. . . . .
C o L td [ 1 9 0 2 ] A C 3 81 . Se e n i on G o vt S ykes [ 1 9 1 3 ] A D
. . . U . V . . .
V
.
a t pp 1 6 1 , 1 6 9 . In B i n gha m J o ha n n es bu r g Ci ty Cou nci l [ 1 9 3 4]

. .
T P D 3 0 1 S o l o m o n J r e ga r de d R yla nd s v F le tc her as a c a se o f
. . . . .
n u is a n ce B u t n u isa n c e a n d Ryla n ds v F le tcher a r e di s t in gui s h .
fi
.
a b le S a lm o n d , p 6 0 2 ; Win e ld , T or ts
.
p 5 3 8 The r ul e in
. . .
Ry la nds v F le tcher has b e e n h e ld to b e in fo r c e in Ce y lo n S u ba ida

. .
U mm a v Wa do od ( 1 9 2 7 ) 2 9 N L R 3 3 0
. . . . .
5
Na t a l A c t , No 3 o f 1 9 0 5 , in t he c ase o f a n a c t io n fo r da m a ge s
.
su st a in e d fr o m fir e o c c as i o n e d b y a r a il w a y e n gin e , t hr o w s u po n
t he de fe n da n t t he o n u s o f d ispr o v in g n e glige n ce F o r t h e ge n e ra l .
l a w as t o da m a ge b y fir e se e G r 3 3 8 2 a n d L e e , Com/men ta r y, . . .
OB LIGATI ON S ARI SING F R OM DELICT 339
Who are p e r so n is a n swe r a ble fo r W

li able for deli cts ho a r e . An y
a ble for
hi s wr o n gfu l a ct s if he ha d in t e lli g e n ce t o u n de r st a n d t h a t de licts .
he w a s doin g wr o n g Thi s e x cl u de s i n san e p e r s o n s a n d .
1
yo u n g chil dr e n All p e r so n s w ho h a ve in a n y w a y a u t hor.
i z e d i n stig a t e d o r assiste d i n t he c o m m issio n of a wr o n gful

'
, ,
a ct a r e li a bl e
2
Ma ste r s a n d p r in cip a l s ar e a n sw e r a ble for
.
t he wr o n gfu l a ct s of t h e ir se r va n t s o r a ge n t s au t hor iz e d
by t he m or co mm it te d i n t he co u r se of t he ir se r vi ce o r
5
e m ploym e n t Thi s a ppli e s wh e t h e r t he m a st e r o r e m
.
5
ploye r is a n in di vi du a l o r a c or po r a t i on B u t a n e m ploye r .
‘
i s n o t as a ru le li a ble fo r t he d e li ct s of a n i n de p e n d e n t
, ,
5
Ra t ific a tion of t he a ct of a su bor di n a t e i s
’
c o n t r a ct or .
e qu i v a le n t t o a p r ior c o m m a n d
5
Fa t he r s a r e n o t as su ch .
, ,
7
a n sw e r a bl e fo r t he d e lic t s of t h e ir c h ildr e n n or h u sb a n ds ,
8
fo r t he d e lict s of t h e ir w ive s .
ad lo c ; V o e t , 9 2 1 9 2 1 ; M cL a u ghli n
. . .
—
o e n i g [ 1 9 2 8] C P D V K . . . .
1 0 2 ; Va n R een e n V
G le n li ly [ 1 9 3 6 ] C P D 3 1 5 S t r in ge n t pr e ca u
. . . . .
t io ns ar e ca lle d fo r in r e ga r d t o fir e ar m s R oddy Ohls son s -

. V .
’
B r ew er i es L td [ 1 9 0 7 ] T S 1 2 5 . . . .
1
G r 3 3 2 1 9 ; V oe t , 9 2 2 9 ; 47 1 0 1 A s t o t he e ffe c t o f
. . . . . . . .
dr u n ke nn ess se e V o e t , ib id M in or s w ho ha v e r e a c he d y e a rs o f .
d isc r e t io n a r e l ia b le Co lli n e t L es li e ( 1 9 0 7 ) 1 7 C T R 1 1 0
. V . . . . .
2
G r 3 3 2 l l ; M cK en z i e v Va n de r M e rw e [ 1 9 1 7 ] A D 41
. . . . . .
M ou ton v B ec ke t [ 1 9 1 8] A D a t p 1 9 0
. . .
V
. .
5
M ki z e M a rtens [ 1 9 1 4] A D 3 82 ; E s t va n de r B y l v
. . .
U
. .
S w a n ep oe l [ 1 9 2 7 ] A D 1 41 n i on G o vt v H a w ki n s , 1 9 44 ( 2 ) R H
. . . .
J 10
.
2
H ou ldsw or th v Ci ty of G las gow B k ( 1 880 ) 5 A O a t p 3 2 6 . . . . .
p er L o r d S e lb o r n e , w ho a dds t he w o r ds pr o v i de d t ha t t he a c t
‘
do n e is w i t hin t he s co pe o f t he c o r po r a t e po w e r s This r a is e s a
’
.
c o n t r o v e r te d u e st i o n , v iz q
w he t he r a c o r po r a t io n c an b e he ld .
l ia b le for a de l ic t c o mm i t t e d b y o n e o f it s se rv an t s in t he c o u r se
o f a n u n de r t a kin g w h ich is u ltr a vi r es t h e c o r o r a t io n Se e T r a m
p
U
.
w a y Wor ker s n i on v H eadi ng [ 1 9 3 8] A D 47 ; S ou th Afr i ca n .
U
. .
B a za a r s L td v Na ti on a l n i o n of D i s tr i bu ti ve Wo r ke r s [ 1 9 39
. .
]
N P D 7 9 ; M cK e r r o n , p 1 1 6
. . . . .
5
C o lon i a l M u tu a l L ife A ssu r a n ce v M a cdon a ld [ 1 9 3 1 ] A D . . .
41 2 ; D u kes v M a r thi n u s en . 12
V
.
5
Whi tta ker R oos ck B a tem a n [ 1 9 1 2 ] A D a t p 1 1 3
. . . . .
7
G r 3 1 3 4; V o e t , 9 4 1 0 V d K 47 6 B u t n o t e t he a pplic a
. . . . . . . . .
t io n o f t he pr in c iple qu i pr o hib e r e po t e st , t e n e t ur ; P hi l ott v

‘ ’
p
Whi tta l, E ls ton , a nd Cr os by ck Co [ 1 9 0 7 ] E D C a t p 2 0 7 an d
.
. . . . .
a fa t he r m a y b e lia b le if a r e la t io n o f m a st e r a n d se r v a n t e x ist e d
V
.
be t w e e n fa t he r a n d so n A ndr ews L e vy [ 1 9 3 0 ] S R 1 0 1 . . . . .
5
V d K 2 2 5 P r etor i a M u n i cip a li ty v E s te r hu i ze n [ 1 9 2 8] T P D
. . .
. . . .
at p 682 ; ( Ce y lo n ) Or d No 1 8 o f 1 9 2 3, se c 5
. . . .
340 THE LAW OF OBLIGATI ONS
1
E ve r y co de li n qu e n t is li a ble i n soli du m bu t if o n e
-
,
2
m a k e s sa t isfa c tio n t he o t h e rs a r e di sch ar ge d a n d ca n n o t
5
b e ca lle d u po n t o c o n tr ib u te An u n s a t isfi e d j u dgm e n t .
a g a i n st o n e i s n o b ar t o a n a c t i o n a g a in st a n o t h e r .
Who ma y su e In ge n e r a l an y p e r son who is in j ur ed .

,
by a d e li ct m a y m a in t a in a n a ct io n for d a m a ge s b u t i n ,
ca se s of n u i sa n ce w hi ch ca u se i n c o n v e ni e n c e o r dis c o mfo r t
m e r e ly wit ho u t p e cu ni a r y d a m a ge t he o nl y r e m e dy is ,
by w a y of i n t e r di ct Cor por a t io n s m a y su e for wr o n g s

5
.
a g a in st p r op e r t y a n d fo r d e fa m a t o r y s t a te m e n t s whi c h
5
af fe ct t h e m in t h e ir t r a d e b u sin e ss o r p r ope rt y No , , .
a c t io n fo r d e li c t li e s b e t w e e n h u sb a n d a n d w i fe m a rr i e d
i n c o m m u n i t y ; w h e t h e r b e t w e e n spo u se s n o t s o m a rr ie d
7
i s n o t fr ee fr o m do u b t .
In li t ig ati on in sa n e p e r sons a r e r e p r e se n te d by t h e ir
c ur a t or s ; m in or s a n d m a rr i e d wo m e n ( wh e n t he m a r i ta l
powe r is n o t e x clu de d ) ar e r e pr e se nte d or assi ste d by t he ir
5
g u ar di an s o r hu sb a n d s .
An a ct i o n in d e li ct di r e c te d t o p a tr i m o ni a l d a m a g e s
i s a ct ive ly a n d p a ssive ly tr a n sm i ssible t o ( h e ir s o r ) pe r
5
s o n a l r e p r e se n t a t iv e s A n a c t io n dir e cte d t o se n t i m e n t a l .
d a m a ge s is n o t t r a n smi ssibl e a ct ive ly o r p assive ly u n t il ,
1
3 3 2 1 5 ; Na u de a n d D u P les si s
Gr . . . M er ci e r [ 1 9 1 7 ] A D V . . .
at p 3 8 B u t w h e n a pla in t iff in a n a c t io n fo r in u r ia c la im s
. . j
se n t im e n t a l , n o t pa t r im o n ia l , da m a ge s , i t m a y b e t h a t diffe r e n t
da m a ge s w ill b e as se sse d b y t he Co u r t a c c o r di n g t o t he b lam e e

w or t h in e ss o f t he v a r io u s c o de l in u e n t s G r a y v P ou ts m a [ 1 9 1 4] -
q . .
T P D 20 3
. . . .
2
G r 3 3 2 1 5 ; V o e t , 9 2 1 2 ; G r e k v J a n ke low i tz [ 1 9 1 8]
. . . . . .
C P D 1 40 V o e t l im it s his s t a t e m e n t t o a c t io r e i pe rse c u t o r i a
. . . .
a n d t h is se e m s t o a c c o r d w it h m o de r n pr a c t ic e Cf T oer i en v . . .
D u n ca n [ 1 9 3 2 ] O P D a t p 2 0 3 . . . . .
5
V o e t , 9 2 2 0 ( a d fin ) ; G r a y . P ou tsma , u bi su p a t p 2 1 5 ;
. V . . .
Na ud e a nd D u P less i s V
M er cie r [ 1 9 1 7 ] A D 3 2 ; ( Ce y lo n ) Wa hidu . . .
M a r i ka r V
S a hidu M a r i ka r ( 1 9 30 ) 3 2 N L R 1 1 1
. . . . .
2
Na ta l T r a di ng C o I n glis [ 1 9 2 5 ] T P D 7 2 4 . V . . . . .
5
McK e rr o n , p 2 2 1 . .
5
G A E i cha r dt
. . V
The F r i e n d New spa p er s L td [ 1 9 1 6 ] A D a t
. . . .
p . 5 ; H oo ge n do or n v F ou c he [ 1 9 3 3 ] C P D 5 6 0 M c K. e rr o n , p 1 69 . . .
°
. .
7
M a n n v M a n n [ 1 9 1 8] C P D 89 ; Mc K e rr o n , p 9 7
. . . . . .
5
Mc K e r r o n , pp 9 6 , 9 7 ; Ha rm s M a lhe r be [ 1 9 3 5 ] C P D 1 6 7
. V . . . .
( m a r r ie d w o m e n ) .
2
G r 3 32 1 0 ; V oet , 9 2 1 2
. . . . . .
wr o n g o r a cc e p t e d a r i sk wi t h kn owle dge a n d a pp re cia t ion

,
1
of the cir cu m sta n ce s .
M eas u r e of da mages The di st in ct io n b e t we e n se n t i .
m e n t a l a n d p a trim o ni a l d a m age s ha s b e e n e xpl a in e d

a bove Exce p tio n a lly t he da m a ge s a war de d a re e x e m
.
,
pla r y or n o m in a l E x e m pl ar y d a m ag e s ar e s e n t im e n t a l
.
d a m a g e s e n h a n ce d t o p u ni sh t he d e fe n d a n t for pa r ti cu
lar ly in j u r io u s mi sc o n du ct No m in a l d am a g e s are d am a g e s .
a w ar d e d wh e r e a r igh t ha s b e e n in fr i n g ed b u t n o a c t u a l
d a m a ge in cu rr e d The S ou t h Afr i ca n c ou r t s h a ve shown .
a m ar k e d disin c lin a t i o n t o give n o m in a l d a m a ge s e x ce p t
wh e n the pla in tiff s r igh t is ch a lle n g e d by t he d e fe n da nt ’
an d t he a c t io n t ho u gh i n fo r m o n e fo r d a m a g e s i s a ct u
, ,
2
a lly b r o u gh t t o e st a bli sh a r igh t I n a ll c a se s in whi ch .
a c t u a l d a m a g e i s t he gi st of t he a c t i o n i t i s e sse n t i a l t h a t
t he d a m a g e s ( or m ore p re cise ly t he d a m a ge ) shou l d n o t

, ,
5
b e t oo r e m o te i e t h a t t he loss t o t he pl a in t i ff whi ch
, . .
for m s t he b a si s of t he a sse ssm e n t sho u ld b e c onn e cte d n o t

t o o r e m o t e ly wit h t he wr o n gfu l a ct or o m issio n a ll e ge d .
Wh e th e r t he t e st of r e m o t e n e ss is for e se e a bili ty o r di r e ct ‘
2
r e m a in s for t he p re se n t a n O p e n qu e sti o n
’
c o n s e qu e n c e .
We h a ve se e n t h a t in ca se of in j ur y t o t he p e r son
physic a l p ain a n d di sfigu r e m e n t ar e t a ke n i n t o a cco u n t
i n a sse ssin g t he d a m a g e s b u t n o a llow an ce i s m a d e fo r ,
m e n t a l su ffe r in g a n d a n g ui sh u nl e ss i t a ffe ct s t he vic tim s

’
5
h e a lt h Thi s is in su b st a n t i a l c on for m it y wit h E n gli sh L a w
. .
1 ‘
V o le n t i n o n fi t in u r ia D ig 47 1 0 1 , 5 ; V o e t , 47 1 0 2 ; j .
’
. . . . .
Wa r i ng ck Gi llow L td S her bor n e [ 1 9 0 4] T S 3 40 ; Na ti on a l M ea t

. V . . .
S u pp li er s ( P ty ) L td . V
Cap e T ow n Ci ty C ou n ci l [ 1 9 3 8] C P D a t p 5 0 4
. . . . . .
2
E dw a r ds v H yde [ 1 9 0 3] T S a t p 3 87 R i chm on d v Cha dw i ck
. . . . .
[ 1 9 2 7 ] N P D a t p 9 4 ; R a mp er sad
. . . G o ber du n [1 9 2 9 ] N P D 3 2
. V . . . . .
5
V o e t , 9 2 1 6 if I/u yt . M or ga n ( 1 9 1 5 ] B D L 1 42 ; A n de r son
. . V . . . .
v . Va n der M er w e [ 1 92 1 ] C P D 3 42 . . .
2
Tr a n s v P r ovi n ci a l A dm i n is tr a ti on v Co ley [ 1 9 2 5 ] A D a t
. . . .
p 2 6 p er Inn e s C J ; Ven ter

. S m i t [ 1 9 2 7 ] C P D 3 0 ; F os ter v
. . V . . . . .
M oss a nd D e ll [ 1 9 2 7 ] E D L a t p 2 1 7 ; Coe tze e S A l ys . . . . V . . . .
[ 1 9 33 ] C P D a t p 5 7 4 The im pli c a t io n s o f I n r e P o le ni/is [ 1 9 2 1 ]

. . . . .
3 K B 5 6 0 ha v e n o t y e t le ft t he ir m ar k o n t he la w o f S o u t h
. .
Afr ic a Se e t he c a se s la st c it e d a n d Mc K e rr o n , p 1 3 1
. . .
5
Fo r r e c e n t E n glish c as e s see S a lm o n d p 3 44, a n d fo r a n .
in t e r e st in g A u s t r a l ia n c ase , Ches ter v M u n i c C ou nc i l of Wa ver le y, . .
see 5 5 L Q R . .
p 49 5 . . .
OB LIGATI ONS ARI SING F ROM DELI CT 343
Qu a si deli cts Un de r t he tit le of O bliga tio n e s qu asi e x Q i

-
.
1
u as .
5 11 55
de li ct o t he I n st itu te s of Ju st ini a n m e n t i o ns t he foll owin g 5 5
ca se s of li a bili t y : ( l ) t he o ccu p ie r of a ho u se o r r oo m fr o m
whi ch a n yt hin g i s t hr own or pour e d down o n a w a y in

c o m m o n u se so a s t o do d a m a g e t o a p e r s o n p a ssin g o r
2
st a n di n g b e n e a t h ( a cti o de ef f u s i s vel de j ec ti s ) ; ( 2 ) t he
o ccu p ie r of a ho u se who ke e p s s o m e t hin g pla ce d o r su s

p e n de d w h i ch m a y fa ll o n s o m e o n e p a ssin g or st a n di n g
5
o n t he r o a d b e n e a t h ( a cti o p os i ti a u t s u sp ens i ) ; ( 3 ) t he
ke e p er of a ship t a ve r n or st a ble o n who se p r e m ise s a , ,
t h e ft i s c o m m i tte d o r d a m a g e don e by p e r so n s in hi s
e m ploy ( acti o de da m n o i n n a ve a u t ca u p on a a u t s ta bu lo
facta ) The se m a y b e r e ga r de d a s c a se s of a b solu t e ll ahi

2
.
ht y o r ( whi ch c om e s t o t he sa m e thi n g ) a s ca se s in wh i ch
t he la w dr a w s a n ir r e b u t t a ble infe r e n ce of cul p a a n d of
5
c o n se qu e n t li a bili t y .
A ct io n s of thi s cla ss a r e a ct ive ly b u t n o t p a ssive ly , ,
5
t r a n sm i ssible .
L im i ta ti on of A cti on s A cti o n s a r i sin g ou t of d e li ct w e r e Li mit . a
5 2
u su a ll y p r e scr ib e d by t he l a p se of t hir t y ye a r s b u t a c t io ns
7
23 3 3 , 0 .
fo r ve r b a l o r wr it te n i n j u r ie s by t he l a p se of o n e ye a r
fr o m t he t im e w h e n t he in j u r e d p ar ty ha d kn o w le dge of
t he wr o n g The la w a s to lim i t a t i o n of a cti on s n o w
.
1
lib iii , c a p x x x v iii ; V a n L e e u w e n , lib iv , c a p x x x ix
Gr . . . . . .
2
In st 4 5 1 ; D ig 9 3 1 ; 44 7 5 5 ; Tr a nsvaa l a n d Rhodesi a n
. . . . . . . . .
E s ta tes L td v G o ldi ng [ 1 9 1 7 ] A D a t p 2 8; of Co lm a n
. . D u nba r . . . . V .
[ 1 9 3 3 ] A D 1 41 . . .
5
In st lo c c it ; G r 3 3 8 5 ; V d K 81 0 ; a n d see R echts Obs ,
. . . . . . . . . . .
pt 1, n o 9 8 Co n t r a r y t o t he R o m a n L a w , R D L o nl y ga v e
-
. . . . . .
a n a c t i o n in c as e o f a c t u a l in j
2
In st 4 5 3 ; G r 3 3 8 9 ; V d K 81 1 In t he c a se o f in n s t he
. . . . . . . . . .
lia b ili t y e x t e n de d t o t he a c t s o f pe r m a n e n t r e s ide n t s D ig 47 . .
5 l , 6 F o r a ll pr a c t ic a l pu r p o se s t he gr ou n d is c o v e r e d b y t he
. .
c o n t r a c t u a l li a b ili t y m e n t io n e d a b o v e , p 3 1 9 D cn ge s , The I/ia

—
. .
bi li ty for safe ca rr i a ge of G o ods i n R om a n D u tch L a w , pp 2 5 6 , -

.
c o n sid e r s t h e difl e r e n ce s b e t w e e n t h e t w o a c t io n s .
5
B u cklan d , T e x tbook, p 5 9 8, n 2 2 A n o t he r c a se o f u asi . . . q
de lic t w as s i u de x lit e m su a m fe c e r it
‘
j I n st 4 5 pr The su b e c t . . . j
j
o f u di c ia l lia b il it y in t h e m o de r n l a w h a s b ee n t o u c h e d o n a b o v e .
5
In st 4 5 3 . . .
7
G r 3 35 3 ( an d G r o e n ad
. . . 3 3 6 4 ; V o e t , 47 1 0 1 7 . . . .
K
.
( a d fin ) a n d 2 1 V a n L e e u w e n , 4 3 7 3 , a n d o t z e s n o t e ; B eu kes
’
. .
v . C o e tzee ( 1 883 ) 1 S A R 7 1 . . . .
d e p e n ds for t he m o st p a r t u po n st a t u t e By t he ( Unio n ) .
Pr e scr ip t ion A ct 1 9 43 a ct i on s for de fa m a t ion a r e pr e, ,
s cr i b e d by a p e r iod of o n e ye ar a n d a c t io n s fo r d a m a ge s ,
o t he r t h an t ho se for whi ch a n ot he r p e r iod is l a id down

1
i n t he A ct by a p e r iod of t hr e e y e ar s .
A PP END IX
A D D ITIO NA L CA S E S O N T HE L A W O F D E FA MA T I O N
M cL ea n v M u r r a y [ 1 9 2 3 ] A D 406 ( com m u ni ca
P r i vi lege . . . .
t i on of To w n Cou n cill or t o Cou n cil ) ; Ki ng v Nea le [ 1 93 6] .
E D L 2 3 6 ( Tow n C ou n cillor ) Va n L eggelo v A rgu s P r i n ti ng

. . . .
Co [ 1 935 ] T P D 2 30 ( n e w sp ape r r e por t of j u di cia l pr o ce e d

. . . .
in gs) ; Hca rson v Na ta l Wi tnes s L td [ 1 935 ] N P D 60 3 ( r e p o rt

. . . . .
of spe e che s in Pa r lia m e nt ) ; M olepo v A chter berg [ 1 9 43 ] A D . .
85 ( co m m o n in t er e st ) .
A bu se of p r i vilege M iddler v Ha m i lton [ 1 9 2 3 ] T P D 441 . . . . .
Rose v B r ew er [ 1 933 ] C P D 49 Fi nn v Jou ber t [ 1 9 40 ] C P D

. . . . . . . .
1 30
Ju stifica ti on —p u bli c i nteres t
.
-
. L yon v . S teyn [ 1 9 3 1 ] TPD . . .
247 B a yer v . B a yer [ 1 9 37 ] S . WA . . 73 .
Ri xa . Con wa y v Westwood [ 1 93 6] N P D
. . . . 245 .
Reto rsi on Read v P yp er [ 1 9 35 ] S W A 1 6

. . . . . .
A ssessmen t ofda mages S a lzma n n v Holmes [ 1 9 1 4] A D 47 1 . . . . .
M i tiga ti on of da ma ges Cr essey v Afr i ca n L ife A ssu r a n ce . .
S oc L td [ 1 9 17 ] A D 60 5 ; Na than a n d S chl osb e r g L a w of

. . . .
,
Da ma ges p 1 5 5 ,
. .
The pr ovinces of judge a nd ju r y ( or of ju dge deci di ng i ssu es

of fact) Ri chter v M a ck [1 9 1 7 ] A D 20 1 M i dde lla ndsche
. . . .
Na ti on a le P ers v S ta hl [ 1 9 1 7 ] A D 6 30 . . . .
Words defa ma tor y per se Holdt V M eisel [ 1 92 7 ] S W A 45 ; . . . . .
G lass v P er l [ 1 9 2 8] T P D 2 64 ; Ya tes v M acRae [ 1 9 2 9 ] T P D

. . . . . . . .
480 He lps V Na ta l Wi tness L td [ 1 937 ] A D 45 ; B r ill v

. . . . . .
M a de ley [ 1 9 37 ] T P D 1 06 ; S mi th v E lmor e [ 1 9 3 8] T P D 1 8;
. . . . . . .
Whi tlock v S mi th [ 1 9 43] C P D 32 1 ( you a r e a li ar ) M cosa v

. . . .
‘ ’
.
Du m a 1 944 ( 1 ) P H J 4
, . .
, .
Wor ds n ot defa ma tor y pe r se Richter v M ack u bi sup ; . .

, .
Ha r da ker v Tja br i ng [ 1 9 2 7 ] N P D . . . . 1 45 ; Wa llach s ’

L td . v .
1
Se c 3 .
PA RT III
OB LIGATI ON S ARI SIN G FR OM SOUR CE S OT H E R
T H AN C ONT RACT AN D D E L ICT
WE h a ve spoke n of oblig a ti on s i i g fr o m c on tr a ct a n d ar s n
of oblig a t io n s a r i sin g fr o m de li ct It r e m a ins t o r e fe r t o a .
r e sid u ar y gr o u p of oblig a t i o n s whi c h i t is cu st o m ar y t o
de s cr ib e a s qu a si c o n t r a ctu a l Thi s e m b r a ce s a v ar ie t y of -
.
c a se s in whi ch t he la w in or de r t o se cu r e fa ir d e a lin g ,
b e twe e n p e r so n s who ar e b r ou ght in t o r e l a tion wi t h o n e

a n o t h e r m a k e s o n e t he cr e di t o r of t he o t h e r in r e sp e ct of
a spe cifi c a ct o r fo r b e ar a n ce t h e re by cr e a t in g a vi n cu lu m
,
e m
,
W
,
r is b e t w e e n t h e m
j u u st n o t p e r h a p s e x te n d t he .
, ,
’
phr a se qu a si co n tr a ct u a l obliga ti o n so a s t o in clu de t ie s
-
a r isin g o u t of t he do m e st i c r e l a t io n s su c h as t ho se e xist in g ,
b e t we e n hu sb a n d a n d wife o r p ar e n t an d child so far a s ,
t h e y a r e c a p a ble of l e g a l e n for ce m e n t
1
B u t a p ar t fro m .
t h e se t h e r e ar e m an y r e l a t i o n s b e t we e n p e r so ns whi ch give
r i se t o oblig a t i o n s cr e a t e d n o t by a gr e e m e n t o r by wr on g
b u t by op e r a t io n of law Th u s wh e r e o n e p e r so n ha s b e e n .
,
in e qu it ably e nr i ch e d a t t he e xp e n se of a n ot h e r t he la w
im po se s a d u t y of m akin g co m p e n sa tio n Na m hoc n a tu r a .
ae qu u m e st n e m in e m cu m a l t e r i u s d e t r im e n t o fi e r i lo cu
2
le t i o r e m I n a cc o r d a n c e wit h t hi s p r in ci pl e e n r i chm e n t
p .
wi tho u t cau se o r fr o m a n u n j u st c a u se c o nst i t u te s a fr e , ,
qu e n t s o u r c e of qu a si con tr a ctu a l obli ga t i o n Th u s wh e r e -

.
,
m o n e y ha s b e e n p a id u n de r r e as o n a ble e rr o r of fa ct t o a
5
pe r so n n o t e n t it l e d o r u n de r p r o te st a s a m e a n s of ,
ob t a in in g po sse ssi o n of p r op e r t y o r t he r e cogni ti o n of a

1
S e e S o h m s I ns ti tu tes of R om a n L a w t r a n sla te d b y J C L e dl ie
’
3 r d c d p 30 8 n 1 a n d pp 3 5 8—
, . .
,
.
, . 9 , .
, . .
2
D ig 12 Va n R en s bu r g v S tr a u gha n
6 47 ;
’
. . . 1 4; su p r a , p . .
[ 1 9 1 4] A D a t p 3 2 9 ; U r te l v J ac o bs [ 1 9 2 0 ] C P D a t p 49 3 ;
. . . . . . . .
P r e tor i u s v Va n Z yl [ 1 9 2 7 ] O P D 2 2 6 ; G orfin ke l v M i lle r [ 1 9 3 1 ]

. . . . .
C P D 2 5 1 S e e The D octr i n e of Unju s tifi ed E n r ichm e n t, G u tt e r idge

. . . .
a n d D a v id , Ca m b r idge L a w J o u r n a l , 1 9 3 4, p 2 0 4 ; U nj u s tifie d E n .
r i chm e n t , M r Ju s t ic e A J Mc G r e go r , 5 5 .
( 1 9 3 8) pp 4, 1 6 7 . . . .
5
I n st 3 2 7 6 ; G r 3 3 0 4 ; V o e t , lib x ii , t it 6 ;
. . . n i on G o vt v . . . . . U . . .
Na t B a n k of S A [ 1 9 2 1 ] A D 1 2 1 ; 3 Maa s do rp, cha p 3 4

. . . . . . .
OB LIGATI ONS A RISING FR OM OTHE R S OURCE S 347
1
ri ght ( i ndebi ti solu ti o ) a n a ct io n ( condi cti o i n debi ti ) li e s ,
fo r i t s r e c ove r y a n d t h e r e ar e m an y o t h e r c a se s w hi ch ca n , ,
2
b e r e fe rr e d t o t he sa m e g e n e r a l h e a d An o t he r ca se in .
w h i ch a n oblig a t i o n i s sa i d t o a r i se qu a s i ex con tr ac tu i s
n e go t i or u m g e st i o
5
whi ch o ccu rs wh e n a p e r so n wit hou t , .
pr e vio u s m a n d a te ha s m an a ge d a n ot h e r s a ffa ir s o r ’
r e n d e r e d him so m e o t h e r se r vi ce n o t m e r e ly a s a n a ct of ,
kin dn e ss b u t in cir cu m st a n ce s a pt t o cr e a t e a le g a l r e l a
,
2
t ion I n su c h c a se t he volu n t e e r (n e go t i o r u m g e st or ) i s
.
bo u n d : ( a ) t o m a n a ge the a ffa ir s of his p r in cip a l w it h

5
e x a ct a di lig e n t i a a n d ( b) t o r e n d e r a cc o u n t of his a dm i n is ,
t r a t io n ; t he p r in cip a l ( do m in u s n e go ti or u m — do m in u s r e i
ge st ae ) is bo u n d t o in de m n ify t he a ge n t in r e sp e ct of e x
p e n se s a n d li a bili tie s u se fu lly i n cu rr e d Ot h e r ca se s of .
qu a si co n tr a ctu a l oblig a tio n a r e su ch a s e x ist b e t w e e n

-
co ow n e r s c oh e ir s h e ir a n d l e g a t ee e x e cu t o r a n d l e g a t e e
-
, , , ,
g u a r di a n a n d w ar d fidu ci a r y a n d fi de i co m m issar y a n d t he ,
d u t y of a su r vivin g spo u se p a r t y t o a m u t u a l will u n de r ,
w h i c h su c h spo u se ha s a cce p t e d a b e n e fi t t o r e c og ni z e a n d ,
give e ffe ct t o t he w ill of t he fir st dyi n g spo u se ha s b e e n -
5
a ssi gn e d t o t he sa m e cl a ss of obli g a t i o n .
1
Un i on
G ovt G ow a r [ 1 9 1 5 ] A D 42 6 ; Wi lke n . V Ho llow a y
. . . V .
[ 1 9 1 5 ] C P D 41 8 . . . .
2
F o r t he a c t io n to r e c o v e r m o n e y pa id u po n a c o n s ide ra t io n
w h ic h h a s fa il e d ( c o n dic t io ca u sa d a t a , c a u s a n o n se cu t a ) , in Sc o t s
L a w , se e C a n ti a r e S a n R o cco S A Clyde S hip bu i ldi n g a n d . . V .
E n gi n ee r i n g C o [ 1 9 2 4] A C 2 2 6 , a n d n o w in E n glis h L a w t h e L a w
. . .
R e fo r m ( Fru st r a t e d Co n t r a c t s ) A c t , 1 9 43 ( 6 7 G e o 6, c . .
5
G r o t l ib 3 , c a p 2 7 ; V o e t , l ib i i i , t it 5 , V d L 1 1 5 1 5 ;
. . . . . . . . . .
B u ckla n d , T ex tbook p 5 3 7 ; 3 M aa sdo r p , c ha p 3 3 ; lu g v . K .
V
.
,
P en ki n [ 1 9 3 2 ] C P D 40 1 ; Wi lli a ms E s t M o le ns choo t [ 1 9 3 9 ]
’
. . .
V
. .
C P D 3 6 0 ; ( Ce y lo n ) T ha nga m m a
. . . P on n a mba la m ( 1 9 43 ) 43 .
N L R 2 65
. . . .
4
D ig 1 0 3 1 4, 1 . . . .
5
In s t 3 2 7 1 B u t V a n L e e u w e n ( C en s F or 1 4 2 6 3 ) t hin ks
. . . . . . . . .
tha t t he d e gr e e o f dilige n t ia w hic h c a n b e de m a n de d o f t he ge st o r

v a r ie s w i t h t h e c ir cu m st a n c e s L a wr i e v n i on G ov t [ 1 9 30 ] . . U .
T P D 40 2
. . . .
5
Ros en ber g v D r y s E x or e { l 9 1 1 ] A D a t p 6 9 5 ; R e cei ver of
’
. . . . .
Reven u e P r e tor i a Ha n c ke [ 1 9 1 5 ] A D a t p 7 4
, V . . . . .
B OOK I V
THE L AW OF SU CCE SSI ON

‘
I N t hi s book p e a k of t he de volu t io n of p r op e r ty
w e sh a ll s
u po n de athu n d er t he t w o t it l e s of t e st a m e n t ar y a n d
,
i n t e st a te su c ce ssio n B u t fir st it will b e c on ve n ie n t t o .
pre fa c e so m e r e m a r k s o n su c ce ssion in g e n e r a l .
I
SU CCE SS I ON IN G E NE R AL
IT is fa m ili a r kn owle dge t h a t a ccor di n g t o t he p r in ciple s ,
of Ro m a n L aw t he he ir wh e t h e r t e sta m e n ta r y o r in
, ,
te st a te u n t il t he t im e of Ju st in i a n w a s a n d u n d e r t h a t
, ,
e m p e r o r s l e gi sl a t io n m igh t b e t he u ni v e r sa l su c c e ssor of
’
,
1
A s su ch he a ssu m e d t he d e a d m a n s r igh t s
’
t he d e ce a se d .
,
a n d li a bili t ie s t he l a t t e r in fu ll a n d w i t ho u t r e fe r e n ce t o
,
t he su ffi ci e n cy of t he a sse t s H e n ce t he phr a se d a m n o sa
‘
.
h e r e di t a s m e a n in g a su cce ssio n wh i ch in volve d m o r e lo ss

t h a n g a in t o t he a cce p t or Fu r t h e r in t he e ar ly la w t he .
, ,
fa m il y h e ir if t he p a t e r fa m ili a s ha d n o t e x clu de d hi m by
-
,
t e st a m e n t c o u ld n o t r e fu se t he inh e r it a n ce whi c h v e ste d

, ,
in him imm e di a t e ly u pon t he d e a t h of his a n ce st o r Fo r .
’
t hi s r e a so n he w a s kn own a s h e r e s su u s e t n e ce ssar iu s
‘
.
His li a bili t y in t hi s r e ga r d w as t he sam e wh e t h e r he w a s ,
in st it u te d h e ir in hi s a n ce st o r s wil l o r le ft t o su c ce e d u pon ’
2
a n in t e st a cy I n t he m a t ur it y of Ro m an L a w how e ve r he
.
, ,
3
m ight a b st a in fr o m t he in h e r it a n ce ( ben efici u m absti n endi ) ,
a n d so a vo i d li a bil i t y B u t if he in t er m e ddl e d wit h t he.
he su st a in e d t he p e r son of t he d e ce a se d a n d
‘ ’
e st a t e , ,
su c c e e de d n o t o nl y t o t he b e n e fi t s of t he in h e r i t a n ce b u t ,
2
a l s o w it ho u t li m i t t o i t s b ur d e n s
, , .
‘
The e x t r a n e u s h e r e s t h a t is a n yo n e who w a s n o t su u s ,
1
D ig 5 0 1 7 6 2 : ( Jul ia n u s ) H e r e dita s n ih il a liu d e st qu a m s u c
. . .
c e ss io in u n i v e r su m ju s u o d de fu n c t u s h a b u e r it q .
2
G ir a r d , p 843 .
5
In st 2 1 9 2 ; D ig 2 9 2 5 7
. . . . . . . .
2
In st 2 1 9 6 ; Co d 6 30 22 , 1 4
. . . . . . .
SUCCE SSI ON IN GENE RAL 35 1
et c
n e e ssar i u s , or igin a lly in a b e tte r po sit ion So
w as, ,
.
s oo n a s t he te st a t or di e d t he in h e r i t a n ce w a s sa id t o b e ,
‘
de l ate d t o t he h e ir bu t he n e e d n o t a cce p t u n le ss he
’ 1
,
ple ase d If he n e it h er a cce p te d n or a cte d as h e ir (pr o

.
her ede ger er e ) b e in cu rr e d n o li a bili t y If he a cce p te d or

,
.
‘ ’
a c te d as h e ir he w a s sa i d t o ,
e n te r u po n t he in h e r i t a n ce
( a di r e h e r edi ta te m ) a n d fr o m t h,
a t m o m e n t w as i n t he po si
t io n of a u ni ve r sa l su c ce ssor I t mi ght h a pp e n t h a t t he .
h e ir h e sit a te d t o e n te r a ppre h e ns ive t h a t t he in h e r it a n ce

,
m igh t p r ove d a m n o sa In su c h ca se t he cr e di t o rs of t he
‘ ’
.
e st a te o r t he h e ir him se lf w o u ld a pply t o t he p r ae t o r t o fix
a p e r i od w i t hin w hi c h he m u st
2
sp a t iu m d e lib e r a n di
‘ ’
a ,
a cce p t if he m e a n t t o do so
,
If a t t he e n d of t he tim e fix e d .
he ha d fa ile d t o a cce p t he w a s t r e a te d by t he p r ae t o r a s,
h a vin g r e fu se d t he in h e r i t a n c e w hi ch w as th e n o ffe r e d o r ,
de l a t e d t o t he p e rso n ( if a ny ) n e x t e n t i t le d Su c h w a s t he Chan ged .
3
1 5 11
la w u n til t he t i m e of Ju st ini a n B u t t h at e m p e r or s le gi s 5 15
9
’
.
l a t ion g a ve t he he ir t he choi ce of a lte rn a tive s ( 1 ) He he ir in

”
5
.
Ju‘ m
m ight e n te r a t o n ce su bj e ct to t he b e n e fi t of in ve n t or y l am
'
m i ii If h did h li bl Systim
( b e n efi ci u n v en ta r ) e s o e w. as a e n o t as ,
u n ive r sa l su c ce ss o r b u t o nl y t o t he e x t e n t of t he asse t s
, .
Thi s w a s a ch a n ge of fa r re a chin g co nse qu e n ce I t w as -

.
‘ ’
,
a s Dr Hu n te r ob se r ve s a bold a n d su cce ssful str oke t o

.
,
‘
c o n v e r t t he h e ir in t o a m e re offi cia l de sign a te d by t he ,
de ce a se d for t he p u r po se of windi n g u p hi s a ffa ir s a n d di s

tr ib u t in g his p r op e r t y The h e ir w a s n o w a m e r e e x e c u t o r
.
,
2 ’
wi t h t he p r ivile g e of b e in g re sid u a r y l e g a t e e ( 2 ) If he did .
n o t c hoo se t o t a k e a dv a n t a ge of t he p r oc e du r e by in v e n
t or y he m igh t a s u n d e r t he old la w cl a im t he sp a t iu m
, , ,
de lib e r a n di In t h a t e ve n t u n de r Ju stin i an s syste m if

.
,
’
,
he did n o t e xp r e ssly r e p u di a t e t he inh e r i t an ce w i t hi n t he

t im e a llo w e d he w a s d e e m e d t o h a v e a cce p te d A n a cce p
, .
t a n ce or r e p u di a t i o n o n ce m a d e w as ir r e vo ca ble e x ce p t by
, ,
1
i e if in st itu t e d im m e dia t e ly a n d u n c o n di t io n a ll y D ig 5 0 1 6
. . .
q q
. . .
1 5 l : D e la t a he r e dit as in t e lle git u r u a m u is po ssit ade u n do co ns e qu i .
2
i e t o giv e t he he ir t he o pt io n o f askin g for it , o r o f a ll o w in g t he
. .
cre dit o r s t o r e a li z e t h e e s t a t e G a iu s 2 1 6 7 ; D ig 2 8 8 5 pr . . . . . . .
5
Ins t 2 1 9 5 a n d 6 ; Co d 6 30 2 2 , 1 4 a ( ge m in i t r a rn it e s )
. . . . . .
'
2
H u n t e r , Roma n L a w ( 3r d p 755 . .
35 2 THE LAW OF SUCCE SSI ON
a m in o r , who m igh t o b t a in fr om t he p r ae t or r es t it u t io in
i n te grum .
The D u t c h L a w follo w e d the Ro m a n L a w wi th m o difica

t io n s Th e r e w a s no n e ce ssar y h e ir an d c o n se qu e n t ly n o
.
1
n e e d t o in vok e t he b e n e fi ciu m a b st in e n di The b e n e fi t of .
i n ve n t or y a n d t he sp a t iu m d e lib e r a n di w e r e r e t a in e d a t ,
2
l e a st in n a m e In t he m od e r n la w of So u t h Afri ca a n d
.
5
Ce ylo n t h e se in stit u t io n s a r e wholl y di su se d .
No d e p ar tm e n t of t he Ro m a n D u t ch L a w i s m o r e -
t ho r o u ghly p e n e tr a te d by t he R o m a n t r a dit io n t h a n t h a t
of te st a m e n t ar y su c ce ssio n The in st it u t io n w a s u nkn own .
2
t o e ar ly Ge r m a ni c L a w The w hole la w of t e st a m e n ts .
,
t h e r e for e i s d e r iv e d fr o m for e ign n a m e ly fr o m R o m a n

, , ,
so u r ce s a n d p r i n cip a lly t hr o u gh t he c h a n n e l of t he C a n o n
,
L aw .A s t o t he in t e st a t e h e ir — t hou gh a s ce r t a in e d i n
a cc o r d a n ce wi t h r u le s of c u st o m a r y n o t of R o m a n o r i gin , ,
— o n ce d e te r m in e d he is in t he sa m e po sit io n as t he h e ir ,
i n st i tu t e d by t e st a m e n t In t he l a te r st a ge s of t he D u t ch .
L a w a s in t he R o m a n L a w bo t h t h e o n e a n d t he o t h e r w e r e
'
, ,
5
u n ive r sa l su cce sso r s of t he d e ce a se d I n a ll co n t in e n t a l .
sys te m s of la w t he h e ir i s st ill a u n iv e r s a l su c ce sso r In .
E n glish L a w t he u n ive r sa l su cce ssor is u n kn own In his .
pla ce w e fin d a n e x e cu t or o r a dm i ni str a t or c h ar g e d wit h

t he d u t y of a pplyi n g t he d e a d m a n s p e rs on a lt y ( n o w his
’
whole e st a t e ) in p a ym e n t of de b t s a n d of m a kin g ove r t he

su r pl u s t o t he p e r so n s e n t i t l e d u n d e r t he will o r u po n
in te st a cy .
The te sta Te st a m e n t ar y e x e c u t ors we r e n o t u n kn own t o the la w of

m e n t a ry
e x e cu to r
H olla n d b u t t he ir fu n ction s we r e c on fin e d within n a r r o w
,
in Ro m an li m i ts Th e y we r e in fa ct a s Va n de r Kee sse l ob se r ve s
.
5
, , ,
Du t c h
L aw ,
‘
p r o cur a t o r s a ppoin te d by t he t e stat o r t o m a n a ge his
fu n e r a l t o r e cove r w h a t is du e t o him t o pa y le g a cie s a n d
, ,
1
G r o e n de kg a br ad In st 2 1 9 2
. . . . . . .
2
Th e A cte va n B er aa d diffe r e d m a t e r ia lly fr o m t he sp a ti u m
de liber a nd i V d L 1 9 9
U
. . . . . . .
5
F i s cher v L iqu ida tor s n io n B k ( 1 89 0 ) 8 S C a t p 5 3
. . . . . .
2
T a c it u s , G er m a n i a , c a p 2 0 ; F o c ke m a A n dr e a e , H e t Ou d .
Nede r la nd s ch B u r ger lijk R ec ht, v o l i i , pp 3 1 3 fi ; G r 2 1 4 2 . . . . . . .
5
G r 2 14 7
'
. . . .
5
V d K 323 ; V d L l 9 1 0
. . . . . . . . .
354 THE LAW OF SUCCE SSI ON
t r a t or ) ppoin t e d by t he Ma ste r of t he Su pr e m e Co ur t }
a
a n d t he h e ir a b i n tes ta to i s in t he sa m e po sit io n as if he ha d
b e e n a ppoin t e d le g a te e by will The Maste r a ls o a ppoin t s .
a n e x e c u t or d a t ive if t he t e st a t o r has o m i tte d t o n o m in a te

,
a n e x e cu t or ( t he a d m in ist r a t or cu m testa m en to a nn exe of
E n glish L aw ) or if fo r an y r e a son t he n o m in ate d e x e cu t o r

,
doe s n o t a ct The e st ate of t he de ce a se d do e s n o t ve st in

.
t he h e ir as in R o m an L a w b u t in t he e x e cu t or te st a
, , ,
m e n t ar y or d at ive Adm ini str a t or s ar e n o t u n kn own t o t he

2
.
law of So u t h Afr i ca Th e ir fun ct ion s ar e t o s o m e e x te n t .
t ho se of t he E n glis h tr u ste e
5
Sin ce t he a dm ini str at or s ( if .
a n y ) a ppoi n t e d by a will ar e u su a lly a ls o t he e x e cu t o r s it ,
m a y b e a m at te r of so m e di ffi cu l t y to dr a w t he di vidin g
4
lin e b e t we e n t h e ir di st in ct fu n ct ion s .
The h e ir h a vin g b e e n r e d u ce d in t he m ode rn law t o t hi s

,
e n t ir e ly se co n d ar y po sit io n i t i s m a t te r of in diffe r e n ce ,
wh e t h e r a t e st at or do e s or doe s n o t in st itu t e a n h e ir by hi s
will The i n st it u t ion of the h e ir whi ch w a s on ce ca p u t e t
.
,
fu n d a m e n tu m t e st am e n t i is n o lon ge r a n e ce ssa r y for m a

lity 5
. Co n siste n t ly wit h t hi s a ga in con tr ar y t o t he R om an ,
5
L aw a m a n m ay die p ar t ly t e st a te p ar t ly in t e st a te
, ,
.
Wh at he fa ils t o di spo se of by will goe s t o his in te st a te

7
su cc e sso r In R om an L a w it wo u ld h a ve go n e t o t he
.
in st itu te d h e ir by a c cru a l B u t t h e re is a p r e su m p t ion

8
.
1
A dm i n is t r a t io n o f E st a t e s A c t , 1 9 1 3 , se e 3 4 . .
2
F i s che r V
Un i on B a n k L i qu ida tor s ( 1 89 0 ) 8 S C 46 ;
. r i ge . . K V .
S co ble [ 1 9 1 2 ] T S 81 4 . . .
2
V
H iddi ngh D e n yss en ( 1 885 ) 3 S C a t p 441
. . . . .
F o r t he dist in c t fu n c t io n s o f e x ec u t o r s a n d a dm in ist r a t ors se e

A dm in ist r a t io n o f E st a t e s A c t , 1 9 1 3 , se c 6 1 ; R egi s tr a r of D eeds .
( Na ta l) v E st S ha w [ 1 9 2 8] A D 42 5 ; The M as ter v Ocea n A cciden t

. . . . .
C orp L td [ 1 9 3 7 ] C P D 30 2
. . . . . .
5
V d K 290 This is e xpr e ssly e n ac t e d for Na t a l b y L a w , No 2
. . . . .
o f 1 86 8, se c 4 . .
5
Voet, 8 1 1 ; 28 5 26
2 . .
7
V d K 309 , 3 2 2 . . . . . . .
5
V o e t , 29 2 40 : Ju s a cc r e sce n di , u a t e n u s R o m an i u r is su b
. . q j
t ilit a t ib u s n i t it u r , in t e r co he r e de s lo cu n o n ha b e t S e e , ho w m .
e v e r , t his passa ge G r o t iu s ( 2 2 4 1 9 a n d 2 2 6 4) m e r e ly fo llo w s

. . . . .
t he R o m an L a w V a n de r L in de n sa y s ( 1 9 6 ) t ha t t h e ju s
. . .
a c c r e sce n di a pplie s , u n l e ss e a ch o f t he h e ir s i s a po in t e d t o a
p
se pa r a te por t io n V o e t ( u bi su p ) an d S cho r e r a d G r 2 2 6 4 m a ke
. . . . .
t he q
u es t i o n de e n d u
p pon t he in t e n t io n o f t he t e st a t o r S e e a lso .
V a n L ee u w e n , 3 4 4 ( a n d D e cke r a d too ) a n d 3 6 8; V d K
. . . . . . . .
SUCCE SSI ON IN GENE RAL 355
a g a i n st in te st a cy a n d if a m an m a ke s a will di spo sin g of ,
hi s p r op e r t y t he p r e su m p t io n i s t h a t he in te n d s t o di spo se
,
1
of all his pr op e rt y If he di spo se s of a u su fr u ct of p r op e r t y .
b u t n o t of t he c or p u s t h e re i s a p r e su m p t ion t h a t t he
2
le ga te e of t he u sufr u ct is a lso leg ate e of t he c or p u s .
I t i s c o m m on t o t e st a m e n t ar y a n d t o in te st a te su c ce s Co llatio
n or u m
sio n t h a t a c hild o r gr a n d chil d of t he d e ce a se d cl a i m i n g t o
.
sh ar e in t he e st a t e m a y o nl y do so o n c o n d it io n of b rin gin g
i n t o a cc ou n t p r op e r t y r e ce iv e d fr o m t he d e ce a se d d u r i n g
his life t im e fo r t he a dv a n ce m e n t of t h e ir m a rr i a g e
‘
,
5
b u si ne ss o r m e r ch an d ise The R o m a n s c a ll t hi s p r o ce ss of
’
.
a c c o u n t in g co lla ti o bon or u m The D u t c h ca ll it i n br en g 2

. .
B u t t he b e n e fi ci ar y w a s u n d e r n o oblig a t io n t o a cc o u n t .
If he e le ct e d n o t t o cla im he w a s e n t it le d t o r e t a in w h a t ,
he ha d r e ce i ve d Coll a tio n w a s m a d e fo r t he b e n e fi t of t he
.
o t h e r h e ir s a n d of a sur vivin g spo u se m a rr ie d in co m m u

5
ni t y If st r an ge r s ha d b e e n i n stit u te d a lo n g wit h de sce n
.
da n t s t he y n e it he r m a d e c oll a t io n n or b e n e fi te d by a
c oll a t i o n m a d e by o t h e r s i e t h e y t ook w h a t t he will , . .
5
g a ve t h e m n e it h e r le ss n or m o r e A cc o r di n g t o V oe t
, .
,
who se vie w ha s b e e n a dop te d by t he App e ll a te D ivi sio n ,
t he R o m a n D u t c h L aw ( c o n tr a r y t o t he R om a n L a w ) re
-
qu ir e s a ls o c oll a tio n o f debts whi ch a re of su ch a n a t ur e a s

t o i n volve a n a ct u a l d e ple ti o n of t he a n ce str a l e st a te in
‘
7 ’
fa vo ur of a de sce n d a n t .
3 2 6 P a r ker E s t F letche r [ 1 9 3 2 ] C P D 2 0 2 R eid v A dmor s E s t

v . . . . . . . .
Re id [ 1 9 3 2 ] W L D 3 0 ; Wi nsta n le y . B a rr ow [ 1 9 3 7 ] A D 7 5 ;
. . V . . .
Wi n n N O . V
Opp en he i me r [ 1 9 3 7 ] T S 9 1
. . . . .
1
H a vema n n s A ssi gn e e
’
H a ve m a n n s E xor [ 1 9 2 7 ] A D a t
’
V . . . .
Va n C alle r v H en n y [ 1 9 2 9 ] C P D 2 44
2
p 47 6
. . . . . . .
5
P D Ar t 2 9 ( 1 G P B . . G r 2 1 1 1 3 ; 2 2 8 1 4; V o e t , 3 7 6
. . . . . . . . .
V a n L e e u w e n , lib iii , c a p x v i J oos te J oos te s E x or e ( 1 89 1 ) 8S C

’
. . V . . . .
2 88; ( Ce y lo n ) S e llas a m y v K a li a mm a ( 1 9 44) 46 N L R 7 6 ; 6 1 . . . .
T L R 99. . . S a r a m v T hi r u che lva m ( 1 9 45 ) 46 N L R 1 45 . . . .
2 ‘
S u pr a , p 7 1 , n 5 I n E n glish L a w t hi s is c a lle d b r in gin g
. . .
in t o h o t chpo t I t o n ly a pplie s ip so ju r e in t he e v e n t o f in t e st ac y
—
. .
5 5
G r u bi su p . . V oe t , 3 7 6 6 8 . . .
7
E s t Va n Noor de n v E s t Va n No or de n [ 1 9 1 6 ] A D 1 7 5 Th e r e
. . . . . .
w a s a diffe r e n c e o f o pin io n a m o n gs t t he D u t ch u r ist s E M j . . .
M e y e r s in T yds kr if, 1 9 39 , p 1 3 0 Th e Fr e n ch Co de ( Ar t 82 9 ) . . .
r e ta in s t he c o lla t io n o f de b t s ( r a pp or t des de tt es ) Th e Du t ch Co de .
d o e s n o t V e e ge n s Oppe nh e im , v o l ii , p 446
.
-
. . .
II
TE STAMENTA RY SU CCE SSI O N
Co nte n ts I N thi s c h a ll c o n side r ( 1 ) ho w w ill s a r e m a de ;
h a p te r we s .
5
223
1 3 . ( 2 ) wh a t m a y b e di spo se d of by will ( 3 ) w ho m a y m a k e a
will ; ( 4) who m ay t a ke u n de r a w il l ; ( 5 ) who m a y wi t n e ss
a will ; ( 6 ) r e str i c t io n s o n fr e e do m of t e st a t i o n ; 7 ) i n sti t u
t io n a n d su b st i t u t io n of h e ir s ; ( 8) l e g a cie s ; ( 9 ) c odi cils ;
( )
1 0 ho w wil ls a n d l e g a ci e s a r e r e vok e d ( ) fide ic o m missa
1 1
( 1 2 ) tr u sts ; ( 1 3 ) m u t u a l will s .
1 Ho w W i ll s a r e m a de I n t he l a te st p e r iod of Ro m a n .
L a w t he will co m m o nl y in u se w as t he tes ta m en tu m tr ip er
kin ds o f
ti tu m so ca lle d b e c au se d e r i ve d fr o m t hr e e s o u r ce s t he
, ,
Ro m a n 1
c ivil la w t he p r ae t o r s e di ct a n d i m p e ri a l c o n st i t u t io n s
’
L w
a : , , .
( )Written The te st a to r su b scr ib e d it in t he pr e se n ce of se v e n c o m

‘ ’
a ,
p e t e n t wi tn e sse s w ho t h e n t he m se lve s su b scri b e d it a n d

, , ,
2
a fte r w a r ds a ffix e d t h e ir se a l s Al te r n a t ive ly b u t o nl y .
, ,
p e r h a p s in ca se of e m e r ge n cy he m igh t de cl a r e his wi ll
, ,
o r a lly in t he p r e se n ce of t he sa m e n u m b e r of wi tn e sse s .
5
Thi s w as t he n u n cu p a tive will .
A s ob se r ve d a bov e w ills we r e n o t a n o r igin a l Ge r m a ni c

,
i n st itu t io n b u t fr o m t he Fr a nki sh p e r iod o n wa r d s co n

,
t ri v a n c e s w e r e in u se wh e r e by a ct s i n ter vi vos we re m a d e
,
t o ser v e t he p ur po se of a di spo siti o n mor ti s ca u s a The .
te st a m e n t p r op e r ly so ca ll e d d e ve lop e d in t he Middl e Ag e s-
2
u n d e r t he i nfl u e n ce of t he C a n o n L a w .
Ho w w ills The wri te r s o n t he R o m an D u t c h L a w te ll u s t h a t i t -
5 5"
51 33
5
w a s n o t fo r bidde n t o m a k e a wil l in R o m a n fo r m
5
b u t it ,
lan d .
w a s u su a l t o e m ploy o n e o r o t h e r of t he t w o for m s of will
p r e scr ib e d by n a tive cu st o m v iz wills e x e c u te d e i the r : , .
1
In st . 3 2 . 10 . .
2
G ir a r d p 86 3 ; B u c kl a n d , p 2 86
, . . .
5
In s t 2 1 0 1 4; B u ckla n d , p 2 87
. . . . .
2
G r 2 1 4 2 Fo c k A n d
. . .
°
11,
pp 3 1 3 ff ; VVe sse ls ,
. . .
°
Hi s tor y of the R om a n Du tch L a w , Pa r t II , cha p v iii . .
5
G r 2 1 7 1 6 ; Voet , 28 l 20 ; V d K 293 ; V d L 1 9 1
. . . . . . . . . . . . .
Th e Ro m a n w ill w as a n a lt e r n a t iv e b y t he c om m o n la w o f So u t h
Afr ic a D e S m id t v H o ets ( 1 85 2 ) 1 S e a r le a t p 2 7 9
. . . .
t he o t ar y r e t a ins in hi s p r o t o col is t e rm e d the mi nu te ‘
n ,
The fa ir copy su pplie d if d e s ir e d t o t he te st a t or o r a fte r , , ,
his d e a t h t o hi s r e p r e se n t a t ive s is te r m e d the gr o sse 1 ,

‘ ’
.
Will s of the ki n d de scr ibe d a bove a r e kn own as 0 pe n ‘
A sp e ci a l kin d of n o t ari a l will is t he clo se d will ( beslo ten

5
tes ta m en t) Thi s i s a n in str u m e n t wr it te n by t he te sta t or
.
,
o r by a n o t h e r by his di r e ct io n } a n d si gn e d by hi m whi c h
,
he p r od u ce s t o a n o t a r y a n d t w o c o m p e t e n t wi t n e sse s ,
d e clar in g it to b e his l a st will The n o t a r y t h e n e n clo se s .
t he will i n a wr a pp er se a ls t he wr a pp e r o n t he o u tsid e , ,
a n d a dd s a n o t e of t he t e st a t or s d e cl ar a t io n which i s su b
’
5
s cr ib e d by t he te st a t o r a n d t he wi tn e sse s ( acte va n s u p er
5
scr ip ti e ) .
A n o t a r i a l te st a m e n t V o e t sa ys m ust b e d a te d ; o th e r , ,
wi se it will be h e ld void u n l e ss t he cir cu m st an c e s e x clu de ,
7
t he r i sk of fr a u d .
The st a tu t or y or u n d e r h an d will a s it i s ca ll e d i s t he
‘
-
, ,
cr e a t ion of st a t u t e s which ar e n o t t e x t u a lly ide n t ic a l in ,
t he se ve r a l Pr ovin ce s It i s m a de wi t h t he ce r e m o ni e s p re s .
s cr ib e d by t he E n gli sh Wi lls A c t s ,
T r a ns v a a l O r d No 1 4 o f 1 9 0 3 , se e 5 ; a n d O F S O r d No 1 1 o f
. . . . . . . .
1 9 0 4, se e 5 : No n o t ar ia l w ill sha ll b e t a ke n t o b e in v a lid b y r e aso n

.
t ha t t he sa m e w as n o t r e a d o v e r b y t he n o t ar y o r b y a n y o t he r
pe rso n t o t he t e st a to r in t he pr e se n c e o f t h e su b sc r i b in g w it n e ss e s .
Th e Ca pe A c t w a s pass e d in c o n se u e n ce o f t he de c is io n in M ei r i ng q
V .M ei r i ng s E x or e [ 1 87 8] B u c h 2 7 , 3 R o sc o e 6 , t ha t a w ill o f t his
’
. .
kin d , w hic h ha d n o t b e e n r e a d b y t he n o t ar y t o t he t e s t a to r in t he
pr e se n c e o f t he w i t n e ss e s , w as in v a lid .
1
S e e W H S o m e rse t B e ll , S ou th Afri ca n L ega l D i cti on a r y ,
. .
2
s u b v e r b is G r os se , P r otho co l V d L u bi su p . . . . .
5
I n S o u t h A fr ic a a lso c a lle d a Van L ee u w en ,
‘ ’
c l o se w ill .
3 2 5 ; V o e t , 2 8 1 2 6 ; B ijn k O T i 1 0 0 ; D e S m id t v H o e ts
. . . . . . . . .
( 1 85 2 ) l S e a r le a t p 2 81 ; V d L u bi su p . . . . .
2
Pr o v i de d s u ch o t he r t a ke s n o b e n e t u n de r t he w ill V d L
5
fi . . . .
5
Whe n t he w il l w as o pe n e d it w as u su a l for t he n o t ar y a n d
w it n e sse s t o b e pr e se n t G r 2 1 7 2 6 D e cke r ad V a n L e e u w e n ,
. . . .
°
u bi su p Th e fac t w a s pla c e d o n r e c o r d b y t he n o t ar y ( acte va n

.
op e n i n g) V d L u bi su p
. . . . .
7
V o e t , 2 8 l 2 5 H o ll Con s iii 3 2 8 B u t se e B i jnk O T i 42 0
. . . . . . . . . . .
5
Ca pe O r d No 1 5 o f 1 845 , se e 3 ; Na t a l L a w 2 o f 1 868, se c
. . . .
1 ; Tr a n sv aa l O r d No 1 4 o f 1 9 0 3 , se c 1 . O r d No 1 l o f 1 9 0 4,
. . . .
se c 1
. I t sho u ld b e n o te d t ha t t he Ca pe A c t r e u ir e s t ha t t he
. q
TE STAMENTARY SUCCE SSI ON 359
ddi tio n t o t he W ill s of t he n or m a l t yp e s de scr ib e d Pr iv ileged

In a
a bove ( kn own t o t he c o m m e n t a t o r s as sol e m n

’
wills ‘
,
w r i tte n a n d n u n c u p a t ive ) t he R o m a n L a w a dmi tte d i n

spe ci a l cir c u m st a n ce s the u se of e x ce p t io n a l or p r ivil e g e d
‘
w ills so c a lle d b e cau se t he te st a t o r w as di sp e n se d p ar tly

,
—
o r e n tir e ly fr o m ob se r va n c e of t he u su a l sol e m n i t ie s Su ch
‘
we re : ( a ) will m a de in t im e of p e stil e n ce te sta m e n tu m

t e m por e p e stis c on di t u m — ( witn e sse s n e e d n o t b e p re se n t
a t t he sa m e t i m e ) ;
1
b
( ) will m a d e i n t he c o u n tr y — t e st a
m e n tu m r u ri co n di tu m — ( fiv e wi t n e ss e s s u ffici e n
2
t ) ; ( 0 ) wi ll
by whi ch a p ar e n t di spo se d of hi s p r op ert y a m on g hi s
chil dr e n — te st a m e n tu m p a re n t is i n te r lib e r o s— ( n o w it
n e sse s n e ce ssar y if t he will w a s hologr a ph i e wr i tte n , , . .
5 ’
wholly in the t e st a t or s o w n h an d ) ( d) soldi e r s will ’
t e st a m e n t u m mi lit a r % ( n o for m a li t ie s r e qu ir e d a n y ih ,
2
di ca tio n of te st a m e n ta r y in te n t io n su ffi ci e n t ) .
To t h e se t he Ca n o n L a w a dde d : ( e ) wil l m ade fo r p i o u s

c au se s ( c h u r ch e s a n d ch ar it a bl e in st i t u t io ns te sta m e n t u m -
a d pi a s c a u sa s— ( t hi s to o by t he C a n o n L a w w as re li e ve d , ,
fr o m a ll r e qu ir e m e n ts of form ) .
Of t h e se p r ivile ge d wi lls t he D u t ch L a w a dmi t te d ( c)

5 5
an d ( d) a n d t h e y p e rsi st in t he la w of So u t h Afri ca
, The Te sta .
3 221?
5
te st a m e n t wh er e by a n a sce n d a n t di spo se s of p r ope r t y
1
a m o n g st his o r he r c hildr e n o r r e m o t e r d e s ce n d a n t s if in te r ,
wri tte n o u t in fu ll i n t he te st a t or s o w n h a n dwr i tin g

’
t e st a t o r an d w i t n e sses
le as t o n e s ide o f e v e r y leaf sh o u l d s ign a t
u po n w hic h t he w ill i s w r it t e n Th e Tr a n s v aa l an d O F S O r di . . . .
g q
n a n c e s r e u ir e t h e m t o s i n e v e r
‘
y shee t Ro bb v M ea le y s E x or .
’
.
( 1 89 9 ) 1 6 S C 1 33 ; E x p a rt e M i lle r [ 1 9 22 ] W L D 1 0 5 Th e r e is
. . . . . .
n o su c h pr o v i sio n in t he Na t a l A c t .
1 2
Co d 6 2 3 8 1 . . . Co d 6 2 3 3 1 3
. . . . . . .
5
No v 1 0 7 c a p 1 ( A D .
2
In st lib ii t it 1 1
. . . . . . . .
5
G r 2 1 7 28 29 . . . . .
5
The Ca pe A c t b y im plica t io n , th e Tr ans v aa l a n d O F S O r di . . .
n an c e s in e xpr e ss t e r m s
pr es e rv e t he pr iv il e ge d w ill The t e s t . .
pa r e n t in te r lib is n o t r e co gni z e d in Na t a l , I n r e E s t L a lla [ 1 9 22 ]

. . .
N P D 1 8 O t he r c ase s o f pr iv ile ge a r e qu e st io n a b le ( G r 2 1 7
. . . .
~
. . .
30 Th e t e st am e n t u m a d pias c a u sa s is fu lly co n side r e d b y

V an de r K e e ss e l in D i cta t a d G r 2 1 7 3 1 , L e e , C om m e n ta r y , . . . .
p 1 5 2 , a n d w a s m e n t io n e d in S i m v T he M as ter [ 1 9 1 3] C P D
. . . . .
1 87 Th e te st t e m p pes t c o n d ha s r e e m e r ge d in O F S E x
. . . . .
-
. . .
p a r te D e We t [ 1 9 1 9 ] O P D 6 1 S m i th v M a they [ 1 9 2 6 ] O P D 3 1 . . . . . . . .
1
re qu ir e s no It m ay e v e n b e n u n cu p a t iv e ( m i n u s
wit n e ss .
sollem n e n u n cu p a ti vu m ) , b u t m u st in t h a t c a se b e p r ove d ,
2
by t w o wi tn e sse s , The t e st a t or m a y di str ib u te t he pr o
p e r ty a m on g his childr e n in a n y p r oport i o n he ple a se s .
‘
Chi ldr e n m e a n s l e git im a te c hildr e n a t a ll e ve n t s if t he
’
5
fa t h e r is t he t e st a t or ; in t he ca se of a m o t h e r p e r h a p s ,
ill e giti m a te chi ldr e n m ay b e co n side re d t o b e o n t he sa m e

foo ti n g as l e gi t im a t e i ssu e Chil dr e n a lo n e c o m e wi thi n
4
.
t he p r ivil e g e Ot h e r p e ople c a nn o t b e n e fit u n d e r a will

.
5
whi ch is n ot e x e cu t e d wit h t he u su a l s ole m ni tie s It is .
e sse n t i a l t h a t t he doc u m e n t pu t for w ar d a s a holo gr a ph

’
wi ll shou ld r e a ll y b e a d e cl ar a ti o n of t he te st a t or s l a st
wi sh e s a n d n o t m e r e ly a dr a ft o r m e m or a n dum of a will
,
t o b e e x e cu te d a ft e r w a r d s Fu r t h er e ve r y c hild m u st b e .
,
5
n a m e d a n d n o o n e of t h e m m ay b e dis in h e r i te d
,
All t he .
c a se s t h a t h a v e b e e n c i t e d show t h a t wh e r e a p r ivil e g e d
will of a p ar e n t has b e e n su pport e d it ha s b e e n wh e r e t he ,
p r op e rt y ha s b e e n di str ib u t e d a m on g st a ll t he chi ldr e n ,
n o t n e ce s sar ily e qu a lly b u t a m o n g st a ll ( Va n der Wa ll v ,

.
Va n de r Wa ll s E xor s ( 1 89 6 ) 1 3 S C a t p 3 2 1 p er B u ch a n a n
’
. . . .
The qu e st i on ha s b e e n r ai se d wh e t h e r a c hild
if a will
‘ ’
sho u ld n o t r e c e i v e a t l e a st a su b st a n t i a l sh ar e ,
7
i s t o b e p r ivil e g e d a s a tes ta m en tu m p ar en ti s i n ter li ber os .
The m ili t a r y t e st a m e n t i e o n e m a de by a s oldi e r o r , . .
s a ilor i n exp edi ti on e r e qu i r e s n o s ol e m ni t ie s wh a t e v e r

5
It ,
.
1
No v . 1 0 7, V o e t , 2 8 1 1 5 ; Va n L e e u w e n ,
cap . 1 (A D . . . .
3 2 1 3 ; C en s F or V o e t sa y s t h a t if t he w ill is w r it t e n
. . 1 3 2 19
. . . .
q
. .
b y a n o t he r pe rs o n b y t e st a t o r s dir e c t io n it r e u ir e s t w o w i t n e sse s
’
.
V a n L e e u w e n m e r e ly sa y s t ha t he m u st su b scr ib e i t him s e lf S o .
G r o t iu s ( 2 1 7 In S o u t h A fr ica su c h a w ill is n o t pr iv ile ge d

. .
u n le ss w ho lly in t e s t a t o r s ha n dw r it in g I n r e M c Ca lga n ( 1 89 3 )
’
.
1 0 S C 2 7 7 I t is e sse n t ia l t ha t i t sh ou ld b e da te d
. . .
Nu r o k v . .
Nu r ok s E x or s [ 1 9 1 6] W L D 1 2 5 Con tr a , B ijnk O T i
’
. . . . . . . . .
2
G r 2 1 7 2 8 V o e t , u bi su p ; C en s F or , u bi su p Win ds c he id ,
. . . . . . .
iii 5 44 Th e w it n e sse s m a y b e m a le o r fe m a le
. .
G r o e n e w e ge n , .
de leg a br a d In s t 2 1 0 6 ; de H aa s a d C e n s F or , u bi su p . . . .
V
. . . .
5
Wi lki ns on s E s t
’
Wi lki ns on ( 1 9 0 7 ) 2 4 S C 6 0 2 . . . . .
2
Vo et, 2 8 1 1 6 . . .
5
E x p a r te T ipp e tt [ 1 9 42 ] C P D 68 . . . .
5
Voe t , 2 8 l 1 7 . . .
7
I n r e E br a hi m s E s t [ 1 9 3 6 ] T P D 60
’
. . . . .
5
H oll C on s iv 2 0 9 ; Ver volg op de H oll C ons ii 6 4
. . . . . . .
t he Fr e e St a te } b u t Na t a l I n m or e t h a n o n e ca se
.
n ot in .
2
i t has b e e n r e quir e d t h a t a c odi cil sho u ld p u r por t to b e

‘
e x e c u t e d u n d e r a n d by vir t u e of t he r e se r v a t o r y cl au se i n
t he will a n d L y b r e ht s i n his book o n No t a r i a l P r a c t ic e

g , ,
4
give s a for m whi ch co n t a in s su ch a n e xpr e ss r e fe re n ce In .
a r e c e n t ca se t he n e e d of a n e xp r e ss r e fe r e n ce t o t he
5
r e se r v a t or y cl a u se w a s qu e st i o n e d The v a li di t y of a .
c o di cil e x e c u t e d u n d e r a r e se r v a t o r y cl au se d e p e n d s u po n
t he e xi ste n c e of a v a lid will c o n t a ini n g t he cl a u se The .
c odi ci l c a nn o t r e voke t he will u po n wh i c h i t d e p e n d s fo r

”
6
i t s e ffe c t A codi cil e x e cu t e d u n der t he r e se r v a t ory cl au se
.
m u st b e si gn e d by t he t e st a t or I t n e e d n o t b e in his .
7
h a n dwr it in g .
The c l au su l e de r o ga t o ir ( n o lo n g e r in u se ) w a s o n e in
whi ch t he te st a t or pu r port e d t o d isa ble hi m se lf by a n ti
cipa t io n fr o m d e p ar t i n g fr o m t he t e n o r of hi s will e i t h e r ,
by a n y su b se qu e n t dispo sit ion wh ate ve r o r by a n y dis ,
po sitio n n o t e xpr e sse d in a p ar t icul a r for m of wor ds o r t he

8
like . V o e t j u st ly ob se r v e s t h a t su ch a cl a u se c o n t a in s
m er e ly a sign ifi ca t io n of in te n ti o n a n d n o de r oga ti on fr o m
a t e st a t o r s pow e r of c h a n gin g hi s will
’ 9
Whe t he r he doe s .
so or n o t d e p e n d s u po n t he t ru e c o ns t r u c t io n of his su b se
qu e n t t e st a m e n t a r y di spo sit ions .
Fr om wh a t ha s b e e n sa i d it a pp e ar s t h at t he law of
So u t h Afr ica a dm i ts t he foll owin g t yp e s of will or codi c il ,
v iz ( 1 ) The n ot ar ia l wi ll ( O p e n a n d clo se d ) ; ( 2 ) t he
1
E x p a r te Va n B i ljon [ 1 9 3 4] O P D 1 0 4 . . . .
9
S t e y n , The L a w of Wi lls i n S ou th Afr i ca , p 8 In S o u t he r n . .
R ho de sia o n ly in a n o t a r ia l w ill R S c a p 49 . . . . .
3
Nels on V
Cu rr ey ( 1 886 ) 4 S C 3 55 ; E r asm u s
. E r asm u s
’
. . V .
Gu a r di a ns , u bi su p .
Reden er ende P r ac tycq over t Nota r is A mp t

’
p 1 89 . .
5
E x p a r te P i e ter s e N O [ 1 9 3 3] S W A 4 . . . . . .
Va n Reen e n V
B oa r d of E x or s [ 1 87 5 ] B u c h 44; E x p a r te
. . .
We bber s E x or ( 1 90 2 ) 1 9 S C 42 7
’
. . . .
7
H a r t v The M as ter [ 1 9 2 3] C P D 7 8
. . . . .
G r 2 2 4 8; e g c o n t a in in g t he w o r ds a r m a V ir u m qu e c a n o
’
8 ‘
. . . . .
( Vo et , 2 8 3
. . o r t he w ho le o f t h e c r e do ( H oll C on s v
. or . . .
t he w o r ds H e a v e n b e m y po r t io n Ou r so ul
‘ ’ ‘
1 9 or . .
w a it s u po n t he L o r d H e is o u r h e lp a n d shi e ld ( B yn ke rsho e k,
’
.
Qu a es t J u r P r i n , lib i ii , c a p V ii )
. . . Vo e t, 2 8 3 1 0. . . . .
TE STAMENTAR Y SUCCE SSI ON 363
or y or u n de r h a n d will ; ( 3 ) t he pr ivile ge d will ; ( 4)

st a t u t
t he c o di cil e x e cu t e d by vir t u e of t he r e se r v a t or y cl au se .
B u t t he fir st of t h e se i s n o lon g er i n u se .
I n Ce ylo n a will m u st b e e x e cu te d e it h e r in t he p re se n c e of Ce ylon .
of a n o t ar y a n d t w o witn e sse s o r in the pr e se n ce of fiv e ,
1 2
witn e sse s if a n ot ar y is n o t pr e se n t The va st m a j or it y .
of Will s ar e n o t a r ia lly e x e cu te d .
2 Wha t m a y b e d i s po s e d o f b y w i l l An yt hi n g m a y Wh t
. . a
b e di spo se d of by will wh i ch i s ca p a ble of o w n e r sh ip g a

y
;
3
] ,
4
whe t h e r c or por e a l o r i n cor po r e a l wh e th e r t he p r op er ty w ill ,
.
5 5 7
of te st a t or o r of his h e ir o r of a n y o n e e lse ; for t he
R o m a n D u t c h L a w followin g t he R o m a n L a w p e r m it s
-
, ,
8
a b e qu e st of a r e s a li e n a n o l e ss t h a n of a r e s su a .
3 Who m a y m a ke a w i ll All p e rson s m ay m a k e a A ct ive

. .
will e x ce p t : ( a ) m in o r s u n de r the a ge of p u b e r ty ; ( b) fig 9
fi ar y
10
p e r son s m e n t a lly i n c ap a ble ; ( c) in te r di c te d p r o di g a ls cap city a .
( hofs ofte sta ds kinder en ) ; bu t t he wi ll s of t h e se l ast ar e

11 -
12
u ph e ld so fa r a s t h e ir di spo si ti o n s a r e j u st a n d e qu i t a bl e .
1
Or d . No
7 o f 1 840 , se c 3 Th e r e is a sa v in g in fa v o u r o f t he
. . .
w ills o f a n y s o ldi e r b e in g in a c t u a l m ilit a r y se r v ic e , o r a n y m a r in e r

o r se a m a n b e in g a t se a w ho m a y dispo se o f h is pe rs o n a l e st a t e a s
‘
he m ight ha v e d o n e b e fo r e t he m a kin g o f t his O r din an ce ( sec .
5
i s if a n o t a r y is n o t pr e se n t a c t in g in h is n o t a r ia l c a pa c it y
. . .
P e r er a
5
V
P er er a [ 1 9 0 1 ] A O 3 5 4. . . .
G r 2 22 7 . . G r 2 22 9
. . . . . .
5 5 7
G r 2 2 2 32 . Gr 2 2 .2 35 . G r 2 22 38
. . . . . . . . .
5
Re cei ver of R e ve n u e , P r etor ia Ha n cke [ 1 9 1 5 ] A D a t p 7 7 V . . . . .
C r 2 1 5 3 ; V d L l 9 3 In t his c ase u l t im u s im pu b e r is
‘
. . . . . . . . .
’
a e t a t is di e s c o e t u s V o e t , 2 8 1 3 1 In
p pr o c o m ple t o ha b e t u r . . . .
Ce y l o n : No w ill m a de b y a n y m a le u n de r t he a ge o f t w e n t y o n e -
y e a r s o r b y a n y fe m a le u n de r t he a ge o f e ight e e n y e a r s sha ll b e
v a lid u n l e ss s u c h pe r s o n sh a ll h a v e o b t a in e d le tt e r s o f ve n i a
a e ta ti s o r u nl e ss su c h
pe r so n shall ha v e b e e n l a w fu lly m a rr ie d .
O r d No 2 1 o f 1 844, se c 2 I n Na t a l : No w ill o r c o dic il sha ll b e

. . . .
v a lid u n le ss t he t e st a t or sh a ll a t t im e o f e x e c u t io n o r t e e x e cu t io n -
t he r e o f ha v e a t t a in e d t h e a ge o f t w e n t y o n e y e a r s , o r ha v e o t he r -
w ise b e c o m e e n t it le d t o t he pr iv ile ge s o f m a o r it y b y e m an c ipa t io n j

fr o m pa t e r n a l po w e r b y v e n ia ae ta t is , o r o t he r w is e L a w 2 o f 1 868, .
se c 6 . .
1°
G r 2 1 5 4; V o e t , 2 8 1 3 4 A s t o in s a n e de lu s io n s s ee Rap s on
. . .
V
. . .
.P u tte r i l l [ 1 9 1 3 ] A D 41 7 —d r u n ke nn e ss , V o e t , 2 8 l 3 5 A s t o . . . . .
w ha t c o n st it u t e s m e n t a l in ca pa c it y se e T r egea
11
G oda r t [ 1 9 3 9 ] V .
A D 16 . . G r 2 1 5 5 ; V a n L ee u w e n , 3 3 2 ; V o e t , 2 8 l 3 4
. . . . . . . . .
12
V d K 2 81 ; L e e C om m en ta r y , p 1 3 5 ; E x p a rte F [ 1 9 1 4]
. . . , . .
W L D 27 . . . .
Th e r e se e m s n o r e a son why a d e a f m u te t ho u gh born so -
, ,
if of su ffi cie n t u n de r st a n din g shoul d n o t m a ke a will a t t he ,
pr e se n t day Marr ie d wo m e n a n d m in or s m a y m a ke wi lls

1
.
2
wit hou t t he a u t hor ity of t h e ir hu sb an ds a n d p ar e n t s or
”
g u ar di a n s r e sp e ct ive ly If a de ce a se d spou se m a rr i e d in .
,
c o m m u ni t y ha s l e ft so m e t hi n g t o t he su r vivor a n d a t
,
t he sa m e ti m e dir e c t e d how t he co mm on p r op e r t y sh all

d e volve a fte r t he su r vivor s de a t h a cce p t an ce by t he su r ’
v i v o r of t he b e n e fi t i n qu e st io n d e p r iv e s hi m o r he r of t he
powe r of di spo sitio n ove r hi s or he r sh ar e of t he j oin t

e st a t e
4
We r e t u r n t o t hi s su bj e ct l a t e r
.
5
.
4 Who m a y t a ke u n d e r a w il l E xce p t a s h e r e a ft e r
. .
5
st a t e d a n y p e r s o n wh e t h e r n a t ive or fo r e ig n e r i n di v i d u a l ,
o r c o r por a t e bor n o r u n bor n

7
m ay t a k e u n d e r a will pr o
, , ,
5
v i de d su ch b e a s ce r t a in e d o r a sc e r t a in a bl e E xce p tio ns .
we r e or a r e : ( 1 ) spir it u a l p e r so n s a n d hou se s ( geesteli cke

lu i den en de hu i zen ) p r o hi bi t e d fr om t a kin g i m m ov a ble o r
9
m ov a bl e p r op e r t y ; ( 2 ) t he cu r a t or s a n d t u t or s or a d
m i ni st r a t or s of m in or s a n d t h e ir chi ldr e n a s w e ll as t he , ,
godp are n t s a n d c on cu bin e s of su ch m in or s p r ohi b ite d

fr o m t a kin g u n de r t he wil l of su ch m in or s a n y im m ova bl e
10
pr op e rt y o r in t e r e st t h e r e in ; ( 3 ) a p erso n who ha s co n
1
G r o t iu s ( 2 1 5 6 ) a n d V o e t ( 2 8 l 3 6 ) sa y t ha t , if a du m b m a n
. . . .
c a nn o t w r it e , he sh o u ld o b t a in a l i c e n c e fr o m t h e S o v e r e ign ( la n d
o v er he id—P r i n c ep s ) , an d V a n d e r L in de n r e c o m m e n ds t his c o u r se
in t he c as e o f pe r so n s w ho b e c o m e t hu s a ffl i c t e d a fte r b ir t h S e e .
R echts Obs , pt ii , n o 3 8 A b lin d m a n u r e c iv ili m u st m a ke his

. . . . . j
w ill b e fo r e a n o t a r y o r o t he r e ight h w it n e ss Co d 6 2 2 8 . . . . .
5 5
Voet , 28 1 38 . G r 1 8 2 ; V o e t , 2 8 l 43
. . . . . . . .
5 5
Gr 2 15 9 . . . I nfr a , p 3 9 2
. . .
5
C r 2 1 6 1 ; b u t n o t o u t law s ( w o e st b a llin ge n ) , o r t ho se w ho
. . .
a dhe r e t o t h e e n e m y V an L e e u w e n , 3 3 9 ; Vo et , 2 8 5 5 . . . . . .
5
7
Voet, 28 5 1 2 . G r 2 1 6 2 ; Voe t , 2 8 5 2
. . . . . . . .
5
G r 2 1 6 3 ; o r b y gift i n ter vi vos Pla c a a t o f M a r c h 2 0 , 1 5 2 4
. . . .
( l G P B . . Th e p
. r o h ib i t i o n , s o fa r as r e ga r ds t it l e b y s u c ce s
s io n , w a s e x t e n de d t o m o v a b le pr o pe rt y b y Pla c a a t o f O c t o b e r 1 6 ,
1 5 3 1 ( 2 G P B 2 9 7 3 ; B yn ke rsh o e k Qu a e st J u r P r i n
. . . l ib i ii , , . .
, .
c ap i ) In S o u t h Afr i c a t he se disa b ilit ie s e x ist n o lo n ge r ( Ca pe A c t

. .
No 1 1 o f 1 868; Na t h a n , v o l i ii, se c
. a n d t h e r e i s n o ge n e r a l . .
la w o f m o r t m a in .
1°
P e rpe t E di c t o f O c t o b e r 4, 1 5 40 , A r t 1 2 ( 1 G P B
. Gr . . . . .
2 1 6 4 ; V o e t , 2 8 5 8; B ijn k O T i 1 6 3 ; V d K 2 85—6 ; L e e ,
. . . . . . . . . . .
C om m en ta r y , p 1 40 ; V d L 1 9 4 I t ha s b e e n su gge s t e d t ha t t he
. . . . . . .
r e fe r e n ce t o go dpa r e n t s is a t t r ib u t a b le t o a m is t r a n sla t io n o f a
n o t ar y p r ohibi te d fr o m t a kin g a n y b e n e fi t u n der a w ill

w r i tt e n by hi m se lf
1
( 9 ) A like di squ a lific a t io n a tt a che s t o .
a n y o t h e r p e r so n who wr i te s a will fo r a n o t h e r a n d i n se r t s
t h e r e in a di spo siti o n for his o w n b e n e fit u n l e ss t he t e st a t o r ,
has a dd e d a c l a u se c o n fir m in g t he will ( di ct a vi e t r e c o gn o v i )
?
o r i n so m e o t h e r w a y c o n fir m e d t he di spo si t io n The
3
p r ohibi t ion e x te n d s t o t he m u t u a l will of spou se s a n d
e v e n ( in R o m a n L a w ) t o t he p r i vile g e d will of s oldi e r s
4
.
This r u le i s de r ive d fr o m a se n a t u sco n sul tu m L ib o ni a n u m

of A D It i s a n u n h a ppy su r viva l which m igh t w e ll
. .
,
b e a b r og a te d ( 1 0 ) F in a lly i n i m it a t io n of E n gli sh L a w
.
, ,
m od e r n st a tu t e s di s qu alify a n a t te st in g wi t n e ss t o who m
5
o r t o who se wife o r h u sb a n d a b e n e fi t i s g i v e n by t he will .
I t ha s b e e n h e ld t h a t a n a ppoin tm e n t a s e x e cu t or i s a
b e n e fit wi thin t he m e a n in g of t he la w Of t he di squ a lifi ca
7
.
t io n s in t hi s li st n u m b e r e d 1 —7 so m e ar e ce r ta in ly o t h e r s ,
pr ob a bly ob sole t e A gi ft t o a p e r so n in c a p a ble of t a kin g

,
.
8
a b e n e fi t u n d e r a will i s t a ke n pr o n o n s cr ip t o .
L y b r e ght s , Reden e r en d Ve r toog o ver t No ta r i s A mp t ( 4t h

1 ’
v ol i, p 37 7
. H oll C ons V i ( pa r t
. . 43 ; E s t B r ow n . E lli ott . . V .
B r os [ 1 9 2 3] C P D 3 2 5 Qu a e r e , do e s t he pr o hib it io n e x t e n d t o
. . . . .
t he w ife o r r e la t io n s o f t he No t ar y ? S erfon tei n Rodr i ck [ 1 9 0 3 ] V .
O R C 5 1 ; Na t han , v o l i i i , pp 1 81 1 fl
. . . If t h e n o t a r y w e r e ins t i . . .
t u t e d h e ir t he w ill w o u l d a t c o mm o n la w ha v e w ho lly fa ile d , t he

he ir b e in g an in co m pe t e n t w it n e ss .
7
V o e t , 3 4 8 3 ; V d K 2 9 2 ; B en i s chow i tz
. . T he M as te r [ 1 9 2 1 ]
. . . V .
A D 5 89 ; M e llis h
. . V
T he M as ter [ 1 9 40 ] T P D 2 7 1 ; ( Ce y lo n ) . . . .
A r u la mp i ka i V
T ha mba ( 1 9 44) 45 N L R 45 7 . . . . .
5
Thi en ha n s
5
V
T he M a s ter [ 1 9 3 8] C P D 6 9 . . . . .
5
D ig 2 9 l 1 5 3 . . D ig 3 4 8; 48 1 0 ; Co d 9 2 3
. . . . . . . . .
5
Ca pe A c t No 22 o f 1 87 6 , s e c 3 ; Na t a l , L a w No 2 o f 1 86 8,
. . .
se e 7 ; Tr ans v a a l , O r d No 1 4 o f 1 9 0 3 , s e c 3 ;
. O r d No 1 1 . . . . .
o f 1 90 4, se c 3 ; Ce y lo n O r d No 7 o f 1 840 , se c 1 0
. . . . .
7
S m i th V
C la r ks on [ 1 9 2 5 ] A D 5 0 1
. . . .
5
G r o t iu s ( 2 2 4 2 2 ) s a y s t ha t if t he gift is c la n de st in e it is
. .
fo r fe it e d t o t h e fi scu s b u t V a n de r K e e sse l ( T h 333 ) fo llo w in g .
B yn ke rsho e k ( Qu aes t J u r P r i v , lib iii , ca p ix ) e x c lu de s t he fi sc . . . . .
in fa v ou r o f t h e le git im i he r e de s No w a da y s t he la ps e d gift w o u ld .
o t o t h e s u b s t i t u t e d h e ir o r fa ll in t o r e s idu e G r o t iu s a dds
g .
( se c 2 3 ) t ha t gift s t o pe r so n s a dhe r in g t o t he e n e m y o r t o o u t la w s
.
( w o es tba lli ngen ) a r e fo r fe it e d t o t he Co u n t S o a ls o V a n L e e u w e n .
(3 3 . G r o e n e w e ge n ( a d loc ) disse n t s I f a b e n e c iar y u n de r

. . . fi
a w ill has : ( a ) c au se d t e st a t o r s d e a t h ; ( 6 ) fa il e d t o dis co v e r t he
’
a u t ho r o f h is de a t h ; ( 0 ) dispu t e d t he w il l ; ( d ) sla n de re d t he m e m o r y
o f t h e de ce as e d ; ( e ) a fte r t he e x e c u t io n o f t he w i ll e n te r t a in e d a
TE STAMENTARY SUCCE SSI ON 3 67
5 . Who m a y w i t n e s s a w i ll . I n t he R o m an L aw t ho se Who m a y
‘
2113
11 7 8
p er sons o n ly ca n b e wi tn e sse s who ar e le g a lly ca p a ble of 32
witn e ssin g a t e st a m e n t W o m e n p e r son s b e low t he a ge of Ro m an .
, 11 1
1 L5W
p u b e r ty sla ve s p e r son s de a f o r du m b lu n a ti cs a n d t ho se
, , , ,
’
who h a ve b e e n in t e r di cte d fr o m t he m a n a ge m e n t of t he ir
pr op e r t y o r who m t he la w de cla r e s wor thle ss a n d u nfi tte d
2
t o p e r fo rm t hi s o ffi ce c a n n o t wi tn e ss a will
’
P e r so n s
,
.
c o nn e cte d by po t e st a s w e r e i n c o m p e t e n t t o wi t n e ss o n e
3
a n o t h e r s will s ; so w a s t he h e ir a n d t ho se c o nn e ct e d w i t h
’
hi m by po t e st as b u t l e g a te e s a n d fide i co m m issa ri e s we r e
,
4
u n de r n o su c h di sa bili t y .
Ge n e r all y sp e a kin g t he D u t ch L a w foll owe d t he R o m a n m the

,
5 m Ode m
L a w a s r e g ar d s t he c ap a city a n d qu a lifi ca t ion of wi tn e sse s l w .
a
B u t in so m e r e sp e ct s it de p a r t e d fr o m it Thu s : ( 1 ) I t
“
w a s u n n e ce ssa r y t h a t t he wi tn e sse s sho u ld b e sp e ci a lly

r e qu e st e d t o wi t n e ss t he will It w a s e n o u gh t h a t t h e y .
5
k n e w t h a t t he y w er e doin g so ; ( 2 ) A le ga te e w a s n o t a
7
c o m p e te n t w it n e ss t o a n op e n will n o t ar i a lly e x e cu t e d ,
5
b u t t o a clo se d will he w a s On t he o t h e r h a n d t he .
,
D u t ch L aw foll owe d t he Ro m a n L a w : (a ) in r e qu ir in g ,
9
ca p a cit y in t he wi t n e sse s o n ly a t t he d a t e of t he w ill ;
a n d ( b) in c o n si d e r in g a wo m a n a n i n co m p e t e n t wi t n e ss
de a dly e m n it y a ga in s t t he t e sta t o r ; ( f) d e file d his w ife ; ( 9 )

plu n de r e d t he in he r it a n c e ; ( h) in t he t e s ta t o r s life t im e c o n t r a c t e d
’
w i t h r e ga r d t o t he in h e r ita n c e w i t h a t hir d par t y —b y t he R o m a n

L a w he for fe it e d t he b e n e t to t he fi scu s , b u t G r o t iu s ( 2 2 4 2 4) fi . .
sa y s t h a t a n in n o ce n t su b st it u te di r e c t o r fi de i co mm is sa r y is pr e
fe r r e d t o t he Co u n t G r oe n e w e ge n ( a d lo c ) s a y s t ha t , e ve n w he re
. .
t he r e is n o su b st it u t e , in a ll th e se c ase s a n in n o c e n t h e ir is pr e fe rr e d
t o t he fi s c V a n de r K e e s se l ( Th 33 4) c o m m e n t s o n t he rs t o f t he
. . fi
a b o v e m e n t io n e d c as e s a lo n e , a n d sa y s t ha t , t ho u gh t he gu ilt y
-
pa r t y c o u l d n o t t a ke , hi s c hildr e n m ight E r e pt io n fo r in dig ni t as .
is r e c o gn iz e d in t he m o de r n la w Ta y lor
1
P im ( 1 903 ) 24 N L R . V . . . .
484 . O r b lin d V o e t , 2 8 1 7 . . . .
2
In s t 2 1 0 6 ; D ig 2 8 1 2 0
. . .
5
Ins t 2 1 0 9
. . . . . . . .
4
Ins t 2 1 0 1 1 . . .
5
V an L e e u w e n , 3 2 8
. . . .
5 7
Voet , 28 1 22 . V o e t , u bi s u p ; V d L l 9 1
. . .
V
. . . . . .
5
V o e t , 2 8 l 2 6 V o e t r e fe r s t o t he i e w e xpr e ss e d in H all
. . . .
C on s i 1 0 3 , t ha t ( a s in E n glish L a w ) a l e ga t e e w i t n e ss dis qu a lifi e s

. .
-
o n ly him s e lf, a n d sa y s t h a t i t i s a lt o ge t h e r e rr o n e o u s V a n de r .
K e e ss e l , ho w e v e r , a do pt s it ( Th a n d it is n o w s t a t u t o r
y in .
So u t h A fr ic a a n d in Ce y lo n ( su pr a , p .
5
Voet , 2 8 1 2 2 . . .
to a will 1
l o t he h e ir
, Fur the r ( he r e in e xhibit in g
as a s
?
a gr e a te r st r i n g e n cy t h a n t he R o m a n L a w ) it e x clu d e d ,
a s wi t n e sse s p e r s o n s t o o n e a r ly r e l a t e d t o t he h e ir o r
?
t e st a t or by blood or a ffin it y B u t in t he m od e r n la w it
m ay b e sa id t o b e a ge n e r a l ru l e t h a t e ve r y p e r so n a bove
t he a ge of fo u r t e e n y e ar s who i s c o m p e t e n t t o g iv e e v i
'
de n ce in a co u r t of law is c om p e te n t t o a tte st t he e x e cu
4
t io n of a will or o t h er t e st a m e n t ar y in str u m e n t .
6 R e s t r i c t i o n s o n F r e e do m o f T e s ta t i o n ( A ) THE
. .
LE G ITI M The R om an L a w a ccor de d t he qu e r e l a in offi cio si

.
te st a m e n t i t o t hr e e cl a sse s of p e r son s : ( 1 ) d e s ce n d a n t s ; ( 2 )
a s ce n d a n t s ; ( 3 ) b r o t h e r s o r s i ste r s p a sse d ove r in fa vo u r
5
of t u r pe s p e r so n ae In t he l at e st law d e sce n d an t s w e r e .
e n t i t l e d t o o n e t hi r d of t h e ir i n t e st a t e sh ar e if t he d e c e a se d
le ft fo u r c hildr e n o r le ss t o o n e h a lf if he l e ft m or e t h an ,
5
fo ur ; a sce n d an t s a n d b r o t h e r s a n d si st e r s w e re e n t it le d t o
7
o n e fo u r t h ; u nl e ss in e a ch c a se t h e y w e r e j u st ly di sin
he r it e d The por t io n t o whi c h t h e se cl a sse s w e r e su c ce s

.
siv e ly e n t i t l e d w a s k n own a s t he st a t u t or y po r t i o n
legi tima p or ti o— o r a s w e sa y t he l e gi t i m , , .
1
V o e t , ib id ; G r o e n e w e ge n , de leg a br a d In s t 2 1 0 6 ; b u t n o t
. . . . . .
t o a c o di c il e x e c u t e d b e fo r e fi v e w it n e sse s u r e R o m an o ; G r 2 2 5 j . . .
2 ; V o e t , 2 9 7 1 D w y er .
’ ’
O F li n n s E x or ( 1 85 7 ) 3 Se a r le 1 6
. V . . .
Co dicils n o t a r ia lly e x e cu t e d r e u ir e d m a le w i t n e sse s V o e t , 2 9 7 5 q . . . .
5
C r 2 1 7 1 2 ; J ou ber t
. . E x or of R u s sou w [ 1 87 7 ] B u ch 2 1
. V . . . .
V o e t , 2 8 1 2 2 The r e st r ic t io n a pplie d t o n o t a r ia l w ills o nl y ,

. . .
n o t t o u n de r ha n d w ills S em ble in t he case o f u n de r ha n d w ills t he .
R o m an L a w e x c lu din g dom es ti cu m tes ti m on i u m ( In s t 2 1 0 9 ) w as . . .
in fo r c e in H o lla n d V o e t , 2 8 1 8 . . . .
Ca pe A c t No 2 2 o f 1 87 6 , se c 2 Sim ila r pr o v isio n s in T r a n s

. . . .
v a a l ( Or d 1 4 o f 1 9 0 3 , se c
. O F S ( O r d 1 1 o f 1 9 0 4, se c . . . . . .
So u t he rn R ho de s ia ( R S c a p b u t n o t in Na t a l M om o lo lo s
’
. . .
E x or . V
Up i n i [ l 9 1 9 ] A D 5 8 Th e Ce y lo n L aw co n t a in s n o ge n e r a l
. . . .
pr o v isi o n a s t o t he c o m pe t e n c y o f a t t e st in g w it n e sse s , w it h t he
e x c e pt io n o f O r d No
‘
7 o f 1 840 , se c 9 , t o t he e ffe c t t ha t : If a n y
. . .
pe r so n w ho sha ll a t t e s t t he e x e cu t io n o f a n y w ill , t e st a m e n t o r
c o dic il sha ll a t t he t im e o f t h e e x e c u t io n t h e r e o f o r a t a n y t im e
a ft e r w a r ds b e in c o m pe t e n t t o b e a dm itt e d a w it n e ss t o pr o v e t he
e x e cu t io n t he r e o f, su c h w ill , t e st a m e n t o r c o di c il sha ll n o t o n t ha t
a c c o u n t b e in v a li d
’ 5
In st lib ii , t it 1 8; G ir a r d p 9 1 5
. . . .
,
. .
5
No v 1 8, c a p i ( A D
. . . .
7
G ir a r d se e m s t o b e o f t his o pin io n O the r s t hink t ha t Ju s t in ian .
in t e n de d t ha t pa r e n t s a n d b r o t he r s a n d sist e rs sho u ld t ake a t hir d

in st e a d o f a fo u r th Win ds che id, i ii 5 80 . . .
L aw , i n stit u tio n a di e or i n di em is good t he e ffe ct

an ,
b e in g t o shift t he p r op e r ty fr om t he i n t e st ate h e ir ( i ns ti
tu ti o a di e ) or to t he i n t e st a t e h e ir o r su b st itu t e d h e ir
.
1
n a m e d by t he t e st a t o r ( i n s ti tu ti o i n di em ) .
8 L e g ac i e s In r e g ar d t o t he cr e a t ion a n d in te r p r e t a
“
. .
ti on of l e g a ci e s t he r u l e s of t he R om a n L a w a r e clo se ly
,
followe d We m ay b e c on te n t o n t hi s t opic t o r e fe r t o
.
?
t he u su a l s o ur c e s of i n for m a t io n I t m a y b e n o te d t h a t
if t he a sse t s ar e i n su fficie n t t o di s ch ar ge t he d e b t s a ll ,
?
le g a ci e s of wh a te ve r n a tu r e a b a te pr oport ion a t e ly ,
9 C o di c i l s In R om a n L aw codi cils w e re o r igin all y

. .
,
infor m a l do cu m e n t s in t he n a tu r e of n o t e s o r m e m or a n d a
c o n t a ini n g di r e c t io n s fr o m t he d e c e ase d t o his h e ir t e st a
m e nt ar y or in t e st a te In Ju stini a n s l e gi sl a t io n t h e y w e r e
’
.
ge n e r a ll y e x e cu te d in wr i tin g by t he m a ke r in t he pr e se n ce ,
of a t l e a st fiv e witn e sse s m a le o r fe m a le who su b scr ib e d , ,

‘
t he in str u m e n t Tho u gh a s r e g ar ds for m t h e r e for e t he y

.
, ,
fe ll li ttle shor t of r e gul ar wills in se ve r a l r e sp e cts t he y ,
di ffe r e d fr om t h e m Thu s : ( a ) t h e y c ou l d n o t di spo se of t he .
in h e r i ta n ce a n d t he r e for e co u ld n o t in st i tu te o r su b sti tu te
,
a n h e ir dir e c t ly n o r c o n t a in a c l a u se of di sh e r i so n Ont he .
o t h e r h an d ( 5) t h e ir v a lidity di d n o t de p e n d u pon t he
,
e xi ste n c e of a will ; if t h e r e w a s a will t he c o di c il w a s u su a lly
con stru e d a s p ar t of it a n d if t he will fa ile d t he co di cil ,
fa ile d t oo ; b u t in t he a b se n ce of a will a codi cil v ali dl y

e x e cu t e d mi gh t i m po se a fide i co m mi ssu m u po n t he in
t e st a t e s h e ir ; ( 0 ) t ho u gh a m a n c oul d o nl y l e a ve b e hin d
’
hi m o n e v a lid will he m igh t le a ve a n y n u m b e r of v a lid ,
5
c odi c il s .
1
G r 2 1 8 2 1 ; L e e , C om/me n ta r y , a d l o c ; V d K 3 1 1 S e e E s t
. . . . . . . . .
C a to V
E s t C a to [ 1 9 1 5 ] A D a t p 300 w he r e Inn e s C J po in t s
. . . . . . .
o u t t ha t V o e t ( 2 8 5 1 2 ) t a ke s a diffe r e n t ie w o f t he e ffe c t o f su c h
. . V
a n in st it u t i o n ; a n d c it e s B la ck B lac k s E x or s ( 1 9 0 4) 2 1 S C a t
’
V . . . .
p . 5 6 3 I n V a
. n d er M er w e V a n de r M e r w e s E x ecu tr i x [ 1 9 2 1 ]
’
V .
T P D 9 G r e go ro w ski J fo llo w e d V oe t , b u t t he r e w a s n o a r gu m e n t
. . . . .
S e e a l so I n r e C o op e r s E s t [ 1 9 3 9 ] C P D 3 0 9 a n d C om m r for
’
. . . . .
I n la n d R e ven u e V
E s t C r ew e [ 1 9 43] A D a t p 6 7 8. . . . . .
5
G r lib i , c a pp x x ii a n d x x iii V a n L e e u w e n , li b iii , c a p ix ;
. . . . .
1 Maas do rp , c ha p x x v ; S t e yn , The L a w of Wi lls i n S ou th Afr i ca ,

.
c ha p V ii . .
5
E x p a r te T a rr [ 1 9 41 ] C P D a t p 1 1 1 . . . . .
5
Ins t 2 2 5 3 ; Mo yle , a d lo c
. . . .
An yo n e m ight m a ke o r t a ke u n de r a co di cil who c o ul d

1
m a k e o r t a k e u n d e r a will .
Ow in g t o t he gr e a t e r e l a st i ci ty of t he codi cil a n d t he
“
li a bili ty t o fa il u r e of t he for m a l wi ll i t b e ca m e u su a l ,
a m o n g t he R o m a n s t o i n se r t i n e ve r y wi ll a cl au se
pr o
y idin g t h a t if t he i n str u m e n t fa i l e d t o t a k e e ffe ct a s a w ill
?
i t shou ld t a k e e ffe ct a s a c od i cil Th is w a s ca lle d t he
c l a u su l a co di cill a ri s I t cur e d d e fe ct s of for m b u t n o t of .
su b st a n ce a n d e v e n t he fir st o n ly if t he fo r m sa t i sfi e d
,
?
t he r e qu ir e m e n t s of t he la w in t he ca se of c od i cil s
“
The D u t c h j u ri st s di scu ss a t s o m e l e n g t h w h e t h e r t h e r e
w a s a n y lo n g e r a n y di ffe r e n ce b e t we e n w ill s a n d c odi c il s .
G r oe n e w e ge n sa y s t h e r e i s n on e 5
De cke r ar gu e s wi th m u ch .
for ce t h at t he R om a n la w of c odi cils i s e n tir e ly for e i gn t o

t he la w of H oll a n d 5 ‘
V o e t sa ys t he la w of c odi cil s has .
,
b e e n ve r y n e a r ly a ssim ila te d t o t h a t of te st a m e n ts 5
Va n
’
.
de r K e e sse l d e te ct s so m e t h e n e x istin g di ffe r e n ce s 7

Bu t .
t od a y a s in E n gli sh la w t he d iffe re n ce b e tw ee n will s a n d

, ,
c od i cil s i s o n e of n a m e m e r e ly n o t of su b s t a n ce
5
e x ce p t ,
t h a t : I n t he or di n a r y c o ur se a c odi cil i s e m ploy e d m e r e ly

‘
for t he p u r po se of su ppl e m e n t in g a n d m a k in g a lte r a ti on s

i n a wi ll a n d i t i s u su a lly r e a d a s a n a n n e x u r e t o the m a in
,
do cu m e n t [Th ere for e ] wh e r e y o u h a ve a dist in ct di s

.
’ ‘
po sitio n m a de by will t h a t di spo sitio n ca nn ot b e r e voke d ,
by a co di cil e x ce p t thr ou gh t he m e di u m a n d u se of wor d s

5
e qu a lly c l e a r a n d d ist in ct
’
.
1 0 Ho w w i ll s a n d l e g a c i e s a r e r e v o ke d
.
10
A will .
1
D ig 2 9 7 6 3 ; V o e t , 2 9 7 2 ; G ir a r d , p 847
. . . . . . . .
5
U t V im e t ia m c o dic illo rum scr ipt u r a de b e a t o b t in e r e . Co d .
3 . 36 8 l . . .
5
G r 2 2 4 7 G r o t iu s s a y s a lso t ha t a w ill in w hi ch a n he ir is
. . . .
n o t in s t it u t e d t a ke s e ffe c t as a c o di c il b
y ir t u e o f t he c o dic illa r y V
c la u s e B u t e v e n in t he a b s e n c e o f su c h a c la u se t he w il l he ld go o d
.
.
V a n L e e u w e n , 3 2 2 , a n d D e cke r , a d lo c . . .
5
de leg a br a d In s t 2 2 5 .
5
ad V a n L e e u w e n , 3 2 2
. . . . . . .
5
29 7 5 . . .
7
T h 2 89
V
. .
5
E s t E bde n . E bde n [ 1 9 1 0 ] A D a t p 3 32 ; ( Ce y lo n ) G o on e
. . . .
w a r den e V
G o on ew a r den e ( 1 9 2 9 ) 3 1 N L R a t p 1 5
. . . . .
K V K
.
le yn [ 1 9 1 5 ] A D a t p 5 3 7 p er S o lo m o n J A
5
le yn E st . . . . . . .
F o r Ce y lo n , s e e O r d No 7 o f 1 840 , s e c 5 F o r Na t a l se e
1°
—
. . . .
L a w 2 o f 1 868, se c s 8 1 0 In t he o t he r pr o v in ce s t he r e is n o . .
s t a t u t o r y pr o v i sio n .
va lidl y m a de m a y be r e voke d : ( 1 ) by a su b se qu e n t will

, ,
r e voki n g t he e ar li e r will e xp r e s sly o r by im plic at io n .
In t he R o m a n L a w a l a te r will n e ce ssar il y re voke d a n

e a r li e r w il l B u t in t he m od e r n la w i t i s a qu e sti o n of
.
co n stru ctio n V o e t sa y s corr e c t ly t h a t t h e r e m u st b e a n

.
, ,
e xp r e ss r e vo c a t io n of t he e ar li e r w ill o t h e r w ise e ffe c t will ,
1
be give n so fa r a s t h e y ar e n o t irr e c o n cil a bl e to bo th
, , .
3
G r o t iu s followi n g t he Ro m a n L a w says t h a t a testa
5
, ,
m en tu m p a r en tis i n ter liber os c a nn o t b e r e vok e d e x c e p t by

a l a te r will e x e cu t e d i n s ol e m n for m a n d wi t h e xp re ss
m e n t io n t h a t t he l a te r w ill is i n te n d e d t o r e vok e t he for m e r .
B u t t od a y a se c o n d p r ivil e g e d will n o le ss t h a n a will

, ,
e x e c u te d wi t h t he u su a l fo r m a li t ie s will re vok e a n e ar li e r
5
pr ivil e ge d will if i t b e ars t h a t c on str u c t ion ; ( 2 ) by
,
de cl ar a t io n of i n te n t io n to r e voke in a n in stru m e n t e x e
ou te d wi t h t he fo r m ali t i e s p r op er t o a will Thi s is in .
e ffe c t a su b se qu e n t will d e cl a r in g t he te s t a to r s d e sir e t h a t

’
hi s e st a te sho u ld b e di str ib u te d as in t he ca se of in tes t a c y .
In t he R o m a n L a w i t w ou ld h a ve b e e n in v a li d fo r w a n t of
5
t he i n st i t u t io n of a n h e ir ; ( 3 ) by d e str u ct io n a n i mo r evo
5
ca ndi If t he w ill has b e e n e x e cu te d in d u pli ca te de st ru c
.
,
t io n of o n e d u pli ca t e a n im o r evoca ndi in v a lid a te s t he

o t he r B u t it se e m s t h a t t he de st ru ctio n of t he gr osse or
7
.
5
copy of a n o t ar i a l will l e a ve s t he will in t a c t a t a ll e ve n ts ,
u nl e ss a c o n t r ar y i n te n t io n i s p r ov e d If a will e x e cu te d .
by a t e st a t or w a s l a st se e n in hi s po sse ssio n a n d c a nn ot be
fo u n d o n his de a t h t he r e is a ( r e b u t t a ble ) p r e su m p tio n t h a t
,
V o e t , 2 8 3 8; R e E s t Whi ti n g [ 1 9 1 0 ] T P D 5 2 7 ; E x p a r te
1
. . . . . .
S che u ble [ 1 9 1 8] T P D 1 5 8; E x p a r te T a rr [ 1 9 41 ] C P D 1 0 4
. . . . . . .
5
G r 2 24 1 8 . . .
5
No v 1 0 7 , c a p 2
. . . .
5
Vi m p a n y V
A ttr idge [ 1 9 2 7 ] C P D 1 1 3 ; L e e , C om m e n ta r y ,
. . . .
p . 175 .
5
G r 2 24 1 6 ; Voe t, 2 8 3 1
. . . . . V dL. . . 1 9 11
. . L e e , C om m e n ta ry ,
p . 1 74 .
5
Cr . 2
24 1 5 ; V oet , 28 4 1
. . . . .
7
Ne ls on V
Cu rr e y ( 1 886 ) 4 S C 3 5 5
. . . .
5
G r o e n ad G r , u bi su p ; V o e t , u bi su p ;
. . u bi s u p . . .
D i ss e n ti t S cho r e r ad C L , 10 0 c i t V d K ( T h 3 3 0 ) sa y s t ha t t he . . . . . .
w ill is n o t r e v o ke d , u n l e ss it is sho w n t ha t t he t e s t a to r de s t r o y e d
t he gr o ss e w i t h t he in t e n t io n o f dy in g in te sta te Cf I n r e H err on , . .
E x p a r te Wa ter s ( 1 840 ) 2 M e n z 42 3 . .
1
e xt in gu i she d : ( a ) by e xpr e ss r e vo ca t ion by will or codi cil ;
( b) by i m pli e d r e voca t io n whi ch t a ke s pl a ce if t he su bj e ct ,
m a t te r of t he le g a cy i s give n a wa y or e x ce p t u n de r str e ss
5
of n e ce ssity sold ; ( c ) if t he le g a te e di e s b e fore t he te st a t o r ,
o r b e for e t he co n di t io n ( if a n y ) of t he l e g a cy has b ee n
5
i m ple m e n te d ; ( d) by e r a sur e &c in t he will a ni mo r evo , .
5
ca ndi .
A will whi ch has b e e n r e voke d by a l ate r will m a y b e

re v ive d by a n ot h e r will showin g a cle ar in te n t io n to r e vive
5
it . If t he re voki n g will is d e str oye d a n i mo r evoca ndi or
o t he r wise r e voke d t he e a r li e r will is r e vive d if t his is ,
5
cle ar ly shown t o h a ve b e e n t he te st a t o r s i n te n t io n ’
.
F i de ico m l l F i de i c o m m i s s a
. The stu d e n t who d e r iv e s hi s .
kn owle dg e of R o m an L a w a t fir st o r se con d h a n d fr o m t he
I nst i t u te s of G a iu s a n d Ju st in i a n m ay b e su ppo se d t o b e
fa m ili ar wi t h the ori gin a n d hi st or y of fide i co m missa as ,
m a d e kn own t o u s in t ho se wor ks He has l e ar n t t h at .
t he fide i c o m mi s su m owe d i ts b e gin nin g t o t he cu m b e r so m e

te chn ic a li t ie s of t he R o m a n syst e m of te st a m e n t a r y su c
ce ssio n an d in p a rt i cu l ar t o t he fa ct t h a t n o n e bu t
, , ,
R o m an cit iz e ns co ul d b e v a li dl y in st itu te d h e ir s B u t
7
.
he m a y so m e t im e s h a ve wo n d e r e d why t he fi de i co m m is
su m r e t a in e d i t s i m po r t a n ce i n a l a te r a ge wh e n t he codi c il ,
( w hi ch w a s t he u su a l ve hi cle of t he fide ico m mi ssu m ) so far

a s for m w e n t w as li tt le l e ss t e ch ni c a l t h a n t he fo r m a l
1
Cr 2 2 4 2 7 ; Vo et , 34 4 3
G r 2 2 4 2 8; V o e t , 3 4 4 5 —
. . . . . .
5
. . 6 G r o t iu s , fo ll o w in g D ig 3 4 4 3
. . . . . . . .
1 1 a n d le x 4, a dds se r io u s e n m it y b e t w ee n t e s ta to r a n d le ga te e
‘
G r oe n e w e ge n do u b ts ( de leg a br ad D ig l ib x x x i v , t it V oe t . . . . .
. . fi
( 3 4 4 5 ) a f r m s a n d e x t e n ds t he pr in c iple A c c o r din g t o G r o t iu s .
( 2 2 4 2 7 ) a le gac y m a y b e re v o ked b y a de c la r a t io n b e fore t w o

. .
w i t n e ss es — s ed qu ae r e V a n de r K ee ss e l sa y s ( Th 3 3 5 ) t ha t a
. .
le gac y m a y b e r e v o ke d b y a m a r gin a l n o t e in t he gr osse o r c o py

o f a n o ta r ia l w il l s ign e d b y t he t es t a t o r
5
S e e H o ll C ons 45 . . . V . .
G r 2 2 4 2 9 ; a n d S cho r e r , ad lo c
. . . V oe t , 3 4 4 9 . . . .
5
G r 2 24 2 7 . . . .
5
R e E s t; M a r ks [ 1 9 2 1 ] T P D 1 80 ; Wood E s t F a w cu s [ 1 9 3 5 ]
. . . V . .
C P D 3 5 0 ; E x p a rte G i llespi e [ 1 9 43] C P D 5 8

. . . . . .
V
.
Ne ls on v Cu rr ey ( 1 886 ) 4 S C 3 5 5 ; Wyn n e Wyn n e s E st

5 ’
. . . . .
( 1 9 0 8) 2 5 S C 9 5 1 . . .
7
A n d L a t in s G ir a r d , p 1 2 1 Pe re grin i po te r an t fide ico mm issa
. . .
c a pe r e : e t fe r e h ae c fu i t o r igo fi de ico mm isso ru m , G a iu s , ii 2 85 . .

TE STAME NTARY SUCCE SSI ON 3 75
t e st a m e n t ; andwhe n as a rul e t he cl a sse s disqu a lifi e d

, ,
fr om t a kin g by will we r e e qu a lly di squ a li fi e d fr om t a kin g

1
by fide ico m m issu m It i s po ssible t h a t it m a y h ar dl y h a ve
.
oc cu rr e d t o him t h at t he gr e a t p ar t whi c h t he fi de i co m
m issu m pl a ye d in t he R o m a n L aw w as du e n o t m e r e ly , ,
a n d p er h a p s n o t p r in cip a lly t o t he fa ct t h a t i t a ffo r de d

,
a n e sca p e fr o m t he fe tte r s of for m b u t m u c h m o r e t o t he ,
fa ct t h at it su ppli e d a n e a sil y a da p t a ble m e t hod of t yin g

u p p r op e r t y t hr o u gh su cce ssive g e n e r a t i o ns The fide i .
c o m m i ssu m of t he
ju s c ivil e w a s i n fa c t t he e qu i v a l en t of e m plo yed
wh at E n glish l a wye r s ca ll a se tt le m e n t Whe n t he r e for e

?
, ,
w e r e a d t he w e ll k n own for m u l a : B e T it iu s m y h e ir a n d
‘
-
,
le t hi m r e st or e t he i n he ri t a n ce t o Mae v iu s w e m u st r e
’
m e m b e r t h a t t o a id o u r co m p r e he nsi on t he situ a t ion is

, ,
p r e se n t e d a s it we r e i n vacu o In pr a ct ice it is hi ghl y

, ,
.
pr ob a ble t h a t t he dir e ction wo ul d b e t h a t Ti t iu s sho ul d

h a n d ove r the e st ate a t his de a t h or p e r h ap s a fte r t he , , ,
l a p se of a fix e d t im e o r o n t he o ccur r e n ce of so m e ce rt ain
o r u n ce r t a i n fu t ur e e ve n t .
I t i s n o t u n u su a l t o d e s cr ib e fide i co mmi ssa a s te sta Fide i

5 1 11 155 5
m e n t a r y t ru st s 5
P assi n g by t he obj e ctio n t h at t he y w e re 235 :
1
.
fr e qu e n t ly i n te n de d t o t a k e e ffe ct u po n a n i n te st a cy w e t rusts , .
m a y r e m ar k t h a t t o a pply t he t e r m s of ar t p r op e r t o o n e
syste mof la w t o a n o t h e r syst e m i n w hi ch t h e y a r e n o t
a t ho m e i s a lwa ys d a n ge r o u s a n d ofte n mi s l e a din g The .
di ffe r e n ce s b e t we e n t he t ru st a n d t he fi de i co m mi ssu m ar e
fu n d a m e n t al Thu s : ( 1 ) The di st in c ti o n b e t w e e n the le g a l
.
a n d t he e qu i t a ble e st a t e i s of t he e sse n ce of t he t ru st ; t he
ide a is for e ign t o t he fide i comm issu m ; ( 2 ) In t he tru st t he

le ga l own e r shi p of the tru stee a n d the e qu i ta ble own e r shi p
of t he b e n e fi ciar y ar e co n cu rr e n t a n d ofte n cc e x te ns ive ; ,
-
in t he fide i co m m i ssu m t he own e r shi p of t he fide i co m

m i ssar y b e gin s wh e n t he own e r sh ip of t he fidu ci ar y e n ds ;
( 3 ) I n t he t r u st t he in t e r e st of the b e n e ficiar y t hou gh ,
de scr ib e d a s an e qu it a ble own e r shi p is pr op e r ly ju s n e qu e ,
1
G ir a r d , p 9 7 7 . .
5
S e e e x a m ple s in Hu n t e r , Rom a n L a w , p 82 3 . .
5
e .
g . Hu n t e r , p 80 9
. .
1
ad rem
’
in re ne qu e ga inst the bona fide a li e n ee of t he ,
a
le g a l e st ate i t is p a r a lyse d a n d in e ffe ct u a l ; in t he fide i

co m m i ssu m t he fide i co m m issar y o n ce his i n te r e st has ,
ve ste d ha s a r ight whi ch he ca n m a ke good a ga inst a ll t he

,
wor ld a r i gh t which t he fidu ci ar y c a nn o t de str oy or b u r de n

,
?
by a li e n a tion or by ch a r ge ( 4) A fur t he r diffe r e n ce m or e ,
fa m ili a r p e r h a p s b u t n o t m ore im por ta n t t h a n t he o t h e r s

a lr e a dy m e n t io n e d i s t h a t whil e a t ru st is cr e a te d as ofte n
,
by a ct i n ter vi vos a s by l a st will in t he Rom a n L a w a ,
fide i c o m m issu m a lwa ys or a lm o st a lw a ys t ook e ffe ct , ,
c o m mi ssa m or tis ca u s a by vir t u e of a te st a m e n t o r codi c il V oe t 5

.
,
by in d e e d a n d o t h e r wr i te r s sa
, y t h a t a fide i co m m i ssu m c o ul d
w ill o r a ls o b e c r e a te d by a c t i n ter vi vos ; b u t t he p assa g e s fr o m
c odi cil ;
bu t m t he Cor p u s Jur 1s ol te d i n su ppor t of t hi s v 1 e w a r e n e 1 t h e r

n u m e r o u s n or c o n vin cin g
5
I n t he la w of H oll a n d i t w as .
b y ac t o t h e r wi se Tho u gh t he book s h a ve li ttle t o say o n t he

.
31329 su bj e c t i t i s c l e ar t h a t fide i co m missa w e r e ofte n cr e a te d

1
,
.
by an t e n u p tia l se tt le m e n t or o t h e r a ct i n ter vi vos A s t o

5
.
t he m ode r n law t h e r e ca n b e n o qu e st i o n The do u b t .
C hu dle i gh s c as e ( 1 5 89 ) 1 Co Re p a t 1 2 1 b
1 ’
. . .
5
Co d 6 43 3 3 ; V o e t , 6 1 6 ; 1 8 1 1 5 ; 3 6 1 64; V d L 1
. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9 8 i nfr a , p 383 S e e L a nge

5
. . . I/ies chi ng ( 1 880 ) F o o r d a t p 5 9
. V . . .
V o e t , 3 6 1 9 ; V in n i u s , T r ac t de p ac t , c a p x v , n o s 1 1 a n d 1 2
. . . . . . .
5
D ig 1 6 3 2 6 pr ; D ig lib x x x ii , le x 3 7 3 ; Co d 8 5 4
. . . . 3. . . . .
D ig lib x x x , le x 7 7 B u t su ch a f c fa lls sh o r t o f a f c in t he ful l

. . . . . .
se n se , if V o e t a n d V inni u s a r e r ight in sa y in g t ha t i t ga v e r ise t o a
pe rson a l a c t io n m e r e ly , n o t t o a in di ca t io n V .
I t se e m s t ha t t he y w e r e r e c o gn iz e d t o ha v e t he sa m e e ffe c t a s
5
fide ic o m m iss a a r is in g mor ti s ca u s a B y a Pla caa t o f t he S t a te s o f .
H o lla n d a n d We st Fr ie slan d o f Jul y 3 0 , 1 6 2 4 ( 1 G P B a ll . . .
fide ic o mm is sa o r pr o hib it io n s o f a lie n a t io n a ffe c t in g im m o v a b le

pr o pe r t y w e r e t o b e de s t it u t e o f e ffe c t u n l e ss r e gis t e r e d B u t t his .
Plac a a t , a s V o e t t e lls u s ( 36 1 w a s n e v e r in t r o du c e d in t o . .
pr a c t ic e a n d so b e c a m e o b so le te R e chts Obs , pt i , n o 42 ; V d . . . . . . . K .
3 19 F o r a n e a r ly c as e , in t he m o de r n la w , o f fide ic o m m issu m
.
c r e a t e d b y an t e n u pt ia l c o n t r a c t se e B u i s s i n n e M u lde r ( 1 83 5 ) V .
l Me n z 1 6 2 Se e a lso D u P les s is
. . E s ta te M ey er [ 1 9 1 3 ] C P D V . . . .
1 0 0 6, a n d B r i t S A G o B u la w a yo M u n i c [ 1 9 1 9 ] A D 84 A
. . . . V . . . . .
f c in r e spe c t o f imm o v a b le pr o pe rt y du ly r e gis t e r e d c o n fe rs a

. .
ju s i n r em Ib id a t p 9 7 , E x p a r te Ne l [ 1 9 2 9 ] N P D 2 40
. . . . . . .
F ide ic o mm issa c r e a t e d b y a ct i n ter vi vos a r e e v e n m o r e s t r ic t ly

c o n s t ru e d t han fi de i c o mm is sa c r e a t e d b y t e s ta m e n t H oll Con s . . .
i ii 1 1 1 The y a r e ir r e v o ca b le a fte r a cce pt an c e b y t he fide ic o m m is

. .
sar y w it h o u t h is c o n se n t E x p a r te Or la ndi n i [ 1 9 3 1 ] O P D 1 41 . . . . .
t io n t a k e s ef
fe ct
fa vo u r of t he as a fide i co mm issu m in
p oe r s n or cl ss of p e r s on s in di ca te d Wh e r e t he r e is n o
a
1
.
su c h i n di ca t i o n t he p r ohi bi ti o n i s
‘
n u de a n d wholly i n
’
,
ope r a tive If the he ir i s for b idde n t o a li e n a te t he p rope rt y

?
o u t of t he fa m ily t he la w r a i se s a c o n di ti o n a l fi de i co m
m i ssu m in fa vo ur of t he i n t e st a t e h e ir s 5 so t h a t t he h e ir ,
i s n o t fr e e t o di spo se of t he p r op e rt y o u t of the fa mily

e i t h e r by a ct i n ter vi vos or by will 5 Su ch w a s t he e ffe ct .
i n H oll a n d g e n e r a lly ; b u t in A m ste r d a m a p r ovis o of thi s

n a t ur e w as a l m o st d e st it u t e of e f fe ct fo r i t w as c o n stru e d ,
a s m e r e ly p r e s cr i b in g t he c o u r se of d e s c e n t in r e sp e ct of
so m u c h of t he p r ope r t y as t he h e ir ha d n o t a li e n a te d i n ter
5
vi vos o r di spo se d of by his t e st a m e n t .
N e ar ly b u t n o t qu i te t he sa m e fre e do m of ali e n a tion

, ,
i s e n j oye d by t he h e ir who i s give n powe r t o di m inis h o r
1
H a ll Con s i i ( pt
. . . 19 ;
1 3 1 ; E x p a r te Va n E ede n [ 1 9 0 5 ] V .
T S 1 5 1 ; I n r e E st
. . le i n ha ns [ 1 9 2 7 ] C P D 7 3 . K . . . .
5
E x p a r te F u lton [ 1 9 1 2 ] C P D 86 8; E x p a r te L aas [ 1 9 2 3] . . .
N P D 1 0 4 ; Ne ls on v Ne ls on s E s t [ 1 9 3 2 ] C P D 39 5 ; E x p a rte
. . .
’
. . . . .
B ade n hor s t [ 1 9 3 7 ] T P D 1 7 4 ; ( Ce y lo n ) K i thi r a tn e S a lgado

. . . V
V
.
( 1 9 3 2 ) 3 4 N L R a t p 7 7 ; A m a r a s eker e . . P odi M e n i ka ( 1 9 3 2 )
. . .
3 4 N L R 82 . . . .
5
i e o f t he las t po sse ssor ( u s u a lly ) , n o t o f t he s e t t lo r H u b e r ,
. . .
2 1 9 6 8 Th is is ca lle d a fide i com m is su m fa m ili a e

. . . .
5
G r 2 2 0 1 2 V o e t , 3 6 1 2 7 if t he f c is c o n di t io na l , b e c a u se
. . . . . . .
it t a ke s e fi e c t o n l y in t he e v e n t o f a pr o hi b it e d a l ie n a t io n t a kin g
pla ce No t o n ly is su c h a lie n a t io n v o id , b u t t he in t e r e st o f t he
.
a li e n o r i s fo r t hwi t h d e te r m i n e d a n d t he in t e r e st o f t he he ir s
im m e di a t e ly v e s ts in po sse ss ion S o t he la w is sta t e d b y S a n de .
( de pr ohib r er a li e na t 3 4 7 .
( A s r e ga r ds t he e ffe ct o f a
. . . .
j u di c ia l sa l e s e e b e lo w , p In J os ef v M u lde r [ 1 9 0 3 ] A O 1 9 0 , . . . .
2 0 S C 1 44 t he P C h e ld t ha t a dir e c t io n t ha t t he pr o pe r t y s ho ul d
. . . .
n e v e r b e s o ld o r par t e d w it h in fa v o u r o f a s t r a n ge r
‘ ’
w as n o t
infr in ge d b y a m o r t ga ge B u t se e Co d 4 5 1 7 , a n d H u be r , . . . .
H eeds n s da e gs Rec htsg 2 1 9 5 8; E x p a r te D e Ja ger [ 1 9 2 6] N P D

. . . . . . .
41 3 A s t o le as e s a d lo n gu m t e m pu s se e S a n de , o p c it 1 1 45
. . . . . .
H u b e r ( se c 5 9 ) s a y s t ha t if t he dir e c t io n is t ha t t he pr o pe r t y is
.
n o t t o b e a li e n a t e d o u t o f t h e fa m ily t h e du c ia r y m a y le a v e i t b y fi
w ill t o a n y o n e o f t he fa m i ly n e a r o r r e m o t e S ecu s , if t he pr o pe r t y .
is le ft to t he fa m il y ( ge m ae kt ae n he t ge sla c hte ) E x p a r te E s t . .
Oden da a l [ 1 9 33 ] O P D 1 2 2 F o r t he dis t in c t io n b e t w ee n a f c . . . . . .
fa m ilia e
‘
V
e r b is in r e m c o n c e pt is
’
an d
‘
e r b is in pe r so n a m c o n V
c e pt is , se e V o e t , 3 6 1 2 8;
’
n i on G ov t Oli vi e r [ 1 9 1 6 ] A D 7 4
. . U . V . . .
M oolm a n V
E s t M oo lm a n [ 1 9 2 7 ] A D 1 33 ; ( Ce y l o n ) S op i n o n a . . V .
V
. .
A beyw a r de n e ( 1 9 2 8) 3 0 N L R 2 9 5 ; P a lip a n e T a lde n a ( 1 9 2 9 ) . . . .
3 1 N L R 19 6 G r u bi su p V o e t , 3 6 1 5 See V d K 3 1 8
5
. . . . . . . . . . . . .
TE STAME NTARY SUCCE SSI ON 37 9
wa ste t he pr op e r ty wit h a dir e cti on t o m a ke ove r the ,
r e sid u e t o s o m e p e r s o n n a m e d by t he te st a t o r ( fideicom
1
m issu m r esidu i ) I n t h is ca se t he h e ir m a y fr e e ly di spo se .
2
of thre e qu a rte r s of t he e st a te o t he r wise t h a n by fr au du
5
le n t don a t io n or l a st will le a vin g o n e qu arte r o n ly t o t he ,
fide i co m m issar y fo r whi ch t he fid u ciar y u n l e ss a b solve d ,
5
by t he te st a t or m u st give se cu r it y ; if he ha s a lie n a te d
m or e t h a n t hr e e qu ar t e r s t he good s l as t a li e n a te d m a y b e ,
5
foll o w e d in t he h a n ds of t he a lie n e e .
V er y ofte n t he fide i co m m issu m d e p e n ds u po n a c o n Co n di

51° n 5 1
di t io n a s wh e re a wife is appoin te d h e ir wit h a gift ove r
,
i n t he e ve n t of r e m arr i a g e : e g: I a ppoin t m y wife Ja n e

‘
-
. mi ssa .
m y h e ir ; b u t if she m arr i e s a ga in I d e sir e he r t o m a k e, ,
ove r t he pr op e rt y t o m y b r o t he r H e nr y ; o r wh e n a so n ’
i s a ppoin t e d h e ir wi t h a gift ov e r in t he e ve n t of hi s dyin g

u n d e r t he a e of fi v e a n d t w e n t y
g
5
B u t t he c o m m o n e st - -
.
c o n di t io n i s t h a t whi ch p r ovide s t h a t t he goods a re t o go
ove r i f t he fir st t a ke r di e s wi t ho u t chi ldr e n The for m u l a .
No v 1 ; G r 2 2 0 1 3 ; V a n L e e u w e n , 3 8 9 ; Hu b e r ,
1
. 1 0 8, ca p . . . . . .
2 1 9 1 0 3 ; V d K 3 2 0 M cCa r thy v New ton ( 1 86 1 ) 4 S ea r le 6 4 ;

. . . . .
V
. .
E s t M oor r e es
. B oa r d of E x or s , Cap e T ow n [ 1 9 39 ] A D 41 0 : E s t
. . . . .
S m i th V
E s t F o lle tt [ 1 9 42 ] A D 3 6 4 ( Ce y lo n ) Vee r a p i lla i
. . a n ta r . . VK .
( 1 9 2 8) 30 N L R 1 2 1 ; F ern a nd o v A lw is ( 1 9 3 5 ) 3 7 N L R 20 1
. . . . . . . .
The sa m e r e su lt fo llo w s w he n a u su fr u c t w i t h a po w e r o f a lie n a t io n

j
has be e n le ft su b e c t t o a c o n di t io n t ha t t he pr o pe r t y sh o u ld b e re
st o r e d a ft e r de a t h V d K 372 . . . . .
5
G r o t iu s sa y s o n e fo ur t h ; b u t t his is a sl ip c o rr e c t ed in G r o e n e
I n c e r ta in ca s e s he m i ght dis po se o f
’
w e ge n s a n d la te r e di t io ns .
t he w h o le , v iz e x c a u s a do t is s e u pr o pt e r n u pt ias d o n a t io n is se u
.
c a pt iv o ru m r e de m pt i o n is v e l s i n o n ha b e a t u n de fa c ia t e xpe n s as .
No v 1 0 8 ( A D . A u t he n t ica a d Co d 6 49 6 ; G r lo c c i t
. . . . . . . .
5
V o e t , 3 6 l 5 4 ; V a n L ee u w e n , 3 8 9 ; V d K D i c ta t a d G r
. . . . . . . . .
2 2 0 1 3 a n d T h 3 2 0 ; L e e , C om m e n ta r y , a d 10 0
. . . .
5
E x p a r te B err a n ge [ 1 9 3 8] W L D 3 9 . . . .
5
D is t in gui s h t he c ase o f a m u t u a l w ill b y w hi c h t he spo u se s
r e c ipr o c a lly in st it u t e e a ch o t he r he ir s w it h
po w e r o f a lie n a t io n a n d
d ir e c t t ha t w ha t e v e r is le ft o f t he m a sse d e sta te sha ll b e div ide d
b e t w e e n t he h e ir s o f t h e spo u se s I n t his c ase t h e s u r vi v in g spo u se .
is fr e e t o a lie n a te t he w ho le e sta t e b y ac t i n te r vi vos , e v e n b y

do n a t io n if n o t m ad e in fr a u d o f t he he irs V o e t , 3 6 1 5 6 ; Co r e n , . . .
Obs x i , p 43 ; H a ll C ons , i v 2 7 8; B ijn k O T i 9 81 ; B r ow n

. . . . . . . . . V .
Ri cka r d ( 1 883 ) 2 S C 3 1 4 ; I n r e J or da a n s E s t ( 1 90 7 ) 2 4 S C 84
’
. . . . .
B o tha Va n der VyverV . 2 5 S C 7 60 E x p a r te Ve n te r [ 1 9 2 0 ] . . .
O P D 1 5 3 ; K ems ley
. . . K e ms le y [ 1 9 3 6] C P D 5 1 8 V . . . . .
5
Hu b e r , 2 1 9 44 . . .
is om e thi n g of thi s kin d : If m y h e ir di e s wi t ho u t chi ldr e n

s
I will t h a t he sh a ll le t t he pr op e r ty which c o m e s t o hi m
fr o m m e go t o m y n e ar e st of kin t h e n in b e in g The e ffe c t
‘
.
’
is t h a t t he gift ove r is o nl y r e a li z e d i n c ase t he h e ir l e a ve s

n o l e gi t im a t e childr e n su r vivi n g him a t t he d a te of his
1
de ath .
If t he cl au se s i s i n e liber i s decesser i t w as e xp r e ssly

i n se r te d as t he c o n di t io n of a g ift ove r t a kin g e ffe c t a n d
t he fir st t a ke r ha d c hildr e n who su r vi v e d hi m t he g ift ,
ove r wo u ld ce r t a in ly fa il ; bu t wh e t h e r a fide i co m m is su m
woul d b e i m pli e d in fa vou r of the childr e n w a s disp u t e d .
G r o t iu s sa ys t h a t a n e ga t ive a n swe r is co mm o nl y give n

u nl e ss t he t e st a t o r w as a n a n c e st o r or t he childr e n a r e ,
t h e m se lve s ch ar ge d wi t h a fide i co mm i ssu m o r fr o m o t h e r ,
cir cu m st an ce s i t a pp e ar s t h a t t he t e st a t or i n te n de d t h a t
?
t he y sho u ld b e n e fi t u n de r hi s w ill
If howe ve r t he t e st a t or w a s a n a n ce st o r n o t only do e s ,
t he a bov e m e n ti o n e d cl au se cr e a te a fide i co m m issu m i n

-
fa vou r of t he c hildr e n b u t e ve n if t he clau se ha s b e e n ,
?
o m it te d i t will b e r e a d in t o t he will wi t h t he sa m e r e su l t
Fo r if a n a sce n d a n t c on fe r s a b e n e fi t by his will u po n a
de s ce n d a n t who w a s childl e ss a t t he d a te of t he will wit h ,
a n u n qu a li fi e d gift ov e r in t he e v e n t of su c h d e sce n d a n t s
’
de a t h n o n e t he le ss if a t t he d a te of hi s de at h su ch
, , , ,
de s ce n d a n t le a ve s childr e n su r vivin g hi m a fide i co m ,
m issu m will b e i m plie d in t he ir fa vo u r in de r og a t io n of

1
V o e t , 3 6 1 1 3 ff ; H u b e r , 2 1 9 45—6
. . . . . .
5
G r 2 2 0 5 ; H u b e r , 2 1 9 30 I in s t it u t e m y b r o t he r ; if he
. . . . . .
di e s w it ho u t c hil dr e n , t he pr o pe r t y t o go o v e r t o m y n e phe w This .
do e s n o t c r e a t e a f c in fa v o u r o f t he b r o t he r s c hildre n Ib id
’
. . . .
se c 5 5 . V o e t ( 3 9 5 44) o b se r v e s : Ni t it u r sc ili c e t t o t a qu ae st io n is
. . .
hu ju s de finit io e x de t e r m in a t io n e c o n t r o v e r s ia s , a n po sit i in c o n
dit io n e c e n s e a n t u r e t ia m po s it i in dispo s it io n e S e e a ls o Ne os tad . .
D ecis va n den H ov e , No 2 2 ; V a n L e e u w e n , 3 8 1 2 ; V o e t , 2 8
'
. . . . .
. j
2 1 0 ; B i uk O T i 1 0 3 2 ; S te en ka mp
. . . M a r a i s ( 1 9 0 8) 2 5 S C
. V . . .
483 ; E x p a r te Ode nda a l [ 1 9 2 6] O P D 2 2 3 ; R e es e Regis tr a r of . . . V .
D eeds [ 1 9 3 8] C P D 45 9 . . . .
5
Thi s m a y pe r ha ps , in ie w o f E x p ar te Odend aa l, se e m t o b e V ’
B u t if de sc e n da n t s po s it i in c o n di t io n e
‘
s t a t e d t o o a b so lu t e ly .
a r e t o b e t a ke n t o b e po s it i in dispo s it io n e it is co rr e c t I t c a n n o t
‘
.
m a ke a n y diffe r e n ce w he t he r t he c o n di t io n is e x pr e s s o r im pl ie d .
Cf V o e t , 3 6 l 1 7 i n fi n
. . . . .
3 82 THE LAW OF SUCCE SS I ON
u se s . If t he fide i co m m issu m is xpr e sse d t o t a ke e ffe ct e
a t o n ce t he fid u ci a r y will b e a c o n d ui t pip e t o c o n v e y t he
,
-
p r op e r t y t o t he b e n e fi ci ar y If o n t he o t he r h an d t he .
, ,
ve st in g of t he fide i co mmi ssu m is po stpo n e d t he fid u ci a r y ,
will b e in t he po siti o n of a n own e r in fe e si m ple su bj e ct t o

a n e x e cu t o r y li m i t a t io n ov e r t o a n o t h e r Upo n t he hap .
p e ni n g of t he c o n te m pla te d e v e nt t he own e r ship will shift

ove r t o t he fide ico m m issar y If t he t e r m s of t he fide i co m .
m issu m in volve d a ct i ve d u t ie s in r e l a t io nt o t he p r op e r t y ,
t he c a se wou ld n o do u b t b e di ffe r e n t I n su ch a c a se
, , .
a n a c t u a l c o n ve y an c e wo u l d b e n e ce ssa r y t o t r a n sfe r t he
pr op e rt y t o t he fide i com m issar y own e r 1

.
L e t u s n o w c o n fi n e o u r a t te n t ion t o t he m o st u su a l c a se
of fide i co mm issu m v iz wh e r e t he fid u ci ar y is i n te n de d t o
, .
‘ ’
t a k e a life i n t e re st a n d t o r e st or e t he p r op e r ty u po n his
de a t h Wh a t is hi s po sitio n ? In t he fir st pl a ce u n l e ss
.
,
t he t e st a t or ha s dir e c te d o t h e r wi se ? he m u st give se cur i t y

fo r t he r e st or a t io n of t he p r op e r t y u n di m in i sh e d i n ,
5
a m o u n t a n d v a lu e t o t he p e r so n e n t i t l e d t o su c ce e d hi m
, .
I n t he in t e r v a l he i s do m in u s a n d m a y e x e r ci se a ll r igh t s ,
of do m ini o n n o t i n co n si ste n t w it h t he r ight s of hi s su c

c e sso r
4
.Like the u su fr u ctu ar y he m ay t r a n sfe r hi s r ight ,
of e n j oym e n t t o a n o t h e r r e m a ini n g li a ble howe ve r t o t he

, , ,
fide i co m m issar y fo r t he a c t s a n d d e fa ul t s of t he tr a n sfe r e e .
N e x t pu t t he case of a fide i co m m issu m e xp r e sse d t o

,
t a ke e ffe c t u pon t he h a pp e ni n g of a c o n t e m pl a t e d e ve n t
d ur in g t he life t im e of t he fidu ci ar y whi ch e ve n t ha s ,
h a pp e n e d Ha s he ip so ju r e ce a se d t o b e do m in u s ? It
.
1
Wh a t is st a t e d in t he t e x t is t r u e in t he m o de r n la w in so far
a s a fi de i c o mm is s a r i u s w ho se t it le h a s m a t u r e d has a r ight o f
a c t io n t o v in di c a t e t he pr o pe r t y ( 2 Maa sd o r p , p B u t b y t he .
l a w o f S o u t h Afr ic a h is t it le w ill b e in co m ple t e ( a n d pe r ha ps i1 1

s e cu r e ) u n t il h e h as o b t a in e d t r an s fe r
‘
I t i s t he t r an s fe r w hi c h .
giv e s t he d o m in iu m Op c it p 82 ; s u p r a , p 1 46
’
. . . . . .
5
Hu b e r , 2 1 9 1 3 4; V d K 5 1 1 ( m is t r a ns lat e d b y L o r e n z ) , n on
. . . . .
o bs ta n te V o e t , 3 6 3 6 ( ad
. . .S e e a lso V a n L e e u w e n , 3 8 1 8 . . .
5
Hu b e r , 2 1 9 83 a n d 1 3 1 H e m u st a lso m a ke a n in v e n t o r y
. . . .
Fr o m t his du t y he c a nn o t b e e x cu se d e v e n b y t he t e st a t o r him se lf .
V o e t , 3 6 1 3 6 ; Ne ost a d , S u pr Cu r D e cis No 9 1 ; B i u k O T
. . . . . . j . . .
i 6 9 4, a n d Qu a es t J u r P r i v L ib i ii cap 1 0
. . . . . . . .
5
Va n der Wa lt v R egi s tr a r of D ee ds [ 1 9 35 ] C P D 46 3
. . . . .
TE STAME NTAR Y SUCCE SSI ON 383
se e m s t h a t he ha s . ve n ts he c ann o t de a l wit h t he C n t he
At a ll e ,
a
b u r de n e d pr op e r t y so a s t o give a good t it le t o a n inn o W

, a
c e nt p u r ch a se r Thi s 1 8 e xp r e ssly e n a cte d m Cod

. 3 goo d t itle .
t o t he followi n g e ffe ct :
pu r chas e r
w i t ho t u
If a le g a cy o r fide i co m mi ssu m b e le ft t o a n y o n e Wl t h a
c
,
n o t ic ? e
c o n di ti o n o f su b st it u t io n o r r e stit u t io n e it he r in a n u n c e r t a m
.
In Ro m a n
,
e v e n t o r in a ce r t a in e v e n t b u t a t a n in de fin i te t im e he w ill do L a ,
b e tte r if m the se ca se s he r e fr ains fr o m se llin g o r m ort ga gi ng

t he pr o p e r t y l e st he sho u ld e x po se hi m se lf t o st ill gr e a t e r
,
bur de n s u n de r a cla im o f e vi ctio n B u t if in his lu st for w e alt h

.
he sho ul d ha st ily pr o ce e d t o a sa le o r m or t ga ge in t he h0 pe t ha t
t he c o n di tio n s w ill n o t t ak e e ffe ct : le t him kn o w t ha t u po n t he ,
fulfil m e n t o f t he co n di t i on t he t ra n sa ct io n wi ll b e t r e a te d as
,
of n o e f fe ct fr o m t he b e ginni n g s o t ha t pr e scri pt ion will n o t

,
r u n a g a in st t he l e g a t e e or fide i co m m i ssa r A n d t hi s r ul e w ill

y .
,
in o u r O pini o n e qu all y o bt a in w he t he r t he l e g a cy ha s b e e n l e ft
,
u n co n dit i o n a lly o r to t a k e e f fe ct a t so m e ce rt ai n o r un ce rta in

fu tu r e t im e o r in a n
, u n c e rt a in e v e n t B u t in a ll t he se
. c a se s le t
t he fu ll e st li b e rt y be giv e n t o t he l e ga te e or fide i c o m missar y to
l
c ai m t he
pr ope r t y a s hi s o w n an d le t n o ,
o b st a cle b e pl a c ed in
1
his w a y by t hose w ho de t a in t he pr o pe rt y
’
.
Th a t t he p r in ciple s se t for t h i n t hi s la w we re a cce p te d in Ro m n a
Du mb
a s p a r t of t he la w of H oll a n d adm i t s of n o do u b t It w ill m La
.
b e ob se r ve d t h a t h e re t h e re is n o te n d e r r e g ar d fo r t he
bon a fide p u r ch a se r t hou gh a t a n e ar li e r p e ri od in t he
,
hi st or y of Ro m a n L a w he w a s p re fe rr e d to t he fide i co m
?
mi ssari u s The m ode r n la w se e m s t o h a v e r e a c h e d t he
sa m e r e sul t in fa vo u r of a p ur c h a se r wi t ho u t n o ti ce who
ha s ob t a in e d re g iste r e d t r a n sfe r .
N e x t le t u s conside r t he po sitio n if : ( a ) t he fidu cia r y Whe n

,
fide ic m o
di e s b e for e t he te st a t o r ( b) t he fide i co m mi ssary di e s b e fore
,
t he fid u ci a r y or b e for e a n y o t h e r e ve n t u po n whi ch t he f lls to

,
a
ve st in g of t he fi de i co mm issu m de p e n ds I n p r in ciple the e ffe ct .
r e sul t i n e a ch ca se i s t he s a m e t he fide i c o m mi ssu m fa ils .
“5
I n the fir st ca se t h e r e is n o o n e b u r d e n e d in t he se c on d ,
D e J ager v S che ep e r s ( 1 880 ) F o o r d a t p 1 2 3 p er D e V ill ie rs

1
. .
C J w he re t his pas sa ge i s c it e d
. . P a u l S en t 4
.
5
, . .
5
L a nge VI/ieschi ng ( 1 880 ) F o o r d a t p 5 9 ; i nfr a , p
. . . 43 5
( Ce y lo n ) D e S i lva v Wagap ad igede r a ( 1 9 2 9 ) 3 0 N L R
. . . . 317 ,
K u sm a w a thi V
Wee r as inghe ( 1 9 3 2 ) 3 3 N L R 2 6 5
V o e t , 3 6 l 6 9 ; Hu b e r , 2 1 9 1 1 2 —
. . . . .
5
. . 21 . . .
1
c a se t he r e is i tl e d B u t in c a se ( a ) sin ce to day
n o o ne e nt .
,
-
t he h e ir ha s b e en r e pl a ce d by t he t e st a m e n t ar y e x e cu t o r ,
t he d e a t h of t he fid u ci a r y b e fo r e t he t e st a t o r n o lo n g er pre
5
ve n ts t he fide i co m m issar y fr o m cl a im in g u n de r t he will ;
n o r a g a in i s b e e x c l u d e d fr o m t he su cce ssio n if t he fidu
, , ,
?
c i ar y r e p u di a t e s t he i nhe r i t a n ce In c a se ( b) it i s a lw a ys .
po ssible fo r a t e st a t or t o m a k e a dir e ct su b st itu ti o n in

fa vo u r of the childr e n of t he fide i co mm issa ry so t h a t t h e y ,
will t a ke hi s pl a ce a n d wh e re t he t e st a t or ha s n o t do n e so
, ,
in e xp r e ss t e r m s a n i n t e n ti on t o do so w ill so m e t i m e s b e
,
4
i nfe r r e d ex conjectu r a p i eta ti s Th e r e ar e o t h e r ca se s t o o
'
in w hi c h a fide i co m mi ssu m is n o t h e ld t o fa il if t he fide i

c o mm i ssa r y do e s n o t sur vive t he fid u ci ar y : If fo r in ‘
st a n c e t he fid u ci ar y i s a m e r e tru st e e t o a d m ini ste r a

,
tr u st fo r a ce r t a in p e r iod wi t ho u t a n y b e n e fici a l in t e r e st ,
o r a cc o r di n g t o V o e t ( 3 6 1 if t he fide ico m m issu m . .
we r e cr e a te d by c o n tr a ct the i m pli ca t ion woul d n o t or di ,
5 ’ ?
n a ri ly a ri se B u t o n t hi s l a st po in t op ini o n s v ar ie d
. If
t he fi de i co m m issar y dis cl a im s his r igh t t he fid u ci ar y in t he ,
7
a b se n ce of a co n tr a r y i n t e n t io n ha s t he a b s ol u t e do m in i u m .
Fr om wh a t ha s b e e n sa id it will be se e n t h at w h e n a
life in te r e st is giv e n by will it is of t he u t m o st im por t a n ce
t o fin d o u t wh e t h e r t he t e st a t or i n t e n d e d t o cr e a te t he
life i n te r e st by w a y of fide i co m m issu m o r by w a y of
u su fru c t
?
Fr om t he poin t of Vie w of t he te n a n t for life
1
V o e t , 3 6 l 6 7 ; H u b e r , 2 1 9 3 1 a n d 5 0 ; Va n D y k
. . Va n . . V .
D yk s E x or s ( 1 89 0 ) 7 S C a t p 1 9 6
’
. . . . .
5
Whi te v L a nds ber g s E x or s [ 1 9 1 8] C P D 2 1 1 : ( Ce y lo n ) S her ifi
.
’
. . . .
v . Yoosu b ( 1 9 44) 46 N L R l . . . .
5
E x p a r te D e J a ger [ 1 90 7 ] T S 2 83 ; Va n der M erw e v Va n der . . .
M er w e s E x tr i x [ 1 9 2 1 ] T P D 9
’
. . . . .
5
V o e t , u bi s u p ; H u b e r , 2 1 9 3 8; E s t . e mp v M cD o n a ld s
’
. . . K .
Tru s tee [ 1 9 1 5 ] A D a t p 5 0 1 . . .
. .
5
J e wi s h C o lon i a l T ru s t E s t Na tha n [ 1 9 40 ] A D a t p 1 7 7 V . . . . . .
5
Wa sse n a a r , P r a m J u di e ca p 1 8, se c 1 2 6 ; B r i t S A C o v. . . . . . . . .
B u la w a y o M u n i c [ 1 9 1 9 ] A D a t p 9 5 ; ( Ce y l o n ) B a lkis v P er er a
. . . . .
( 1 9 2 7 ) 2 9 N L R 2 84 I n so m e c as e s t he fide ic o mm iss a ry m a y
. . . .
c la im t h e pr o pe r t y e v e n b e fo r e t he v e s t in g o f t he f c , n o t a b ly if . .
fi
t he du c i a r y ha s a lie n a t e d a ll t he pr o pe r t y Ib id s e c 1 2 5 . . . .
7
V o e t , 3 6 1 65 . . .
5
S tr ydo m v S tr ydom s Tru s te e ( 1 89 4) 1 1 S C 42 5 ; Com m r s of
’
. . . .
I n la n d R e v v E s t H o lla r d [ 1 9 2 5 ] T P D 1 5 4; E x p a r te Ci lli er s
. . . . . .
t h a t , in c a se of dou b t ,
t he c o nstru c tion sho u ld be a g a in st
’1
a fideicommissu m .
I t has b e e n ob se r v e d bove t h at t he chi e f u se of t he a
fide i co m mi ssu m w as t o t ie u p p r op e r t y t hr ou gh su cce e din g

g e n e r a t ions We a r e t old in t he I ns t it u te s t h at a te st a t o r
.
mi ght ch ar g e a fidei co m m i ssu m n o t o nl y o n a n h e ir or

le g a te e b u t a lso o n a fide i co m m issary In t hi s w ay t he
, .
t e st a t or m igh t t ie u p t he p r op e r t y for so lon g a s he ple a se d .
Ha d t he R om a n a n d t he R o m a n D u t ch L aw t h e n n o -
, ,
Ru l e a g a in st P e r pe t u i tie s ? Ye s ; b u t o n e whi ch as in te r
‘
p r e t e d i n a l a t e r a ge g a v e w a
y b e fo r e t h e c l e a r
,
ly e xp r e sse d
i n te n tio n of t he t e st a t or t o ove rr ide it The r u le whi c h .
,
i s d e r iv e d fr o m Ju stin i an s 1 5 9th Nove l ( A D

’
is . .
5
st at e d by V o e t i n t he foll owi n g te rm s :
‘
Now sin ce b e en fr e qu e n t m e ntion o f a p e rpe t u al
t her e ha s
fide i c om mi ssu m in the pr e ce din g se cti o n s it sh o ul d be kn o w n ,
t ha t it ha s b e e n g e n e r ally he ld t ha t w he r e t he r e is an y d o u bt
su ch p e r p e t u it y o nl y e x t e n ds t o t he four t h ge n e r a t io n a n d
t h at t he r e a ft e r t he pr o p e r t y i s u n bu r de n ed so t ha t t he fifth ,
ge n e r ati on i s a ble t o di spose t he r e o f at w ill ; u n le ss t he r e b e

cle a r e vi de n c e o f a co n t r ar y in t e n t io n o n t he p a rt of t he
t e st at o r d e sir in g t o su bj e ct t he pr ope r t y t o a fur t he r bu r de n

, .
Fo r it se e m s t hat w e ca nn ot de n y t he t e st a t or s ri ght t o
’
m ul t iply t he d e gr e e s o f fide i com mi ssa ry su b stit u tio n a t his

di scr e t i on i n i nfin i tu m a s in the ca se o f dir e ct su b st it u tio n
’
.
The t e st at or t h e n m ay t ie u p t he p r op e r t y for e v e r if
, ,
he pl e ase s B u t t he m or e u se of t he wor d p e r pe t u a l
‘ ’
.
,
?
or t he lik e i s n o t su f ,
fi cie n t t o p r od u c e t hi s re su l t
Thu s if he sa ys : I will t h a t m y goods a fte r the de a t h
,
‘
of m y fir st h e ir sh a ll de sce n d t o m y n e x t of kin t h e n in
b e in g a n d t h at t h e y sh a ll a lwa ys go fr om o n e t o the o th e r
1 ’
G or don s B a y E s ta tes V
S m u ts [ 1 9 2 3] A D a t p 1 6 6 ; E x p a r te . . . .
S a di e [ 1 9 40 ] A D a t p 30 B u t it has b e e n sa id t ha t t he r e is n o
. . . .
p r e su m p t io n a ga in s t f c in fa v o u r o f u s u fr u c t M. il le r v. A ttw e ll . .
[ 1 9 2 7 ] C P D 1 5 0 ; E x p a rte Wa r d [ 1 9 2 8] C P D 7 0 ; con tr a ,
. . . . . .
C om m r s of I n la n d R ev v H olla r d [ 1 9 2 5 ] T P D a t p 1 6 3
. . . . . . . .
5
V oe t , 36 l 3 3 . . .
5
E x p a r te B a r n a r d [ 1 9 2 9 ] T P D 2 7 6 Cf Sa n de , D ecis F r is . . . . . . .
4 5 4, w he r e t he he a d n o t e ru ns : Pe r pe t u u m fide ico mm iss u m n o n

‘
-
. .
e x t e n di ul t r a
’
q
u a r t u m gr a du m , n i si e n ix a Tes ta t o r is v o lu n tas a liu d
su a de a t .
TE STAME NT ARY SUCCE SSI ON 3 87
of m y blood r e l a ti o n s a n d sh a ll n o t a t a n y tim e p ass

-
1
o u t sid e m y fa m il y t he se wor ds will n o t be su ffi cie n t,
’
t o t ie u p t he p r op e rt y b e yo n d t he fo ur t h g e n e r a t i o n
i n cl u sive u nl e ss he go e s o n t o a dd t he fide i co m m issu m
‘
, , ,
sh a ll n o t a t a n y t im e or i n a n y e ve n t wh a t s oe ve r c o m e t o
?
o r o t h e r wo r d s of li k e i m po r t A s t o t he m ode
’
an end ,
of c o m p u t in g t he d e gr e e s V oe t con t in u e s ,
In H oll a n d a n d Fri e sla n d t he ge n e r a l Opin i o n o f com m e n t a t ors

ha s b e e n a cce pt e d t ha t it i s n o t t he firs t in s t it u te d o r
fidu cia ry he ir b u t t he fir st fide i co m missary he ir w ho co n
, ,
st it u t e s t he fir st de gr e e a n d co n se qu e n tly o n ly t he fift h fi de i
,
co m m i ssar y he ir i s a ble t o e x e r cise hi s fr e e di scr e t io n in r e ga r d

5
t o t he fide i co mm i ssa r y pr ope r t y
’
.
‘ ’
The i n c o n ve ni e n ce of a ll owi n g te st a t or s to tie u p t h e ir Re lie f
pr op e r t y ove r a lo n g se r i e s of su c ce ssive g e n e r a t io n s is {33153n
5
O bvi o u s I t i s n o t su r p r i sin g t h e re fore t h at a ppli ca t i o n s fide ic om

.
mm u m
a r e m a d e t o t he Co ur t t o di s ch a r g e t he p r op e r t y fr o m t he w h n
’
r a n te d
1
Hu b e r 6 3 Cf E x p a r te S te e n ka m p [ 1 9 1 9 ] C P D
, 2 . 19 . . . . . . 1 12 g .
.
I n I n r e E s t Von I/u dw i g [ 1 9 3 1 ] C P D 488 a t e s t a to r m a d e an

. . . .
u n su cce s s fu l a t t e m pt t o ke e p a go ld sn u f f b o x in t he fa m il y as a -
e r pe t u a l he ir lo o m
p .
5
H u be r , 2 1 9 6 4—5 : t e n w a r e de Te sta te u r m e t zoe r kr ac ht ige
. .
e n dr in ge n de w o o r de n b a d de b e las t da t hy im m e rs d e b e zw ar e n isse
t e n e e u w ige n d a ge Wi lde he b b e n u it ge s t r e kt , in w e lke n ge v a lle de

w il le v a n d e T e s ta t e u r plae t s so u de m o e te n he b b e n .
5
V a n L e e u w e n ( 3 8 7 ) a gr e e s w it h V o e t ; an d t his v ie w w as
. .
a d o pt e d b y d e V illie r s C J in R y kc li ef s H e i r s v Ry kc li ef s E x or s
’ ’
. . . .
. . U
( 1 89 6 ) 1 3 S C 6 4, a n d n i o n G ov t v Oli vi e r [ 1 9 1 6] A D 7 4 S e e . . . . .
fu r t he r , as t o t he m e t ho d o f c o m pu t in g t he de gr e e s , S tr i c kla n d v .
S tr i ckla n d [ 1 9 0 8] A C 5 5 1 ( P C in a ppe a l fr o m M a lta ) I n Ce y lo n

. . . . .
b y O r d NO 1 1 o f 1 87 6 im m o v a b le pr o pe r t y m a y n o t b y an y w ill ,
. .
d e e d , o r o t h e r in st r um e n t b e m ad e in a lie n a b le fo r a lo n ge r pe r io d
t ha n t he liv e s o f pe r so n s w ho a r e in e x is t e n c e o r e n ven tr e s a mer e
a t t h e t im e o f i t s e x e c u t io n a n d a r e n a m e d de scr ib e d o r des ign a te d
in i t , a n d t he life o f t he su r v iv o r O f su c h pe rso n s ( se c an d an y .
pr o h ib it io n o r r e st r ic t io n o f a lie n a t io n s o fa r as it e x t e n ds b e y o n d
t h e a b o v e m e n t io n e d pe r io d is n u ll a n d v o id ( se c
-
Th e Tr u s ts .
O r d NO 9 o f 1 9 1 7 r e pe a ls t his O r d in so fa r as it r e la te s t o t ru st s ;
. . .
b u t se c 1 1 0 ( 1 ) pr o v ide s t ha t n o t ru s t sha ll o pe r a t e t o c re a t e a n
‘
.
in t e r e s t w h ich is t o t a ke e ffe c t a ft e r t he life t im e o f o n e o r m or e

pe r so n s li v in g a t t he da t e o f t he c o n st it u t io n o f t he t ru s t , an d t he
m in o r it y o f so m e pe r s o n w ho s ha ll b e in e x ist e n c e a t t he e xpir a t io n
o f t h a t pe r io d , a n d t o w ho m , if he a t ta in s fu ll a e , t h e in te res t
’
g
c r e a t e d is t o b e l o n g B u t a fi de ic o mm i ssu m c an b e c r e a te d e x
.
t e n din g o v e r fo u r ge n e r a t io n s ( Ce y lo n ) Ca r o lis v S i m on . .
3 0 N L R 2 66 ; I sma i l v M a r i ka r ( 1 9 3 2 ) 34 N L R 1 9 8
. . . . . . . .
b ur de n whi ch a tt a ch e s t o it o r t o a u t hor iz e e xch a n ge o r ,
sa l e o r m or t g a g e B u t t he Co ur t has n o g e n e r a l dis cre

.
t io n a r y powe r t o modi fy t he t e r m s of a will 1

a n d a p art ,
fr o m t he li m i te d ca se s p r ovi de d for by st a tu te p e r m i ssi on ,
i s r a r e ly give n u nl e ss t he p r op e r t y is of a w a st in g ch ar a c te r ,
so a s t o r e n d e r e xch a n g e or sa le d e sir a ble i n t he i n te r e st

5
O f a ll p ar t i e s p r e se n t ly or co n t in g e n t ly i n t e r e st e d ; a n d i t
i s o nl y u n d e r sp e ci a l cir cu m st a n ce s t h a t t he Co u r t will
gr a n t le a ve t o t he fid u ci ar y t o r a i se m o n e y o n the se cur ity
5
of t he fide i co m m issar y p r op e r ty On t he o t h e r h an d .
,
wh e r e a ll t he fide i co m m issar ie s ar e a sce r t a in e d a n d su i

r i s t h e y m a y a gr e e t o t he sa l e or m or t g a g e of t he
j u
p r op e r t y or t o t he t o t a l e x tin gui shm e n t of t h e ir r igh t s .
If t h e y ar e m in or s c o n se n t m a y b e give n by t h e ir gu ar di a n s
o n t h e ir b e h a lf b u t su bj e ct t o a pp r ov a l by t he Ma ste r or
,
4
t he Co u r t .
1 2 T r u s t s In dire ct in g a tte n t ion a bov e t o t he fu n

. .
dam e n t a l di st in cti o n s b e t we e n fide i co m m issa a n d t ru sts

w e r e se r ve d t he qu e st io n O f t he pl a ce of tr u sts in t he
m od e r n la w Thi s m u st n o w b e c o n si de r e d
. .
In E sta te K emp v M cD on a ld s Tr u s tee [ 1 9 1 5 ] A D 49 1

’
. . .
t he Co u r t ha d t o c o n st ru e a t e st a m e n t ar y t r u st .
1
J ew ish Co lon i a l T r u s t v E st Na tha n [ 1 9 40] A D 1 6 3 E x p a rte
. . . .
B u r s te i n [ 1 9 41 ] C P D 87 . . . .
5
V o e t , 3 6 1 6 3 a n d 7 0 ; V d K 3 1 7 , D i cta t a d G r 2 2 0 1 1 ;
. . . . . . . . .
V d L 1 9 8; G o ldm a n N O v E x o r E s t G o ldm a n [ 1 9 3 7 ] W L D
. . . . . . . . . . . . .
6 4; E x p a r te B oyd [ 1 9 3 8] C P D 1 9 7 , 5 1 0 Th e po w e r t o r e lie v e . . . .
pr o pe r t y o f t he b u r de n o f f c w a s e x pr e ssly de n ie d t o t h e Co u r t s
. .
b y a Pla c a a t O f t h e S ta t e s O f H o lla n d a n d We s t Fr ie sla n d o f Ju ly

2 3 , 1 67 0 ( 3 G P B . F o r t he m o de r n la w s e e The Re m o v a l o r
. .
fi
Mo di c a t io n o f R e st r ic t io n s o n Im m o v a b le Pr o pe r t y A c t ( NO 2 .
o f) 1 9 1 6 ( a m e n de d b y A c t , No 20 of a n d t h e fo llo w in g .
c a se s : E x p a r te M a r ks [ 1 9 2 6 ] T P D 1 ; E x p a r te E s t M a r ks . . . .
[ 1 9 2 7 ] T P D 3 1 6 ; E x p a r te S e n e ka l [ 1 9 3 4] T P D 1 3 1 ; E at p a rte
. . . . . .
B lom e ru s [ 1 9 3 6 ] C P D 36 8; E x p a r te C ohe n [ 1 9 3 7 ] T P D 1 5 5 ;
. . . . . .
E x p a r te Va n Vu u r en [ 1 9 3 7 ] T P D 1 44 . . . .
5
E x p a r te S ho r t [ 1 9 2 8] T P D 1 5 5 ( le a v e r e fu se d ) ; E x p a r te . . .
M a cdon a ld [ 1 9 29 ] W L D 1 8 ( le a v e gr a n t e d ) ; E x p a r te Ode nda a l

. . .
[ 1 9 2 8] O P D 2 1 8 ( le a v e gr a n t e d t o m o r t ga ge in o r de r to r a is e
K
. . .
m o n e y fo r n e c e ss a r y e x pe n s e s ) ; E x p a r te o e n [ 1 9 30 ] O P D 1 54 . . .
l f d ) E Vi i e [ 1 9 40 ] C P D 42 ( le a v e gr a n t e d ) ;
( e a v e r e u se ; x p a r te s a g . . .
E x p a r te H op ley s E s t [ 1 9 40 ] C P D 6 0 ( le a v e gr a n t e d ) ; E x p a r te
’
. . . .
Ne ll [ 1 941 ] C P D 3 1 4 ( le a v e gr a n t e d )
. . . .
5
E x p a r te Ode nda a l, u bi su p .
e ve n tu alitie s e m bra ce a cla im t o t he corpus of t he be qu e st .
Whil e t he t r u st co n tin u ed t he dom i n i u m w o u ld r e m a in in t he

t rus t e e ; t he b en e fi cia ri e s w o u l d b e e n title d t o c all u p o n him
t o c a rr y ou t i n t he ir fa v o u r t he pr o visi ons of t he t ru st a s a n d
‘
w he n t he ir r ight s a c cr u e d ; b u t t he qu e sti o n o f t he n a t u r e o f
an
y r ight i t s v e st in g a n d it s t r a ns m i ssibili t y t o t he h e ir s
,
O f t he b e n e fi ci a r y w ou ld de p e n d in e v e r y i n st a n ce u p o n t he
in t e n t io n of t he t e st a t o r a s e x pr e sse d in t he w ill
’
.
Ident ifica In t his a c c ou nt of t he m a tte r a t r u st i s a fidei comm issu m ,

t ion o f
t rust a n d t he t ru ste e figu r e s a s a fid u ci ar y an d t he b e n e fi cia r i e s ,
fideico m of t he tr u st a s fide i co m m issar ie s B u t wh e n t he tru st is .
in t he n a t ur e O f a se tt le m e n t i e a di spo sit io n by which , . .
p e r so n s a r e su cce ssive ly e n ti tle d a qu e st io n m ay ar i se a s ,
t o t he c h ar a c t e r of t he fi r st b e n e fi ci a r y s in te r e st
’
In .
R o m an D u t ch L a w a s e xpl a in e d a bov e (supr a p

-
,
a , .
life i n te r e st m ay assu m e t he for m e it h e r of a u su fru ct or

of a fide i co m mi ssu m a n d in t he ca se u n de r con sid e r a t io n
'
t he Cou r t ha d t o d e cid e t o whi c h O f t h e se t he li fe i n te r e st

give n by t he will t o t e st a t or s d au ght e r w as t ob e r e fe rr e d
’
.
Str i ct ly sp e a kin g i t coul d n o t b e t o e it h e r for t he do m i

, ,
n i u m w a s o u t st a n din g i n t he t ru st e e b u t i t w a s as su m e d ,
t h a t i n t e r e st s c o u ld b e cr e a t e d i n t he e n j oym e n t of t he
tru st fu n d ( o n e i s t e m p te d t o say e qu i t a bl e i n t e r e st s)
si m il a r t o t ho se w hi ch m igh t b e c re a t e d in t he p r op e r t y
i tse lf so t h a t t he qu e sti o n r e solve d i tse lf in t o t his : Wa s ‘
she vis d vi s he r d e sce n d a n t s in a po si t io n a n a logo u s t o

- -
t h a t of a fi du ci a r y o r a n a logo u s t o t h a t of a u su fr u ct u ar y
I t m u st b e a d m it te d t h a t t h er e i s s o m e t h in g u n sa tis
fa ct or y in a te rm in ology whi c h e m ploys t he wor d s fi de i ‘
com m i ssar y ’
,
’
fidu ci ar y t o se r ve a do u bl e p ur po se so
‘
,
t h a t t he b e n e fici a r y u n de r a t ru st i s d e s cr ib e d as a fide i
co m m i ssar y in r e l a t io n bot h t o t he t ru ste e a n d t o a p e rs o n
e n t i t l e d p r e vio u sly t o hi m u n d e r t he t r u st wh il e t he ,
de scr ip t i on fidu ci ar y is a ppli e d bo t h t o t he tr u ste e a n d

‘ ’
t o a b e n e fici ar y i n r e l a t ion t o a p e r so n su b se qu e n t ly
e n t i t l e d u n d e r t he t r u st .
Ju dgm e nt S olo m on J A in his j u dgm e n t a voids t his di ffi cu lt y

. . .
So ol m o n H e s a y s (.p 5 1 2 ) 1
JA
. .
P er In n e s C J ,
‘
In con side ring t he le ga l rights of t he be n e fi ciari e s u n de r
t he w ill I hav e stu di o u sly a v oide d t he u se O f a n y o f t he
,
t e chn i ca l t erm s p e cu lia r t o o u r la w Fo r t he w ill it se lf e m pl o ys .
t he phr a se o lo gy o f E n gli sh la w a n d t he c ar din a l r ul e in t he

,
co n st ru ct io n o f t e st a m e n t ar y do cu m en t s b e in g t o e n d e a vo u r
t o di sc o v er t he in t e n ti on of t he t e st a t o r i t i s in m y o pini o n , , ,
qui t e possible t o do so in t he pr e se nt ca se wi t hou t t r an slatin g

E n gli sh le ga l t e r m s in to t he c o r r e spon din g e x pr e ssi o ns o f o u r
o wn la w .We r e it n e ce ssar y t o do t hi s I t hin k that w e shou ld
hav e t o spe a k o f t he t ru st e e s a s fidu cia ry he ir s o r l e ga t e e s a n d
o f [t he da u ghte r ] a s a fide i co m m i ssa r y l e ga t e e In do in g so .
,
ho w e v e r w e sho u ld b e u sin g t he te r m s fidu ci ar y a n d fi de i

,
co mm i ssa r y in a w i de r se n se t ha n t he y ha v e hit he rt o b e e n
e m ploye d [in ] in a n y o f ou r r e p ort e d c ases For in t he se ca se s .
a fidu ci a r y he ir o r l e g a t e e ha s in v a r i a bly m e a n t a p e r son w ho
hi m se lf ha d a b e n e fi ci a l in t e r e st u su ally a life in t e r e st in t he
, ,
pr o pe r ty b e qu e a the d t o him w hil e the fide i co m mi ssary ha s

,
b e e n o n e in w ho m t he dom i n i u m o f the pr o pe rt y ha s ip so facto

.
ve st e d o n t he de ath Of the fidu cia ry o r o n t he ha ppe ni ng o f ,
an o t he r e v e n t w hi ch t e r m in a t e s t he ri ght s o f t he fi du cia r y
y .
In t he pr e se n t ca se ho w e ve r t he t r u st e e s ha ve n o b e n e fi cia l
, ,
in t e r e st [in t he t r u st pr o pe rt y] n o r c ou l d t he dom i n i u m e v e r
,
ha ve p a ssed t o [t he da u ght e r ] It a ppe a r s t o m e how e ve r

.
, ,
t o b e u n n e ce ssa r y for t he de ci sio n o f t hi s ca se t o t r a nsla t e in t o

t he l an gu age o f t he Ro m a n D u t ch la w t he E n glish t erm s w hi ch
-
a r e u se d in t his w ill Nor a m I su r e t ha t it i s de sir able t o do so

.
,
in a sm u ch a s it i nvo lve s e m plo yin g t he e x pr e ssion s fidu cia r y

a n d fide i co m m issa r y in a m u ch w i de r se n se t ha n t he y a r e
'
c o m m onl y u se d [in ] in ou r C o u rt s w hil e t he t e r m s t ru st s a n d , ,
t r u ste e s a r e n ow in ge n e r a l u se in So u t h Afr i ca
’
.
i
In vie w of t hi s e xp r e ssion of opi ni o n by so e m n e n t a Fi de i c o m
Ju dg e a ft e r w a r ds a Ch ie f Ju sti ce of t he Uni on a r e gr e t
, , an d t ru st .
m a y b e p e rm i tt e d t h a t t he la w of So u t h Afri ca ha s n o t
fr a n kly a cce p t e d the tru st co n ce p tio n or a t le a st it s t e r ,
m in olo gy a s a u se fu l im por t a t ion fr o m a for e i gn syste m

, .
In a n e ar lie r case I nn e s C J sa id . .
If by t ru ste e is m e an t a m a n o ccu pyin g so m e ca pa city

r e co gni z e d by o u r la w a n d u n de rt akin g som e O bli ga t i on kn o w n
,
t o o u r la w t o ho ld pr o p ert y fo r a n o t he r an d n o t fo r hi m se lf t he n
, , ,
1
t he e x pr e ssio n i s a co n v e ni e n t o n e a n d m ay b e sa fe ly a ppli e d
’
.
1
I sm a i l do A mod [ 1 90 5 ] T S
’
I/ucas Tru s te e v . . . at p 2 44
. .
To g ar d t he S o u t h Afri can t r u st a s a de ve lop m e n t

re
of t he D u t ch fide i co m m issu m is his t or ica ll y i n e x a ct In .
Ce ylo n t he t w o in sti tu t io n s— fide i co m m issu m a n d tr u st

'
1
e xi st si d e by sid e .
TO sp e a k O f a t r u st do e s n o t n e ce ssar ily i m ply t he

a dmi ssio n of e qu i t a bl e ow n e r shi p Thi s is u n kn own t o t he .
5
la w O f S ou t h Afr i ca .
Mu tu al 1 3 M u tu a l W i ll s
. This t opi c ha s b e e n r e fe rre d t o .
a bove It w a s i n H oll a n d a n d i s in So u t h Afr ic a t he

.
, ,
c o m m o n p r a ct i c e fo r t w o o r m o r e p e r so n s u su a ll y b u t ,
5
n o t n e ce ssar ily spou se s m arr ie d in c o m m u ni t y of p r op e r t y ,
t o j o in i n m a ki n g a di spo sit ion of p r op e rt y whi c h i s kn own

5
a s a r e cip r o ca l o r m u t u a l will The p r in ciple s of la w .
a ppli ca bl e t o su c h d ispo sit i o n ar e b r i e f

l y a n d a ccur a te ly
st a te d by V a n L e e u we n in t he followin g p a ssa g e :
5
‘
A hu sb a n d m a y t o ge the r m a ke t he ir o in t wi ll in
and w ife j
o n e w r i t in g Su ch o in t w ill ho w e v e r , i s c on side r e d a s t w o
. j ,
se p a r a t e will s w hi ch e it he r o f t he m m a y sp e cia ll y a n d w i t hou t

,
t he kn o w l e dg e O f t he o t he r , o r e v e n a ft er t ha t o ther s de a t h,
’
a lw a ys a l t e r ; e x c e p t o nl y w he r e e it he r o f t he m has r e cipr o ca lly
b e n e fit e d t he o t he r t he r e by, an d di r e ct e d ho w t he disp o sit io n

o f t he pr o p e rt y o f t he ir o in t e st a t e a ft e r t he de a t h o f t he j
sur vi v or i s t o b e r e gu la t e d ; in t hi s ca se t he sur vi v o r , if he or
j
she ha s e n o ye d o r w i she s t o e n o y t he b e n e fit , c a nn o t m a k e an y j
o t he r di sp osit i o n o r w ill of his o r her ha lf u nl e ss t he b e n e fit
be st o w e d ha s b e e n r e pu di ate d a n d r en ou n ce d ’
.
1
S a bap a thy V
M oha me d Yo osu f ( 1 9 3 5 ) 3 7 N L R 7 0 ; S i n n a n
. . . .
C he tli a r V
M ohide e n ( 1 9 3 9 ) 41 N L R 2 2 5 ; R a m a n a tha n v
. . . . .
S a le em ( 1 9 40 ) 42 N L R 80 O r d NO 9 o f 1 9 1 7 de n e s a n d a m e n ds
. . . . . . fi
t he la w r e la t in g t o t r u s t s Se c 3 de n e s a t ru s t a n d c o n c lu des . . fi
w it h t he w o r ds A t r u s t do e s n o t in c lu de a fide i com m i ssu m
’
It
‘
.
se e m s t ha t in S o u t h Afr ic a a t ru s t i s in t e rpr e t e d ( o r di sgu ise d ) a s
a fi de ic o mm issu m o r s t ipu la t io a lt e r i .
I/u cas Tr u s te e v I sm a i l ( 2 A m o d, u bi su p , a t p 2 47 ; P r i n ces s

5 ’
'
. . .
E st . V
R egi s tr a r of M i n i n g T i tles [ 1 9 1 1 ] T P D a t p 1 0 7 8
. . . . . .
5
E st o op m a n s v . K
E s t D e We t [ 1 9 1 2 ] C P D 1 0 6 1 ( s is t e rs ) ; . . . . .
Vi lle t s E s t v Vi lle t s E s t [ 1 9 39 ] C P D 1 5 2 ( s is t e r s ) ; B ijnk

’ ’
. . . . . . . .
O T i 49 6 ( b r o t he r a n d t w o sis t e rs ) ; I n r e M u r r a y s E s t e x p
’
. . . . .
M u lhea r n ( 1 90 1 ) 1 8 S C 2 1 3 ( spo u se s m a rr ie d o u t o f c o mm u n i t y ) . . .
5
G r 2 1 5 9 ; 2 1 7 2 4, a n d G r o e n e w e ge n , a d lo c , C e ns F or
. . . . . . . .
1 3 2 1 5 a n d 1 3 1 1 7 ; V o e t , 2 3 4 63 ; B oe l a d L o e n G a s 1 37 ;
. . . . . . . . . .
V d K 2 83 , 2 9 8
. . . .
5 ’
V a n L e e u w e n , 3 2 4 ( o t z e s t r a n sla t io n ) . . . K .
in or de r t o de pri ve t he su r vivor of t he r ight t o r e vo ke t he
m u t u a l wi ll a r e a di s p o sit io n o f t he sur vi v or s p r o p e rt y o r a
’
sp e cifi c po rt io n o f i t a ft e r t he su r vi v o r s de a t h a n d a n a cce p
’
t a n ce by t he su r vi vb r o f so m e b e n e fit u n de r t he w ill Upo n .
e l e ct in g t o t a ke t he b e n e fit he a u to m a t i c a ll y a sse n t s t o t he ,
be qu e st On t he o t he r ha n d if he e le ct s to r e j e ct t he be n e fit
.
,
he r e v e rt s t o hi s l e g a l p o sit io n b e fo r e t he t e st a to r s de at h t he
’
m u t u a l arr a n ge m e n t fa lls a w a y a n d t he w ill o f t he fir st dyi ng ,

-
1
O pe ra t e s o n ly u p o n hi s shar e o f t he pr o ert y
’
p .
co n clu si on t o b e dr a wn fr o m t he a bove p assa g e

The
is t h a t wh a t i s c a ll e d m a ssin g i s i n fa ct a n a ppli c at io n
‘ ’
of t he p r in ciple of e le ct io n If t hi s is bor n e in m in d i t i s .
a pp ar e n t t h a t t h e r e will b e n o qu e st i o n of irr e vo ca bili t y
O f t he will of t he sur vivin g spo u se u n l e ss t he will of t he
p r e de ce a sin g spou se b e a r s t he co n str u ct io n t h a t i t dis po se s

5
of t he whole o r p a r t of t he su r vivor s sh ar e a s we ll a s of ’
hi s o w n sh a r e i n t he j oin t e st a te Fo r i t i s qui t e po ssible .
fo r h u sb a n d a n d wi fe t o m a k e a j oin t will in which e a c h

di spo se s e xclu si ve ly of hi s o r he r sh ar e of t he j oin t e st a te
wi tho u t di spo sin g i n a n y w a y of t he sh a r e of t he o th e r
?
spo u se Su c h a w ill so m e t im e s t a k e s e ffe ct a s t he will
of the fir st — dyin g onl y v iz of hu sb a n d o r wife a lo n e as ,
.
,
5
o n e o r o t h e r m a y h a pp e n t o di e fir st ; or i t m a y b e co n
‘
st r u e d a s t w o di spo sit i on s of t w o e qu a l po r t i o n s of t he
R ece i ver of Reve n u e , P r e to r i a v H a n cke [ 1 9 1 5 ] A D a t pp 7 1 2
1
. . . .
-
p er In n e s C J . .
5
In Mo ste r t s c a s e it se lf t he m as sin g o f t he o in t e st a t e w as o n l y
’
j
pa r t ia l , b u t t he ir l o r dsh ips de c ide d t h a t t h e w ill h a d so de a lt w it h
t he j o in t e st a t e t ha t t h e ha v e ha d t he po w e r
sur v iv o r w o ul d n ot
D e V illie r s C J in
’
t o r e v o ke a n y pa r t o f i t i f sh e ha d a d ia t e d . . .
B a r r y v M u n de ll ( 1 9 0 9 ) 2 6 S C a t p 480 O t h e r c a se s o f pa r t ia l
. . . . .
m a ss in g— E x or s E s t Vi lj o en v T he M as te r [ 1 9 22 ] C P D 2 0 8;
. . . . . .
E s t S m u ts v E s t R u s t [ 1 9 2 3 ] C P D 449
. . . . . . .
5
F o r a m u t u a l w i ll w hi c h di d n o t e ffe c t a m a ss in g O f t he o in t j
e st a t e s e e leyn v E s t K . . K
leyn [ 1 9 1 5 ] A D 5 2 7 No te t ha t t he u s e . . .
O f t h e w o r ds o in t e st a t e
’ ‘
or jt he w h o le o f t he o in t e st a te in a
‘
j ’
w ill d o e s n o t po in t c o n c lu s iv e ly t o a n in t e n t io n t o m ass t he o in t j
e st a t e ( i b id a n d E s t C o a ton
. T he M as ter [ 1 9 1 5 ] C P D
. V . . . .
F o r a n o t he r c a se w he r e t he r e w a s n o m a ssin g se e D e o ck E st K V . .
De K
oc k [ 1 9 2 2 ] C P D 1 10
‘
A s t h e o r din a ry a n d n a t u r a l c o u r s e
. . . .
fo r a t e s t a t o r is t o di sp o se o n l y o f his o w n pr o pe r t y t he pr esu m p
t io n is a ga in s t m ass in g Va n R e e n e n v E s t Va n Re en e n [ 1 9 2 5 ]
. . .
O P D 239
. . . .
5
E s t C oa ton v T he M as ter , u bi su p
. . .
j oin t p a tr im on y o r ( t o va r y t he phr a se ) as t w o se p ar a t e ‘
w i ll s e m bo di e d for c o n ve ni e n ce i n o n e do cu m e nt
?
Fin ally ’
,
i t mu st b e r e m e m b e r e d t h a t fo r t he r ul e t o a pply a ct u a l
a c ce p t a n ce o r a s i t i s ca ll e d a di a t i o n
,
by t he su r vivor ,
‘ ’
i s e sse n tia l The O p in i on e xp r e sse d by Fit z p a t ri c k J in

. .
S A A ssoci a ti on v M os ter t t h a t t he p ar t ie s t o a j oi n t
. ;
5
.
,
will w e r e m u tu a lly bo u n d by c o n tr a ct n o t t o ch a n ge t he ir
dispo sitio n s e x ce p t by m u t u a l co n se n t a n d t h a t t hi s w a s ,
s o w h e t h e r b e n e fi t w a s a c ce p t e d o r n o t w a s di sse n te d ,
fr o m by hi s c olle a gu e Mr Ju sti ce D e n ysse n a n d w a s .

,
ove rr u le d by t he Ju di ci a l Co m mit te e .
I t r e m a in s t o c ons ide r t he e ffe c t O f a m u t u a l w ill a n d E ffe ct of

51
a cce p t a n ce O f b e n e fi t s u po n t he p r op e r t y of t he su r v i vo r 3 311 3
51
.
1 1,
I n Rosen ber g v D r y s E xor s 4

R f R ty
’
and ece i v
. er o e ven u e
s fi if .
,
P r etor i a v Ha n cke t he App e ll a te D ivisio n h e ld t h a t t he v i v o r

5
.
h e ir s di d n o t a cqui r e a r e a l r igh t i n su ch p r op e r t y b u t ,
a p e r s o n a l r igh t a g a in st t he su r v i vo r t o c o m p e l hi m or he r
?
t o r e cogni z e a n d gi ve e ffe ct t o t he will of t he fi r st dyi n g
The r e w a s howe ve r m u ch a u t hor i ty for t he p r opo sit io n
, ,
t h a t t he dom i n i u m i n t he su r vi vor s sh are as w e ll a s i n

’
,
t he sh ar e O f t he fi r st dyi n g p a sse d u n d e r t he will In ,

.
So u t h Afr ic a t h is se c o n d a l te r n a t i ve r e ce ive d st a t u to r y
a u t ho r it y fr o m t he Ad mi n ist r a t i o n of E st a t e s A ct 1913 , ,
se c 1 1 5 wh i c h p r ovi d e d t h a t :
.
,
Whe r e t w o spo u se s m arr ie d in co m m u ni t y o f pr ope rt y

‘
, ,
ha v e by t he ir m u t u a l w ill m a sse d t he w ho le o r a n y sp e cifi c

por ti o n o f t he ir j oin t e st a t e a n d di spo se d o f i t a ft e r t he d ea t h ,
O f t he su r vi v o r co nfe r r in g u p o n t he la tt e r a fidu ci ar y u sufr u o

, ,
t u ar y o r o t he r limi t e d in te r e st t he r e in t he n u p on t he de a t h o f ,
e it he r o f su ch sp o u se s a ft e r t he co mm e n c e m e n t o f t hi s A c t ,
1
R ece i ver o f Reven u e , P r etor i a v . H a n e ke , u bi su p .
, at p 7 2 p er
.
In n e s C J . .
5
Wa r r en T u rp i n v T he M as te r a n d S ilber ba u er [ 1 9 1 3 ]
a nd .
C P D a t p 7 9 1 S che ide l
. . . T he M as te r [ 1 9 3 6] C P D 2 87 ; B ijn k
. V . . . . .
O T i 45 0 is t o t he s a m e e ffe c t Fo r Ce y lo n se e P a r a ma n a tha n v
. . . . .
S a r a va n a m u ttu ( 1 9 2 8) 30 N L R 1 88 F o r m u t u a l w ills a t c o m . . . .
m o n l a w se e G r a y v P erp e tu a l Tru s tee C o [ 1 9 2 8] A C 3 9 1 ( o n

. . . .
a ppe a l fr o m t he H igh Co u rt o f A u s t r a li a )
5
[ 1 86 9 ] B u ch 2 3 1 . . .
5
[ 19 1 1] A D 679
5
. . .
[ 1 9 1 5 ] A D 64 . . .
5
Th e Ce y l o n Co u r t in c o n st ru in g a n o ld w ill c a m e t o t h e s a m e
c o n c lus io n S a n ga r a m or thy v Ca nd app a ( 1 9 3 2 ) 33
.
p 3 6 1 . . .
1
a di a t io n an d t he a c ce pt a n ce by the
vi vor o f b e n e fits u n de r
su r
t he w ill sha ll ha ve t he e ffe ct o f co nfe rr in g u pon t he he irs

e n ti tl e d to t he sa id p r op e r t y a ft er t he e x pir y o f t he sa id
limi te d in t e r e st the sam e r ight s in r e spe ct Of t he su r viv or s ’
half sh a r e o f su ch pr o pe rt y a s t he y m a y by la w po sse ss in
r e sp e ct o f t he ha lf sha r e w hi ch b e lo n ge d t o t he spo u se w ho has
’
di e d fir st .
It will be r e m ar ke d t h a t t hi s e n a ctm e n t a ppli e s o nl y t o

t he ca se of t he m u t u al will of spo u se s m arr ie d in c o m
The r e su lt is t h at
‘
Whe n t he r e is a m u t u a l w ill [of su ch spou se s] m a de irr e
vo cable by m a ssin g a n d a cce pt an ce o f b en e fit s t his w ill
O p e r a t e s a s on e w il l a n d a s t ha t o f t he fi r st dyin g The .
e st a t e i s c o n soli da t e d in t o o n e m a ss a n d i s in e v e r y r e a l se nse
o n e e st a t e fa ll in g u n de r t he disp o siti on s o f t he o n e w i ll n a m e ly ,
5
t hat o f t he fir st dyi ng
’
.
1
A di a t io n m e a n s a c c e pt a n c e O f a n inh e r it a n ce T he w o r d is a .
s t r a n ge pe r v e r sio n o f t he L a t in a dit i o h e r e dit a t is

—
.
5
M e ye r s E x o r s v M eyer s E x or s [ 1 9 2 7 ] T P D a t pp 3 3 9 40
’ ’
. . . . . . .
p e r St r a t fo r d J
-
.
exp r e sse d in t he p r ove r bi a l m a x im s He t goe d m oe t g a a n ,

‘
v a n d ae r he t ge ko m e n i s He t n a a ste blo e d e r ft
’ ‘
an d
By he Sche pe n do m s L a w t he good s m u st go
’ ‘
he t go e d
t.
1
w h e n ce t h e y ca m e ; wh i c h m e a n s t h a t t he goods O f a
’
de ce a se d p e r son we r e t a ke n by a fi ct ion of la w t o h a ve
de volve d u pon hi m m or ti s ca u sa fr o m bot h p a r e n t s e qu a lly .
If t h e r e for e t he de ce a se d le ft o n e sur vi vi n g p a re n t t he
, , ,
d e ce a se d s e st a te w a s su ppose d t o h a ve co m e t o him
’
wholly fr o m t he d e a d p ar e n t an d n o t a t a ll fr o m t he
l ivin g o n e A c c o r din gly it r e ve r te d to t he si d e fr o m whi ch
.
it w a s su ppo se d t o h a ve c om e (p a ter na pa ter n i s—m a ter n a

ma ter n i s ) v iz if t he fa t h e r w er e d e a d t o t he r e l at ive s ex
,
.
,
p a r te pa ter n a t o t he e x cl u sio n of t he m o t h e r ; i f the m o t h e r

we r e de a d t o t he r e l a t ive s ex p a r te ma ter na t o t he e x clu sio n
,
of t he fa t h e r Th is r u le t oge t h e r wit h the fur t h e r p r in ciple

.
,
5
of u nli m it e d r e p r e se n t a t ion in t he de sce n di n g a n d coll a
te r a l li n e s w a s t he ke y n o te of t he O ld S che pe n do m s L a w
,
-
,
5
whi ch a c c or di n gly de t e r m in e d t he su cc e ssion a s follows :
Can ODB Pf 1 Chi ldr e n su cce e d e qu a lly m a le s a n d fe m a le s a like
.
, ,
81 0 11
11355 wi t h r e p r e se n t a t ion p er stirp es i n i nfin i tu m

3
.
2 F a ili n g ch ildr e n
Eli g
g n
. if bo t h p ar e n t s a r e a live t h e y
, ,
doms L aw su cce e d t o e qu a l m oi e tie s

. .
3 If o n e p ar e n t o nl y su r viv e s t he whol e e st a t e go e s t o
.
,
t he childr e n of t he d e ce a se d p a r e n t i e t o t he b r o t h e r s ,
. .
a n d si ste r s of t he i n t e st a te wh e t h e r O f t he whol e o r O f t he
,
h a lf blood wit h r e p r e se n t a t io n p er stirp es i n i nfin i tu m

, .
4 If bo t h p a r e n t s a r e d e a d t he e st a te go e s in e qu a l
.
,
m oie t ie s t o t he childr e n O f t he d e ce a se d fa t h e r a n d t o t he
chil dr e n O f t he de ce ase d m o t he r i e o n e m oie t y t o b r o th e r s ,
. .
a n d siste r s of t he i n t e st a te ex p a r te p a ter na wh e t h e r of t he ,
w hol e or of t he h a lf blood w it h r e p r e se n t a t i o n a s b e for e

-
,
st a t e d ; t he o t h e r m oi e t y t o b r o t h e r s a n d sist e r s of t he
i n te st a te ex p a r te ma ter na wh e t h e r of t he whole or of ,
t he h a lf blood wi t h r e p r e se n t a t io n a s b e for e st a t e d Fr o m
-
,
.
t hi s it will b e se e n t h a t whol e b r ot h e r s a n d si st e r s t a ke
1
G r 2 2 8 6 ; V in n iu s , u bi su p , se c 2 ; V d K 3 47
. . . . . . . . .
5
V a n de r V o r m , Ver ste rfr e cht, e d B lo n de e l, p 3 4
V an de r V o r m , pp 35—
. . .
5
6 . .
INTE STATE SUCCE SSI ON 399
‘
wit h t he whole h a n d i e t ake twi ce ove r ; o n ce a s c h il ’
,
. .
’
dr e n of in t e st a t e s fa th e r o n ce a s chil dr e n O f i n te st ate s
’
,
m o t h er H a lf b r o t h e r s a n d si ste r s howe ve r t a ke wit h t he

.
, ,
h a lf h a n d i e t a ke o nl y on ce — v iz in c o n cu r r e n ce w it h
-
,
. . .
t he b r ot h e r s a n d sist e r s of t he w hole blood in r e sp e c t of

t he fa t h e r s or of t he m o t h e r s m oie t y a cc or din g a s t he y
’ ’
ar e r e l a t e d t o t he d e c e a se d o n t he fa t h e r s or o n t he
’
?
m o t h e r s side
’
5 F a ili n g ch ildr e n p a r e n t s a n d i ssu e of p a r e n t s t he

.
, , ,
e st a t e go e s i n l ik e m a n n e r t o t he fo u r qu a r te r s ( vi er vi er en
de elen ) i e t o t he gr a n dp a r e n t s of t he in te st a t e p er li n eas
,
. .
,
v iz o n e m oi e t y t o t he p a t e rn a l gr a n dp ar e n t s t he o t h e r
.
,
m oie t y t o t he m a te r n a l gr a n dp ar e n t s Wit h in e a ch lin e .
ide n t i ca lly t he sa m e pr in ciple s a r e a pplie d a s h a ve b ee n

t
s a t e d a bov e i n r u l e s a n d —
( ) a sole su r vivin g
4
gr a n dp ar e n t t a kin g n o t h in g— r e pr e se n t a tio n Of u n cle s a n d
a u n t s by t h e ir i ssu e b e i n g a d m i t t e d p er s ti rp es i n i nfin i tu m
—t he h a lf blood a l w a ys t a kin g wi t h t he h a lf h a n d
- -
.
6 Fa ilin g childr e n p a r e n t s a n d i ssu e of p a r e n t s gr a n d

.
, ,
p ar e n t s a n d i ssu e of gr a ndp a r e n t s t he e st a te go e s in like ,
m ann e r t o t he e igh t e igh t h s v iz t o t he st ock s of t he e igh t ,

.
re a t g r a n dp ar e n t s a n d so o n i n i nfin i tu m
g
-
.
,
B y t he A a sdo m s L a w
‘
t he n e a r e st blood in he r it s t he Ca n ons of
su cc es
good s Th is r u l e ,
t og e t h e r wit h t he pr e fe r e n ce O f de sce n sion u n de r
1
If o n ly o n e is de a d t he h a lf b lo o d o n t he s ide o f t he
par e n t ,
-
de c e as e d pa r e n t t a ke s w it h t h e w h o le ha n d in c o n cu r r e n ce w it h
t he c hildr e n o f t he w ho le bl o o d This pr in c iple is o f u n iv e r sa l .
a pplic a t io n , a n d w ill b e a ssu m e d a s kn o w n , w h e r e v e r t he ha lf
b lo o d is sa id t o t a ke w i t h t he ha lf ha n d The r e a d e r m u st b e -
.
c a u t io n e d a ga in s t t h e m is t a ke O f su ppo s in g t ha t , w h e n t he r e a r e
fu ll b r o t he r s o r s ist e r s , a n d a lso ha lf b r o t he rs a n d s is t e r s , t he fu ll
b r o t he r s a n d s ist e r s t a ke o n e ha lf o f t he e st a t e a n d div ide t he -
o t he r ha lf w it h t h e h a lf b r o t h e rs a n d sis t e r s This c o n c lu sio n .
r e s t s u po n a m i s a ppr e h e n sio n o f t he e ffe c t o f t he I n te r r eta ti e

p
( o f t he P o lit ic a l O r din a n ce ) o f 1 5 9 4 ( i nfr a , p T h e I nter .
p r e ta ti e i t s e lf is a lit t le m isle a din g b e c a u se it do e s n o t de a l

e xpl i c it ly w it h t he c a se in w h ic h t h e r e a r e h a lf b r o t he rs a n d s ist e r s
o n bo th s ides , b u t t he in t e n t io n i s pla in e n o u gh I t w o u ld m a ke t he .
s it u a t io n pla in e r if w e m ight s a y t ha t t he w ho le blo o d t a ke s w it h

b o t h ha n ds , t he ha lf b lo o d w it h o n e han d, r ight o r le ft , a s t he
c ase m a y b e .
5
C r 2 2 8 3 ; V inn iu s , u bi su p , se c 3 ; V d K 346
. . . . . . . . .
THE LAW OF SUCCE SSI ON
d a n ts t o a sce n d a n ts a n d of a sce n d a n t s to coll a te r a ls a n d ,
t he t o t a l e x cl u si on of a ll r e p r e se n t a t i on fu r n i sh e s t he ke y ,
t o t h i s sy ste m ; whi ch fu r t h e r m a ke s n o di st in ct io n be
, ,
t we e n t he whol e a n d t he h a lf blood a n d ha s n o t h e or y a s -
,
t o t he so u r ce fr o m whi c h t he good s m a y b e su ppo se d t o

h a ve co m e .
1
A cc or di n gly t he o r de r of su cce ssi o n i s ;
l D e sce n d a nt s— childr e n e x clu din g gr a n dchildr e n
.
,
gr a n d childr e n e x clu di n g gr e a t gr a n dchildr e n &c -
, .
2 A s ce n d a n t s— t w o sur vivin g p ar e n t s e qu a lly ; o n e

.
su r vivi n g p ar e n t s ol e ly ; i n d e fa ul t of p ar e n t s r a n d
g ,
p are n t s ( o n bo t h si de s o r o n o n e side ) e qu a lly ; a sin gle

su r vivi n g gr a n dp a r e n t s ol e ly ; a n d so o n t o t he e xcl u si o n ,
of c oll a te r a ls .
3 Coll a t e r a ls— b r ot h e r s a n d siste r s O f t he w hole or Of

.
,
t he h a lf blood e qu a lly t o t he e x clu sio n of n e ph e w s a n d

-
n i e ce s ; c oll a te r a l s of t he t hir d o r re m o te r d e gr e e s e qu a lly
w i t ho u t r e p r e se n t a t io n .
Su cc e ssion In 1 5 80 t he St a t e s of H oll a n d a n d We st Fr i e sl a n d de sir ,

u n de r t he
Po li t ica l i n g t o e st abli h
s one uni for m syste m of in te st a te su c ce ssi o n
Or din a n ce for t he whol P ovi c e n a cte d t he Politi ca l Or din a n ce
e r n e ,
0 l’ 5
O f Ap r il 1 of t h a t ye ar The syste m t h e r e in l a id down
.
,
whi ch c a m e t o b e k n own as t he Ne w Sche pe n do m s L a w ,
de p ar t s fr o m t he Old S che pe n do m s L a w in o n e p ar t i cu lar

o nly vi z in r e st r i ct in g r e p r e se n t a ti o n in t he coll a te r a l lin e
,
.
5
t o t he fou r t h d e gr e e i e it do e s no t go b e yo n d t he gr a n d
, . .
c hildr e n o f b r o t h e r s ( si st e r s ) a n d t he c hi ldr e n of u n cl e s
,
Su cce ssion un de r t he Poli ti ca l Or di n a n ce t he r e for e is as
follows
1 Chil dr e n “
.
5
2 P ar e n ts ( u t su p r a ) ;
.
1
V a n de r V o r m , pp 7 9 —80 . .
5
Or don n a n ti e va n de P o lic i en bi n n e n H o lla nd t, i n da te de n
ee r s te n A p r i li s 1 5 80 , A r t s 1 9 1f ( l . G r 2 28 1 1 ;
. . . .
Vin n iu s , u bi su p , s e c 4 , V a n L e e u w e n , lib i ii , c a p x iii

. . . . .
5
5
V a n de r V o r m , p 3 7 . . P O A rt 20 . . . .
5
P O Ar t 2 1
. . . .
t hir d an d
fo ur t h de gre e r e sp e ct ive ly Thou gh t his co u se .
qu e n ce i s n o t cl e a r ly st a t e d in t he Polit i c a l Or din an ce it ,
i s a n e ce ssar y in fe r e n ce fr o m t he r oot p r in ciple s of t he

Sche pe n do m sr e cht ; an d is e xp re sse d in t he m a xi m He t
‘
go e d kli m t ni e t gee rn ( the p r op e r ty do e s n ot like clim b in g )

or in o t h e r wor d s a n e a re r a n ce st or a n d his ( o r he r )
, ,
de sce n dan t s ( the n e ar e r lin e ) ar e ca lle d to the su cce ssion

b e for e a r e m o te r a n ce st or a n d his ( or he r ) de sce n d a n t s ( t he
re m o t e r lin e )
1
.
Thi s n e w syste m of su cce ssion a n d a n I nt e r pr e ta t ion 5
of it d a te d Ma y 1 3 1 5 9 4 fa ile d t o w in t he a dh e sion O f
, , ,
5
m o st of t he t own s a n d di str ict s of t he n or t h e r n p ar t

of H oll a n d Accor di n gly in 1 5 9 9 t he St a te s yi e ldi n g t o
.
,
t he r e p r e se n t a t i o n of fo u rt e e n p r in cip a l t own s e n a c te d ,
a pla ca a t u n de r d a te D e ce m b er 1 8 d e sig n e d t o su pply

, ,
a co m m o n la w for No r t h H oll a n d i n su b st i t u t io n for t he

?
The Pla Poli ti ca l Or di n a n ce The or d e r O f su cce ssion in t he
c aat o f
De ce m b er p
la ca a t t ho,
u gh k n ow n a s t he N e w A as do m s L a w d e p ar t s ,
1 8 1 5 99
, . co n side r a bly fr o m the Old A asdo m s L a w a ppr o a chin g ,
m or e n e ar ly in s om e r e sp e ct s t o t he Sche pe n do m s L aw ,
in o t h e r r e sp e ct s t o t he Ro m an L aw .
I t i s u nn e ce ssar y t o r e ca ll t he d e t a ils Of t hi s c o m plic ate d

syst e m whi c h i s n o t in i t s e n t ire t y i n for ce in an y p ar t of
,
t he m ode r n wor ld I t s sa li e n t fe a t ur e i s t h a t in de fa ul t
.
,
of de sce n d a n ts of the i nt e st ate o n e p ar e n t b e in g d e a d it , ,
a dmi t s t he su r vivor t o o n e h a lf of t he e st a te t he o t h e r ,
h a lf goin g t o b r o th e r s a n d siste r s of t he in te st ate ( b e i n g

childr e n of t he de ce a se d p ar e n t ) a n d t o t h e ir c hildr e n
a n d gr a n d ch ildre n by r e p r e se n t a t ion ; fa ilin g b r o t h e r s a n d
?
sist e r s t he su r vivi n g p ar e n t t a k e s t he whole
Thi s pr ovision ( wit h a v ar i a t ion ) is in cor por ate d in t he

la w of S ou t h Afr ic a by t he Oc tr o o i of
Th u s far we h a ve de scr ib e d t he t w o pr e va ilin g syste m s

1 5
V a n de r V o r m , Vers te rfr echt, p 6 8 1 G P B 3 42 . . . . . .
5
P lac a e t op t stu ck va n de S u cces s i en a b i n tes ta to , D e ce m b e r
’
1 8, 1 5 9 9 ( l G P B . G r 2 2 8, 1 2 ; V in n iu s , u bi su p , se c 4 ;
. . . . . .
V an L e e u w e n , lib iii , c a p x iv , a n d c a p x ii , se c 8, w he r e a list is

. . . .
giv e n O f t he t o w n s a n d place s w hi ch fo ll o w e d t he Pla c a a t o f 1 5 9 9 .
5 5
P la ca a t, Ar t 3 . . I nfra , pp 40 4, 40 8 . .
INT E STATE SUCCE SSI ON 40 3
of in t e st at e su c ce ssio n Of t he p r ovi n ce of H oll an d E a ch of .
t he o t h e r p r ovin ce s ha d i ts o w n s ch e m e a n d t h e r e we re , ,
b e si des n u m e r o u s lo ca l v ar i a t i on s In vi e w O f t hi s gr e a t In test a te
,
.
var i e ty of u sa ge t he qu e sti on of in te st at e su c c e ssi on in t he
t he D u t ch Colo ni e s m u st h a ve b e e n in solu bl e e x ce p t by D tc h u
l e gisla tive a u t hor it y .
A c c or din gly w e fin d t he St a te s Ge n e r a l p re scri b in g t he

,
-
c a n o n s of in te st a te su c ce ssi on fo r t he E as t a n d W e st
I n di e s in a w ay howe ve r w hi ch som e t im e s te n de d r a t he r
, , ,
t o d e e p e n t h a n t o r e m ove t he O b scu r i t y i n whi ch t he

su bj e c t w a s i n volv e d .
We sh a ll sp e a k fir st of t he E ast I n di e s in clu din g Ce ylon ,
a n d S o u t h Afri ca .
In t he ye a r 1 63 2 o n e G r e gor i u s Cor n e ly do m i cile d a t 1 63 2— 4 ,
Midde lb ur g in Z e e l a n d di e d in t he I n di e s l e a vin g t w o $ 3,51s ,
c h ildr e n who a ls o di e d
, The St a te s Ge n e r a l ( 1 6 3 4) Com e ly .
- o
dir e cte d t h a t t he su c ce ssio n sho u l d go a cco r din g t o t he

?
S che pe n do m s L a w ob se r v e d i n t he Pr ovin ce O f Ze e l a n d
This w as m e re ly a n a ppli ca t io n of t he ge n e r a l p r inciple
t h a t su c ce ssi o n t o m ov a bl e s i s gove r n e d by t he la w of t he
5
do m i cil e .
In 1 6 42 Gov e r n or Ge n e r a l A Va n Die m e n p r o m u lg a te d 1 642 .
hi s c olle ct i o n of st a t u te la w k n own as t he Old St a t u te s of M 131 5: of
B a t a vi a ( o r I n dia ) 5
I t i s e xp r e sse d t o b e p r ovisi o n a l in 3 3 mm
.
c h ar a c t e r ? a n d t o r e m a i n in fo r ce u n t i l t he Co u n cil of
Se ve n t e e n w it h t he a u t hor i ty o r a pp r ob a t i o n of t he St a te s
Ge n e r a l sho u ld o t h e r w ise de te r m in e Wi t h re g ar d t o in .
‘
t e st a te su cce ssi o n in p ar t i cu l a r i t p r ovide d t h a t t he la w
of t he t ow n s of Nor th H olla n d sh a ll b e followe d as w a s
or d a in e d in t he ye ar 1 6 o n dir e c t io n s fr o m t he Co u n cil of ’
5
Se v e n t e e n
’
The d e t a il e d r u l e s w hi c h foll ow corr e spon d
.
in a ll p a r t i cu l ar s wit h t he Pla ca a t O f 1 5 9 9 .
A V an de r Chi js , Nede r la nds ch I ndis ch

J
1
2 G P B . 1 322 ; . . . .
-
P la ka a B oe k, v o l 1, p 3 65
t .
5
S u p r a , p 1 33
. . . .
5
O p c it , p 47 2
. . .
5
. Op c it , p 47 4 . . . .
5
O p c it , p 5 43 Th e r e i s so m e m is ta ke he r e P e r ha ps ‘ 1 6 2 5 ’
. . . .
w a s in t e n de d S e e Nede r la nds ch I n tes ta a terfr echt hu i ten E u r op a

.
d o o r M H V a n de r V a lk , T ijds chr ift vo or R e chts ges chi eden is ,

. .
de e l x , p 41 2 , w hi ch co n t a in s m u ch in te res t in g m a tte r
.
.
THE LAW OF SUCCE SSI ON
1 66 1 . Ge n e r a l m ove d t h e r e t o by re pr o
I n 1 66 1 t he St a t e s -
,
lO
gdt ooi t o se n t a t io n s fr o m t he Co m p a n y s offi ci a l s i ssu e d t he O ct r oo i
’
,
r
t he E st o r Ch ar t e r of Ja n u ar y
a H a vi n g con side r e d t he r e gu la
Co mpan y t io n s of 1 6 2 9 a n d 1 6 3 6 i ss u e d fo r t h e W e st I n d i e s which ,
in t r od u ce d t he Poli t ic a l Or di n a n ce in t o t ho se r e gio n s t h e y ,
t h at t he sa m e la w t o
‘ ’
r e s olv e d a ft e r r ip e d e li b e r a t io n
ge t h e r wi t h t he In t e r p r e t at io n of 1 5 9 4 sho u ld a pply t o a ll
La n ds Town s a n d P e ople s in In di a ob e die n t t o t he State
,
of t he Un i te d N e t h e r l a n ds a n d u n de r t he di r e ct ion of t he
'
E a st I n di a Co m p a n y a n d a l so in r e sp e ct of su cce ssi o n ,
t o p e r s on s dyin g o n t he ou t w a r d o r ho m e w ar d voy a ge .
in w ha t The Octr oo i do e s n o t co n t a in t he t e r m s of t he Poli ti ca l

“
.
5
Or di n a n ce b u t i n c or por a t e s t h e m by r e fe r e n ce su bj e ct
, ,
t o de vi a t ion in t he se n se of t he A a sdo m s L a w in fa vo ur of
gfifiifi fii a sole su r vivin g p ar e n t w ho by t he Politi cal Or din an ce
,
a nc e
i s n o t a d m i tte d t o t he in h e r it a n ce of a de ce a se d chi ld .
Thi s i n te r pol at e d se ct io n c o rr e spon ds clo se ly b u t n o t ,
e x a ct ly wi t h Ar t 3 of t he Pla ca a t of 1 5 9 9 a n d l e n d s s o m e
, .
,
colo u r t o t he st a t e m e n t t h a t t he Octr ooi is b a se d u po n t he

la w n e it h e r of Nor t h H oll a n d n o r of So u t h H oll a n d b u t ,
i s p ar tly d e r iv e d fr o m bo t h The st a t e m e n t how e ve r i s .

, ,
m i sle a di n g for e x ce p t for t he a bov e m e n ti on e d m o difica

,
-
t ion i t e n a ct s t h a t t he la w of So u t h H oll a n d sh a ll b e
O b se r ve d .
1 766 . In 1 7 6 6 Gove r n o r Ge n e r a l V a n de r P arr a su b m itte d for

-
82
5
1
23fizzf t he a pp r ov a l of t he Se ve n t e e n a n d of t he St a t e s Ge n e r a l -
B at a vi a t he c olle ct io n k n own a s t he Ne w St a t u t e s of B a t a vi a ( or
.
I n di a ) Thi s Code t hou gh in u se in t he Cou r ts —

?
,
so V a n
de r Chijs in for m s u s— for n e a r ly a ce n t u r y n e v e r r e ce ive d ,
r e cog n i t io n fr o m t he high e st au t hor it y I t ha d n o t t h e re .

,
?
for e str ictly t he for c e of a st at u t e In r e sp e ct of in t e st a te
, ,
su c c e ssio n i t r e pr od u ce s se r i a t im t he su b st an ce of V a n
,
Die m e n s e a r lie r Cod e t oge t h e r wit h t he e xp r e ss p r ovi

’
sio n s of t he O ctr o o i a bov e c i t e d B u t it is pl a in t h a t t he .
Old St a t u t e s of B a t a vi a a s r e gar d s su c ce ssio n c ann o t h a v e

1
2 G P B 2 6 3 4; V a n de r V o r m , p 6 3 1 ; B u r ge , v o l i , pp
. . . . . .
1 0 3— 4 The Cha r t e r w a s pr o m ul ga t e d in B a t a v i a o n F e b r u ar y 7 ,
.
1 6 6 2 V an d e r Chi js , v o l ii , p 3 40
. . . .
5 5
V an de r Chi js, v o l ix . Op c it , p 2 5
. . . . .
The la w of So u t h Afr i ca like t he la w of Ce ylon e xhibit s , ,
s o m e c o n fu sio n b e t w e e n t he t w o syste m s of su cce ssi o n .
1
In C a p e Colo n y i n t he ca se of Sp i es v Sp i es
‘
, t he c o u n se l .
,
for bo t h p a rt ie s a dm it te d t h a t by t he Pla caa t of Ja n u ar y ,
1 0 1 6 6 1 t he la w of No r t h H oll a n d i n cl u di n g t he Poli t ic a l
, , ,
Or di n a n ce of Ap r il 1 1 5 80 a n d t he I n te r p r e t in g Or di , ,
n a n ce of Ma m
’
y 1 3 1 5 9 4 w a s a d e t h e la
, w of t h e Colo n y , .
Thi s is pl ain ly a m i st a ke For No rt h H oll a n d w e m u st .

‘ ’
So u t h H oll a n d I n Ra u ben hei m er v E xor s

‘ ’
su b st it u t e . . .
2
of Va n B r eda whi ch se t t le d t he la w fo r C a p e Colo n y De
, ,
Vil lie r s C J r e fe rr e d t o a Re sol u t i o n of t he Gov e r n or

. .
Ge n e r a l i n Co u n cil b e a r i n g d a te Ju n e 1 9 1 7 1 4 wh e r e by
, , ,
t he B o a r d of Or ph a n Ma ste r s w a s di r e cte d i n a ll ca se s
of su cce ssio n ab i n tes ta to t o follo w se cs 1 9 t o 2 9 of t he .
Or di n a n ce of 1 5 80 a n d t he E di ct of 1 5 9 4 in so far a s t h e y ,
h a ve b e e n a dop t e d by t he c h ar te r of 1 6 6 1 The ch ar te r .
t h e r e for e d e te r m in e s t he la w fo r t he C a p e Pr ovin ce The .
‘
le ar n e d Chi e f Ju st i ce in d e e d go e s o n t o sa y t h a t it is
a m i st a k e t o sp e a k e i t h e r of t he No r t h H oll a n d la w or
of t he so ca ll e d So u t h H oll a n d la w as t he la w of t h is
-
Colo n y ; n e ve r t h e le ss sin ce t he Octr o o i i tse lf r e st s u po n

’
t he Sche pe n do m s L a w e x ce p t wh e r e it e xp r e ssly d e p a r t s ,
fr o m it w e m a y a cce p t a s ge n e r a lly tr u e t he di ctu m of

,
Mr Ju st i ce Sm it h in t he sa m e c a se t h a t t he So u t h H oll a n d
.
,
la w a s i n cl u d e d in t he P o li ti ca l Or di na n ce of 1 5 80 is t he
, ,
’
la w of i n h e r it a n ce a b i n tes ta to i n t h i s Colo n y .
Upon a t ot a l fa il u r e of blood r e l a t ions t he Cr own is

3
e n t i t le d t o a v a c a n t i n h e r it a n ce b u t o n ly a ft e r a l a p se of ,
fifty ye ar s .
in Nata l For N a t a l t he c ase of I n r e the i n tes ta te es ta te of P K . .
G ledhi ll d e cid e s in fa vou r of t he S che pe n do m s L a w Ra u

5
.
ben hei mer v E xor s of Va n B r eda w a s cit e d a n d followe d

. . .
of t he de c e ase d ( se c . an d t a ke s t he w ho le t o t he e x c lu s io n of
1 846 ) 2 Me n z 45 4
1
r e m o te c o lla t e r a ls ( se c . . .
( 1 880 ) F o o r d 1 1 1 ; , an d cf . G r ee n v . F i tzgee [ 1 9 1 4] A D . . at
pp 9 9 , 1 00
. .
E x p a r te L e eu w ( 1 9 0 5 ) 2 2 S C 3 40 . . .
A dm in is tr a t io n o f E s ta te s A c t , 1 9 1 3 , se e 9 8 . .
( 1 89 1 ) 1 2 N L R 43 Se e a ls o I n r e G or don s I n tes ta te E s ta te
5 ’
. . . .
( 1 90 9 ) 30 N L R 3 2 5 . . . .
INTE STATE SUCCE SSI ON 40 7
I n t he Tr an sva a l a n d Or a n ge Fr ee St ate Pr ovin ce s in t he ,
i n t e st a t e su cce ssion do e s n o t se e m t o h a v e b e e n t he su bj e ct 5
2 31
533 30
11 8
1
of l e gisla ti on or of j u di cia l de ci si on The c om m on la w o n State .
t hi s su bj e ct m a y b e a ssu m e d t o b e t he sa m e in a ll fo u r
1
p r ovi n ce s .
I n Br it ish G u i a n a t he R o m a n D u t ch L a w n o lo n g e r Intes ta te -
ob t a in s b u t t he hist or y of t he la w of i n te st at e su cce ssio n 212112 2;

0 36
,
in t hi s colon y cl a im s a tte n t i o n if onl y t o show t h a t h e r e t haws“

,
t oo t he c o u rse of le gisl a t io n w a s u n ce r t a in a n d in co n
si st e n t. In 1 6 2 9 t he St a te s Ge n e r a l i ssu e d a n Or de r of
-
Gove r n m e n t for the pla ce s co n qu e r e d a n d t o be con qu er e d

2
i n t he We st I n di e s
‘
Thi s appli e d t o su ch l a n ds t he
.
Poli ti ca l Or din an ce of 1 5 80 a n d fu r t h e r t he co m m o n ,
cu st o m s of S o u t h H oll a n d a n d Z e e l a n d sin ce t he sa m e ,
ar e m o st kn own c a n e a si ly b e a ppli e d a n d w ill in t r od u ce

, ,
t he l e a st ob s cu ri t y a n d a l te r a t i o n Thu s t he se ttle m e n t s ’
.
in t he W e st I n d ie s w er e to b e gove r n e d by t he Sch e p e n
do m sre cht t he la w of su cce ssio n of So u t h H oll a n d
, .
I n t he ye a r 1 7 3 2 a n e w ru le w a s e n a c te d for t he colo n y
of B e r b i ce The ch art e r of D e ce m be r 6 of t h a t ye a r
.
3
,
a fte r r e ci t i n g t he i m por t an ce of p r ovi d in g for t he i n tes t a t e
su cce ssi o n t o colo n i st s a n d o t h e r s who sh a ll h a ve e st a b
lishe d t h e m se lve s i n t he c olo n y a for e sa id e n a ct e d t h a t ,
e ve r y p e r so n goi n g t h it h e r sh a ll b e all o w e d t o c hoo se su c h

4
kn own la w of in te st a cy a s sh a ll ple a se hi m b u t in de fa u lt ,
t he r e of t he ch a r t e r give n t o t he E a st I n di a Co m p an y
,
u n d e r d a te Ja n u ar y 1 0 1 66 1 sh a ll b e followe d
,
This
, .
ch ar te r as m e n t io n e d a bove is in it s m a in fe a tur e s ( wi t h
, ,
o n e i m po r t a n t m o di fi ca t i o n ) S che pe n do m s L a w Fin a lly .

,
for D e m e r ar a a n d E sse qu i bo by r e sol u ti o n of Oct ob e r 4

, ,
t he St a te s G e n e r a l e n j oin e d t he ob se r v a n ce of the
-
A a sdo m s L a w of Nor t h H oll a n d a s co n t a in e d i n t he

Pla ca a t of 1 5 99 .
F o r S o u t he r n Rho de sia see The D e c e as e d E st a te s Su cc e ss io n

A c t , 1 9 2 9 ; 47 p 171 . .
2
Or dr e va n R egi er i nge , O c t o b e r 1 3 , 1 6 29 , A r t 5 9 ( 2 G P B 1 2 3 5 ) . . . .
V a n de r V o r m , p 6 3 4 .
3
V a n de r V o r m , p 6 3 7 V d K 3 5 2
. . . . . .
V e r kie z in g v a n la n dr e cht G r lib i i c a p xx ix

. . .
, . .
5
T he L a w s of B r i ti s h G u i a n a ( e d v ol i, p l . . . .
Inte st a te The t hr e e se tt e m e n t s
l of D e m e r a ra , E sse qu i bo ,
an d
$l B e r b i ceh a ve fr o m 1 83 1 b e e n co m bin e d in t he colo n y of
Br i ti sh G ui a n a Sin ce n o st at u t or y c h a n g e ha d b ar m o
(3
1 1 1
331 ; ni z e d t he la w of in te st a t e su cce ssion in t he thr ee c o u n t ie
.
,
s ,
t hi s c olo n y u n t il Ja n u ar y 1 1 9 1 7 r e t a in e d wi t hin i ts
, ,
li m i t s t he tw o p r in cip a l sch e m e s of in te st a te su cce ss io n

whi ch ob ta in e d i n t he old m o t he r la n d viz fo r D e m e r a r a , .
a n d E sse qu ibo t he A a sdo m s L a w for B e r bi ce t he S ch e p e n ,
do m s L a w a s m o di fi e d by t he Octr oo i t o t he E a st I n di a
Com p a n y of 1 6 6 1 .
The r e su l t of o ur i n qmr y i s t h a t in Ce ylont he la w of

in te st ate su cce ssion is n o w de fi n e d by st a tu te In D e m e .
r a r a a n d E sse qu i bo t he A asdo m s L aw ob t a in e d ; ov er t he
whole of Ro m a n D u t ch S ou t h Afr ica t he ru l e s of in te s

-
t a te su cce ssion are ( su bj e ct t o st a tu t or y a lte r a t ion s t o b e

pr e se n tly m e n ti o n e d ) t ho se of t he Ne w S che pe n do m s L aw
a s m odi fi e d by t he O c tr o o i of 1 6 6 1 a n d t hi s w as a l s o la w ,
for B e r bice .
Octro oi o f We con clu de t his cha p te r wit h a tr a n sla tion of t he

Janu rya
Octr oo i a n d a su mm a r y of t he or d e r of su cce ssion w hi ch it
1
1 0 1 661
, .
e st a b ll she s .
Cha r ter for the E ast I ndia Compa n y of thes e L a nds r e la ti ng to

the la w of I n tes ta te S u cce ssi on i n the E ast I nd i es a nd on the
voya ge thi the r a nd the nce
’
.
The St a t e s G e n e r a l o f t he Uni t e d N e the r l an ds m ak e kn own

-
t ha t w e , a ft e r r e p o r t r e c e iv e d fr o m Mr H u yg e n s an d ou r o t her
.
Co m mi ssio n e r s havin g vi e w e d an d e x a min e d t he Me m ori a l pr e

se n t ed t o u s by o r t hr o u gh t he Admin istr a t o r s of the E a st In di a
Com pan y o f t he Uni t e d N e t he r lan ds a fo r e sa id t en din g t he r e to ,
t ha t a se t t l e d law in t he m a tte r o f t he su cce ssi on a b i n tes ta te t o

.
t ho se w ho di e in t he E a st In di e s or o n t he voya ge t hit her or

t he n ce sho ul d b e in t r o du ce d by u s ; a n d t aki n g in t o c onsider at ion
t ha t w e he r e t o fo r e in t he ye ar s 1 62 9 a n d 1 636 ha ve pe rm i t t e d
a n d o r da in e d t ha t t he P o li t i ca l Or di n a n ce i ssu e d by t he St a te s
o f H oll a n d a n d W e st Fri e sl a n d o ver t he sa id pr o vi n c e in t he
ye ar 1 5 80 in t he pl a ce s c on qu e r e d by t hose o f t he We st In di an
Co m pa n y a n d Bra z il sho ul d be foll o w e d a n d the r e a cce pte d a s
a ge n e r a l ru l e : a fte r r ip e de lib e r a t ion h a ve fou n d good to con
1
2 G P B . . . 2 6 3 4; V a n de r V or m , p 6 3 1 . .
Ca n on s o f t he I n te r p r e t a t io n of 1 5 9 4 a n d t he Octr oo i of 1 6 6 1 is t o
,
su c c e ssi o n
e st a bli s h ( su bj e c t t o l e gi sl a t i o n i n fa vo u r of a sur vi v i n g
in Sou t h
Afr i a
c .
spo u se ) t he follo wi n g o r d e r of su c ce ssio n a s a g e n e r a l la w
fo r t he Uni on of S o u t h Afr i ca 1
. 1 C hil dr e n su c ce e d e qu a lly m a le s a n d fe m a le s a lik e

, ,
wit h r e p r e se n t a ti o n p er s tirp es i n i nfin i tu m .
.2 F a ili n g d e s ce n d a n t s bo t h p a r e n ts su r vivin g su cce e d

,
t o e qu a l m oie t i e s .
.3 If o n e p ar e n t su r vi ve s o n e m oi e ty go e s t o su ch
,
p a re n t t he o t h e r m o ie t y t o b r o t he r s a n d sist e r s of t he
,
i n t e st a t e b e in g t he c hildr e n of t he d e ce a se d p a r e n t t h e ir ,
c hi l dr e n a n d gr a n d ch ildr e n by r e p r e se n t a t i o n If t h e r e .
is n o su ch b r o t h e r o r si st e r a live b u t o nl y ch ildr e n ( gr a n d
,
c h i ldr e n ) of d e ce a se d b r o t h e r s a n d si ste r s su ch c hildr e n ,
( gr an d chi ldr e n ) t a ke p er stirp es by r e p r e se n t a t io n .
If t h e r e ar e n o b r o t h e r s o r si ste r s b e in g t he childr e n ,
of t he d e ce a se d p a re n t o r childr e n or gr a n d childr e n of
,
de ce a se d br o t h e r s o r siste r s su r vivi n g t he whole e st a te ,
go e s t o t he su r vivi n g p ar e n t .
.4 If bo t h p a r e n t s a r e d e a d t he e st a t e go e s i n e qu a l
,
m oie tie s t o t he i ssu e of t he d e ce a se d fa t h e r a n d t o t he

issu e of the de ce a se d m o t h e r i e o n e m oi e t y t o b r o t h e r s
, . .
a n d s i st e rs of t he i n t e st a te wh e t h e r of t he whol e o r of t he
,
h a lf blood exp ar tep a ter n a t he ir childr e n a n d gr a n d childr e n

-
, ,
by r e p r e se n t a t ion ; t he o the r m oie t y t o b r o t h e r s a n d si st er s

of the i n t e st a t e wh e t he r of t he whole o r of the h a lf blood
,
-
,
ex p ar te m a ter n a ,
t h e i r chil dr e n a n d gr a n d childr e n by
r e p r e se n t a t io n
. The whol e b r o t h e r s an d si st e r s ( a n d t h e ir
childr e n a n d gr a n d ch ildr e n ) t a ke wit h t he whole h a n d ;
h alf b r o t he r s an d siste r s ( t he ir childr e n a n d gr a n dchildr e n )
t a k e wi t h t he h a lf h an d as a bove e xpl a in e d
, .
.5 F a ilin g b r o t h e r s a n d si st e r s t h e ir childr e n an d gr a n d
,
c hi ldr e n o n e it h e r si d e t he r e l a t e d m oi e t y go e s t o r e m o t e r
d e s ce n d a n t s of su ch b r o th e r s an d siste r s p er capi ta a cc or d
1
The la t e Mr Ju st ice S chee pe r s in a n u n pu blishe d t he s is su b
. ,
m it t e d fo r t he de gr e e o f L L D a t t he Ca pe Uni v e r sit y , n o w in t he
. .
L ib r a r y o f t he A ppe lla t e D iv isio n , m a in t a in e d t ha t t he la w o f

No r t h H o lla n d , n o t o f So u th H o lla n d , is the law o f So u th Afr ic a .
I le av e t he law as I fin d it .
INT E STATE SUCCE SSI ON 41 1
in g t o pr ox im it y of de gr e e wit hou t r e p re se n t a ti o n ; who m

fa ili n g t o gr a n dp a r e n t s a n d so for t h a s de scr ib e d b e low
, ,
.
6 Fa ili n g a ll de s ce n d a n t s of a ll b r o t h e r s a n d si st e r s
.
,
t he e st a t e go e s t o t he fo ur qu a r t e r s ( vi er ui er en deelen ) i e , . .
t o gr a n dp ar e n t s of t he i n t e st a t e v iz o n e m oie t y t o t he
,
.
p a t e r n a l gr a n dp ar e n t s ( bo t h livin g ) t he o t he r m oie t y t o ,
t he m a t e r n a l gr a n dp ar e n t s ( bo t h li vi n g ) If o n e it h e r si de .
,
p a t e r n a l o r m a t e r n a l o n e gr a n dp ar e n t a lo n e su r vive s
, ,
su c h su r vivi n g gr a n dp a r e n t t a k e s n o p ar t of t he m o i e t y of
t he in h e r it a n ce b e lon g in g t o t h a t si de b u t su ch m oi e t y ,
goe s w holly t o t he u n cle s a n d a u n t s of t he i n te st a t e b e in g ,
t he childr e n of t he d e ce a se d gr a n dp a r e n t a n d t o t h e ir ,
1
ch ildr e n ( bu t n o t gr a n d ch il dr e n ) by r e p r e se n t a t i o n .
If bo t h gr a n dp ar e n t s o n e it h er si d e ar e d e a d t he m oie t y ,
of t he in he r it a n ce b e lo n gin g t o t h a t side i s a g a in divide d

in t o m oi e tie s of wh i ch o n e ( i e a qu a r t e r of t he whole )
,
. .
-
go e s t o the u n cle s a n d au n t s of t he in t e st a te b e in g t he ,
c h ildr e n of t he d e ce ase d gr a n dfa t h e r a n d t o t h e ir c h i ldr e n

,
( b u t n o t g r a n d c h i ldr e n ) by r e p r e s e n t a t i o n t he o t h e r (i e ,
. .
a qu a r t er of t he whol e ) goe s t o t he u n cl e s a n d a u n t s of
t he i n t e st a te b e i n g t he ch ildr e n of t he de ce a se d gr a n d
,
m o t h e r a n d t o t h e ir chil dr e n ( b u t n o t gr a n d childr e n ) by
r e p r e se n t a t io n ; who m fa i li n g ( in e it h e r ca se ) t he r e l a te d ,
p o r ti on go e s t o t he r e m o t e r de sce n d a n t s of su ch u n cle s
a n d a u n t s p er cap i ta a c c o r di n g t o p r ox im i t y of d e gr e e w i t h
ou t r e p re se n t a t i o n ; w ho m fa ili n g t o gr e a t gr a n dp ar e n t s
,
-
a n d t h e ir i ssu e .
7 Fa ilin g a ll d e s ce n d a n t s of a ll u n cl e s a n d a u n t s t he
.
e st a t e go e s t o t he e igh t e igh t h s v iz t o gr e a t gr a n dp ar e n t s
.
-
a n d t o t he d e s ce n d a n t s of d e ce a se d gr e a t gr a n dp a r e n t s -
a cc o r di n g t o t he syste m a bove de scr ib e d c oll a t e r a l s of e qu a l ,
d e gr e e t a kin g p er cap i ta t o t he e x clu si o n of r e m o t e r de gr e e s .
2
9 In de fa u lt of a ll blood r e l a ti o n s of t he d e c e a se d t he
.
,
3
e st a t e go e s t o t he fisc a s bona vaca n ti a .
1
I n o t he r w o r ds , a gr a n dpa r e n t n e v e r t a ke s a n y sha r e o f t he
in he r ita n ce u n le ss h is o r he r w ife o r hu sb a n d is a liv e C a n ey . V .
E s t J o hns s on [ 1 9 2 8] N P D 1 3 ; a n d se e B ijnk , O T ii 1 3 7 9
. . . . . . . .
V d K 3 64, n on o bs ta n te G r 2 3 0 l ( i n fin e )
. . . . . . .
S u p r a , p 40 1 . .
It will be n o ti ce d che m e as t h at un de r t he a bove s ,
u n d e r t he S che pe n do m s L a w t he e st a te i s divid e d in t o ,
h a lve s qu arte r s e igh t h s &c Su ppo se t h a t t he r e is a

, , , .
co m ple te fa ilur e of in h e r i t a ble blood u n de r a n y o n e of

t h e se h e a d s a c a se m igh t b e m a d e fo r ca rr yin g t he v a c a n t
,
sh ar e t o t he fisc a s bon a vaca n ti a a n d t hi s vi e w c o m m e n ds ,
1
i t se lf t o Gr ot i u s who in t hi s a n d o t h e r r e sp e cts ha s b e e n
,
ch ar ge d ( p e r h ap s u n j u st ly ) wit h offi ci a l b ias H owe ve r .

,
a diffe r e n t vi e w ha s p r e va il e d a n d t he la w i s se t t l e d i n ,
t he se n se t h a t t he fis c is on ly a dmi t te d o n fa il ur e of a ll
h e ir s wh at e ve r ; wh e r e t h e r e is a fa ilu r e of h e ir s o n o n e
2
si d e o nl y t he h e ir s o n t he o t h e r s id e t a ke ju r e acr es cen di
, .
I t r e m a ins t o n ot i ce t he c h a n g e s in tr od u ce d by st a t u te
in t he ru l e s of in t e st a t e su cce ssio n i n t he la w of S ou t h
The la w of So u t h H ollan d
dm it t he ca n o n of di d n ot a
su cc e ssio n u nde vi r et u xor a n d by co n se qu e n ce a su r vivin g ,
spo u se ha d n o r igh t of su cce e di n g a b i n tes ta to t o a d e ce a se d

’ 3
spo u se s e st a te A N a t a l L a w ( 22 of 1 863 se c 5 ) g a ve
.
, .
a su r vivi n g wife m arr i e d o u t of c o m m u n i t y t he r igh t t o

’
su cce e d t o o n e t hir d of he r d e c e a se d h u s b a n d s e st a te in
c ase t h e r e w as l a wfu l i ssu e of t he m arr i a ge o t h e rwi se t o ,
o n e h a lf Thi s followe d t he E n gli sh St a tu te of Distr ibu

.
t ion s of 1 6 7 0 n ow r e pl a ce d by t he Adm in i str a t io n of

,
E st a t e s A ct 1 9 2 5 se e 46 , , . .
The N a t a l L aw ha s b e e n re p e a l e d by t he Su cce ssion

A ct No 1 3 of 1 9 3 4 whi ch for the fir st t im e in tr od u ce d
, .
,
.
t hr o u ghou t t he Uni o n a su cce ssion ab i ntes tato of a su r

v i v in g spo u se I t e n a ct s t h at a sur vivin g spo u se sh a ll be
.
e n t i t l e d a s i n t e st a t e h e ir of t he d e ce ase d spo u se t o r e ce iv e :
( a ) in c o m p e t it ion wi t h d e s ce n d an t s of t he d e ce ase d e u
1
Gr2 28 6 ;
. . 30 3 I t w a s
. 2 . . . a n c ie n t ly so , H e t A as doms en
S chep endom s r e cht i n H olla n d e n
-
do o r Z e e la nd Mr L M R o llin
. . .
p 2 1 , w ho c it e s a de c is io n da te d
’
Co u qu e r qu e ( s G r a v e nh a ge , .
1 5 39 ( S en ten t v de n H 0 0 g e n P r ovi nc i a l R aa d i n H olla n d , No

. . . . .
2
V d K 3 6 6 ; E x p a r te S p a n ge n ber g ( 1 9 0 7 ) 2 4 S C 2 88; E s t
. . . . . .
B a ker v E s t B a ker ( 1 9 0 8) 2 5 S C 2 3 4
. . . . .
3
E x p a r te L ee u w , u bi su p R W L e e , The I n tes ta te S u cces s i on . . .
of H u s ba n d a n d Wife i n Rom a n D u tch L a w , J o u r n o f Co m p L e g -

. . .
x ii p 310 . .
APPEND I CE S
A PP END IX A
F ORMS AN D P RE CE D E NT S
I
F ORM OF G RANT OF VENIA AETATI S IN CEYL ON
B y Hi s E xcellency
Sir H e nr y E dw a r d McCall u m Kni ght Gr an d Cr oss o f t he

,
Mo st dist ingu ishe d Or de r of Sa in t Michae l a n d Sa in t G e o r ge ,
G ov e r n o r an d Co m m a n de r in Chie f in an d o ver t he I sla n d

- -
o f Ce yl o n w i th t he D e p e n de n cie s t he r e o f .
( Sgd ) HE NRY MCCA LL UM

. .
To a ll t o w ho m The se Pr e se n t s shall co m e Gr e e t ing .
Wh er e a s A B o f
. . by hi s Pe t itio n t o us dat e d t he
so li cit e d Le t t e r s o f Ve ni a A e t a t is t o su pply his w a n t o f a ge
a n d t o e n a ble hi m t o m a n a ge t r a n sa ct a n d a dm inist e r hi s
affa ir s a n d pr o pe rt y as fu lly a n d e ffe ct u ally t o all in t e n t s a n d

pu r po se s a s if he ha d a t t a in e d his fu ll a ge .
A n d w he r e a s it app e ar s t o u s t ha t t he sa id A B is ca p able . .
o f m a n a gin g hi s o wn a ffa ir s .
No w t he se pr e se n t s w itn e ss t h at havi n g t ake n the sa id

Pe t itio n in t o con side r at io n w e do he r e by gr a n t t he se ou r
L e t t e r s o f Ve ni a A e t a tis t o t he said A B t hu s su pplyin g hi s
. .
w a n t o f a ge a s fu ll y a n d e ffe ct u all y t o all in t e n t s a n d pu r

p ose s a s if he ha d att ain e d t he age o f t w e n ty o n e ye a r s -
.
An d w e do he r e by a lso a u thoriz e him t he said A B t o a d . .
m ini st e r or c a u se t o b e a dm ini st e r e d all a n d sin gu l ar his a ffa ir s

a n d p r o p e r t y a n d t o m a n a ge a n d di sp o se of su ch p r o pe rt y
a c cor di n g t o t he L a w s a n d Cu st o m s o f t hi s cou n t r y a s if he ha d
a t t a in e d t he sa id a e of t w e n t y o n e ye a r s pr o vi de d t ha t he t he
g
-
sa id A B sha ll n o t a li e n a t e a n y im m o va bl e p r o p e rt y w ha t so
. .
e v er w i t hou t t he sa n ct io n o f t he D ist r i ct Co u r t w i t hin t he Te rr i
t o r i al Ju r isdi ct io n o f w hi ch su ch pr o p e rt y shall b e sit u a te d an d ,
e x ce p t a s a fo r e said a ll a n d sin gul ar t he a ct s m a tt e r s a n d t hin gs
t ha t t he sa id A B shall o r m a y do by v ir tu e o f t he se p r e se n t s
. .
sha ll b e c o n side r e d va lid a n d l e ga l t o a ll in t e n t s a n d pur p o se s
w ith ou t t he sa m e b e in g im p e a che d or call e d in qu e stio n on t he

gr ou n d o f mi n ority of t he sa id A B . .
41 8 APPENDIX A
Give n u n de r m y H an d an d the Gr e at Se a l of the U ni o n of
Sou th Afri ca a t B o r ke rt o n this N in th da y o f Ju n e On e Thou
san d Nin e H u n dr e d an d Tw e n t y fou r -
Govern or Ge n er al -
By Comm an d of His Ex ce lle ncy

The Gover n or Ge n er al in Cou n cil
-
N J de WE T . . .
III
F ORM OF ANTENUPTIAL CONTRACT IN U SE IN
S OUTH AF RICA
[Fr o m The Nota r i a l P r a cti ce f m th Afri ca , b y C H

g
o . . V a n Zy l ,
p oI a
.
KNOW all w h o m it m ay c on ce rn ,
That on this t he o n e t hou san d n in e h u n dr e d

day o f
an d b e for e m e A B , of . Ca pe of G o od Hope
.
,
Not ary Pu bli c by la w ful au tho rit y dul y sw orn an d a dmitte d

, , ,
a n d in t he pr e se n ce o f t he su b scr ib in g w it n e sse s pe r so n a lly ,
ca m e a n d a ppe ar e d C D of . B a che l or an d E F
.
, . .
of Spin ste r w ho de clar e d t hat w here as a m arr i age ha s

,
be e n agr ee d u po n a n d is int e n de d t o b e short ly ha d a n d

,
sol e m n ize d b e t w e e n t h e m t he y do by the se pr e se n t s con t r a ct

, , ,
an d a gr e e e a ch w it h t he ot he r as follow s
, ,
FIRST That ther e shall b e n o comm u nity of pr ope rt y or

.
-
of pr ofit or loss b e tw ee n t he said in te n de d spou se s b u t that ,
he or she r e sp e ct ive ly sha ll r e t ain a n d p osse ss all his or her

e st a te an d e f fe ct s m ova ble or im m o vable in p o sse ssion r e ver , ,
sio n , e xpe ct an cy o r c on t in ge n cy a s fu lly a n d e ffe ctu all y a s ,
if t he said int e n de d m arr i age di d n o t t ake pla ce .
S EC OND — That t he o n e of the m shall n ot b e an sw e r able

.
fo r t he de bt s an d e n ga ge m e n t s o f the othe r o f the m w he th e r ,
c o n t r a cte d b e for e o r a fte r t he s a id in t e n de d m a rri a ge .
THI RD —That all inhe rita n ce s le ga cie s gifts or b e qu e st s , , ,
w hi ch m a y de vo lve u p o n o r b e l e ft give n o r b e qu e at he d t o
, ,
e ithe r o f t he sa i d in t e n de d spou se s sha ll b e t he so l e a n d ,
e x clu sive p r op e rt y o f hi m or he r u p o n w hom t he sa m e shall
de volve or t o w hom the sa m e m ay b e le ft giv e n o r b e qu e a the d

, , , .
F OUR TH — That e a ch of t he sa i d int en de d sp ou se s shall

.
b e a t fu ll lib e rt y t o di spose of his o r he r pr op e rt y a n d e ffe ct s

by will codi cil or other t esta me nt ar y disposit ion a s he o r she
, ,
F ORMS AND PR ECEDENTS 41 9
m a y t hin k fit , w i thou t t he hi n dr a n ce o r in te r fe r e n ce in any
m a nn e r of t he o t he r o f t he m .
FIFTH — Tha t t he m ar ita l po w e r w hich t he hu sb an d by

.
la w po sse sse s o v e r t he pr o pe rt y a n d t he e st a te o f hi s w ife ,
i s he r e by e x clu de d a n d t ha t he i s e xpr e ssly de pr i ve d t he r e of

,
o ve r t he e st a t e o f his in t e n de d sp o u se .
U PON AL L WHICH co n ditio n s a n d stipu lat ions t he

a pp e a r e r s de cl a r e d it t o b e t he ir in t e n t io n t o so le m ni z e t he
sa id in t e n de d m ar r i a ge a n d m u t u a lly pr om is e d a n d a gr e e d
,
to a ll o w e a ch o t he r t he fu ll fo r ce an d e ffe ct he r e of u n der
o bliga tio n o f t he ir pe r so n s an d pr ope r ty a c cor din g t o law .
THUS D ONE co n t r a cte d a n d agr e e d a t

, a fo r e sa id ,
t he day m o n t h a n d ye ar fir st a for e wri t te n in t he pr e se n ce

, , ,
o f t he su b s cr ibin g w itn e sse s .
A s w it n e sse s
1 . G D
2 . I F
Q u o d Atte st o r .
A B
Nota r y Pu blic .
IV
PRECEDENTS OF MUTUAL
A
NOT A R IA L WIL L
B E it he r e by m a de kn o w n t ha t o n t hi s t w e n tie th da y o f
De ce m b e r in t he ye a r o f o u r L o r d o n e t ho u san d e ight hun dr e d
a n d e ight y se v e n b e for e m e Co nr a d Chr is t ia n Silb er b a u er o f
-
Ca pe To w n Cape o f G oo d H ope N o t ar y Pu bli c dul y a dmi tte d

a n d sw o rn in t he pr e se n ce o f t he su b scr i b e d w itn e sse s pe r
so n all y ca m e a n d a ppe a r e d [na m e descr ip ti on p la ce of abode]

, ,
a n d his Wife [n a m e] An d t he se App e ar e r s be in g in he a lth

.
o f b o dy o f so u n d a n d disp osin g m in d m e m or y a n d u n der
st a n di n g a n d c a p a ble o f do in g a n y a ct t ha t r e qu i r e d t ho u ght
j u dgm e n t or r e fle ctio n de clar e d t he ir int e n tion t o m ake an d

e x e cu te t he ir la st Will a n d t e st a m e n t— Whe r e fo r e he r e by ,
r e v ok in g an d a n n u lli n g a ll Will s co di cils a n d o t her te sta
m e n t a r y a ct s he r e t o for e p asse d by the m o r e it he r o f the m t he

Appe ar e r s de clare d t o n om in ate an d appo in t the survi v or of
420 APPENDIX A
t he m t oge t he r w ith t he chi ld
l dre n b e gott e n by the m
or chi
du rin g t he ir m arr i age t o b e t he sole an d u ni ve r sa l he ir s o f

t he fir st dyin g o f all his o r he r e st a te goo ds e ffe ct s st o ck
‘
inhe r it an ce ch a tt e ls cr e di t s a n d t hin g s w ha t soe v e r a n d w he r e

so e v e r t he sa m e m a y b e n o t hin g e x ce p te d w hi ch sha ll b e le ft
a t t he de a t h o f t he fir st dyi n g o f t he m w he t he r m o va bl e o r
im m ova ble a n d w he t he r t he sa m e b e in p o sse ssio n r e v e r sion

r e m a in de r or e x e ct a n cy An d if t he Te st a t o r t he sa id
p .
sh a ll h a ppe n t o su r viv e t he Te st a tr i x t he sa id t he n t he
Appe a r e r s de clar e d t o n o m in at e a n d appoint t he Te st at or t o
be t he E x e cu t or of t his t he ir Wil l a n d a dm inist r a t or o f t he ir
e st a t e a n d e f fe ct s a n d gu ar di an o f t he ir m in or he ir s A n d if .
t he Te st a t r ix sha ll ha ppe n t o su r vive t he Te st at or t he n t he

Appe ar e r s de cla r e t o n o m in a t e a n d appo in t t he Te st a tr ix
t o ge t he r w i t h t he Te st at o r s br o t he r [na m e des cr ip ti on p la ce
’
, ,
of a bode] t o b e t he E x e cu t o r s o f t hi s t he ir Will a d mi n ist r a t or s
o f t he ir e st a te a n d e f fe c t s a n d gu ar di a n s o f the m in or childr e n
o f t he Te st a t o r he r e by giv in g a n d gr a n t in g u n t o t he m a ll su ch
pow e r s a n d a u tho r it ie s a s a r e r e qu ir e d o r a ll o w e d in la w a n d
e sp e ciall y t ho se o f a ssu m p t i o n su b st it u t i o n a n d su rr o ga t ion .
The Te st at o r s de clar e t o r e se r v e t o t he m se lv e s j o in tly du r

in g t he ir j o in t li v e s t he p o w e r fr o m t im e t o t im e a n d a t a ll
t im e s he r e aft er t o m a ke all su ch alt e r a t io n s in o r a ddi t io n s t o
t his Will a s t he y sha ll t hink fit e it he r by a se p ar a t e a ct o r
a t t he fo o t he r e of de sir in g t ha t a ll su ch a lt e r a t io n s o r a ddi t io n s
so m a de u n de r t he ir ow n sign a t u r e s sha ll b e he l d a s vali d
a nd e f fe ct u a l a s if t he y ha d b e e n in se r t e d he r e in .
All w hi ch ha v in g b e e n c le a r ly a n d di st in ct ly r e a d o v e r t o
t he Appe a r e r s t he y de cla r e d t ha t t he y fu lly u n de r st o o d t he
sa m e a n d t ha t it c o n t a in s t he ir l a st Will a n d t e st a m e n t
de sir ing t ha t it m ay hav e e ffe ct a s su ch o r a s a co di cil o r

o t he r w ise in su ch m a nn e r as m a y b e fo u n d t o co n sist w it h l a w .
This don e an d pa sse d atCape To wn a fo r e sa id t he da y

m o n th an d ye ar fir st a fo r e w r itt e n in t he pr e se n ce o f t he co n
g
si n a t o r y w i t n e sse s .
As Witn e sse s
( Sgd ) C E
. . . J .
( Sgd ) G P H [Hus ba nd]
. . . .
( Sgd ) J J E
. . . .
( Sgd ) F E S [ Wife]
. . . . .
Q u o d Atte stor
( Sgd ) C CHRI STIA N SI LB E RB A UE R
. .
N OTA RY PUB LI C .
422 APPENDIX B
hi s gu ar di an t o carr y o n b u sin e ss o n his o wn be ha lf B u t he .
i s o nly t a citly e m an cipa te d t o t he e x te nt o f co n t r a ct s by o r in

c onn e x io n w it h t ha t p a r t i cu l a r b u sin e ss Ochbe rg v Ochber g s
’
. .
E st [ 1 9 41 ] C P D at pp 3 6 3 7 p er Su tt on J
. . . . .
, .
Ca n a m in or w ho is n o t car r ying on a bu sin e ss b e t a citly

e m a n cip a te d ? App a r e n t ly n o t .
3 Is a m in or w ho false ly r e pr e se n t s him se lf t o be o f fu ll a ge
.
bou n d by his co n t r a ct t o a par ty w ho b e lie v e s him t o b e of

fu ll a ge ?
The qu e st io n is qu it e o pe n We sse l s i 830 ff ; F ou che v .
, . . .
B a tten ha u sen at G o [ 1 939 ] C P D 2 2 8 . . . . .
The book s dis tin gui sh ( a ) co n tr a ct s o f m in or s u n assiste d by

pare n t s or gu ar di an s w hi ch ar e ip so ju re vo id in t he se n se ,
t ha t r e stitu t i o in in t e gr u m is n o t p o sit iv e ly n e ce ssa r y t o a v o id

t he m ( De B ee r v E st De B eer [ 1 9 1 6] C P D
. . t hou gh it . . .
m ay b e m a tte r o f pru de n ce t o in v oke it s a id (Vo e t 4 l 1 3 ; , . .
B r eyten ba ch v F ra n kel [ 1 9 1 3] A D a t p 3 9 8 p er Lor d de

. . . .
Villi e r s a n d ( b) c on t r a c t s o f m in o r s du ly a ssist e d o r o f ,
t u t or s a ctin g fo r m in o r s w hi ch a r e n o t vo id b u t v o idable by
, ,
r e st it u ti o in in t e gru m ( G r 3 48 1 0 ; Cens F or 1 4 43 1 — . 2;. . . . . . .
Va n de r Byl ( 9 Co v S olom on [ 1 87 7 ] B u ch a t p
. . This . .
di s tin ct ion ha s im por t a n t c on se qu e n ce s

1 In ( a ) mi n o ri t y is a de fe n c e w i thou t pr oof o f le sion
. .
in ( b) le sion m u st b e pr ove d .
2 The gr ou n ds fo r r e fu sin g t he e x t r a or dina r y r e m e dy o f

.
r e st it u t io in in t e gr u m w hi ch a pply t o ( b) do n ot n e ce ssar ily
a pply t o ( a ) Su ch ar e : ( i ) t he fa ct that t he m in o r ha s fa lse ly

.
r e pr e se n te d hi m se lf t o b e o f fu ll a ge ; ( ii ) t he fa ct t ha t he
ha s con du cte d him se lf a s o f fu ll a ge a n d is ge n e r a lly su pp ose d ,
t o be so—c omm u ni o m n iu m e rr o r e pr o m a jor e nn e ha b itu s

si c a ge ns pu bli ce sic m u n e ri b u s fu n ge n s u t m a jo r e nn e s
, , .
( Voe t 4 4 , . This dis t in ct io n w a s pe r haps som e w ha t o v e r

.
looke d in P lea t v Va n S taden [1 9 2 1 ] O P D 9 1

_
. . . . .
3 In ( a ) an d ( b) t he b u r d e n o f pr o vin g m in or it y i s o n t he
.
m in or ; b u t t his be in g e sta bli she d—in ( a ) t he bu r de n of pr o v in g

be n e fit ( Nel v Di vi ne Ha ll t 0 0 ( 1 890 ) 8 S C
. or C . . .
e m a n cip a t i o n ( Ven ter v D e B u r gher sdorp S tor es [ 1 9 1 5 ] C P D

. . . .
a t p 2 55 ; Ochberg v Ochber g s E st
’
. u bi
. is on t he o t he r .
,
part y ; in ( b) t he bu r de n o f pr o ving le sio n is a s a ru l e o n the

pe r son w ho r e lie s u po n it Voe t 4 4 13 .
, . . .
A PP END IX C
MA RR IAGE : P R OH I B ITE D D E GRE E S
Cap e P r ovi nce
A ct No . 40 of 1 89 2 , se e . 2, e n a ct s
‘
It sha l aw fu l for an y w ido w er t o m arr y the si ste r of
ll be
his de ce a se d w ife pr o v ide d su ch sist e r b e n o t t he w i dow o f
,
a de ce a se d b r o t he r o f su ch wi do w e r or t o m arr y a n y fe m a le ,
r e la t e d t o hi m in a n y m o r e r e m o te de gr e e o f a ffini t y t han t he
si st er of his de ce a se d w ife sa v e a n d e x ce p t a n y a n ce st or of ,
or de sce n da n t fr o m su ch de ce a se d wife B y se c 4 n ot hi n g
’
. .
in t he A ct c on t ain e d shall b e de e m e d t o le ga lize o r r e n de r

‘
va lid t he m ar ri age of a m an w it h t he sist er o f a w ife fr om

1
w ho m he ha s b ee n di vor ce d
’
.
Tr a ns vaa l
No Un de r pr o hi bit e d
‘
L aw . 3 of 1 87 1 se c . 4, e n a ct s : t he
de gr e e s blo od r e lati o n ship ar e in clu de d : ( a ) a ll
of -
p e r son s in
t he asce n di n g a n d de sce n di n g li n e ad i nfin i tu m a n d in t he ,
c o ll a t e r a l lin e t o t he t hi r d de gr e e in cl u siv e co ns e qu e n tly u n cle ,
a n d n ie ce au n t a n d n e phe w w he t he r by bl oo d or m arr i age ;

, ,
b
( ) fi r s t c ou sin s w he n b o t h t he p ar e n t s o f t he o n e a r e r e l a te d
2
t o b o th t he p ar e n t s of t he o ther a s o w n b r o the r s a n d siste rs
’
.
,
The law is sile n t a s t o t he pr o hibit e d de gr e e s o f a ffin i ty w hi ch ,
t he r e fo r e de pe n de d u p o n t he c o mm on la w It fo ll ow e d t ha t .
m ar ri a ge w it h a de ce a se d w ife s sist e r w as n o t all o w e d Rex v

’
. .
P a ter son [ 19 0 7 ] T S . . 619 .
Bu t by Uni on A ct No 1 1 of 1 92 0 se c 1
n ow Anyt hing .
, .
‘
t o t he co n t r ar y n o t w i t hst a n di n g in L a w 3 o f 1 87 1 o f t he
Pr o v in ce o f the Tr an sv a a l o r in a n y o the r la w in fo r ce in t hat
Pr ov mce it shall b e l aw ful fo r a n y wi do w e r t o m arr y t he sist e r
,
o f his de ce a se d w ife or t o m arr y a n y fe m ale r e l a te d t o him
t hr o u gh hi s de ce a se d w ife in a n y m or e r e m o te de gr e e of
a ffini t y tha n t he sist e r o f hi s de ce a se d w ife sa ve a n d e x ce pt ,
1
No r w it h h is div or c e d b r o t he r
’
s dau ght e r . F u chs v . Whi ley
No .
[ 1 9 3 4] O P D 1 3 0 . . . .
2
B u t pe r so n s so r e la t e d w h o ha v e se x u a l r e la t io n s ar e n o t gu i lt y
o f t h e c o mm o n la w c r im e o f in c e st S o he ld in t he c as e o f a sim ila r .
pr o v is io n in S W A ( Fr o c l No 3 1 o f
. . . Rex v B la a u w [ 1 9 34]
. . .
SWA 3
. . . .
424 APPENDIX C
a n y a n ce stor of or de sce n da n t fr om su ch de ce a se d wife An d .
’
( se c 3 )
. Notw ithst an din g an ythin g co nt ain e d in t hi s A ct it
shall n ot b e l a w fu l for a m a n t o m arr y t he sist e r o f his di vo r ce d
w ife o r o f his w ife by w ho m he ha s b ee n divor ce d du ri ng t he

, ,
life t im e o f su ch wife
’
.
Or a nge F r ee S ta te
No of pr ohi bit ed e n a ct s— Ma rr i age
‘
Or d . . 31 1 9 03 , se c . 1, is
b e tw e e n all pe r son s r e lat e d t o o n e a n o the r in the foll owi ng
de gr e e s o f co n sa n gu in ity o r a ffin ity : ( 1 ) In t he a sce n di n g a n d
de sce n din g lin e s b e t w e e n pe r son s r e l at e d t o on e a n o t he r e ithe r
by le git im at e o r ill e gitim a t e bir t h o r by m arri age ( 2 ) In t he , .
c o ll a t e r a l de gr e e s : ( a ) B e t w e e n br o t he r a n d sist e r by b ir t h
le gitim a t e o r ill e git im a te ; ( b) b e t w e e n u n cle or gr e a t u n cle an d -
n i e ce o r gr e a t n i e ce by b ir t h le git im a t e o r ill e git im a te ; ( 0 )

-
B e t w e e n au n t o r gr e at a u n t a n d n e phe w or gr e a t n e phe w by
- -
bir t h le git im a te o r ill e git im at e ( 3 ) ( a ) Be tw e e n co u sins w ho se .
fat he r s ar e br ot he r s an d w hose m o the r s a t t he sa m e t im e a re

sist e r s by b ir t h l e git im at e o r ill e gi t im a t e ; ( b) B e t w e e n cou sin s
o f w ho m t he fa t he r o f the o n e i s b r o t he r o f t he m o t her o f t he
o t he r a n d a t t he sa m e t im e t he m ot he r o f t he o n e i s siste r o f
t he fa t he r o f t he o t he r by birt h le gi t im a te o r i lle git im a t e .
Se c 2 No m a rr iage sha ll b e de e m e d u nl aw ful by r e ason

. .
o nly t ha t t he p e r so n s c o n t ra ctin g su ch m a rr i a ge a r e r e l a t e d
t o o n e a n ot he r in a n y o t he r de gr e e o f co n san gu in it y o r affini t y
t ha n t ho se in se e I m e n t io n e d
’
. .
Na ta l
I n t his Pr o vm ce t he pr ohi bite d de gr e e s are le ft t o t he co m
m on la w e x ce pt t ha t A ct No . 45 , 1 898, se e . 2, le ga liz e s t he
m arri a ge by
m a n w i t h his de ce a se d w ife
’
of a s siste r ; an d
Unio n A ct No 1 1 o f 1 9 20 se e 1 . Anythin g t o the con tr ar y

, .
‘
n o t wi t hst a n di n g in a n y la w in t he Pr o vin ce o f Na t a l it sha ll ,
b e l awfu l fo r an y w ido w e r t o m a r r y a n y fe m ale r e l ate d t o him

t hr ou gh his de c e a se d wife in a n y m o r e r e m ote de gr e e o f a ffi nit y
t han t he sist e r o f hi s de ce a se d w ife sa v e a n d e x ce pt an y ,
a n c e st o r o f o r de s ce n da n t fr o m su ch d e ce ase d w ife
’
Se c 3 . .
( supr a ) applie s a lso t o N at al .
f S ou th Afr i ca
Un i on o
The Marr i age L a w Am e n dm e n t A ct No 1 7 o f 1 9 2 1 pr o vi de s .
( se c . Anyt hing t o the co n t rar y n otwi thsta n di n g in a n y

‘
A PP E ND IX D
TH E L EGAL CAPACIT Y OF MA RR IE D
W OME N
This de sign e d t o su pple m e n t t he a ccou n t of this
n ote is
m a tt e r gi v e n a b o v e pp 64 ff The gr o u n d i s by n o m e a n s
, . .
co ve r e d by a u t hor it y So fa r as t his is so t he foll o w in g r e m ar ks

.
a r e su bm it te d a s a t e n t a t iv e so lu t io n o f qu e st io n s w hi ch ca ll
fo r b u t have n o t ye t r e ce ive d j u di cia l de cision

, , .
I
P er son a
ju di ci o sta n di in
I n Va n E eden v K i rstei n ( 1 880 ) Kot z e a t p 1 84 K ot z e J
.
, .
, .
st a t e s t he ge n e r a l r u l e o f in ca p a cit y an d t he e x ce p t io n s fr o m
it in the foll owi n g t e r m s : The ge n e r a l ru le o f o u r la w is

‘
t hat a m arr ie d w o m an b e in g a min o r has n o p ersona sta ndi , ,
i n ju di ci o a n d m u st in law pr o ce e d by o r w ith t he a ssist an ce

, ,
o f he r hu sb a n d
,
To t his r u l e o nl y t hr e e e x ce pt ion s a r e a d
.
mi tt e d vi z l st in t he ca se o f m a rr ie d w om e n carr yin g o n a
, .
,
pu blic tr ade in r e gar d t o a ll tr an sa ction s conn e cte d w ith su ch

t r a de ; 2 n d w he r e a w o m an m arri e d by a n t e n u ptia l co n t r a ct
,
ha s r e se r v e d t o he r se lf t he fr e e a dm ini str a ti on o f her se par a t e

pr ope rt y ; a n d 3r d in a su i t by t he wife aga ins t t he hu sb an d
,
( V d L inden Ju di ci eel P r actijcg 1 8

. .
, I have b e e n , .
,
u n a ble t o fin d a single Ro m a n D u t ch au t hori t y givi ng a m arr i e d -
w om a n t he right t o a ppe a r in a civ il su it u n assiste d by he r

hu sb an d in a ny b u t the t hr e e e x ce ption s abov e e n u m e r a t e d
, .
’
The a bove st at e m e n t o f t he la w ha s b e e n a dopte d ge n e ra lly

‘
in t he So u t h Afri ca n Cou rt s M cCu llou gh v Ross [ 1 9 1 8] C P D . . . .
at p 395 .It a pplie s e qu ally w he t he r it is a qu e st io n o f bri n gin g

.
o r o f de fe n di n g a n a ct io n .
The fir st t w o e x ce p t ion s ar e r e fe rr e d t o b e l o w ; t he t hir d

fin ds it s m ost fr e qu e n t appli ca t io n in m atrim o n ial c au se s su ch
a s su it s fo r di v o r ce j u di cial separ ation or for de clar a tion o f
, ,
n u llit y o f m ar ri age Va n Zyl Ju di cia l P r actic e ( 3r d

.
, pp 7 9 .
a n d 80 ; B a rn e tt v M i ln es [ 1 9 2 8] N P D 1
. . . . .
In Sou th Afri c a ( e x ce pt ions a p a rt ) w he n a ct io n i s br ou ght

u pon a c o n t r a ct co n clu de d by a w o m a n m arr ie d in co m m u ni ty
t he pr a ct i ce is fo r the hu sb an d t o su e a n d b e su e d in his o wn
LEGAL CAPACITY OF MARRIED WOMEN 427
n am e . S m i th v B a r d [1 9 1 7 ] C P D a t p 6 1 8; Olufsen v Fi elder
. . . . . .
[ 1 930] N P D 2 60 The r e ason is t ha t ( e x ce ptio n s apa rt ) a

‘
. . . .
w o m a n m arr ie d in co mm u ni ty c a n n o t c o n t r a ct sav e as a ge n t
fo r he r hu sb a n d ( S m i th v Ba r d lo c
’
It is his co n t r a ct .
, .
,
a n d he m u st su e or b e su e d u p o n i t B u t w he n a ct i on is .
br o u ght u pon a de li ct the w ife m a y su e or be su e d in he r o w n

n am e a ssiste d by he r hu sb a n d She i s the p e r so n im m e di at e ly .
con c er n e d Ha rms v M a lher be [ 1 9 35 ] C P D 1 67 ( di sse n t in g

. . . . .
fr om B uck v Gr een [1 9 32 ] N P D 42 5 in w hi ch it w as he ld
. . . .
,
t hat t he w ife co ul d n o t su e in he r o wn n a m e ) In t he a lt e rn a .
t iv e t he hu sb a n d m a y su e o r b e su e d in his ca p a cit y as hu sb an d
a n d l e gal gu ar dia n o f his w ife K lette v Pfitze ( 1 89 1 ) 6 E D C . . . . .
1 34 ; Ha r ms v M a lher be u bi su p If t he hu sb a n d s a ssist a n ce
’
. .
,
is r e qu ir e d a n d he ca nn ot or w ill n o t giv e it o r if he i s a b se n t ,
fr o m the j u ri sdi ctio n t he Cou r t will in a fit ca se giv e t he w ife

,
le a ve t o bring ( M cG regor v S A B r ew er i es L td [ 1 9 1 9 ] W L D . . .
, . . . .
2 2 ; L a cey v L a cey [ 1 9 2 9 ] W L D
. o r t o de fe n d ( E x . . .
pa rte G er be r [ 1 9 28] WL . . D . an a ct i on in he r o w n n am e .
M cCu llou gh v . Ross

pp 39 5 , 39 7
,
N o te t ha t abili ty t o
at . .
‘
litigate n o t fo llo w fr o m he r r ight t o c on t r a ct K o t z e,

’
doe s .
Va n L ee u wen , v o l i , p 489 . . .
If t he hu sb an d has de se rt e d his w ife an d disa ppe ar e d fr o m

j
t he u r isdi ct io n , it m a y b e t ha t she can su e a n d be su e d in he r
o wn n a m e wi t ho u t l e av e fr o m t he Co u rt . Ku n ne v . D e B ee r
[ 1 9 1 6] C P D. . . 667 M cCu llo u gh v Ross .
,
u bi su p . at p . 39 6 .
11
Capa ci ty to Con tr a ct
The ge n e r al r u le is t ha t a m arri e d w o m a n ca nn o t bin d he r se lf
o r he r hu sb a n d o r t he c o m m u ni t y wi t ho u t t he co n se n t o r su b
se qu e n t r a t ifi ca t io n of he r hu sb a n d B u t t his r ule is su b j e ct .
t o e x c e p t i o ns a n d m a y b e e x clu de d by a n t e n u pt ia l co n tr a ct .
Fu r the r like m in or s a w o m an can co n fir m t he co n tr a ct w he n

, ,
t he di s abili t y c e a se s i e a ft e r t he di sso lu t io n o f t he m ar r i age

, . .
,
a n d ho ld t he o the r p a r t y t o his b a r ga in Vo e t 2 3 2 43 .
, . . .
The ca se s in w hi ch a m ar r ie d w o m an s con t r a ct is foll o w e d

’
by le gal con se qu e n ce s du r ing a n d afte r m arr iage ar e t he

follo w i n g
1 If she co n tracts w i th her hu s band s con sen t or if he su bse
’
.
qu en tly r a ti fies he r con tr act Voe t , 2 3 2 42

. . . . In t his ca se t he
is the w ife The r e fo r e it bin ds
’
co n t r a ct s co n t r a ct . he r ; an d if
42 8 APPENDIX D
she is m ar r i e d in co mm u ni t
bin ds t he co m m u ni t y a lso y , it .
A c co r din gly : ( a ) du r ing the m ar r ia ge it m a y be e nfo r ce d aga in st

t he hu sb an d a s he a d o f t he c om m u ni ty a n d w he n c o m m u ni ty , ,
ha s b e e n e x clu de d again st t he wife du ly a ssist e d by t he

-
‘
, .
hu sb a n d ( 1 Ma a sdorp p
’
, .
( b) Afte r t he dissolu t ion o f the m arr ia ge it m ay if t he ,
m a rr i a ge w a s in co mm u n ity be e nfo r ce d a ga in st t he co m m o n ,
e st a t e ( pre vi o u s t o di st ri b u t i o n ) o r a ga in st t he w ife bu t n ot ,
a ga in st t he hu sb a n d in di v i d u a lly sin ce he w as n o t a p a r t y t o ,
t he co n t r a ct If ho w e ve r t he m arr i age w as in c o m m u ni t y
.
, ,
a n d t he w ife ha s sa t isfie d t he w hole de b t she w ill have r egr essu s ,
p ro se m i sse a g a in st he r h u s b a n d j u s t a s t he hu sb a n d in like ,
c a se ha s r egr essu s p r o s em i ss e a ga in st t he w ife ( su p r a p 7 1 , .

,
n .
If she her hu s ba n d s
’
2 . co nt r acts as a gent . In t his ca se t he
is t he hu sb an d bin ds hi m A i r d v o
’
c o n t r a ct s c n t r a ct . It . .
Hockley s E st [ 1 937 ] E D L a t p 42 Whe t he r it a lso b in ds

’
. . . . . .
t he w ife de pe n ds u p o n t he g e n e r a l pr in ciple s o f t he law o f

a g e n cy a n d t he sp e cia l ru l e s o f la w r e l a t ing t o t he c o n t r a ct u a l
c a p a cit y o f m a r r ie d w om e n To t his he a d m a y b e r e fe rr e d .
c a se s in w hi ch t he hu sb a n d ha s he l d o u t his wife t o t hir d
par tie s a s hav in g a u t ho r ity t o ple dge his cr e dit .
3 If she con tr acts i n r e la ti on to a p u bli c tr ade w hi ch she i s

.
ca rr yi ng on w i th the cons en t of he r hu sba nd Gr o t iu s ( 1 5 2 3 ) . . .
sa ys t ha t she b in ds he r se lf a n d he r hu sb a n d Vo e t spe aks o f .
a n im pli e d a ge n cy r e su lt in g fr o m t he fa ct t ha t t he hu sb a n d
a ll o w s hi s w ife t o m a n age his bu sin e ss for hi m V oe t 4 4 5 1 . . .
2 3 2 44 ; Hall Cons v i 9 5
. . . . . .
On R om an L a w pr in ciple s she w ou d l bin d he r se lf an d he r

hu sb an d a sol ( acti o i n sti tor i a ) , bu t in t he m o dern la w if she
w ere a mere a ge n t she
bin d he r hu sb a n d a n d n o t he r se lf
w o ul d .
On t he o t he r ha n d t he hu sb a n d is n o t n e ce ssar ily li a ble .
Chr ist in a e u s ad leg M u n i cip M e chli n t it ix ar t 1 0 cit ing

. . . .
, .
,
G aill F ract Obse rv li b ii n o 90 The co n t ra ct m a y b in d t he

, . . .
, . .
w ife alo n e A s r e gar ds t he hu sb a n d it se e m s t hat he w ill b e

.
b ou n d i n soli du m o r p ro sem isse ( Sa n de Deci s F r i s 2 4

, , . . . .
o r n o t a t a ll a c co r di n g t o cir cu m st a n ce s The w ife s li a b ili t y

’
.
,
a l so d e pe n ds u p on t he cir cu m st a n ce s ; t hu s she m a y b e cor r ea
debendi w ith he r hu sb a n d ( G a ill u bi su p ) b u t w he r e t he con , .
t r a ct is her con tr act she i s a n sw e r a ble i n soli du m b o t h dur ing

a n d a ft e r t he di sso l u t io n o f t he m ar r ia ge This is a logi ca l .
430 AP PENDIX D
on b e half Hern a CO v De B eer [ 1 9 1 3] T P D at p 72 5
his . . . . . . .
per Maso n J This is r e m ini s ce n t o f E n glis h L a w

. In t he .
D u t ch L aw the hu sb a n d w a s lia ble pr o s em isse for goo ds su p

plie d fo r t he u se o f t he j oin t hou s e ho ld Thi s w a s a co nse qu e n ce .
o f m a rri a ge It ha d n o t hin g t o do w i t h a ge n cy a n d a ppli ed

.
in difi e r e n t ly to a ll m a rri a ge s w he t he r in o r o u t o f c o m m u nit y

’
Thi s pr o po sit io n r e st s u p o n de cision s o f t he Cour t o f H oll an d

ci t e d in t he n ote s to Ne o st adi u s Obser vationes de pa stis a nte
,
n u p ti ali bu s , Ob s ix ,. a n d is a c ce p te d w it hou t qu e st io n by V a n
Le e u w e n 1 6 . . G r o e n e w e ge n ( ad Cod 4 1 2 Voe t. . .
(23 4 . . v an de r Kee sse l ( Th a n d F o cke m a An dr e ae

.
( ad G r . 1 5 . . For the te xt o f t he n o te to Ne o st a di u s see L ee ,

Comm enta r y , p 1 0 5 The rul e a pplie s to t he w ife j u s t as m u ch
. .
a s to t he hu sb a n d a n d r e st s u p o n t he pr in ciple t ha t it is
fa ir t ha t t he Sp o u se s sho u ld co n t ri bu te e qu ally t o h o u se ho ld
e x p e ns e s In He rn do Co v D e B eer u bi sup Ma so n J sa id
. . .
, . .
( at p 72 3 ) Eve n if she has by a n t e nu ptia l co n tr a ct e x clu de d

‘
.
c omm u ni t y o f pr o fit a n d l o ss a n d lia b ili t y fo r her hu sb a n d s

’
de bt s she is li able [u p on the dissolu tio n o f t he m arr i age ] for

,
half t he pr ice o f the goo ds su pplie d t o he r a n d her hu sb an d for

dom e st i c pu r p o se s t hou gh r e cou r se a gains t he r hu sb an d o r
,
his e st a t e is r e ser ve d t o he r t o r e cove r w ha t she pa ys Lo we r ’

.
dow n ( at p 7 26 ) t he le ar n e d Ju dge r e fe rr e d t o t he spe cia l

‘
.
a n d e qu it a bl e p r o vi sio n by w hi ch cr e di t o r s a r e e n t it l ed t o
r e c o v e r [fr o m t he w ife ] u po n t he di sso lu t ion o f t he m a rr ia ge
half o f t he de bt s fo r hou se hold n e ce ssari e s of w hi ch she ha s

had t he b e n e fit I n Va n Rens bu r g v S w er sky B r os [ 1 9 2 3]
’
. . .
T P D 2 55 t he Tr an sv a al Cou rt ( St r a t fo r d a n d Ti n da ll JJ )
. . . .
he ld t ha t t his li abili t y a t t a che d a lso du r in g m a rri age t o a

w ife m a rr i e d w i t h a n a n te n u pt ia l c o n t r a ct w hi ch e x clu de d
a ll co m m u ni t y a n d t he m ar it a l p o w e r fo r ha lf t he co st o f
n e ce ssar i e s p u r chas e d by t he hu sb an d in hi s o w n n a m e Str a t .
fo r d J qu ali fie d t he ge n e r ality o f t he r ul e by saying ( at p 2 59 )

. .
It m ay b e t ha t by e xpr e ss te r m s t he hu sb an d o r wi fe m a y
‘
a s su m e t he w ho l e li a b ili t y fo r t he pur chase of n e ce ssa ri e s a n d ,
if the v e n do r agr ees t o l oo k onl y t o hi m or he r I do n ot t hi nk

he c a n t he r e afte r su e t he n on con t r a cting spo u se
’
-
.
, ,
( d) Whe the r t he w ife s ca p a city to ple dge he r hu sba n d s

’ ’
cr e di t for n e ce ssa r i e s is b ase d u p o n a ge n cy o r is in de pe n de n tly ,
o f a ge n cy a n in cide n t o f m arri a ge ga ve r i se t o a di f
,
fe r e n ce ,
o f j u di cia l o pin i o n in Reloome l v Ra msa y [ 1 9 20 ] T P D 3 7 1 . . . . .

LEGAL CAP ACITY OF MAR RIED WOMEN 43 1
G r e go r ow ski J t ook the fir st vi e w We sse ls J P a n d Brist o w e J

.
,
. . .
the se con d a n d t his ha s b e e n pr e fe rr e d in l ate r ca se s : Fra m e v

, .
B oyce ( 2 Co [ 1 9 2 5 ] T P D 3 53 ; S ter n v S cha ttel [ 1 935] C P D

'
. . . . . . . .
a t p 80 ; a n d ( Ce ylo n ) L a lcha nd v S a r a va na m u ttu ( 1 9 34) 3 6

. .
N L R 2 73 Ca n t he o pposin g vi e w s b e r e con cil e d in t he se n se

. . . .
t hat t he hu sb an d i s li a ble in a n y e v e n t p r o semi sse b u t o nl y ,
i n soli du m if t he wife con tr a ct e d a s hi s a ge n t ? Se e Tyds kr if ,
v ol ii p 9 6 ( L e e A ma r r i ed w oma n s con trac ts i n r el a ti on to

’
. .
, ,
hou s eho ld neces sa r i es ) .
( e ) The qu e sti on a ge n cy or n o a ge n cy is o f cr u cia l im p ort an ce .
If an d so far as t he hu sb an d is liable o nl y b e cau se t he w i fe is

hi s a ge n t pe liability ( su bj e ct t o ( i ) i nfr a a n d a pa r t
, he ca n e s ca
from e st oppe l by holding o u t ) by sho w in g t hat he for e b a de

her t o ple dge his cr e di t o r m a de he r a r e ason able a ll o w a n ce .
If t he hu sb a n d s li a b ili ty is an in cide n t o f m a rri a ge t he n

’
a cco r di n g t o t he old w ri t e r s ( G r 1 5 2 3 ; V o e t 2 3 2 46 . . .
, . .
,
t he wife s ca pa city t o b in d he r hu sb an d can be de te r m in e d

’
o nl y by j u di cia l in j u n ct io n a n d pu b li cat io n It has b e e n j u di .
cia ll
y su gge st e d t ha t a pu bli c n o ti ce o n t he pa rt o ft he hu sb a n d ,
might b e
’
o r , a t a n y r a te ,
a n o t ice t o t he in di vi du al t r a de r
suffi cie n t for t he pu rp o se Re loome l v Ra ms a y u bi su p , a t . .
, .
p . 37 6 p e r We sse ls J P B u t ca n a hu sb a n d by hi s u nila t e r a l . .
a ct di se m bar ass him se lf o f a

du ty im po se d by la w
(f) The t e rm n e ce ssa ri e s is a u se fu l im po rt a tio n fr o m
‘ ’
E n glis h L a w It in clu de s goo ds a n d se r vi ce s a s o f a m idw ife

.
, .
M ason v B ernste i n ( 1 897 14 S C 504 The qu e stio n w hat falls

. . . .
u n de r t he he a d o f n e ce ssari e s de pe n ds u p o n cir cu m st a n ce s .
‘
Whe t he r in a n y pa rt i cu la r ca se go ods pur cha se d by t he wife
a r e n e ce ssar i e s o r n o t i s fo r t he Co u rt to j u dge a n d in de cidi n g
t hat qu e st io n it m u st hav e r e gar d t o t he so cia l st an di n g a n d

m e a ns of t he pa r tie s a n d the ir ha bit s o f life in t he p ast
’
.
Reloom el v Ra m sa y u bi su p a t p 380 p er Br istow e J a n d

.
, . .
se e S m i th v P hi lip s [ 1 9 3 1 ] O P D 1 0 7
. . . . .
(g) The pa city t o co n tr a ct i n r e oeconom ica a n d

wife
’
s ca
t he r e by t o b in d t he hu sb an d de pe n ds it se e m s u po n t he co n , ,
t in u e d e xi ste n ce o f a j oin t e st a bli shm e n t E xcell v Dou glas . .
[ 1 9 24] C P D a t p 484; S tern v S cha tt el [ 1 9 35 ] C P D 7 8;

. . . . . . . .
M acNa u ght v Ca ledon i a n Hotel [ 1 938] T P D 57 7 . . . . .
( h) If t he spou se s ar e n o t li vi ng t o ge the r t he w ife ( su b j e ct

ca nn o t pl e dge he r hu sb an d s cr e di t u nl e ss she i s au t ho
’
to
r iz e d t o do so a s hi s a ge n t e x pr e ssly o r by ho ldi n g ou t The r e , .
432 APPENDIX D
is no pr e su m pt ion of a ge n cy E xcell v Dou glas u bi su p The . .
, .
pr e su m pt io n is a ga ins t it .
( 9) Bu t in a n y e ve n t a hu sb a n d m u st pr o vide fo r his wife

, , ,
u nl e ss she ha s l e ft him u nl a w fu lly B i n g db L a u er v Va n de r . .
Hcever [ 1 9 2 2 ] T P D 2 79 In a ll o t he r cir cu m sta n ce s t he wife

. . . .
i s a n a ge n t o f n e ce ssit y t o ple dge he r hu sb an d s cr e dit for

‘ ’ ’
fo od a n d cl o t hin g if he l e a v e s he r de stit u te o r m anife stly

‘
,
in a de qu at e ly su pplie d w i t h t hi n gs w hi ch a r e n e ce ssa r y a n d
w hi ch she o u ght r e a so n a bly t o ha v e Reloomel v Ra msa y u bi .
,
su p a t p 3 88; Co etzee v H iggi ns ( 1 887 ) 5 E D C 3 5 2

. . This . . . . .
sit u a t io n m ight a l so a r ise if t he sp o u se s w e r e livi n g t o ge t he r ,
a n d t he hu sb a n d ga v e t he w ife n o t hin g b u t t he she lte r o f

‘
Deben ha/m v M ellon ( 1 880 ) 5 Q B D a t p 39 8p er

’
his ho u se . . . . . .
B r a m w e ll L J . .
I t w i ll n o t ha ve e sca pe d n ot i ce t hat t he a b o ve r ul e s ar e
de ri v e d p a rt ly fr o m D u t ch p a rt ly fr o m E ngli sh L a w It is , .
n o t e asy t o r e c on cil e t he m .
5 Un i la te r a l contr acts S u p r a p 65
. .
, . .
6 If the w ife has ta ken a ben efit u nde r the con tr act Ibid
. . .
7 If the hu s ba nd has des erted his w ife a nd is absent fr om the

.
r a p 67
j u r i sdicti on S u p .
, . .
8 If the wife by a nten u p tia l contra ct has r es er ved to her self

.
the fr ee adm i n i str a ti on of her ow n p r op erty or ha s exclu ded the ,
ma r i ta l pow er P ep le r v L i ebenber g [ 1 9 2 8] C P D 2 66 ; supr a

. . . . .
,
p 81
. .
It ha s b e e n sa id ( a n d o fte n r e pe a te d ) t hat if a w o m a n
‘
m a rri e d in c o m m u ni t y e n t e r s in t o a con t r a ct she e ithe r co n

t r a ct s a s a ge n t fo r he r hu sb a n d o r she ha s n o pow e r t o co n t r a ct
a t a ll Nes ta dt v Hop e [ 1 9 2 8] W L D a t p 3 3 p er So lo m o n J
’
. . . . . . .
,
c it in g S m i th v B a r d [ 1 9 1 7 ] C P D 6 1 6
. Ma de w it hou t r e ser va . . . .
t io n s t hi s st a te m e n t i s mi sle adi ng ; fo r n o t o nl y m ay she

,
con t r a ct in t he c ir cu m st a n ce s se t o u t a b o v e b u t ge n e r a lly , , ,
she m a y b in d h e r se lf by c o n t r a ct w it h he r hu sb a n d s c o n se n t
’
.
S up r a p 65 The la w is st a te d in m o r e de t a il in P r etor i us v
, . . .
Hack [ 1 9 2 5 ] T P D a t pp 646—7 w he r e a ll t he se e x ce ptions

. . . .
,
ar e a dmi tte d by Cur le w i s J P . .

434 APPENDIX E
Sou th Afri ca . M u lle r v Cha dwi ck cfi Co [ 1 906 ] T S 30 .
‘
. . . . The
bu sin e ss of pa wn br oke r s is n o w r e gu late d by st at u te See Ca pe .
A c t No 3 6 of 1 889 Tr a ns v a al L a w No 1 3 o f 1 89 4 ( as a m e n de d) ;
. .
Na t al A ct N o 22 o f 1 89 5 . .
3 S ales to o ld clo thes dea lers G r a n d V d K u bi sup lo ca l

. . . . . . .
in Holl an d n o t a dm it te d in So u th Afr i ca
, .
4 S ales to gold a nd s i lver sm i ths V a n Lee u w e n R H R

.
-
.
, . . .
2 7 4 ; V d K u bi s u p ; st a t u to r y in H oll a n d n o t a dm it te d
. . . . . .
,
in Sou t h Afri ca M u lle r v Chadw i ck as Co u bi sup a t p 40

. . . . . .
5 Ju dicia l sa les Voe t 6 1 1 3 ; Ma th P a r aem v ii 1 7 a n d

. .
, . . . . .
de a ucti on i bus 1 1 1 7 0— 1 1 1 4 5 ; V d K Di ctat ad G r 2 3 6

, . . . . . . . . . . . .
For Sou th Afr i ca c on su l t A da m s v M oc ke ( 1 9 06 ) 2 3 S C a t . . .
p 7 88; Wi llou ghby s Cons oli dated Co v Cop tha ll S tor es L td

.
’
. . .
[ 1 9 1 3] A D a t p 2 7 0 p er De Villie r s C J a r gu e ndo The r e sul t

. . . . . .
is t hat a fi sca l sal e give s a goo d t it le t o a pur chaser a t a ll e v e n t s ,
a g a in st a n o w n e r o f fu ll a ge w ho has n o t i ce o f t he sa le a n d fa ils
t o a sse rt his r i ght S A A ssocia tion v Va n S tad en ( 1 89 2 ) 9 S C . . . . . .
a t p 9 8; Con r adi e v Jon es [ 1 9 1 7 ] O P D 1 1 2

. B y t he Ma gi s . . . . .
t r at e s Co u r t s A ct 1 9 1 7 se c 59 : A sa le in e x e cu t io n by t he
’ ‘
, , .
m e sse nge r shall n ot in t he case o f m o v able pr o pe r t y a ft e r ,
de li ve r y t he r e of or in t he c a se o f im m o v a ble pr o pe rt y afte r
r e gis t r a t io n o f tr an sfe r b e lia bl e t o b e im pe a che d as a gainst ,
a p u r chas e r in go o d fa ith a n d w it hou t n o t i ce o f a n y de fe ct

’
.
Poun d sale s ar e r e gul a te d by pr ovi n cial st a tu te s a n d co nfe r ,
a n u n assa il a bl e t itl e o n t he pu r cha se r Caga nojfv Z ac ks [ 1 9 1 7 ] . .
T P D 334 Cf fo r Sou the rn Rho de sia Roberts db L etts v

. . . . . .
F yn n [ 1 9 2 0] A D . . 23 .
S a les i n i nso lvency

6 . A pu bli c sale in in solve n cy is to all .
‘
int e n t s an d pu r pose s a u di cia l sa le L a nge v L ies chi ng ( 1 880 )

’
j . .
Foor d a t p 62 p er De Villi e r s C J See I ns o lv e n cy A ct , 1 9 36

. . .
,
se e . 36 ( su b se cs . 5 and
G oods sold a nd de liver ed wi thou t a n agr eeme nt for cr edi t a nd

7 .
n ot pa id for The o wn e r w ho fa ils t o r e v in di ca te wi thin a short

.
t im e l o ses hi s right V d K 203 ; V d L l 7 2 ; Ma cke ur t a n , . . . . . . . . .
p 262 ; supr a , p 2 94
. . .
8 M on ey a nd negoti able i ns tru m ents pa ya ble to bea rer

.
c a nn ot b e r e cov e r e d fr om a pe rso n w ho has r e ce ive d t he m in
goo d faith valu e Woodhead Pla nt ck Co

and fo r .
, . v . Gu nn
( 1 89 4) 1 1 S C 4; A da ms v M ocke ( 1 9 06 ) 2 3 S C a t p
. . . . . . 7 88 As .
t o scr i p ce rt ifi ca te s e n do r se d in bla nk see Un i ted S A . . A ssocia

tion L td v Cohn [1 904] T S 733
. . . . .
LIMITS OF THE JUS VIND ICANDI 435
9 . G oods en tr u sted to agen ts f or sa le a nd f actor s — If t he y se ll

or ple dge go o ds e n t ru st e d t o t he m t ho u gh c on t r ar y t o t he
in st ru ct io n s of t he ir pr in cipa ls t he y gi v e a goo d t itle t o a

pu r cha se r ple dge e t o t he e x t e n t t ha t t he ow n e r ca nn o t
“
or
v in di ca t e t he go o ds w it ho u t m ak in g goo d t he pr i ce o r r e de e m
in g the ple dge . Vo e t 6 l . . 12 ; M or u m B r os . v . Nepgen [ 1 9 1 6]

CPD . . . 39 2 . Fo r E n glish L a w se e The F a cto r s A ct, 1 889 ,
’
se e . 2 .
10 . E stopp e l . The sa m e pr in ciple a ppli e s t o o t he r ca se s in

le d o t he r s in t o t he r e a son a ble b e li e f t hat
‘
w hi ch an o w n e r ha s
t he pe r so n t o w ho m he has e n t ru st e d t he go o ds is e n t it e dl to
t he m A da m s M o cke M or u m B r os
’
dis po se of . v .
,
u bi su p .
; . v .
Nepgen at p
This m a y b e r e ga r de d a s a n a ppli ca t ion o f
. 40 3 .
t he pr in ciple o f e st o ppe l w hi ch for m s p a r t o f R D L Whe t he r , .

-
. .
it applie s o r n o t de p e n ds u p o n t he cir cu m st a n ce s o f e a ch ca se .
1 1 S a le by a tr us te e or fi du ci a r y
. I n Ce ylon w he r e t he .
,
En gli sh L a w o f Tr u st s ha s b ee n r e ce iv e d w i t h t he co n se qu e n t
distin ct io n be t w e e n le gal a n d e qu ita ble o w n e r ship t he le ga l ,
o wn e r ca n u n do u b t e dl y giv e a goo d t it le t o a bona fide pu r
cha se r fo r v a lu e . Bu t a fide i c o m m issu m i s n ot t he sa m e a s a
t r u st . If m o v a bl e p r o pe r t y is a li e n a t e d c o n t r a r y t o t he te rm s
of a fide i co m m i ssu m t he fide i co m m issa r y ha s pu r no ri ght of
su it —m obi li a n on ha ben t sequ e la m . V oe t 36 1 64 A s r e gar ds

, . . .
im m o v a b le s it c a nn o t b e a sse r t e d a s b e yo n d qu e st io n t ha t
,
by t he la w o f So u t h Afr ica a pe r so n w ho in goo d fa it h

pu r cha se s b u r de n e d pr o pe rt y fr o m a fi du ciar y m a y ho ld it a s
a g a in st t he fide i co m m i ss ar y B u t a lt ho u gh in t he ory [im m o v .
,
a bl e s] c a n b e fo ll o w e d in t o a n y ha n ds t he c o u r t s o f So u t h ,
Afr i O a w ou l d ce r t a inl y b e di sin cli n e d t o in t e r fe r e w i th a bon a .
fi d e p u r c ha se r w it ho u t n o t i ce w ho ha d o b t a in e d r e gist e r e d
t r an sfe r
’
. Mor i ce ,
E ngli sh Rom a n D u tch L a w ( 2 n d
a nd -
p . 32 1 .
‘
The r e is no t it l e w hi ch t he la w is m o r e in cli n e d t o
res p e ct t ha n t ha t of a bon a fide pu r cha se r fo r va lu e w itho u t
n o t i ce o f t he de fe ct o f t it le o f t he se ll e r M i chels en v A a r onson .
f B a i ki e
( a [ 1 9 1 4] T P D . . . at p . 1 67 ; M a r e v G r oble r NO [ 1 930 ]
. .
TPD . . . 632 . A fide i co m m issu m cr e a t e d by a ct inter vi vos do e s

n ot in a n y cir cu m st an ce s giv e a r e a l r ight o v e r m o v a bl e pr o
pe rt y B r i t S A Co v . . . . . . B u la w a yo M u n i cipa li ty [1 9 1 9 ] A D . .
84 ; K r u ger v Vers ter [ 1 9 2 5 ] C P D 6 The sa m e m a y b e sa id

. . . . .
o f a do n a t io su b m o do o f m o v a b le s The pe r son for w ho se .

.
b e n e fit t he m o du s i s im po se d cann o t v in di cat e t he pr ope r ty ,
b ut has a pe r so n al a ct io n t o c o m pe l o b se r v an ce o f it s te r m s .
436 APPENDIX E
Gr oe n . de leg . a br . ad Co d 4 6 3 ; 8 54
. . . . 1; Win dsche id ,
ii 3 1 6
. .
12 . S a le by execu torWhe r e an e x e cu t or ha s sold pr ope rt y

.
‘
b e lo n ging to an e st at e t he pr ope rt y cann ot b e foll o w e d in t o ,
t he h an d s o f a bon a fide pu r chase r w ho w it hou t kn o w l e dge o f , ,
t he r ight s o f t he le ga t e e s o r fide i c o m m is sa r i e s ha s r e ce iv e d ,
t r ansfe r o r de li ve r y o f t he pr o pe rt y It is t he du t y o f a n .
e x e cu t or t o pa y t he de b t s o f t he e st a t e a n d t o r e a liz e s o m u ch
of t he a sse t s a s is r e qu ir e d for t ha t pu r p ose If he un n e ce ssar ily .
se lls pr ope r t y w hi ch is sp e cifi ca ll y b e qu e a t he d by t he te st a to r s

’
will he r e n de r s hi m se lf liable t o t he l e ga t e e s b u t t he t r a n sfe r

, ,
o r d e li ve r y m a de by hi m t o t he p ur cha se r ca nn o t b e se t asid e
u n l e ss su ch p ur cha se r w a s a w a r e o r o u ght t o ha v e b e e n a w a r e , ,
of t he br e a ch o f t ru st Willi a ms v Wi llia ms ( 1 89 6 ) 1 3 S C .
’
. . .
a t p 2 0 3 p er De Villi e rs C J
. . .
In con clu sion n ote t hat t he w i de r appli ca tion o f t he ru l e

,
mo bi li a n on ha ben t segu ela m to t he c ase of a li e n a ti o n s by a

b orr ow e r de p osit ary &c w a s n o t ge n e r a lly a dm itte d by
, ,
.
,
w r i te r s o n t he R D L a n d do e s n o t e x ist in t he m o dern la w
.
-
. . .
The prin ciple P ossessi on va u t ti tr e i n t hi s e x te n de d se n se ha s

n o pla ce in t he la w o f S ou t h Afri ca o r o f Ce ylon .
A PP END IX F
C ONT RACT AND CA U SA

ote I pr op ose t o say so m e thin g a b o u t t he tr e a tm e n t
In t hi s n
o f t he su b j e ct of c on t r a ct by Gr o t i u s wi t h Sp e cia l r e fe r e n ce t o
t he t he or y o f ca u sa .
Le ga l o bliga tio n Gr o tiu s t e lls u s a r ise s fr o m t w o sou r ce s

, ,
( a ) pr o m ise ( toez eggi ng) ( b) in e qu ality ( on even he i d) ( G r 3 1 47

,
. . .
Pr o m ise is e x pr e ss o r by i m pli cat ion o f la w ( u i tdr uckeli ck

door w etdu i di ng) ( se c E x pr e ss pr o m ise is spo ke n or
.
w r i tte n ( se c .
Pr o mi se s by im pli ca tion of law ar e w ith a gr e e m e n t o r w ith

o u t a gr e e m e n t ( 3 6 Agr ee m e n t ot he r wise te rm e d c o n tr a ct
. .
, ,
is a u ni on o f w ills o f t w o o r m or e p e r sons for t he b e n e fit of o n e

or m ore of t he m .
—Over kom i nge di e a nder s ha ndeli ng genoem t
w erd i s de eendracht des w illes va n tw e o f te m eer lu i de n tot ecu s
ofte b i d e er n u t ( se c .
To s om e c on t r a cts of daily o ccu r r e n ce t he law a nn e x e s

438 AP PENDIX F
t hi s w as his m e a nin g , fo r in 3 vi de n tly su ppo ses
. 30 . 1 4 he e
r e a so n a ble ca u se t o b e in pr in ciple a r e qu ir e m e n t o f t he
, ,
co n t r a ct o f sa l e a n d in 3 3 1 3 ( i n fine ) he de scri be s t he
‘
, . .
sou r c e s o f o bli ga t io n a s ( a ) in e qu a li ty ( b) a r e a so n a b le pr em ise ,
( r edeli cke toezeggi ng) w hi ch is e qu i v a le n t t o a pr o m ise pr o

,
ce e di n g fr o m a r e a so n a bl e c a u se .
The re ar e so m e ca se s o f co n t r a ct w hi ch do n o t e a sily fin d
a pla ce in t he G r o t ia n syste m In st a n ce s a r e co m pr o m ise .
( a lr e a dy m e n t i o n e d) a n d pr o m ise s le a di n g u p to r e a l co n t r a ct s
, ,
n o m in a te a n d in n o m in a t e e g a p r o m ise t o l e n d t o a cce p t
, . .
,
a d e po sit t o co n stit u t e a pl e dge ( 3 6 1 1 ) a p r o m ise t o gi v e in

, . .
e x cha n ge ( 3 31 . I n v ie w o f t he cir cu m st an ce s in w hi ch
.
Gr o t iu s wr o t e an d pu blishe d his I n leidi ng o cca sion a l flaw s

ar e n o t su r pr i sin g I t se e m s fr o m t he a b o v e in st a n ce s t ha t
.
Gr o t iu s fu ll y a cce pt s t he pr in ciple t ha t e ve ry p a ct ion b e ge t s ‘
a n a c t io n b u t he do e s n o t m ake t hi s pla in Fu rt he r p a ct
’
.
, ,
o r p r o m ise ( he sa ys ) m u st spr in g fr o m a r e a so n a bl e c au se .
Wha t i s m e a n t by r e a so n a ble ca u se ? It is n o t t he sa m e
a s l a w ful cau se A pr o m i se m a y b e r e a so n able b u t un la w ful
. .
Pu t t he ca se o f a co n t r a ct r e la t in g t o a fu t u r e su c ce ssio n a ,
c o n t r a ct o f p ur cha se a n d sa le co n clu de d o n t he L o r d s Da y
’
.
I t i s n o t e n o u gh t ha t a co n t r a ct sho ul d b e l aw ful it m u st be ,
r e a so n a ble ; b u t if it b e lo n g s t o a c l a ss o f t r a ns a c t i o n s t o w hi ch
le ga l co n se qu e n ce s ar e co m m o nl y a tt a che d t he la w w ill n o t
r e a di ly r e g ar d t he p r o m i se o f a p a rt y t o it a s u n r e a s o n a ble .
‘
N o w a ltho u gh in ca se of sa le hir e a n d so fort h a n y pr omise , ,
w hi ch e x ce e ds o r fa lls sho r t o f t he r e a l v al u e se e m s t o t ha t
e x te n t t o b e de st itu t e o f r e a so n a b le ca u se ( on tbloo tet te z ijn va n
r ede li cke oor za eck) n e v e r t he l e ss in a sm u ch a s t he v e r y fou n da

, ,
t io n o f t he c o n t r a ct ha s a cau se kn o w n t o t he la w ( r echteli cke

oor za ec k) a n d t he v a lu e o ft e n ca nn o t b e pr e cise ly de te r m in e d
t he la w ha s t ho u ght fit t o all o w su ch pr o m ise s t o h a ve t he ir

ef fe ct pr o v ide d t ha t if t he pr e j u di ce r e su lt in g t o on e of t he
pa r t ie s i s t oo gr e at a n d appa r e n t [la es i o enor m is] it is ope n to
hi m t o cl a im t he r e m e dy o f r e st it u t io n
’
( G r 3 30 . . . .
I n an o t he r p a ssa ge ( 3 5 S p e a kin g o f p r o m ise s in w r it in g

. .
,
Gr otiu s u se s t he phr ase w etteli cke oor za e ck w hi ch pla inly has ,
r e fe r e n c e t o t he te x t s o f t he Ro m a n L a w m o re p art i c u l ar ly to ,
Co d 4 30 1 3 u pon w hich t he pra ct i ce of m a ki n g e x pr e ss

. . .
,
m e nt ion of t he ca u se in w r it te n in st r u m e n ts w a s fo u n ded .
Wh e n Gr o t iu s spe ak s o f a n u nl a w ful cau se he doe s n o t sa y

C ONTRACT AND CAU SA 439
‘
on r ede ij ke l
’
, b u t u se s t he phr a se on eer lijcke
‘
oor zaeck o fte
i n zi cht
’
.
(3 . 1 43 ) . or
‘
on e er li cke o ft e ver bode n o or za eck
’
(3 3 . .
j u st as in a n o t he r pa ssa ge spe a kin g of t he con di cti o ex tu rp i

he w ri te s : Hi er i s m ede begr ep en a lle t gu n t i em a nd
’
ca u s a on der -
heeft gegeve n om een f

on r echtma ti ghe o te a nde r si ns on eer li cke za ke
(3 . 30 . If r e a so n a ble
law fu l ca u se ca u se do e s n ot m e an ,
w ha t doe s it m e a n ? Su r e ly n o t hin g bu t t hi s— a cau se o f a

n at u r e t o in du ce a r e aso n a ble m a n t o give his pr o m ise a ca u se ,
w hi ch a n o the r r e a so n a ble m a n t he j u dge c o ns ide r s a pt t o , ,
pr o du ce a le gal obli ga tion Whe r e t hi s c o n di t io n i s pr e se n t the .
pr om isor is b o u n d in la w w her e it is ab se n t he is n ot b ou n d in ,
law This rul e s o u t pr o m ise s w hi ch ar e m e re ly sill y an d foolis h

.
( Voe t 2 1 4 1 6 ) a n d pr omi se s w hi ch bu r de n t he o bli gor

, . .
wi tho u t ha vin g a n y in te r e st fo r t he o blige e ( Voe t 2 1 4 , . .
Pr a cti ca ll y w e a rr iv e at t he sa m e r e su lt w he n w e say t ha t
a pr o m ise bin ds if it i s gi v e n ser i o et de li berato a n i mo Vin ni u s
(
ad In st 3 14 2 se c 1 1 ; V oe t 2 1 4
. . .
, .
, . .
Upon t he b asis o f ce rt a in te x t s in t he R o m an L aw a n d the ,
t r a di ti o n a l int e r pr e t at io n o f the m m o de r n ci vili ans fo ll o wi ng , ,
D o m at (L es lo i x civiles 1 689 ha v e co n st r u cte d w ha t ha s

,
b ee n t e r m e d t he the or y o f ca u se in o bliga t io n s Thr o u gh

‘ ’
.
t he m e di u m o f P o t hie r t hi s pass e d in t o t he Fr e n ch Ci vi l Co de 2
a n d t he n ce in t o t he othe r m o dern co de s w hi ch ha v e t a ke n it fo r ,
the ir m o de l The e sse n ce o f t he t heo r y se e m s t o b e t his Jus t as

. .
t r a di ti o n o r han di ng o v e r i s n o t hing in it se lf b u t o nl y a c qu i r e s
, ,
le ga l signi fi ca n ce so far a s it is a n a ct in t he law ( n u n qu a m ‘ ’
n u da t r a di t io t r a n sfe rt do mi n iu m , se d it a , si v e n di t io v e l a li
j
qu a u sta ca u s a pr a e ce sse r it pr opt e r qu a m t r a di tio se qu e r e t u r .
Dig 41 1 3 1
. so a n o bli ga t io n a p a r t fr om i t s ca use ha s n o
. .
1
I t se e m s t ha t t hi s i de n t i ca t io n w a s m a de , o r im pli e d , b y t he fi
c a n o n is t s ( w it h w h o se w o r ks G r o t iu s w a s , o f c o u r se , fa m il iar ) .
F or t he m le pa c t e n e s t v a la b le qu e S i lo pr o m e t t a n t a m a ni fe st é
‘ ’
so n in t e n t io n , e t
’
d a u t r e pa r t c e tt e in t e n t io n pr o fo n de do nn e
fo r ce a so n e n ga ge m e n t , m em e s i e lle n e se r é a lis e po in t da n s lo
c a d r e d e s a n c i e n s c o n t r a t s , a l a se ule c o n dit io n
’
u e lle so it r a is o n q
n a bl e D e so r t e qu e la t hé o r ie c a n o n i u e du pa c t e n u a b ou t it a
. q
sa n c t i o n n e r t o u t e pr o m e ss e d o nn ée a v e c u n e v o lo n t é r é fl éc hi e
’
( H e nr i C a p it a n t , D e l a ca u s e d es Obli g a t i on s ( 3 me
p .
V an L ee u w e n in his ea r ly w o r k, P a r a ti tla J u r is No vi s si m i ( L ib .
iv , c a p 1 , i n fi n e ) , sa y s t h a t t he r e as o n a b le c a u se o f G r o t iu s i s t he
.
sa m e a s t h e s er i o e t de libe r a to a n i m o o f V o e t S ir Jo hn otz e . K
( Ca u s a i n the R oma n a n d R om a n D u tch L a w of C on tr a c t, p 45 , n 1 ) -
. .
m e n t io n s t his passa ge , b u t d o e s n o t a c ce pt it as c orre c t .
2
A r t s 1 1 0 8, 1 1 3 1 . .
440 APPENDIX F
j u ristic signi fi can ce The e le m e nt in t he situ ation w hate v e r it
.
,
1
b e w hi ch gi v e s vit a lity t o t he o bligatio n i s t er m e d it s cau se
,
This is v ar ious ly a cco r ding to cir cu m st a n ce s con ce ive d o f

,, ,
a s a n in te n t io n o f t he p a rt y t o pr o du ce a le ga l r e sul t o r a s ,
2
t he r e su l t a ppr e he n de d a n d de sir e d E i r the r t he c au se t hu s .
,
u n de r st o od m u st b e a l a w fu l o n e B u t t hi s is n ot w hat Gr o t iu s .
m e a ns by r e ason abl e ca u se What he is looking for is a te st

‘ ’
.
o f t he v a lidi ty o f con t r a ct s in ge n e r a l m o r e p a r t i cu l ar ly o f ,
t he ve r b a l c on tr a ct F o ll owing in t he ste ps o f t he ca n onists ,

.
he fin ds t hi s in t he r e aso n able n e ss o f t he t r a ns a ct ion The .
di stin ction b e t w e e n ca u se a s Gr ot iu s u n der st an ds it an d

‘ ’
c au se a s i t i s u n de r st o o d by m ode r n e x pon e n t s o f t he t he or y
‘
o f ca u se is t he dis t in ct i on b e t w ee n a ct ion a bili t y a n d lia bili ty .
A ction abili ty is a qu alit y o f pr omi se or a gr e e m e n t I s t hi s .
a gr e e m e n t a ct io n a ble i e a c o n t r a ct Ye s if r e a so n a ble ( a li ter

, . .
, ,
se r i ou s a n d de lib e r a t e ) Liabili ty att a che s t o t he pe r son I s

. .
t hi s pe r so n b o u n d ? Ye s if hi s obliga t io n ha s a la w ful cau se

, .
The fir st r e l a t e s t o t he in ce pt ion of t he co n t r a ct The se con d .
r e l a te s n ot t o t he in ce p t ion m e r e ly b u t t o t he c o n t in u an ce o f ,
t he obligat i on The ca u se o f a con t r a ct is o n e t hing ; t he cau se

.
o f a n obli g a t ion i s a n o t he r .
To sp e a k l a stly o f t he pla ce o f cau se in t he m o de rn la w of

, ,
c on t r a ct
,
i t m u st b e sai d t hat if t he de cision s o f t he Pr ivy
Co u n cil a n d o f the Appe ll a te Divisio n cite d in t he te x t have , ,
t old u s w ha t ca u sa i s n o t n e it he r t he y n or t he e ar li e r de cisi ons

,
o f t he C o u r t s o f Sou t h Afr i ca n or t he discu ssio n s t o w hi ch t he ,
qu e stio n ha s giv e n r ise hav e m ade cle a r w hat it is It is , .
va riou sly de scribe d as ( a ) the gr ou n d o r r e a son o f t he co n tr a ct‘
— t ha t w hi ch br o u ght it a b o u t ( Inn e s C J in Rood v Walla ch

’
. . .
[ 1 90 4] T S a t p t he r e a so n o r gr ou n d o f t he t r an sa ct io n
‘
. . .
o r a gr e e m e n t K R m R m D h
’
( o t z e C a usa i n the o a,n a nd o a n u tc -
L a w of Con tr act p ( b) t he p art i cu lar t r a n sa ctio n ou t o f

‘
.
,
w hi ch t he o bli ga t io n is sa id t o a rise b e it sale hir e d o n a t ion , , , ,
o r a n y ot he r c o n t r a ct o r ha nde li ng ( De V illi e r s A J A in
’
. . .
Con r adi e v Rossou w [ 1 9 1 9 ] A D a t p

. This last vi e w is . . .
su b j e ct e d by Mr Ju sti ce K ot z e to cr it i ca l e x a m ina t io n a t p 5 6
. .
of his m on ogr aph w he r e he says t hat it fails t o distin gu ish

,
1
L a c a u s e e st l o so u t ie n n é c e ssa ir e , in di spe n sa b le qu i su ppo r t e
’
l o b li ga t io n Ca pit a n t , o p c it , p 3 1
. . . . .
2
The r e a r e v ar ia t io ns o n t he t he m e in t o w hic h it is u nn ec e ssar y
to e n te r .
APP END IX G
STI P U L A TI ON S F OR T H E B E N E F IT OF A
T H I RD P E RSON
The l
ru e o f t he R o m an L a w ,
lt e ri stipul ari n e m o po te st ( Ins t a .
3 1 9 1 9 ; Dig 45 1 3 8
. . . pr o hi bite d a pe rso n [C] w ho w as
. .
,
n o t a p a rt y t o a c o n t r a ct fr o m b ri n gin g a n a c t io n t o e nfor ce
a st ipu l a t io n in his fa vou r m a de b e t w e e n t he p a rt ie s [A st ipul a
t o r B pr o m iso r ] a n d if t he st ipu l a t io n w a s w holly in favou r o f

,
su ch t hi r d pe r so n t he st ipu l a to r hi m se lf cou ld n o t su e fo r ,
w a n t of in t e r e st ( Bu ckl an d Textboo k p
.
, , .
The w r it e r s u pon t he Rom a n D u t ch L a w a r e g e n e r a lly agr w d -
t ha t t he r igid r u l e s of t he R o m an L aw w e r e n o t in fo r ce in
t he ir syste m b u t t he y fa il t o di st in gu ish b e t w e e n t he ca se in
,
w hi ch A co n t r a ct s w i t h B in t e n di ng t o c ons t it u t e a co n tr a ct u a l
r e l a t io n b e t w e e n B a n d C a n d t he e n t ir e ly dif fe r e n t ca se in
,
w hi ch A a n d B by co n t r a ct b e t w e e n t he m se lves co n fe r so m e
b e n e fit u po n C The fir st sit u at ion i s ful ly co v e r e d by t he law
.
of age n cy t a ke n in co nn e xi on w i th t he pr in ciple o f r atifi cation ;

t he se co n d r a ise s qu e st ion s o f a diffe r e nt char a ct e r It is t o .
t hi s situ a t io n o nl y t ha t the phr a se S t ipu l a t io n for t he b e n e fit

‘
o f a t hir d pe rs on p r ope r ly a pplie s

’
.
What is t he j u r ist i c n a t u r e o f t he stipu lat io alte ri ? The

qu e stio n ha s b e e n m u ch di scu sse d by co n t in e nt a l wr it e rs w ho ,
ha v e pr o po u n de d diffe r e n t syste m s I n Fr a n ce t he do ct rin e

‘ ’
.
has p asse d t hr ou gh va ri ou s st age s The sit u at ion w as fir st .
1
a n a lyse d in t o t he a cce p t an ce o f a n o f fe r ( A or B o ife r or C ,
o ffe r e e a n d a cce p t or ) n e x t int o a n e go t ioru m ge st io ( A ge stor

, ,
C do m in u s r e i ge st a e ) B u t n e ither o f the se solu t io ns m e e t s ou r

.
case The y ar e bot h o pe n t o t he o bj e ctio n t hat the y su ppose

.
a s a co n s e qu e n c e o f C s a cce p t a n ce a c on t r actu a l r e la t io n
’
e st a b lishe d b e t w e e n B a n d C w hi ch is n o t in a cco r da n ce w i t h ,
t he t r u e j ur ist i c a spe ct o f t he st ipu lat io a lte r i Co ns e qu e n tly .
t he m o st r e ce n t c o m m e n t a t o r s u po n t he Fr e n ch Ci vil Code
a dv o ca te a t hir d syste m diffe r e n t fr om e it he r of t he a bov e :
‘ ’
v iz t ha t t he r ight o f C spr in gs di r e ct ly a n d im m e dia t e ly fr o m

.
t he c o n t r a ct b e t w e e n A an d B b u t is n o t a r ight e x c o n tr a ct u ,
.
1
fi
On t he r st hypo t he s is A o ffe r s t o C t he b e n e t o f t he c o n tr ac t fi
w hi ch A has m a de w i t h B ; o n t he se co n d hypo t he s is B m a ke s a n
o ffe r dir e c t to C .
STIPULATI ON S FOR A THIRD PE RSON 443
It r e sul t s fr o m t he l
u n i ate r a l w ill of on e o f t he par tie s t o t he
c o n tr a ct [B ] w ho u n de r t a ke s t o do so m e t hing for a t hir d p e r so n
[C] ( Co li n Ca pit an t Cou rs élém en ta i re de droi t ci vi l r a nca is ,

,
f
t ii ,
. p . 328; Jo sse r a n d, Cou r s de dr oi t ci vi l p osi tiffr a nca i s , t ii .
,
no . The p a rt ie s t o t he co n t r a ct a r e t he st ipul a t or A a n d
t he pr o m isor B The r e la t io n be t w e e n stipu la t or a n d t hir d
.
part y ( u n le ss the o bj e ct is t o e x t ingu ish a de bt o f t he fo r m e r

to t he l a t t e r ) a ppr o a che s m ost n e ar ly t o t ha t o f do n o r a n d
do n e e ; bu t t he t r an sa ct io n is a n in dir e ct don a t ion a n d e x e m pt
fr o m t he u su a l r e qu ir e m e nt s o f fo r m ( in Fr e n ch la w ) A ll t his .
se e m s t o b r in g u s n e a r t o t he E nglish c o n ce pt io n o f a de clar a
t io n o f t ru st ; a n d it is pe r t in e n t t o n o t i ce t ha t in t he o n e ca se
in w hi ch E n glish st a t u t e law a dm it s t he st ipu la t io a lt e r i t he ,
r e su l t in g sit u a t io n is c o n ce i v e d o f a s a t ru st B y t he Marr ie d .
Wo m e n s Pr o pe rt y A ct 1 882 se c 1 1 a po li cy o f insu r an ce
’
, , .
,
ef fe ct e d by a n y m a n o n his o w n life a n d e x pr e sse d t o b e fo r ,
t he b e n e fit o f his w ife o r o f his childr e n o r o f his w ife a n d

, ,
c hil dr e n o r a n y o f t he m [o r a c o rr e spo n din g p o li cy e x e cu t e d by
a wife ] cr e a t e s a t r u st in fa v o u r o f t he o b j e ct s t he r e in n a m e d .
The v a lu e o f t he a n a logy is t ha t it sho w s t ha t E ngli sh la w so ,
fa r a s it giv e s e ffe ct to t he st ipu l a t io a lte r i in te r pr e t s it a s ,
cr e a t in g in fa v o u r o f t he b e n e fi ciar y a r ight w hi ch t hou gh
o r igin at in g in con t r a ct is n ot it se lf c o n t r a ct u al In t he Ro m a n .
D u t ch syste m t he co n ce pt o f qu a si co n tr a ct is w i de e n ou gh -
t o m e e t t he sit u a t io n . If t his is t he t ru e do ct r i ne of t he
st ipu lat io alte r i m a n y o f t he dicta in So u th Afr i can ca se s
, ,
b a se d u pon t he o lde r a n d n o w r e j e cte d the o r ie s o f o ffe r an d

a cce pt a n ce o r o f n e g o t io ru m ge st io r e qu ir e r e co ns i de r a t io n , .
It w o u l d b e i nt e r e st in g b u t sp a c e doe s n o t p e r m it t o e x tr a ct
, ,
fr o m t he So u t h Afr i ca n c a se s t he prin ciple s o f la w a ppli ca ble

t o t hi s t o pi c so far as t he y ca n b e gat he r e d fr o m t he de cisio n s
o f t he C o u r t s
1
Par t icu lar r e fe r e n ce m ay b e m a de t o M cCu llogh
.
v F er n wood E sta te L td [ 1 9 20 ] A D 2 04 in w hi ch t he e ffe ct o f

. . . .
,
a st ipul a t io a lt e r i w a s c o n side r e d in co nn e x i o n w it h t he qu e s
t ion w he t he r a co m p an y can t ake a dv a n t a ge o f a co n t r a ct

m a de for its b e n e fit b e fo r e it i s for m e d I n n e s C J r e fe rr e d t o . . .
Gr o t iu s de Ju r e B elli ac P acis 2 1 1 1 8 w he r e a di stin ct io n

, , . .
,
is dr a wn b e t w e e n co n tr a cts m a de b e t w e e n pr in cipa ls in fa v o u r
o f t hir d p e r son s a n d con t r a ct s m a de w i th a ge n t s ( n e o t i or u m
g
1
Se e r e m a r ks o f Wa te r m e ye r C J . . in C om m r .
for I n la nd Re ven u e
V . E s t Cr ew e
.
[ 1 9 43] A D . . at p 674
. .
444 APPE NDIX G
pu r po rt in g to a ct o n b e ha lf o f t hir d per son s In his
ge sto r e s ) .
vi e w t he ca se u n de r co n side r a t io n fe ll u n de r t he fir st he ad a n d ,
t he c o m p a n y w a s he ld e n t itl e d in a cc or da n c e w i th t he pr in ciple
of Tr ade sm en B en efi t S oci ety Du P r eez 269
’
s v .
( 1 887 5 SC . . .
If t he co n t r a ct ha d b e e n he ld t o ha v e pe rso n be e n m ade w it h a
pu r po r t in g t o a ct a s age n t for a n u nfo r m e d c o m pan y t he r e su lt ,
w o u l d ha v e b e e n diffe r e n t b e cau se t he r u l e t ha t t he r e ca n b e
‘
n o r a t ifi ca t io n by a pr in cip a l n o t in e x iste n ce a t t he da te o f
t he t r a n sa ct io n is r e cogn i z e d by o u r la w a s w e ll a s by t he la w
o f E n gla n d (p The P C d e cision in Na ta l L a nd a nd
’
. . .
Colon i za ti on Co . v P a u li n e Co lli er y S yndi ca te [ 1 9 0 4] A O 1 2 0 ,

. . .
25 N L R l in. . .
, w hi ch K eln er v B a xter ( 1 866 ) L R 2 C R 1 7 4
. . .
w as fo ll o w e d n o ,
r e fe r e n c e b e in g
D u t ch L a w m a de t o Ro m a n -
a u t ho r itie s w as dist in gu i she d a s a c a se o f p u r p or t e d a ge n cy

, .
The pe culi a ri t y o f M cCu llogh s Cas e is t hat t he co m p a ny

’
w as he ld t o b e n o t o nl y e n t it le d b u t a l so li a bl e It m a y
‘
, .
happ e n t hat t he b e n e fit ca rri e s wi t h it a co rr e sp o n di n g obliga

’
t io n . An d in su ch a ca se it foll ow s t ha t t he t w o w ou ld go
to g e t he r The t hi r d p e r son c ou l d n o t t ake a dv a n t a ge of o n e
.
te r m o f t he c o n t r a ct a n d r e j e ct t he o t he r (per I nn e s C J a t
’
. .
p . This is an u n u su al a ppli ca t ion o f stipul a tio a lte ri ,
a n d a do u b t su gge st s it se lf If in co n se qu e n ce o f a tr a n sa ction
.
b e t w e e n A an d B r ight s a n d du t ie s r u n t hr o u gh A a n d v e st
,
in C so a s to e st a blis h a co n t r a ct u a l r e la t i on b e t w e e n C
,
a n d B ( A fa llin g o u t o f t he co n t r a ct a lt o ge t he r — M cCu llogh
v F er n wood E sta te L td a t p
. call it w ha t y ou w ill it is
. .
,
a ge n cy a n d n o t hin g e lse The stipul at io a lt e ri is a t ri a n gl e

. .
It cann o t by a n y m anipul a t ion b e t r a ns fo r m e d in t o a str a ight
So fa r on ce rn s con tr a ct s m a de fo r t he be n e fit o f c o m
as c
p ani cs in c ou r se o f form a t ion t he l aw ha s b e e n cha n ge d by t he
( Uni on ) Co m p ani e s A ct 1 9 2 6 se c 7 1 w hi ch e n a cts a s foll o w s :

, , .
,
A n y c on t r a ct m a de in w r it in g by a pe r so n pr ofe ssin g t o a ct
‘
a s a ge n t o r t ru ste e fo r a co m p a n y n o t ye t fo r m e d in c o r po r a te d ,
or r e giste r e d Sha ll b e ca p a b le o f b e in g r a t ifie d or a d o pte d by
o r o t he r w ise m a de b in di n g u p o n a n d e nfo r ce a ble by su ch
co m p a n y a ft e r it has b e e n du ly r e gis t e r e d a s if it ha d be e n
du ly for m e d in co rpor ate d a n d r e giste r e d a t t he t im e w he n t he

,
c on t r a ct w a s m a de a n d su ch co n t r a ct ha d b e e n m a de w i t hou t
,
it s au th o ri ty : Pr o vide d t hat t he m e m or a n du m c o n t a in s as o n e
o f t he o b j e ct s o f su ch c om p a n y t he a dop t ion or r a t ifi cat io n of
446 APPENDIX H
o the r for d e la y
pe r fo r m a n ce u n til he has wi th m o r e o r le ss
in
fo r m a li t y a c co r din g t o t he cir cu m st a n ce s ca lle d u po n t he
, ,
ot he r t o pe r fo r m a n d t he o the r ha s faile d t o do so By so
,
‘
.
do in g he pu t s him in d e fau lt a n d so t o sa y fix e s or cr yst al

‘ ’
, ,
liz e s his r ight o f a ct ion a gainst him by m akin g t he de la y

1
cu lp a bl e Whe n de fau lt foll o w s u po n de m a n d or r e qu ir e s
.
de m an d a s a c o n di tion o f it s e x iste n ce it i s ca lle d mo r a ex

'
p erson a V oe t 22 1 2 5 : si int e r pe ll a t u s o pp or t u n o l o co e t
.
, . .
t e m po r e n o n so lv e r it B u t t he r e ar e c a se s in w hi ch de m a n d i s.
ou t o f t he qu e st io n e g if t he o bli g a t io n i s n ot to do s o m e t hin g
, . .
a n d t he t hin g ha s b e e n do n e a n d t he r e m a y b e o t he r ca se s in ,
w hi ch t he la w do e s n ot in sist po n de m a n d
u a s a co n dit io n o f
li ab ili t y . In a ll su ch ca se s mor a is sa id t o ar ise by fo r ce of
cir cu m st a n ce s- m or a Whe n p e r fo r m ex r e V o e t , 22 1 2 6—7

‘
. . . .
a n ce i s t o t a k e pla ce by a ce r t a in t im e a n d t he t im e has e l a p se d
w ithou t p e r for m a n ce a c co r di n g t o o n e v ie w de m a n d o f pe r ,
fo r m a n ce is u nn e ce ssar y The t im e li m it e x pr e sse d in t he .

-
co n t r a ct m a k e s it s o w n de m a n d Die s a dje ctu s int e r pe lla t ‘

.
pr o ho m in e V o e t , 22 l 2 6 B u t t hi s v ie w , w hi ch, it se e m s ,
’
. . . .
2
c a nn o t b e su pp o r t e d by t he t e x t s o f t he R o m a n la w , ha s ,
fr o m t he t im e glo ssat o r s o n w a r ds b e e n t he su bj e ct o f
of t he ,
c o n t r o v e r sy The co n t r a r y v i e w i s t ha t e v e n in t his ca se
.
3
de m an d i s n e ce ssa r y t o pu t a p a r t y in de fa u l t .
M or a u su a lly a tt a che s t o a de b t o r b u t it m a y also a tt a ch ,
t o a cr e dit o r w ho fa il s t o a c c e p t p e r fo r m a n c e du ly t e n de re d ;
V o e t 22 1 2 4: si r e m le git im o m o do o bla t a m n o n a c ce pt e t
, . . .
Win dsche id ii 345 The con se qu e n ce s of mor a debi tor is ar e t o

, . .
r e n de r him li a b le fo r m or a in t e r e st a n d a c cr u e d pr o fit s ; fo r a n -
a gre e d p e n a lt y ; fo r da m a ge s ; fo r in cr e a se in v a lu e o f a t hin g
t o b e de liv e r e d if t he t hin g p e r ishe s b e fo r e de l ive r y ; a n d

, ,
ge n e r ally for a ccide n t a l de stru ction u nl e ss t he t hin g w ou ld

, ,
hav e pe r ishe d e qu a lly in t he ha n d s of t he cr e dit o r if t he r e ha d
1
Th e L a t in w o r d fo r de m an d is i n terp ella ti o , fo r w hic h t he
D u t c h u s e i n terp e lla ti e o r ma a n i n g Th e m o de r n e u iv a le n t s fo r
'
. q
m o r a a r e ver zu i m , v er z u g, dem e u r e .
2
B u c kla n d , p 5 5 0 B u t se e Win ds che id , w ho co n clu de s ( v o l ii
. . .
,
se c 2 7 8 i n n otis ) t ha t di es a dj e ctus m a y ha v e o n e o r o t he r e ffe c t

.
a c c o r d in g t o c ir cu m st a n ce s .
3
T his , e x c e pt io n s a pa r t , is t h e r ul e in Fr e n ch L a w D ie s n o n .
in t e r pe lla t pr o ho m in e Pla n io l , T r a i té élém e n ta i r e de dr o i t ci vi l,

.
v o l ii , s e c
. 1 68 The E n glish r e a de r w ill fin d a lu c id a c c o u n t o f
. .
t he Fr e n c h t he o ry o f m i s e e n de m e u r e in D r F P Wa lt o n s T he
’
. . .
E gyp tia n L a w of O bli ga ti on s , 2n d e d , v o l ii , pp 2 1 3 fi . . . .

THE THE ORY OF MORA 447
be e n n o mor a Vo e t 22 1 2 8 This is w ha t is m e an t w he n it
.
, . . .
is sa id t hat mo r a pe r pe t u a t e s t he o bli ga t io n 1
The co n se qu e n ce s .
of mor a cr edi to r is a re t o t r a n sfe r t o him t he r isk a n d t o pu r ge ,
t he m or a o f t he de b t or i e t o r e lie v e him o f t he c o n se qu e n ce s
, . .
w hi ch w o ul d o t he r wi se a t t a ch t o his de fa u l t Vo e t 22 1 2 8, 3 0
.
, . . .
M Or a i s fur t he r dis t in gu i she d as j u di ci al a n d e x tr a u di cial -

j .
V o e t 22 , . l . 11 . The fir st is a c on se qu e n ce of t he in st it u t io n
of e l ga l pr o ce e din gs . The se co n d m ay e x ist w he re t he r e is n o
de m a n d or w he r e de m a n d is e x t r a - u di ci a j l .
S ou th Afri ca n pr a ct ice a dm it s t he pr in ciple di es i n terp ella t

pr o hom i ne . In de m a n d sho ul d pr e ce de su m m o n s
o t he r ca se s .
If t his is o m it te d, a n d u p on su m m o n s de fe n da n t m ak e s a n
a de qu a te t e n de r t he costs o f t he su m m o n s m u st b e b o r n e by
,
t he pla in tiff V a n de r Lin de n Ju di ci eele P r actijcg l 8 8;

.
, , . .
J H e r b st e in D ema nds 44
.
, p 6 , . .
The qu e stion o f m or a in te r e st ha s b e e n e lu cida t e d by a de ci

-
sio n o f t he App e ll a t e D iv isio n I f B o w e s A a su m o f m o n e y .
a n d w he n p a ym e n t fa ll s du e
, fa ils to pa y A m a y cla im t he , ,
a m ou n t du e w i t h in t e r e st ev e n w he r e t he r e i s n o a gr e e m e n t fo r
i nt e r e st in t he This is m or a inte r e st I t be gins to r u n
co n tr a ct .
-
.
fr o m t he t im e w he n t he de bt or is in de fa u lt ; a n d t he r e fo r e , ,
w he r e de m a n d is n e ce ssar y fr o m t he da t e o f de m a n d Bu t
,
.
w ha t c o nst it u t e s de m a n d for t hi s p u r p o se S o m e w r it e r s co n
side r e d a n e x t r a j u di ci a l de m a n d su f
-
fi cie n t ; o the r s r e qu ir e d a
j u di cial de m a n d i e a w r it of s u mm ons ; o the r s postpon e d t he
,
. .
cu rr e n cy o f in t e r e st t o t he m o m e n t o f li ti s con tes ta ti o w hi ch in ,
m o de rn pr a ct i ce is r e a che d w he n t he p le a din gs ar e clo se d a n d

m a tt e r s ar e a t issu e b e t w e e n t he par t ie s M eyer s E xor s v
’
. . .
G er i cke ( 1 880 ) F oo r d a t p 1 8 p er De Villi e r s C J So fa r a s . . .
co n ce r n s So u t h Afr i ca t his do u b t has b e e n r e so l v e d in Wes t

,
Ra nd E sta tes L td v New Z ea la nd I nsu r a n ce Co [ 1 9 2 6] A D

. . . . .
1 7 3 w hi ch e st a blishe d t he r u le (p er So lo m o n J A a t p 1 83 )
, . . .
t ha t m or a b e gin s fr o m t he da t e o f r e ce ipt o f t he le tt e r o f
‘
de m a n d It o f c o u r se follo w s t ha t w he r e t he r e ha s b e e n n o
.
,
le tt e r o f de m an d t he r e w o u ld b e n o m or a u n til su m m o n s ha s
,
be e n se r v e d o n t he de fe n dan t Su m m o n s is e qu iv ale n t t o a .
’
de m a n d a n d pla ce s a de b t or i n m ora fr o m t he t im e o f se rv i ce
o f t he su m m o ns Ridley v M a r a is [ 1 9 39 ] A D 5 Whe re t he
. . . . .
c la im is fo r u nli qu ida te d da m a ge s t he C o u r t w ill se l do m if ,
e v e r a w ar d i n t e r e st pr e v i o u s t o j u dgm e n t
, Vi ctor i a F a lls a nd .
1
M omsen v M oster t ( 1 881 )
. 1 S C 1 85
. . : We ss e ls , i 2 7 04
. .
448 APPENDIX H
Tra nsvaa l P ow er Co . v . Consolida ted L a ngla agte M i nes [ 1 9 1 5 ]
AD . . at p . 32 .
[ R e a de r s Afr ika a n s w il l fin d D r I V a n Zijl Ste yn

of . .
’
s M or a
vo lgen s di e H e de nda a gse R om e i n s H o lla nds e R e
D e bi tor i s g
-
(Nas io
n a le Pe r s , K aa ps t a d , in st ru c t iv e . F o r Ce ylo n L aw se e
F on s e ka v . F on s e ka ( 1 9 3 8) 40 N . L R . .
A PP END IX I
T H E P RACTICE OF T H E SOU T H A F RICAN C OURT S
WIT H R E GA RD TO S P ECI F IC PE RF ORMANCE
This n ot e is de sign e d t o
pple m e n t w ha t is st at e d in t he su
t e x t o n pp 2 68 if Se e a lso Phili p Gr oss Sp ecific p erfor ma nce

. .
,
of con tr acts i n S ou th Afr i ca 51 ( 1 9 34) p 347 , . .
In Sou t h Afr i ca it is a c o mm on pr a ct ic e t o a dd t o a pr aye r

for sp e cifi c p e r fo r m an c e a n a lt ern a t iv e pr a ye r fo r da m a ge s o r
for da m a ge s a n d r e s cissio n o f t he c o n t r a ct D uckett v Cohberg . .
[ 1 93 1 ] C P D 493 On w ha t b a sis ar e da m a ge s t o b e asse sse d ?

. . . .
In Va n der Wes thu i ze n v Ve lens ki ( 1898) 1 5 S C a t p 2 40 . . . .

,
D e Villi e r s C J sa id : It is u su a l t o fix a n a m ou n t a s dam a ge s
‘
. .
in c a se o f r e fu sa l t o co m ply w i t h t he or de r o f Co ur t The .
Co ur t in su ch ca se s ha s n e v e r go n e ve r y m in u t e ly in t o t he
qu e st ion o f da m a ge s su st ain e d bu t ha s t ake n a r ou n d su m for ,
t he pu r p ose o f e nfo r cin g it s o w n j u dgm e n t This p assa ge ’

.
su gge st s t ha t d a m a ge s a r e de cr e e d a s a n in dir e ct m e a ns o f
c om pe llin g sp e c ifi c p e r form a n ce B u t t his su gge stio n w a s r e pu .
di a t e d in Woods v Wa lters [ 1 9 2 1 ] A D 30 3 at p 3 1 0 w he r e. . . .
,
Inn e s C J said : Da m age s so cla im e d m u st o f co u r se be

. .
‘
, ,
pr o ve d a n d a sce r t a in e d in t he o r di n ar y w a y The au t ho r itie s .
do n ot w ar r a n t a pu ni t iv e asse ssm e n t
’
.
Su ch is t he la w w he r e dam a ge s ar e a ske d for a s an a lt e rn a

t iv e t o spe cifi c pe r for m an ce I t ha s b e e n qu e st ion e d w he t he r .
da m a ge s m a y b e o b t a in e d in a ddit ion t o a de cr ee o f spe cifi c

-
pe rform an ce It ha s b e e n sa id t hat a s a r u le da m age s fo r

.
, ,
de l a y a r e n o t so gi v e n P hilip v M e tr op o li ta n Ra i lw a y Co . . .
( 1 89 3 ) 1 0 S C 5 2 B u t t his su pp o se d ru le w as r e j e cte d by the

. . .
Tr a nsv a a l Co u r t in S i lverton E sta tes Co v B elle vu e S yndi ca te . .
[ 1 90 4] T S 462 w he r e Inn e s C J sa id (p The Co ur t

‘
. . . . .
,
will lay do wn t he ru le t hat w he r e a sell e r ha s m a de de faul t

in t he de li ve r y o f t he t hi ng sold a n d is i n mor a t he pur chaser , , ,
45 0 APPENDIX I
da m a ge s e ve n t ho u gh n ot p
s e ci fi ca lly claim e d in the de cl ar atio n .
Nation a l B u tche r y Co v Afr i ca n M er cha nts [ 1 907 ]

. . B D L 57 ;
. . .
Hertzog v Wessels E st [ 1 9 2 5] G P D 1 41
. . . . . .
I t is po ssible t o st at e e xhau stive ly t he classe s o f ca se s

n ot
in w hi ch t he Cou r t w ill de cr e e spe cifi c pe rform a n ce The m o st .
fr e qu e n t ca se s r e l a t e t o t he sa le o r le asing o f l a n d a n d in ,
Wor ces ter M un icipa li ty v Colon i a l G ovt ( 1 9 0 9 ) 3 E a ch A O

. . . . .
5 3 8spe cifi c pe rfo r m an c e w a s de cr e e d o f a co n t r a c t t o e x cha n ge

im m ov able pr o pe rt ie s Spe cifi c pe r fo rm a n ce ha s also b e e n de
.
cre e d o f a n info r m a l a gr e e m e n t t o e n te r in t o a fo r m a l c o n t r a ct ,
e g t o e xe cu te a n ot ar i a l de e d in t e r m s o f a n a n t e n u pt ia l
. .
c o n t r a ct Tw entyma n v Hew i tt ( 1 83 3 ) 1 Me n z 1 56 ; in w hi ch
, . .
c a se t he C o u r t a l so o r de r e d t he de fe n da n t t o carr y o u t t he
pr ov isions o f the c on t r a ct t hu s t o b e e x e cu te d ; a n d in Va n der

Wes thu ize n v Velenski ( 1 898) 1 5 S C 2 37 S pe cific p e r fo r m a n ce
. . .
w a s d e cr e e d o f a n a gr e e m e n t t o S ign a fo r m a l co n t r a ct in t e r m s
o f a wri t t e n m e m or a n du m In Thompson v P u llinger ( 1 89 4)
. .
1 O R 2 9 8 spe cifi c pe rfo r m a n ce w as o r de r e d o f a co n t r a ct fo r

. .
t he de liv e ry of shar e s a n d in S hi ll v M i lne r [ 1 9 37 ] A D 1 0 1

, . . .
o f e x port qu o t a c e r t ifi ca t e s The Co ur t will n o t as a ru le de cr e e

.
spe cifi c p e r fo r m a n c e o f a c o n t r a ct t o c o n cl u de a p a rt n ership ,
b u t t he r e m a y b e e x ce pt ion s fr o m t his r u l e Fla naga n v . .
F la na ga n [ 1 9 1 3] N P D 452 . . . .
It r e m a in s t o a sk w ha t r e cou rse is o pe n t o t he pla in t iff if

de fe n dan t fa il s t o o b e y t he de cr e e o f t he Co u rt .
1 He m a y a pply to t he Co ur t w hi ch wil l t he r e u po n e it he r
.
,
( a ) com mi t t he de fe n da n t for conte m pt S ha kinovsky v L a w son ,

.
,
u bi s u p o r ( b) in a fit ca se dir e ct i t s o wn o ffi ce r to a tt a ch t he
.
pr ope rt y by or de r of Cou r t a n d t r a n sfe r it t o t he plain t iff ,
w ho w ill a c qu ir e a g o o d t itle by su ch t r a ns fe r Va n der B yl v . .
Ha nbu ry ( 1 882 ) 2 S C 80 . . .
2 He m a y a c qu i e sce in t he
. r e fu sa l a n d c ai m t he dam a ge s
l
a w ar de d by t he Co u r t in de fa ul t o f S pe cifi c pe rfo rm an ce a n d , ,
if t he o r de r o f t he Cour t is m e re ly a lt e rn a t iv e he m u st a cce pt ,
w hi che v e r a lt e rn a t iv e t he d e fe n d a n t cho ose s t o gi v e him .
3 Whe r e no su ch or de r ha s b ee n m a de he m a y ( semble )
.
m a int a in a n e w a ctio n t o r e co v e r d a m a ge s for de fe n dant s

’
fa ilu r e t o c om ply wi th the or der of t he Cou r t S che i n v Jau bert . .
[ 1 9 0 3 ] T S 42 8 . . .
A PP END IX J
C OMPE N SATI ON FO R I MP R OV E ME NT S
The ri ght of a pe n sate d for m o n e y
n o n - o wn e r t o be co m
e x pen de d u po n t he pr o pe r t y o f a n o t he r r e st s u p o n t he pr in ciple
n e m in e m cu m a lt er iu s de t r im e n t o e t j a ct u r a lo cu ple t a r i de b e r e .
I t ha s b e e n a dm itt e d in t he foll o win g c a se s
1 The bon a fide p osse ssor is e n t itle d t o c o m p e n sa tion for

.
n e ce ssar y a n d u se ful im pr o v e m e n t s ( G r o t 2 1 0 8) an d for . . .
vo lu ptu ary im pr o v e m e n t s if t he la n do w n e r e le ct s t o r e ta in ,
t he m in a case w he r e t he po sse ssor w ou ld b u t fo r su ch e le ct io n

,
hav e t he r ight o f r e m o v a l (ju s t o ll e n di ) D ig 6 l 3 8; 2 5 1 9 ; . . . . . .
Win dsche id i 1 9 5 Fru ctu s pe r ce pti m u st b e se t off aga ins t

, . .
o u tla y a n d t he po sse ssor s right t o c o m pe n sa t io n is r e du ce d

’
a cco r dingly V oe t 6 l 3 8; F letche r v B u la w ayo Wate r Wor ks

.
, . . .
[ 1 9 1 5 ] A D 6 36 ; B u rns v B u rns [ 1 937 ] N P D 67 B u t fr u it s

. . . . . . .
o f im pr o v e m e n t s n ee d n o t b e se t o f f V oe t 6 1 3 9 ; B eebee v .
, . . .
M agid ( 1 9 2 9 ) ( Ce ylon ) 3 0 36 1 .
2 The ma la fide po sse sso r is e n t itle d t o co m pe nsat io n fo r

.
n e c e ssar y b u t n o t fo r u se ful e x pe n se s
, So t he la w is sta te d , .
by Gr o tiu s ( lo c cit ) a n d by Va n de r K e e sse l Th 2 1 4 Othe r

. .
, . .
a u t hori t ie s ho w e v e r — a s G r oe n e w e ge n ( de leg abr ad Inst

, . . .
2 l Van Le eu w e n ( Cens F or 1 2 5 1 0 ; 1 2 1 1 7 a n d . . . . . .
—
. . . .
Schor e r ( ad G r 2 1 0 a n d V oe t ( 6 1 3 6 a d fin )
. . . ho ld t ha t . . .
in the m o de r n la w t he ma la fide po sse sso r n o l e ss t ha n t he ,
bon a fide po sse ssor i s e n t itle d t o c o m pe nsa t io n fo r im pe n sa e

,
u t ile s The for m e r v ie w w as de cla r e d by t he Su pr e m e Co u rt

.
o f Ce ylo n t o b e in co nfo r m it y w i th t he u sa ge o f t ha t Co l o n y
( G ene ra l Ceylon Tea E states Co . v .

( 1 90 6 ) 9 N L R
P u lle . . .
The case o f S i n ne ta m by Chetty v De L i ver a [ 1 9 1 7 ] A O

. . . 5 34
le a ve s t he qu e st io n u n de te rm in e d . The m or e lib e r a l vie w ha s
b e e n a sse rt e d at t he Ca pe ( B ellingha m v . Bloommetje [ 1 87 4]
Bu ch 36 ; De B eers Consolida ted M i n es
. v . L ondon ( Q S . A .
E xp lor a ti on Co ( 1 89 3 ) 1 0 S C a t p . . . .
3 . The pe nsation w he n it e x ist s m ay in t he

r ight to co m , .
,
m o der n law b e e nfo r ce d n o t onl y by r e te n tio n an d e x ce pt io n ,
as in t he Ro m a n la w b u t a ls o by a ct io n V oe t 5 3 2 3 ( adfin )
, .
, . . .
Gr oe n de leg abr u bi sup ; A cton v M ata u [ 1 9 0 9 ] T S a t

. . . . . . .
p 847 ; B adroodien v Va n L i er [1 9 28] C P D 3 1 1 ; an d an y

. . . . .
posse ssor bona fide o r ma la fide m ay r e m ove w hat he ha s

45 2 APPEND IX J
a nn e xe d t o t he s oil pr o vide d he ca n do so s in e lae sion e pri o ri e

st a t u s r e i Co d 3 32 5
. . . . .
3 . The ca se o f the le ssee ha s b e e n

de r e d a b ove pp 30 5 ff co nsi , . .
‘
4 A fidu cia r y o r his e sta te ca n claim as a ga inst fide i co mm is
.
sari e s fo r b e n e fi cia l e x pe n di tu r e u po n pr o e r t y t he su b j e ct of
p ,
t he fide i co m mi ssu m D u P les sis v E st M eyer [ 1 9 1 3 ] C P D . . . . . .
1 00 6 A u su fru ct u ar y is n o t e n t itle d to cl aim com pe ns a t io n fo r

.
im pr o v e m e n t s e x c e pt in spe cia l cir cu m sta n ce s B r u ns do n s E s t

’
. .
v B ru nsdon s E st [ 1 9 20 ] C P D 1 5 9 ; supr a p 1 82
.
’
. . . .
, . .
5 In Ru bi n v B otha [ 1 9 1 1 ] A D 56 8 pla in t iff a n d de fe n da n t

. . . .
e n te r e d in t o a n a gr e e m e n t for a l e ase fo r a pe r io d o f te n ye ars .
Plain tiff w as t o pay n o r e n t bu t to e r e ct a bu il di n g o n t he ,
la n d w hi ch a t t he e x pir y of t he t e r m w a s to be co m e t he
,
pr o pe r ty of t he de fe n da n t Pla in t iff e r e cte d t he b u il din g an d .
r e m a in e d in o c cu p a t io n fo r t hr e e ye ar s The r e a fte r de fe nda n t .
gav e him n o ti ce to qu it o n t he gr o u n d t ha t the le a se w a s v o id

for w an t o f n o t ar ia l e x e cu t io n a s r e qu ir e d by la w The Co u r t .
w as u n a ni m ou s in h o ldin g t ha t t he pla i n t iff w as e n tit le d t o

c o m pe ns a t io n ( I n n e s J diffe r e d fr o m de V illie r s C J a n d . . .
Maa s dor p J o n t he b asis of ca l cu lat io n ) Thi s ca se de cide d

. .
t ha t t he e qu i t able rul e o f t he Ro m an Du t ch L a w t ha t n o o n e
‘
-
sh o ul d b e e nr i che d a t t he e xpe n se o f a n o t he r a ppli e d t o t he ,
c ase o f a bon a fide o c cu p ie r e qu ally w it h t ha t of a bon a fide
po sse sso r F letche r v B u la wa yo Waterw or ks Co [ 1 9 1 5 ] A D

’
. . . . .
at p 65 5 p er S olo m o n J A Thi s last w as a ca se in w hi ch

. . .
le sse e s had in a dv e rt e n t ly e n cr oa che d u po n a n d im pr ov e d n e igh

b our in g l a n d The sa m e prin ciple has be e n a pplie d t o a case
.
o f o ccu p a t ion u n de r a c on t r a ct o f pu r ch ase a fte r w a r ds r e
scin de d B r own v B r own [ 1 9 2 9 ] N P D 41 In Urte l v Jaco bs

. . . . . . .
2 C P D 4 8 7 m i r e fu se d h e im pr o ve
[ 1 9 0 ] co.
pe n sa t
. o n w a s . t ,
m e n t s h a vin g b e e n m a de by a pe r so n w ho w a s e m ploye d as
x
o ve rsee r a n d had n o r ight of o ccu p a n cy fo r a fix e d pe ri o d .
6 The ca se o f t he pr e cari o t e n e n s w a s co n side r e d b u t n o t

.
de cide d in L echoana v Cloete [1 9 25 ] A D 536 The a ppe lla n t . . . .

‘
is n e it he r a bona fide n or ma la fide po sse ssor n or a l e sse e An d .
w he the r a pe r son w ho o c cu pie s pr eca r i o a s t he a ppe ll a n t doe s , ,
is e n t itl e d t o any c o m pe nsa t io n u n de r t he e qu ita ble pr in cipl e s ,
o f o u r co mm o n la w is a po in t w hi ch I pr e fe r to le a ve a n o pe n
,
o n e ; p er K o t z e J A a t p 5 5 3
’
Cf M a ha raj v M a ha raj [ 1 9 38]
. . . . . .
N P D 1 28
. . . .
7 For t he hu sban d s r ight t o cl a im co m pe nsa tio n for e x

’
.
454 APPEND IX K
7 . To l
un c e s a n d au n t s , a n d t he c hil dr e n of de ce ase d u n cle s
1
a n d au n t s p er ti rp es ; b u t if t he r e ar e n o u n cle s a n d au n ts
s
livi ng t he n t o t he ir childre n an d to gr e at
,
- u n cle s a n d a u n t s
2
wit h t he ir p er cap i ta ( se c .
8 All t he pe r so ns a b o ve e nu m e r a te d fa ili n g t he e n t ir e
‘
.
,
inhe ri t a n ce goe s t o t he sur vi vin g spo u se if a n y a n d if n o n e , , , ,
of
t he in te st a t e p er capi ta ( se c
’
t he n t o t he n ext he ir s .
9 .
‘
Ill e gitim ate chil dr e n in he r it t he pr op e rt y of t he ir in tes
t a t e m o the r , b u t n ot t ha t o f t he ir fa t he r or t ha t o f t he r e a t i l ves
of t he ir m ot he r .
3
Whe r e
pe r so n le ave s n o su r an ill e git im a t e
v ivin
g spo u se o r de sce n dan t s his o r he r pr o pe rt y w ill go t o t he ,
4
he ir s of t he m ot he r so a s t o e x clu de the Cr ow n
’
, ( se c 3 7 .
‘
10 . If any o ne di e s inte sta t e wi thou t he ir s , hi s or he r
e st a te Cr o w n If ho w e v e r a n y he ir s can b e
e s che a t s t o t he .
, ,
5
fo u n d e ve n be yo n d the t e nt h de gr ee t he y t ake t he inhe r ita n ce
, ,
( se c .
11 Childr e n or gr an dchildr e n by r e pr ese n t atio n be com in g

.
‘
w it h t he ir br o t he r s a n d siste r s h e ir s t o t he ir de ce a se d p a r e n t s
ar e b o u n d t o b ri n g in t o ho t chp o t or co ll a tio n a ll t ha t t he y
ha ve r e ce ive d fr o m t he ir de ce ase d p ar e n t s a bov e t he othe rs

e it he r o n t he o c c a sio n of t he ir m ar r ia ge o r t o adva n ce o r
e st a blish t he m in life u nl e ss it ca n b e pr ove d t ha t t he de c e ase d

,
p ar e n t e ithe r e xpr e ssly o r im pli e dl y r e le ased a n y pr ope rt y

, ,
6
so giv e n fro m co ll a t io n
’
( se c .
I n a ll qu e st io ns r e l a ting t o t he distr ibu t io n o f t he

‘
12 .
pr o pe rt y o f a n in t e st ate if t he pr e se n t Or di n an ce is sil e n t t he
, ,
ru l e s o f t he Ro m a n D u t ch L a w as i t p r e v a il e d in N o rt h H o ll a n d
-
a r e t o go ve r n a n d b e foll o w e d
7 ’
( se c .
1
Plac aa t o f 1 5 9 9 , Ar t 9 s oi l . . Chil dr e n of t he fi rs t de gr e e , not
r e m o t e r issu e .
2
Ib id A r t 1 0 . .
3
S u pr a , p 34 . .
4
G r 2 3 1 4; V d K 3 6 8
. . . . . . .
5
G r 2 30 1 ; V d K
. . . . . . 3 64
.
1
‘ 7
S u pr a , p 3 5 5 . . S u p r a , p 40 5. .
A PP END IX L
C ON FL ICT OF L AW S
Thi s sho r t n o te is in t e n de d t o se r v e as a fin ge r - po st fo r
rea de r s w ho m a y se e k di r e ct io n o n t his su b e ct j . Br o a dl y
sp e a kin g t he r e i s li tt le dif
fe r e n ce be t w e e n t he la w o f S ou t h
Afr i ca ( t he sa m e m a y , n o do u bt , be sa id o f t he la w o f Ce ylo n )
’
and t he la w E nglan d in the fie ld o f priv a t e in te rn atio n al la w

of .
Thu s ( t o t ake o n e e x a m ple ) the prin ciple s re gu la t in g do m i cile

‘
fo u n de d a s t he y a r e u po n t he c iv il la w ha v e b e e n de v e lo pe d ,
in E n gla n d a n d in H o ll a n d u po n ve r y sim il ar lin e s Webber v ’

. .
Webber [ 1 9 1 5 ] A D 2 39 p er Inn e s C J a t p 242 E n glis h ca se s

. . . . . .
a n d E n gli sh t e x t b oo k s su ch a s D i ce y a n d m o r e r e ce n t ly
-
, ,
Che shir e ar e co m m onl y cite d The cla ssi ca l w r ite r s o f t he

, .
se v e n t e e n t h c e n t u ry pa rt i cu lar ly Jo hann e s Vo e t a n d his

, ,
fa t he r Pa u l V oe t a n d U lrik H u be r o ccu py t he b a ckgr o u n d

, , .
A t o n e po in t t he r e is a co n spi cu o u s di v e r ge n ce fr o m a cce p te d
E n gli sh do ctr in e ( Che shire p In a se rie s o f c a se s
.
be gin ni n g w ith Bla tchd v B la tchfor d s E xor s ( 1 86 1 ) 1 E D C

.
’
. . . .
3 65 t he Co u r t s hav e la id do w n t ha t the la w o f t he m a t r i
‘
m o ni a l do m i cile is u bi qui t ou s ; a n d t he t a cit c o n tr a ct is o f

’ ‘
e qu a l fo r ce w i t h t he e x pre ss a s t o t he re gu la t io n o f t he pr o
pe rty o f the spo u se s (per Wa te rm e ye r J a t p

’
i e t he , . . . .
o r igin a l pr o pr i e t a r y r e la t io n o f t he sp o u se s pe rsi st s n o t w i th
st a n din g a su b se qu e n t cha n ge o f do m i cile w he t he r t he m ar ,
r i a ge w a s w i t h o r w it ho u t a n a n t e n u p t i a l c o n t r a c t .
The S o u t h Afr i ca n Co u r t s r e cogni z e will s o f m o v a ble s a s

for m a lly v a lid if the y sat isfy t he r e qui r e m e n t s e it he r o f t he
lex dom i ci lii ( E x p a r te A li son [ 1 9 40 ] C P D o r o f t he . . .
lex ac tu s I n r e Robi n son ( 1 866 ) 1 Ro sc o e 41 1 Fo r infor m a t ion

. .
a s t o t he j ur isdi ct io n o f t he S ou t h Afr i ca n Co u r t s a n d t he
r e c o gnit io n o f fo r e ign j u dg m e n t s t he r e a de r i s r e fe rr e d t o
Wa lt e r Po ll ak The S ou th Afr i ca n L a w of Ju r isdi cti on 1 937

, , .
Sin ce t he pu bli ca tio n o f Dr Po lla k s b o ok t he Ma t r im o nia l

’
.
,
Ca u se s Ju r isdi ction A ct 1 939 ha s giv e n a n y pr o v in cia l o r

, ,
lo ca l di vi sio n o f t he Su pre m e Co u r t j u ri sdi ct io n if t he w ife ,
ha s b e e n o r din ar ily r e side n t wi t hin t he a re a o f j u ri sdi ct io n o f

t ha t di vi sio n fo r a p e ri o d o f o n e ye a r im m e di at e ly pr e ce di n g
t he da te o n w hi ch t he pr o ce e din gs a r e in st it u t e d a n d if a t
t ha t dat e —( a ) in t he ca se o f a n a ct io n fo r div or ce or fo r r e st i
t u t io n of c on j u ga l r ight s , t he hu sb a n d is do m i cile d w it hin t he

45 6 APPEND IX L
Uni o n ; or ( b) in t he c a se o f a n a ct io n fo r j l se par atio n
u di cia ,
t he hu sb an d is do m ic ile d o r r e side n t w it hin t he U n ion The.
Ma t rim o ni al Ca u s e s Ju r isdict io n A ct 1 9 45 gi ve s the Su pr e m e

, ,
Cou rt t e m p o ra ry j u r isdict io n in a n d in r e lat io n t o pr o ce e d

, ,
in gs fo r di vo r ce fo r r e stit u t io n o f con j u ga l r ight s o r fo r n u lli t y

,
o f m a rr ia ge w he r e t he hu sb a n d w a s do m icile d o u t side t he
Uni on a n d So u t h We st Afr i ca a t t he t im e o f t he m a rri a ge a n d

-
,
pr o vi de s for the r e co gni tion o f fo r e ign de cr e e s a n d o r de r s su b

st a n t ia ll
y cor r e spo n di ng t o t hose de cla r e d by t hi s A c t t o be
co m pe te n t t o the Su pr e m e Co u r t o n co n dit io n s o f r e cipr o c ity .
45 8 INDEX
A n te n u pt ia l co n t r ac t s ( co n ti n u e d ) : B or glo o n , 1 3 7 ( n l ) . .
t e r m s pe r m i t te d in , 7 5 . B o slo ton te st a m e n t , 3 5 8 .
wr it in g, w he t he r n e c e ssa r y fo r , B e t a lin g, 2 5 3 .
73 B e w ijs , 9 8
r
.
A n t ic h e s is , 2 0 4 . B e w o n in g, r e c ht v a n , 1 85 .
A ppr o pr ia t io n o f pa ym e n t s, 2 5 7 B ie r , go in g o u t be fo r e t he , 7 2
q
. .
A u ae du c t u s , 1 69 . B ijnk e rs ho e k, Co r n e lis v an , 1 7 .
o n re ce pt io n o f R o ma n L aw ,
fi
A r t i c ia l pe r so na li t y , 1 2 1 . 5 (n .
A ss ign a t io , 2 48 ( n . B ir th , 3 1 .
A ss ign a t i o n , 2 7 9 . B li n d pe r so n , w ill o f, 3 64 ( n l ) . .
A ss ignm e n t , 3 0 8 ( n . B o e de lh o u de r s c ha p , 9 7 .
o f ac t io n s e x de lic t o , 2 5 0 . B o e de lsc he idin g, 7 1 ( n .
o f c o n t r a c t u a l du t ie s , 2 46 . B o e y , Wo or de n to lk, 1 9 -
.
o f co n t r ac t u a l r ight s , 2 46 . B o n a fide po sse sso r , c o m pe n s a t io n

o f le ase , 3 0 8 . fo r im pr o v e m e n t s , 45 1 .
A ss is t an ce , w ife su e s , o r de fe n ds , B o n a v a ca n t i a , 40 1 , 41 1 .
B o o k ke e pe r s li e n , 1 9 9 ( n l )
’ ’
w i t h h u s b an d s , 6 5 , 42 6 .
-
. .
A tt o r n e y , r ight o f re t e n t io n o f B o r gt o c ht , 3 1 5 ( n .
pa pe rs b y , 1 9 8 . B r an che s , o v e r ha n gin g, 1 5 2 .
A u c t io n , sa le b y , 2 40 , 2 9 4 ( n l ) , se v e re d , 1 5 2 ( n
q
. .
433 B re ac h o f c o n t r a c t , c o n se u e n c e s
q
.
A u r ea o f G a iu s u o te d , 2 1 1 . o f, 2 6 5 .
A us te n ,
’
J E , t r an s la t io n o f
. . B r e ac h o f pr o m i se t o m a r r y , a c t io n
S ch ore r s n o te s t o G r o t iu s , 1 8 . fo r , 5 2 .
A u t he n t ic a si qu a m u li e r , 3 1 5 . B re a c h o f st a t u t o ry o r c o mm o n
A u t ho r i t ie s , 1 7 t h c e n t ur y , 1 5 . la w du t y , 3 3 6 .
1 8t h c e n t u r y , 1 7 . B r it ish G ui an a , 7 , 1 1 .
A u t ho r it y , b o o ks o f, 1 5 . a b o lit io n o f R o m an Du tc h L a w -
o f gu ar di an , 1 1 4 . in , 2 4 .
c r im in a l pr o c e du re in , 6 ( n .
B a nn s , pu b li c a t io n o f, 3 9 , 5 8, 6 2 . in te st a t e su c c e ssio n in , 40 7 .
B ast a r ds, r ight o f su cce ssio n o f, 3 4 . t r a n sfe r o f im m o v a b le s in , 1 45

r i ght o f s u c c e ssio n to , 3 4 ( n .
(n .
40 1 ( n 7 . B r u i c k, 1 85 .
te sta m e n t a ry in c a pac it y of B ru yn , de , Op i n i on s of G r o ti u s , 2 1 .
a du l te r in e an d in c e st u o u s , B u ildin g , r ight o f su ppo r t fo r , 1 5 3 .
3 65 . r e m o v a l o f, b y o r de r o f Co u r t ,
B asu t o la n d , R o m an D u t ch L a w -
1 76 .
in , 1 2 . B yn ke r sho e k, s e e B i jn ke r sho e k .
B a t a v i a , S t a t u te s o f, 8 ( n 40 3 , .
Cae du a , 1 83 ( n 30 7 (n . .
B e chu an a la n d Pr o te c to r a te , R o Ca n o n L a w , 3 , 2 2 5 , 43 9 ( n .
m a n D u t c h L a w in , 1 2
-
. Ca pa c it y , c o n t r a c t u a l , 2 43 .
B e jae r de w e z e n , 1 0 5 ( n . o f m a r r ie d w o m e n , 6 5 , 42 7 .
B e le t v a n ho ge r t imm e r in g, 1 7 1 . o f m in o r s 45 , 42 1 , .
B e lo fte , 2 1 5 ( n . Cape o f G o o d Ho pe , B r it is h o ccu

B e n e fi c iu m a b st in e n di , 3 5 0 .
pa t io u o f, 9 .
c e d e n dar u m ac t io n u m , 3 1 8 . D u t c h o c cu pa t io n o f, 7 .
c o m pe t e n t iae , 2 9 0 . G e n e r a l L a w Am e n dm e n t A c t s ,
di v i sio n is , 1 1 5 , 2 85 , 3 1 8 . 2 3, 32 (n .
e x cu ss io n is , 1 1 5 , 3 1 7 . in te st a te su c ce ssio n a t , 40 6 .
i n v e n t a r ii , 3 5 1 , 3 5 2 . st a t u t o r y lim i te d pa r t n e r shi ps
o r di ni s s iv e e x cu s s i o n is , 3 1 7 . in , 3 1 3 .
B o r e a d , A c te v an , 3 5 2 ( n . Ca pitan t , P r o f He n r i , o n Ca u se , .
Be r b i ce , l l . 43 9 ( n .
in t e st a t e su c c e ss io n in , 40 7 . Casu s fo rt u i t u s , 3 0 5 , 3 41 ( n .
O c t r o o i fo r , o f D e ce m b e r 6 , Ca r r ia ge , b y l an d a n d b y w a te r ,
1 7 3 2 , 40 7 . 319 .
INDEX 45 9
Ca tt le , t re spassin g, 33 8 ( n . Co de b t o r s , 2 84
-
.
Ca usa , t he d o c t r in e o f, 2 2 6 , 43 6 . di st in gu ishe d fr o m s u r e t ie s , 2 84 .
Ca u t i o fr u c t u a r ia , 1 85 ( n . Code x The o dosi a n u s , 3 .
Ce ss i o n o f a c t io n s , 2 3 8, 2 46 . Co di c il s , 3 70 .
Ce y lo n , B r it ish o c c u pa t io n o f, 1 0 . Co di c ill a r y c la u se , 3 7 1 .
c o n s t i t u t io n o f se r vit u de s in fi
Co di c a t io n , in H o lla n d , 3 ( n l ) , 7 . .
1 74 . in S o u t h A fr ic a , 2 5 .
D u t c h o cc u pa t io n o f, 7 . Co le ssee s , 2 85 ( n l )
-
. .
E n glish la w in , 2 4 . Co le ss o r s , 2 85 ( n
-
.
in te st a te s u c c e ss io n in , 40 5 , 45 3 . Co ll a t i o b o n o ru m , 7 1 ( n 358 . .
la w o f a ge n c y in , 3 1 2 ( n l ) . . Co llu s io n e ffe c t o n di v o r ce , 87
, .
o f c o r po r a t i o n s in , 1 2 1 ( n . Co lo m b o , c apit u l a t io n o f, 1 1 ( n .
o f m o r t ga ge in , 1 9 1 . C o lo n u s pa r t i a r iu s , 3 1 2 ( n .
o f r e m i ssio n o f re n t in , Co m m o n L a w d u t y , b r e a c h o f, 33 6 .
30 5 ( n . Co mm u n i t y , m a t r im o n ia l, v a r
o f pa r t n e rs hi p in , 3 1 2 t ie s o f, 6 9 ( n
Co mm u n it y o f G o o ds , 6 8—
. .
of pre sc r ipt io n in , 1 47 72 .
(n . a b o lishe d in Ce y lo n , 69 .
of t r u s t s in , 3 9 2 . in S o u t he rn R ho de sia , 6 9 .
re st it u t io in in te gru m in , 50 c o n t r a ste d w it h c o m m u ni t y o f
(n . fi
p r o t a n d lo ss , 7 7 .
R o m a n D u t c h L a w in , 1 0 2 4
-
, . ef fe c t s o f, 7 0 .
r u le a ga in st e n ds o n disso lu t i o n o f m a rr ia ge ,
pe rpe t u i t ie s in , 3 87
(n . 71 .
t r an s fe r lan d in , 1 44 ( n
of . e x ce pt io n s fr o m , 6 9 .
Wills , ho w m a de in , 3 63 . e x c lu s i o n o f, b y a n te n u pt ia l
Cha m pe rt y , 2 3 8 . co n t r a ct , 7 6 .
Cha r le s V , le gisla t io n o f, 6 . Na t a l la w as t o , 6 9 ( n .
Cha r le s t he B o ld , 4 ( n 5 (n . . Co m m u n i t y o f Pr o t a n d L o s s , 7 7 fi .
Chi js , V an de r , 1 9 . Co m pe n sa t io n or se t o ff, 25 0 -
fi
Child , b e n e te d b y c o n t r a c t s o f (n . 2 75 .
pa r e n t , 245 e ffe c t o f, 2 7 6
q
. .
Childre n , m in o r , a c u i s it io n s b y , Co m pe n sa t io n fo r im pr o v e m e n t s ,
30 5 , 45 1 .
a dm i n is t r a t io n of pr o pe r t y o f, fo r t r e e s plan te d, 3 0 7 .
Co m pla in t e , Ma n dam e n t v a n , 1 6 3 .
c o n se n t of
gu a r dian s t o m a r Co m po u n d in te r e st , 2 5 9 .
t i a go o f, 60 . Co m pr o m i se , 43 7 .
c o n se n t o f pa r e n t s t o m ar r ia e Co n c u b in e , gift to , 288 ( n
g .
o f, 58 t e st a m e n t a r y gi ft t o , 3 6 4, 3 6 5
—
.
c o n t r ac t s o f, 3 8, 45 7 , 422 .
cu s to dy an d con tr ol o f, 3 6, Co n di c t io c au sa da t a , c au sa n on
1 09 (n . 3 47 ( n
se cu t a , .
in de b it i , 48, 6 5 , 2 33 ( n 3 47
’
par e n t s r ight s in r e spe c t o f .

,
.
pr o pe r ty o f, 40 . o b t urp e m c a usam , 2 3 5 .
pe n a lt y o n m a r r ia ge o f, 5 6 . Co n di t io n su b se qu e n t , 2 80 .
r ight t o su spe n s iv e , 2 6 3
pr o v ide gu a r di an s fo r , .
3 9, 1 0 4 . Co n do n a t io n , in a ct io n fo r di v o r c e ,
y o u n g, n o t lia b le fo r de lic t , 33 9 . 87 .
Chil dr e n a n d pa re n t s , r e c ipr o ca l Co nfli c t o f L a w s , 1 3 3 .
du t y o f su ppo rt , 42 . in S o u t h Afr ic a , 45 5 .
Ci jn s re c ht , 1 5 7 . Con fu sio n o r m e r ge r , 1 7 8, 1 85 ,
Clan de st in e m ar r ia ge s , pe n a lt ie s 20 7 , 2 7 4, 3 1 0 .
o f, 5 6 , 6 1 , 3 6 5 . Co n se n t s for m arr ia ge , 3 9 , 5 5 , 5 8,
Cla u su l a c o dic ill a r i s, 3 7 1 . 60 .
Cla u su l e d e r o ga t o ir , 3 6 2 . Co n side r a t io n , t he E n glish d o c

Cla u su le r e se r v a to ir , 3 6 1 . t r in e o f, u n kn o w n t o R o m a n
Clo se d w ill , 3 5 8 . D u tc h L a w , 2 2 6 .
Co cre di t o rs , 2 85
-
. fa ilu re o f, 3 47 ( n .
460 INDEX
Co n s ign a t io n , 2 5 5 (n . 2 7 4, 3 1 4 t r a n sm iss io n o f r ight s a n d du t ie s
n 5 u n de r , 2 5 1
q
. .
Co n so lida t io , 1 85 . w r i t in g w he n r e u ir e d fo r , 2 2 7 ,
Co n so r t iu m , lo ss o f, 3 29 , 33 6 '
. 317 .
Co ns t it u t u m po sse sso r iu m , 1 42 . Co n t r a c t s , a n t e n u pt ia l , 7 2 .
Co n t r a c t a n d Ca u sa , 43 6 . c o n c lu de d t hr o u gh t he post , 2 1 6 .
Co n t r a c t , a ss ign m e n t o f, 2 46 ga m i ng a n d w a ge r in g , 2 41
—
. .
c a pa c i t y o f p a r t ie s , 2 43 ill e ga l , 23 4 42
q
. .
c o n se u e n c e s o f b r e a c h o f, 2 6 5 . in R o m an L a w , 22 4 .
c o n s t r u c t io n o f, 2 7 1 . in R o m a n D u t c h L a w , 2 2 5
-
.
d a m a ge s fo r b r e a c h o f, 2 6 5 o f m ar r i e d w o m e n , 6 5 , 42 7
—
. .
de c r e e o f spe c i c pe r fo r m a n ce fi o f m in o r s, 3 8, 45 7 , 42 2 .
o f, 2 68, 448 . spe c ia l , 2 87— 3 19 .
fi
de ni t io n o f, 2 1 2 . t e r m s im pose d b y la w in , 2 5 2 ,
de t e r m in a t io n o f, 2 7 3 . 2 87.
du t y o f pe r fo rm an c e , 2 5 2 . u b e rr im ae fi de i , 2 3 1 .
e ffe c t o f fr a u d o n , 22 9 . v a lid , 2 1 2 , 2 1 4 .
o f i ll e ga li t y o n , 2 3 5 . v o i d , 2 1 2 , 2 1 8, 2 3 5 .
o f in n o c e n t m isr e pre se n t a v o id a b le , 2 1 2 , 2 29 .
t io n on , 23 1 Co n t r ib u t io n , b e t w e e n c o cr e di -
—
.
of m is t a ke on , 2 1 7 22 . t o rs a n d c o de b t o r s , 2 86
-
.
e s se n t i a ls o f, 2 14 . b e t w e e n su r e t ie s , 3 1 8 .
e x cu se s fo r n o n - pe r fo r m an c e , Co n t r i b u t o r y n e glige n ce , 3 2 6 , 3 3 0 .
263 . Co n t u m e lia , 3 29 , 3 3 5 .
fa ilu re t o pe r fo rm , 2 6 3 . Co r n e ly , G r e go r iu s , 40 3 .
fo r m a t io n o f, 2 1 4 . Co r po r a t io ns , 1 2 1 .
hi st o r ic a l de v e lo pm e n t o f, 2 2 3 . a c t i o n s o f, fo r de li c t , 3 40 .
im po ssib ilit y o f pe r fo r m an c e , lia b le fo r w r o n gfu l a c t s o f

2 5 3, 2 7 9 . a ge n t s , 3 3 9 .
in du c in g b r e a ch o f, 33 7 ( n 7 . Co r re i pr o m i t t e n di , 2 84 .
in t e n t io n t o m a ke , 22 2 . s t ipu l a n di , 2 84 .
in t e r pre t a t io n o f, 2 7 1 . Co u n c il o f X , 8 .
n o v a t io n o f, 2 46 , 2 7 7 . o f XV I I , 8 .
j
o b e c t iv e t he o r y o f, 2 2 0 . o f Me c hlin , 4 .
o pe r a t io n o f, 2 44 . Co u n t e r cla im , 2 7 5 .
pa r t pe r fo r m a n c e o f, 2 5 6 . Co v e n an t s , r e st r ic t iv e , 1 70 ( n .
pa r t ie s m u st b e c o m pe te n t , 243 . Co v e r in g b o n d , 1 87 ( n .
m u st in te n d t o c re a t e le ga l Cr e dito r s , a gr e e m e n t s in fr a u d o f,
r e la t i o n s , 2 22 . 1 43 ( n. 2 39 .
pe r fo r m a n c e o f, 2 5 3 , 2 74 .
plu r a lit y o f, 2 85 .
b e fo r e d u e , 2 6 2 . Cr im e n su sp e c t i , 1 1 6 .
b y w ho m , 2 5 3 . Cu lpa , 3 2 3 .
t o w ho m , 2 5 4 . Cu r a t o r s , a d lite m , 1 0 6 .
a ssu m e d , 1 0 5
pe rs o n s a ffe c t e d b y , 244 . .
po ssibilit y o f pe r fo r m a n c e , phy b o n is , 1 0 5 , 1 1 8 ( n l ) . .
s ic e l a n d le ga l , 223 . da t iv e , 1 0 5 , 1 0 7 ( n l ) . .
pr o o f o f, 2 7 6 . n o min at e , 1 0 5 .
fi
r e c t i c a t i o n o f, 22 1 Cu s t o dy o f c hi ldr e n , 3 6 , 1 0 9 ( n
q
. .
r e u is ite fo r m s o r m o de s o f in c ase o f div o r c e , 9 0 .
a gr e e m e n t m u st b e o b se r v e d , Cu s t o m , a so u r c e o f la w , 2 1 .
223 . Cyn sr e cht , 1 5 7 .
r e sc iss io n o f, 2 30 .
fi
spe c i c pe r fo rm a n c e o f, 5 2 , 2 6 8, D a di n g, 43 7 .
448 . D a m a ge in t e r e st , 2 5 8
-
.
m u st b e physic a ll y a n d D a m a ge s , 2 65 .
le ga lly po ssib le , 2 2 3 e x e m pla ry , 3 42

q
. .
su b st it u t e d pe r fo r m an ce o f, 2 5 6 . li u ida te d , 2 68 .
su s pe n s iv e co n dit io n in , 2 6 3 . m e asu r e o f, 2 6 5 , 330 , 3 42 .
t o m ar ry , 5 1 . n o m in al , 2 6 7 , 3 42 .
462 INDEX
D u t ch S ta t u t e L a w in D u tc h Fe rr ie s 1 3 0 ( n
, .
Co lo n ie s , 8 . Fe u ds in Ho ll an d 1 5 6
, , , 1 80 .
D u t y , b r e a c h o f st a t u t o r y o r F ide i c o mm issa 3 7 4
-
, .
co m m o n l a w , 3 3 6 . c o m pare d w i t h t r u st s , 3 7 5 , 3 9 0 .
D u t y o f t he 40t h Pe nn y , 1 45 , 1 89 . ho w c r e a t e d , 3 76 .
D u y c k, A n t ho n y , 20 ( n . o f m o v a b le pr o pe r t y , 43 5 .
pr e em pt io n a ga in st , 3 85 , 3 86 .
E ast In di a Co m pa n y , D u t c h , 7 r e li e f fr o m , 3 87 .
[s ee O c t r o o i] . F ide i c o mm i ssa r ie s , t ac it hypo

-
E ige n do m , 1 2 6 . t he c o f, 1 9 7 .
E ige n tiim e r hypo t he k, 2 0 8 ( n . F ide i c o m m issu m ,

-
c o n di t io n a l ,
E le c t io n , i n m u tu a l w ills , 3 9 4 . 3 78 (n . 3 79 .
E lo pe m e n t , 3 6 5 e ffe c t o f, 3 81 .
E m a n c ipa t i o n , fr o m par e n t a l fam iliae , 3 7 8 ( n .
po w e r , 41 , 42 1 . life in te r e s t c re a te d b y , 384 .
E m phyt e us is , 1 5 8 . r e lie f fr o m , 3 87 .
n glish L a w , r e ce pt io n o f, 22 , 23 . r e s idu i , 3 7 8 .
o f t o r t s , in fl u e n c e o f, 3 2 1 . w he n fa ils t o t a ke e ffe c t , 3 83 .
E n r ic hm e n t , 47 , 6 6 , 1 1 3 ( n . F idu c iary , pa ym e n t t o , 2 5 5 .
.
2 64 (n . 3 46 . ri ght t o c o m pe n sa t io n fo r
E re pt io n , fo r in di gni ta s , 3 6 6 ( n .
pr o v e m e n t s , 45 2 .
E r fpac h t , 1 5 7 . F il ia le po r t ie , 9 8 ( n .
E rr o r , s e e Mist a ke . F ir e , da m a ge b y , 3 3 8 ( n .
E sp o us a ls , 5 1 F ir e a rm s , u s e o f, 3 3 8 ( n
-
q
. .
E sse u ib o , c a pit u l a t io n o f, 1 1 . F isc u s , a u r i st ic pe r son , 1 2 1

j .
in t e st a t e su c c e ssio n in , 40 7 . fo r fe it u r e t o , 3 6 6 ( n .
E s to ppe l , 2 1 2 ( n 220 (n . . t a c it hypo t he c o f, 1 9 6 .
43 5 . F ishin g r ight s , 1 30 , 1 85
-
.
E v e r ar du s , Nic o la u s , 4 . F ix t u r es , c o m pe n sa t io n fo r , 30 5 ,
E v ic t io n , 2 5 6 , 29 6 . 45 1 .
o f le s se e , 3 0 4 . r igh t t o r e m o v e , 3 06 , 45 1 .
w a r r an t y a ga in st , 2 9 6 . w he n im m o v a b le pr o pe r t y , 1 34 .
E x c e pt io do li , 2 28 . F o c ke m a A n dr e ae , o n t he r e c e p
E x c h an ge , 3 0 0 . t io n o f t he R o m an L a w , 6 .
E x e c u to r , t e st a m e n t a r y , 3 5 2 . Fo r e c lo su r e , u n kn o w n in R o m an
sa le b y , 43 6 . D u t c h L a w , 20 5 .
E x e m pla r y su b st it u t io n , 3 69 ( n . Fo r fe it ur e fo r c r im e , 1 49 .
E x pe n se s , n e c e ssa r y , u se fu l , v o lu p o f le ase , 3 1 0 .
tu a r y , 7 9 ( n n o r e lie f a ga in st , 3 1 0
q
. .
E xpr o pr ia t i o n , 1 49 . Fo r m , n o t a r e u i site o f c o n t r a c t
in R o m an D u t ch L a w , 2 2 6 - .
F ac to r c an giv e t it le
, , 43 5 . F o r m s an d Pre c e de n t s, 41 6 .
F a ir c o m m e n t 3 33 , . Fo r t ie t h pe nn y , du t y o f, 1 45 , 1 89 .
F alse im pr iso n m e n t , a c t io n fo r , F o u n da t io n s 1 2 1 , .
326 . Fr ank ish E m pir e 3 ,

.
F a the r , a dm in istr a tio n o f, 3 7 . F r au d a c t io n fo r

, , 3 37 .
co n se n t t o m a r r ia ge o f m in o r fi
de n i t io n o f, 2 2 7 .
c hi ld , 3 9 . e ffe c t o f, 229 .
gift t o c hild b y , 40 . in du c in g m is t ake , 2 2 1 .
n a t u r a l gu a r dia n s hip o f, 3 7 , 1 1 0 L a b eo s de ni t io n o f, 2 2 7
’
fi .
(n 6 ) r e m e die s fo r , 23 0 .
r e pre se n t s so n in c o u r t 3 8 , . Fre e graz in g, 1 7 0 ( n .
r ight t o a ppo in t gu a r di an s , 3 9 . Fre e m a r ke t , 2 9 7 ( n 433 . .
r ight s in r e spe c t o f c hild s

’
Fr e e w o o d , 1 7 0 ( n .
pr o pe rt y , 40 . Fr ie slan d, Pr o v in c e o f, 5 ( n .
’
w he n b o u n d b y chil d s co n t r ac t , Fr u ct u s , 1 81 ( n .
38 de c ide n te s , 1 5 2 ( n .
dfi
Fe a r , e n e d, 2 3 2 . Fr ui t t re e s, t e n an t m a y n o t cu t ,
ef fe c t o f, o n c o n t r ac t , 2 3 2 . 30 7 ( n .
INDEX 463
F r ui t s
, 1 81 ( n . a u t ho r i ze m in e r
’
s a c t s, 46 , 49 ,
in c lu de d u n de r pr o t s , 7 7 fi . 1 14 .
o v e r ha n gin g, 1 5 2 . c an n o t m a ke gift s in n am e of
pe r c e pt io n a n d se pa r a t io n o f, m in o r , 1 1 4 .
1 41 ca nn o t t a ke u n de r m i n o r s w ill,
’
.
r igh t t o , o n sa le , 2 9 5 . 364 .
u su fr u c t u a r y t a ke s , 1 81 . c o nfi r m a t io n o f, 1 0 1 , 1 0 3 ( n .
Fru s t r a t ion o f c o n t r a c t , 280 . c onse n t o f, to con tr a cts of

m in o r s , 46 .
G a m in g an d w a ge r in g c o n tra c ts, c o n se n t o f, to m a rr ia ge o f
2 41 . m in o r s , 6 0 .
G e b re c ke li c ke e ige n do m , 1 2 6 , 1 6 1 c o n t r ac t in t he n a m e o f m in o r s ,
n l) . . 1 1 3 , 2 45 .
Ge lde r lan d , P r o v in c e o f, 5 ( n . da t iv e , 1 0 2 , 1 04 .
G e m e e n sc ha p v an go e de re n , s ee in so lv e n c y o f, 1 1 8
q
.
Co m m u n i t y o f G o o ds . in v e n to r y r e u i re d o f, 1 0 8 .
Ge n e r a l b o n d , 1 9 0 . kin ds o f, 1 00 .
G e re cht ighe i d, 1 87 ( n . la w fu l , 1 0 2 .
G e s t a t io n , pe ri o d o f, 3 2 . le ase s b y , 1 1 1 ( n .
G e t im m e r , 30 6 . lia b ilit y o f, 1 1 4 .
G e z i c ht v e r b o d , 1 7 1 ( n
-
. m a in te n an c e a n d e du c a t io n o f
G ho st s , 30 4 ( n . m in o rs b y , 1 0 9 .
G ift , s e e D o n a t io n . m a r r i a ge o f, w i t h w a r ds , 5 4 .
G o d pa r e n t s , s ee Spo n so r s
-
.
plu r a lit y o f, 1 1 0 , 1 1 5 , 1 1 6 .
G o in g o u t b e fo r e t he b ie r , 7 2 .
po w e r s , r i ght s , a n d du t ie s o f,
Gro o t r e c ht , 1 72
-
. 107 .
G r a n t , i m plie d, o f se r v it u de , 1 7 7 . r e m o v a l o f, 1 1 7 .
G r a z in g, r ight o f, 1 70 , 1 85 . r e m u n e r a t io n o f, 1 1 5 .
G r e a t Pr iv il e ge o f M a ry o f B u r re pre se n t m in o r s in c o u r t , 1 1 3 .
gu n dy o f 1 47 6 , 1 47 se c u r e po rt io ns o f m in o r s , 1 0 8
q
. .
G r o e n e w e ge n v a n de r Ma de , w o r ks se cu r it y re u ir e d fr o m , 1 0
o f, 1 6 . t e st a m e n t a r y , 1 0 1 .
o n la w o f le a se s , 1 5 9 . w ho m a y b e , 1 0 6 .
o n t re asu r e , 1 3 7 . G u ar di an s hip , 1 0 0 1 8 -
.
G r o n in ge n , P r o v in c e o f, 5 , ( n . ac t io n s ar i s in g o u t o f, 1 1 5 .
G r o o t , Hu go de , s e e G r o t iu s . de t e r m in a t io n o f, 1 1 7 .
G r o ot P la ca a t B oe k, 1 9 . dis qu alifi c a t io n s fo r , 1 0 6 .
G r o o t e R aa d , 4 ( n . e x cu se s fr o m , 1 0 7 .
G r o sse , 3 5 8 . n a t u r a l , o f fa t he r , 3 7 ( n 1 0 4, .
G r o t iu s , I n le idi n ge to t de Ho lla n d 25 5 .
s che R echts ge le er theyd, 1 5 -

. o f m o t he r , 5 9 ( n l ) , 1 04 . .
Op i n i o n s of, t r a n sla te d b y de o f blo o d re la t io n s , 1 0 2 .
B r u yn , 2 1 . u ppe r ( o ppe r v o o gdi ) , 1 0 1

- j .
fi
his c lassi c a t io n o f de lic t s, 3 2 2 . v o lu n t a r y i n S o u t h Afr i ca , 1 0 7 .
hi s t he o r y o f c o n t r ac t , 43 6 . G u ia n a , s ee B r it ish G u i an a .
G u a r a n t e e s ee S u r e t y shi p
, .
G u ar dia n s , ac c o u n t s o f, 1 1 0 Ha b ita t io 1 85 , .
1 13 H an dv e s te n , 3
—
. .
a c t i o n s a ga in st , 1 1 5 1 6 . Har b o u r in g, 33 6 .
a c t io n s b y , 1 1 5 . He ir , in st itu t io n o f, 3 5 4, 3 6 9 .
a dm in i st r a t io n o f pr o pe r t y b y , po sit io n o f, in u st in ian s L a w ,
’
J
1 10 . 35 2 .
a li e n a t io n o f pro pe rt y b y , 1 1 0 . in m o de rn la w , 3 5 3 .
a ppo in t m e n t o f, 1 0 1 — 6 . su b st it u t i o n o f, 3 6 9 .
assu m e d , 1 0 1 . H e re di t ar y le ase , 1 5 7 .
a u t ho r it y o f, w he n u n n e c e s sa r y , He re dit a te m adi r e , 3 5 1 .
47 . H e re s e x t r an e u s , 350 .
a u th o r i t y o f, w r o n gly giv e n , 46 H e r e s su u s e t n e ce ssa r iu s . 3 5 0 ,

(n . 352 .
46 4 IN D EX
He re w e ge n 1 2 8 ( n , . I n de b it i so lu t io , 3 47
Hire
.
,300 I n dia , S t a t u t e s o f, 8 ( n 40 3 , .
de te r m in a t io n o f, 3 0 9 . 40 4 .
o f lan d , s e e L e ase .
j
I n u r i a , m e a n in g o f, 3 2 2 , 3 2 3
Ho f v a n Ho ll a n d , 4 ( n .
(n . 3 35
Ho fs ki n de re n , 1 0 5 ( n
.
-
3 63 . . sin e da m n o , 3 22
Ho llan d , Co di ca t io n in , 3 ( n l ) , 7 fi
.
. . j
I n u r ie s t o w ife , c hild , & c , 3 3 5 . .
Co u n t s o f, 3 .
j
I n u r io u s fa lse ho o d , 3 3 7 .
la w o f t he P r o v in c e o f, in S o u t h j
I n u r y b y a n im a ls , 3 3 8 .
A fr i c a , 9 . In le idin g, 1 6 4 .
Pr o v in c e o f, 5 . I nn ke e pe r s li e n , 1 9 9 , 3 1 9
’
.
P r o v in c ia l Co u r t o f, 4 ( n In n o c e n t m i sre pr e se n t a t io n , e ffe c t
‘
Holla n dsche Con s u lta ti e n , 2 0 . o f, o n c o n t r a c t , 2 3 1

Ho o ge R aa d v an Ho llan d e n
.
n o a c t io n fo r d a m a e s fo r , 2 3 1
g .
Ze e l a n d , 4 ( n . I n sa n e pe r so n s , cu r a t o rs o f, 1 0 5 .
B o o m, 3 3 5 c o n t r ac t u a l in c a ac it
p y o f, 1 1 9 ,
.
Hu be r , U lr ik, w o r ks o f, 1 6 .
2 43
Hu sb an d , a c t io n o f, fo r w ife s
.
’
in c a pa b le o f m a kin g a w ill , 3 6 3 .
de a t h , 3 2 9 .
o f m a rr i a ge , 5 3 .
b in ds w i fe b y his c o n t r a c t , 245 .
ma y su e fo r de li c t , 3 40
j
.
fo r in u r y t o w ife , 3 2 9 .
n o t lia b le fo r de lic t , 3 39 .
fo r in su l t t o w ife , 3 3 5 .
I ns an it y , 1 1 9 .
’
n o t a n sw e r a ble fo r w ife s de li c t s , a gr o u n d o f di v o r ce , 88 .
7 9 , 33 9 .
sus pe n ds m a ri t a l po w e r , 7 1
r ight t o c o m pe ns a t io n fo r im
(n .
pr o v e m e n t s 45 2 , .
In so lv e n c y o f le ss o r doe s n ot
Hus b an d a n d Wife , gift s be t w e e n , de te r m in e le ase 3 1 1 , .
9 6 , 2 88 .
sa le s in , 43 4 .
in t e st a t e su c ce ss io n o f, 40 1 , 41 2 .
t r a n sm i ssio n o f r ight s o n , 25 1 .
o t he r c o n tr a c t s be tw e e n , 9 6 I n so lv e n t s, c o n t r ac t s o f, 2 43 .
(n .
In st a lm e n t s , pa ym e n t b y , 2 62
Hu u r
.
-
c e du lle , 159 (n .
In st it u t io a die , in die m , 3 7 0
Hu u r
.
ga a t v o or ko o p , 1 5 8, 3 0 4 In s t it u t io n o f he ir , 3 6 9 .
(n .
In t e r c e ssio , 3 1 5 ( n
Hypo t he c
.
, se e Mo r t ga ge .
In t e r dic t io n o f pr o diga ls , 1 2 0 .
Ille ga li ty in co n t r ac t , 2 3 4 42 — .
In te r e st , 2 5 8 .
c a nn o t b e c la im e d in e x ce ss o f
Ill e gi t im a te issu e , s ee B ast a r ds
pr in c ipa l , 2 5 9
.
.
I mm e m o r ia l u se r , 1 7 6 .
c o m po u n d , 2 5 9 .
Im m i ss ie , Ma n dam e n t v a n , 1 6 4 .
le ga l r a t e o f, 2 5 8 .
I m m o v a b le s m o r t ga ge o f, 1 89
pr e sc r ib e d w i t h pr in c ipa l de b t ,
.
,
t r a n sfe r o f, s e e T r a n s fe r .
2 82 .
w ha t t hin gs in c lu de d u n de r , I n t e rpe ll a t ie , in te rpe lla t io , 446

1 32 .
n .
I m pe n sa e , s ee E x pe n se s .
I n te r ple a de r , 2 55 ( n .
I rn pe t r a t io do m in ii , 20 5 .
I n te st a c y , pre su m pt io n a ga in s t ,
Im po ssib ilit y o f pe rfo r m a n c e , 223 , 3 5 4, 3 5 5 .
263 (n 2 7 9, 280 ( n
. .
I n te st a te su c c e ssio n , 3 9 7 .
I m po te n c y , r e n de r s m arr iage in B r i t i sh G u i an a , 40 8 .
v o ida b le , 9 5 .
in Ce y lo n , 405 , 45 3 .
I m pro v e m e n t s , c o m pe n sa t i o n for , in D u tc h Co lo n ie s , 40 3 .
3 0 7 , 45 1 .
in E as t In di e s , 40 4 .
ef fe c te d b y le sse e , 30 5 , 306 .
in R o m an D u t ch Co lo ni es , su m
-
n e c e ssa r y , 3 0 7 , 45 1 .
m ar y o f, 40 8 .
I n ae difi c a t io , 1 41 .
in S ou t h Afr i ca , 40 6, 41 2 .
In b a lc kin g o fte in a n c ke r in g, 1 70 .
in We st In di e s , 40 7 .
In b re n g, 3 5 5 .
o f b a s t a r ds , 3 4 .
In ce stu o u s b ast a r ds , t e st a m e n ta r y t o b a st a r ds , 3 4 ( n 40 1 ( n . .
in capac it y o f, 365 .
In u n da t io n , 1 40 , 30 5 .
466 IND EX
L e sse e , ri
ght ( con ti n u ed ) Ma li c iou s de se r t io n di v o r ce fo r ,
87 —
,
t o re m o v e x t u re s , 3 0 6 fi . 9 .
to re ta in a ga ins t c la im fo r ju dic i a l se pa r a t i o n fo r , 9 1 .
co m pe n sa t ion , 3 0 7 , 45 1 . M a lic io u s pr o se c u t io n , 3 3 4 .
L e ss o r , ass ign m e n t b y , 3 0 9 . Ma n da m e n t v a n c o m pla in te , 1 6 3 .
du t ie s o f, 3 0 2 . im m iss ie , 1 6 4 .
s t a t u t o r y hypo t he c o f, 3 0 6 . m ain te n u e , 1 6 3 .
t ac i t hyp o t he c o f, 1 9 3 . sa u v e ga r de , 1 6 3 .
L e x An as t as ia n a , 2 48 ( n l ) . . spo lie , 1 6 4 .
L e x c o m m iss o r i a , 2 0 5 . Ma n da t e , 3 1 1 .
L e x hac e di c t a li , 9 8, 3 6 5 ( n . M an d a te d Te rr ito r y o f So u t h - We st
L i a bili t y , a b s o lu te , 3 2 0 , 33 8, 3 43 . Afr i c a , 1 4 .
fo r de lic t , ge n e r a l e x c e pt io n s Mar it a l po w e r , 6 4, 6 7 .
fr o m , 3 41 . e x c lu sio n o f, b y a n te n u pt ia l
j
fo r in u r y b y a n im a ls , 3 3 8 . c o n t r ac t , 7 6 .
pr in c iple s o f, in t he la w o f in sa n it y , ho w a ffe c t s , 7 1 ( n .
de lic t , 3 2 0 Mar ke t , sa le s in , 1 5 6 , 433

—
. .
L ie n , 1 9 7 , 2 0 2 , 3 1 9 . Ma rr i a ge , 5 1 9 9 .
L ife in te r e st , ho w c r e a te d, 3 84
-
. ac t io n to c o m pe l , 5 2 , 3 2 7 .
L ight , r ight s o f, 1 7 1 . a gr e e m e n t s in r e st r a in t o f, 2 39 .
L ijfto c ht , 1 5 8 . to pr o cu r e , 2 39 .
L im e kiln , r ight o f ha vi n g, 1 7 0
- . b e t w e e n fe m a le w a r d an d gu ar
L im i t a t io n o f ac t io n s , 2 81 , 3 43 . di an , 5 4 .
J
L in de n , o a nn e s v a n de r , 1 8 . b e t w e e n pe r so n s w ho ha v e c o m
fi
hi s c lass i c a t io n o f de lic t s , 3 22 . m i tte d a d u l te r y t o ge t he r , 5 4 .
o n par e n t a l p o w e r 36 , . b r e a c h o f pr o m i se o f, 5 2 .
on re ce pt i o n o f R o m an L a w , c a pac i t y t o m a r r y , 5 3 .
6 c la n de st in e , 5 6 , 5 8, 3 6 4 .
r u l e s fo r co n s t r u c t io n o f c o n c o n se n t o f pa re n t s t o , 5 5 , 5 8 .
t r ac t s , 2 7 1 . o f r e la t iv e s t o , 5 9 .
st a t u t o r y a u t h o r it y o f, 1 3 ( n . o f t u t o rs t o , 60 .
w o r ks o f, 1 8, 20 de c re e o f n ulli t y o f, 3 3 , 5 8, 9 5
q
. .
L i u i da te d da m a ge s an d pe n a lt y , disso lu t io n o f, 87 .
2 6 7 , 2 68 . e ffe c t o f, in r e sp e c t o f t he pr o
L it is c o n te st a t io , 2 7 9 , 447 .
pe r t y o f t he sp o u se s , 6 8 .
L o an , fo r c o n su m pt io n , 3 1 4 o n st a t u s o f w ife , 6 4
q
. .
fo r u se , 3 1 4 . fo r m a l r e u i r e m e n t s o f, 6 4 .
L o ca t io c o n du ct io , 30 1 im pe di m e n t s t o , 5 3
q —
. .
L o m b a r d , 43 3 le ga l c o nse u e n ce s o f, 6 4 7 2
q —
. .
L o sse s, m e an in g o f, in an te n u pt ia l le ga l re u i sit e s o f, 5 2 6 4 .
c o n t r ac t s , 7 9 .
po ly gam o us , 5 3 .
L o st pr o pe r t y , 1 36 .
pr o hi b ite d de gre e s, 5 4, 42 3 .
L u cru m c e ssa n s , 3 2 3 .
pr o m ise o f, 5 1 .
L u n a t i c s , s ee In sa n e Pe r so n s .
pu ta t iv e , 6 3 .
pu t s an e n d t o m in o r it y , 45 .
Maa n in g 446 ( n , . t o par e n t a l po w e r , 41 .
Ma gt v a n a ssu m pt ie , 101 (n se c o n d m a rr i a ge s , 9 8 .
v an sur r o ga t ie of su b st 1 t u t ie , v o ida b le , 5 3 , 5 8 .
1 0 1 (n . w ife b e c o m e s m in o r o n , 65 .
Ma in te n a n ce an d c ha m pe r t y , 2 3 8 . Mar r ia ge se t t le m e n t s , 7 5 , 82
- .
Ma in t e n u e , M a n da m e n t v a n , 1 6 3 . in a n te n u pt ial co n t r ac ts , le gis
j
Ma o ri t y , a c ce le r a t io n o f, 44, 1 1 7 lat io n a s t o , in S o u t h Afr ic a ,
(n 8 . 84 .
a ge o f, 44, 3 6 3 ( n o w e r o f C o u r t t o o r de r , 6 1
.
p
Ma la fide posse sso r , r ight to c o m (n 3 .
pe nsa t io n fo r im pr o v e m e n t s , pr ov is io n s of Pe rpe t u a l E di c t
45 1 . as to , 82 .
Ma lic e , s ee An i m u s in ju r ian di . Marr ie d Wo m e n : do n a t io m o r t is

in de fam a t io n , 33 1 . c a u sa o f, 2 93
INDEX 467
Marr ie d Wo m e n ( con ti nu ed) M o r ib u s ho di e rni s ex n u do
ho u se ho ld c o n t r a ct s o f, 66 , 81 p ac t o da t u r ac t io , 2 25 (n .
(n . 42 9 . Na m ho c n a t u r a ae qu u m e s t
le ga l c apac it y o f, 6 5 , 42 7 . n e m i n e m c u m a lt e r iu s de t r i
pa ym e n t b y , 2 5 4 . m e n to fi e r i lo c u ple t io re m , 47 ,
pa y m e n t t o , 2 5 5 . 3 46 .
pe r so n a st a n di in u dic io o f, 6 5 , j Ne m o pr o m it te re po te st pr o
42 6 . a lt e r o , 244 .
u n a b le t o c o n t r ac t w i t ho u t hu s No n v ide n t u r qu i e r r an t c o n
’
b a n d s a u t ho r i t y , 65 , 2 5 4 . se n t ire , 2 1 7 .
w he n age n t fo r hu sb an d , 42 8, Nu da pac t io o b li ga t io n e m n o n
430 .
par i t se d pa r it e x c e pt io n e m ,
w ill o f, 3 6 4 . 2 24 .
[s ee Wife ] Nu lla pr o m i ss io po te st c o u si
q
.
Mass in g, 3 9 3 . s t e re u ae e x v o lu n t a te pr o
Mast e r o f shi p b in ds shipo w n e r b y m i tte n t is s t a t u m c a pit , 2 1 7 .
his c o n t r ac ts , 2 45 . Nul la v o lu n t as e r r a n t is e st , 2 1 7 .
Mas te r s li a b le fo r de lic t s o f se r Nu l li r e s su a se r v it , 1 7 8, 2 2 3
q
.
v an t s , 3 3 9 . P a t e r i s e st u e m n u pt iae de
Ma x im s : A lte r i s t ipu l a r i n e m o m o n st r a n t , 3 1 .
po te st , 2 45 . Pa te r n a pa t e r n is , m a te m a
B r e e kt ko o p gee n hu u r , 1 5 8 m a t e r n is , 3 9 8
q q
. .
Co n v e n t i o v in c it le ge m , 25 2 Plus v a le t u o d a git u r u am
q
.
D ie de n m a n o f de v r o u w u od s im u la te c o n c ipit u r ,
t r o u w t , t r o u w t o o k de sc hu l 192 .
de n , 7 1 ( n l ) . . P o s se ss io n v a u t t it re , 1 5 5 , 43 6 .
D ie n w a te r de or t di e w a te r Q u i pr i o r e st te m po re , po t io r
ke e rt , 1 5 4 . e st j
u re , 2 0 2 .
D i es in t e rpe lla t pr o ho m in e , 446 .

Qu i pr o hi be re po te st , te n e t u r ,
E e n e m oe de r ( w ijf) m aa kt gee n 3 3 9 (n
q
.
b astaa r d, 3 4 . R e gu la es t , uri s u ide m ign o j

j
B u s e st c ae lu m c u u s e st so lu m , j r an t ia m c u i qu e n o ce re , fa c t i
1 5 2 (n . v e r o i gn o r a n t i am n o n n o ce re ,
E rfn is is gee n w in ste , 7 8 ( n 2 1 7 (n .
Fu r io su s n u llu m n e go t i u m Se r v itu s se r v i t u t is e sse n o n

ge re r e po t e st , 1 1 9 .
po te st , 1 7 9 .
Han d m uss Ha n d w a hr e n , 1 5 5 . V o le n t i n o n fi t in ur ia , 3 42 ( n l j .
H e t go e d klim t n i e t ge e r n , 40 2 . V o lu n t as c o ac ta e st v o lu n t as ,
H e t go e d m oe t gaa n v an dae r 232 .
he t ge ko m e n is , 3 9 8 . Wa t ae r d o fte n a ghe l v a st is ,
H e t n aas te b lo e d e r ft he t go e d , w e r d ghe ho u de n a ls e e n ge v o lg
398 . v an he t o n t ilb a re , 1 3 2 ( n .
Hu ur gaa t v o o r ko op, 1 5 8, 304 Me asu r e o f da m a ge s , 2 65 , 3 30 , 3 42 .
(n . Me chlin , G r e a t Co u n c il o f, 4 .
I m po ss ib iliu m n u ll a o bli ga t io Me r ge r , 1 7 8, 1 85 , 2 0 7 , 2 7 4, 3 1 0 .
e st , 2 6 3 ( n . M e r ul a , P a u l , 1 9 .
In de li c t o pa r i po t io r e s t pos Me t de h a n ds c ho e n t r o u w e n , 5 2
se ss o r , 2 3 5 ( n .
(n .
I n pa r i de lic t o po t io r e st c o n Me t de v o e t s t o t e n 2 9 7 , .
di t io de fe n de n t is , 23 5 Me t u s s ee Fe ar
K
. .
,
o o p b r e e kt hu ur , 1 0 8 . Min e r a l r ight s gr an t o f 1 86
, , .
M a n e n de Wijf he b b e n ge e n le ase o f; 3 00 ( n .
v e r sc he y de n goo t , 7 0 ( n . Min e s 1 3 7
, .
Me u b e le n e n he b be n ge e n ge v o lg, Min o r it y , 44 .
1 5 5 , 20 1 . de te r m in e d b y m a rr ia ge , 45 .
Mit de r H a n d st ir b t das Pfa n d , b y v e ni a ae t a t is , 44 .
1 99 (n 7 . M in o rs , a c t io n s o n b e ha lf o f, 3 8,
Mo b ili a n o n ha b e n t se qu e la m , 1 1 3 , 3 40 .
1 5 5 , 2 0 1 , 43 5 , 43 6 . a lie n a t io ns b y , 49 .
46 8 IND EX
Mo rt gages ass ign m e n t o f, 20 6
c o n t r ac t s o f, 3 8, 45 7 , 422 — .
(n .
,
de lic t s o f, 48, 3 3 9 . c o v e n an ts in , 20 4 .
do n a t io m o rt is c a u sa o f, 49 e fi e c t o f, 1 9 9 .
(n . 29 3 . e n fo r c e m e n t o f, 2 0 5 .
d o n a t io n b y , 2 88 . e x t in gu i shm e n t o f, 2 0 6 .
le ga l st a t u s a n d c a pac i t y o f, 45 . o fin c o r po r e a l pr o pe r t y , 1 9 0 , 200 .
lia b le fo r de lic t s a n d c r im e s , 48 . o f la n d , c lasse d w i t h m o v a b le s ,
m is r e pr e se n t a t io n o f a ge b y , 5 0 , 1 33 .
422 .
pr io r it ie s a m o n g, 2 0 2 .
m o r t ga ge o f i m m o v a ble pr o r e gist r a t i o n o f, 1 89 , 1 9 1 , 1 9 9 .
pe r t y o f, 1 1 9 , 1 88 Mo r t ga go r , r ight s o f, 2 0 4 .
n o pe r s o n a s t an di in j u dic io , l 1 3 . Mo t he r , n a t u r a l gu ar di a ns hi p o f,
pa y m e n t o f d e b t d u e t o , 2 5 4 . 5 9 (n l ), 1 04 . .
pr o m ise o f, t o m a rr y , 5 1 . r ight t o c u sto dy o f c hild , 3 7 ,
r e le as e fr o m t u t e la ge , 45 . 109 (n .
re s t i t u t io in in t e gr u m o f, 47 , Mo t iv e , e r r o r in , 22 1 .
49 , 42 2 . Mo v a b le s , ge n e r a l m o rt ga ge o f,
r i ht s
g in r e spe c t o f pr o pe rt y , 1 90, 19 9 .
49 . spec ia l m o r t ga ge o f, 1 90 , 1 9 9 .
w ido w e r ( w ido w ) m a y re m a rr y -
w ha t t hin gs in c lu de d u n de r , 1 33 .
w i t h o u t c o n se n t o f pare n t s , Mu t u a l w ill , 86 , 3 6 1 ( n 3 92
—
. .
59 .
pre c e de n t s o f, 41 9 2 1 .
w ill s o f, 49 , 3 6 3 . Mu u r b e z w a r in g , 1 7 0 .
[s ee Childre n , m in o r ] .
Mi n u t e , 3 5 8 . Naa st in g 3 0 0 , .
Mis daa d , 3 22 . Nae r a n u s Jo ann e s 20 , , .
Mis dae d je ge n s e e r , 33 0 . Na hu yr 1 5 9 ( n
, .
Misre pr e se n ta t io n , inn o ce n t , 2 3 1 . Na po le o ni c Co de s 7 ,
.
Mis t a ke , 2 1 7 . Na t a l a nn e x a t io n o f 1 2
, , .
c o mm o n , 2 1 9 , 22 1 c o m m u n i t y o f go o ds in , 6 9 ( n
q
. .
ef fe c t o f, 2 1 7 . d is u a li c a t io n fi o f gu a r di a n s in ,
in du c e d b y fr a u d , 22 1 . 1 0 7 (n .
m u tu a l, 2 1 9 . di v o r c e fo r m a lic io u s de se r t io n
o f fa c t , 2 1 7 . in , 89 .
o f la w , 2 1 7 . in te s t a te su c c e ss io n in , 406 .
pr o pe r t y a lie n a te d u n de r , 2 2 2 . le ase s o f im m o v a b le s in , 1 6 0 .
Mo de rn la w , so u r c e s o f, 2 1 .
po s t n u pt ia l c o n t r ac t s in , 7 2 .
Mo lt z e r , J
P , D e o ver e e n koms t
. . R o m an D u t ch L a w in , 1 2
-
.
te n be ho eve va n de r de n , 445 . st a t u t o r y lim i te d pa rt n e rshi ps

Mo r a , t he t he o r y o f, 445 . in , 3 1 3 .
Mo r a in te r e st , 446
-
. w ills , r e v o ke d b y m a rr ia ge in ,
Mo r ge n ga v e 82 3 73
—
-
. .
,
Mo rt ga ge , 1 87 20 8 . w i t n e sse s o f, in , 3 60 ( n .
c o n t r a c t t o c re a te , 1 9 2 . Na t han , D r M an fre d , 22 . .
c o n v e n t io n a l , 1 88, 1 9 9 . Na t u r a l gu ar di an shi p, s ee G u a r
disgu ise d 1 9 1 , . di a ns hip .
ge n e r a l , 1 9 0 , Ne ce ssa r ie s , w ha t , 6 6 , 43 1 .
ju di c i a l 1 88 , .
’
fa t he r s lia b ilit y fo r , su pplie d to
s pe c ia l , 1 89 , 1 90 . c hild , 3 8 .
m in o r s lia b ili t y fo r , 47
’
t ac i t , 1 9 2 , 1 9 7 .
o f fi de ico mm i s sa r ie s , 1 9 7
’
. w ife s l ia bili t y fo r , 6 6 .
o f fi scus , 1 9 6 . Ne ce ssit y , w a y o f, 1 6 8, 1 7 7 .
o f le ga te e s , 1 9 7 . Nede r la nds ch I n dis ch P la kaa t

o f lesse e , 1 9 6 3 0 6 . . B ook, 1 9 .
o f le sso r , 1 9 3 . Ne glige n ce , ge n e r a l pr in c iples o f

o f w a r d, 1 1 7 , 1 9 7 . lia b ili t y fo r , 3 2 3 , 3 2 4 .
o f w ife fo r he r do w e r , 1 9 7 . c o n t r ib u t o r y , 3 2 6 .
Mo rt ga gee , r ight s o f, 20 3 .
[s e e Cu l pa ] .
47 0 INDEX
Pa te r n a pa te rn is , m a te r n a m a te r Plu r a li ty o f cre di t o rs a n d de b to rs ,
ni s, 3 9 8 . 2 84 .
Pa w n b r o ke rs , 1 88, 434 . Po li t ica l O r din an ce o f A pr il 1 ,

Pa ym e n t , 2 5 3 . 1 5 80 , 7 ( a n d s ee T a b le o f
b y w ho m m a y b e m a de , 2 5 3 . S t a t u te s ) .
in to c o u r t , 2 5 5 ( n 273 . . co n se n t o f pa re n ts t o m a r r ia ge
m ar r ie d w o m an u n a ble to m a ke , o f c hildr e n , 5 7
q
.
2 54 . fo r m a l re u ir e m e n t s fo r le a se s ,
o f d e b t du e t o m in o r , 2 5 4 159
q
. .
place o f, 2 60 . fo r m al r e u ir e m e n t s fo r m a r
pr o o f o f, 2 5 6 r i a ge , 6 2
q
. .
t im e o f, fo r m a l re ui r e m e n t s fo r m o r t
to a fi d u c ia ry , 2 5 5 .
ga ge o fimm o v a b le s , 1 89 ( n .
t o w ho m , 2 5 4 .
pr io r it ie s b e t w e e n m o r t ga gee s,
P a ym e n t s , a ppr o pr ia t io n o f, 2 5 7 20 3
q
. .
Pe c o ri s a d a u a m a ppu lsu s , 1 7 0 .
pr o hi b ite d de gr e e s , 5 4 .
Pe c u li u m a dv e n t ic iu m , 40 .
pu b lica t io n o f b a nn s , 6 3 .
pr o fe c t ic iu m , 40 ru l e s o f in t e st a t e su c c e ssio n ,
q
.
P e n alt y , a n d li u ida t e d d a m age s, 400 .
2 6 7— 8 . t r an s fe r s , r e gist r a t io n o f, 1 45 .
‘
Pe r c e pt io n o f fr ui t s , 1 41 . Po lit ic a l O r din a n c e , I n te r pre t a
Pe rfo r m a n c e , 2 5 2 , 2 73
’
. t io n o f, 40 2 .
a lte r n a t iv e , 2 5 6 Po lli c ita t io n , 2 1 5

—
. .
du t y o f, 2 5 2 . Po sse ss io n , 1 6 2 6 .
e ffe c t o f, 2 5 6 . du t y o f r e spe c t in g, 1 5 2 .
im po ssib ilit y o f, 2 2 3 , 2 6 2 ( n . P o sse sso r s , r ight t o c o m pe n sa t io n

2 7 9 , 2 80 ( n . fo r im pr o v e m e n t s , 45 1 .
pa r t , 2 5 6 . P o sse ss o r y R e m e di e s , in R o m a n
s pe c ifi c , 2 6 8, 448 . D u t ch L a w , 1 6 2 .
s u b st i t u t e d, 2 5 6 . in t he m o de r n la w , 1 65 .
[s ee P a ym e n t ] . P o st , c o n t r ac t s c o n c lu de d b y , 2 1 6 .
Pe rpe t u a l E di c t o f Cha r le s V , P o st n u pt ia l c o n t r a c t s in Na t a l a n d
O c t o b e r 4, 1 5 40 , 6 ( an d s ee S o u t he r n R ho de sia , 72 .
Ta b le o f S t a t u te s ) . P othi er on Obli ga t i on s , t r a n sla te d

ar t . 6 ( Ma rr ia ge S e t t le m e n t s ) , b y v an de r L in de n , 1 9 .
82 . P ou n d sa le s , 43 4 .
art . 8 ( R a t e o f I n te re st ) , 2 5 8 . Pr ae di a l Se r v it u de s , s ee Se r v it u de s .
ar t . 1 2 ( Te s ta m e n t s o f Min o rs ) , P r ae di u m do m in an s , se r vi e ns , 1 6 7 .
3 64 . r us t icu m , u r b a n u m , 3 0 9 .
a rt . 1 6 ( L im i t a t io n o f A c t io n s ) , Pr e c a r io te n e ns , r ight t o c o m
2 83 n t i f im rov e m e nt s,
.
p e sa o n o r p
a rt . 1 7 ( Clan de st in e Ma r r ia ge s ) , 45 2 .
56 . Pr e c io u s st on e s , 1 3 7 .
Pe rpe t u al i m pr iso nm e n t , a gr o u n d P re e m pt io n , 30 0
-
q
.
o f div o r c e , 87 . Pre sc r ipt io n , a c u i sit io n b y , 1 46 .
P e r pe t u it ie s, r u le a ga ins t , in in Ce y lo n , 1 47 ( n
q
.
Ro m an an d D u t c h L a w , 3 86 . a c u i sit io n o f pr a e di a l se r v i
in Ce y lo n , 3 87 ( n . t u de s b y , 1 7 4 .
Pe r so n s , L a w o f, 3 0 . o f ac t io n s , 2 81 , 3 43 .
Philip t he F a ir , 4 ( n . o f m o r t ga ge s , 20 7 .
Phili p t he G o o d, 4 ( n Pr in c ipals lia ble fo r de li c t s o f

’
Philip I I , Co de o f Cr im in a l P r o a ge n t s , 3 3 9 .
c e du re , 6 . Pri o r it ie s be tw ee n m o r t gage e s, 2 02 .
Pia c a u sa , 1 2 1 , 3 5 9 . P r iv ile ge ( in de fa m a t io n ) , 3 3 2 ,
P ign u s, 1 9 0 . 3 44 .
pr ae to r ium o r u di c ia le , 1 88, j Pr o di ga ls , c o n se n t to m ar r iage o f

1 9 4, 2 0 2 . c hildr e n , 6 1 ( n l) . .
Plac e o f pa ym e n t , la w as t o , 2 60 . c u r a t o r s o f, 1 0 5 .
Ple dge , 1 9 0 , 3 1 4 . in te r di ct io n o f, 1 2 0 .
IND E X 47 1
Pr odi ga ls ( co n ti n u ed ) Re ga lia , 1 3 0 , 1 3 9 .
m a rr ia ge o f, 6 1 ( n l ) . . Re gist r a t io n o f an te n u pt ia l con
w ills o f, 3 6 3 . t r ac t s , 7 3 .
fi
Pr o t s , m e a n in g o f, in a n te o f gift s , 2 89 .
n u pt ia l c o n t r ac t s , 7 7 o f le ase s , 1 6 0 .
Pr o hi b ite d de gr ee s , se e M ar r ia ge , o f m o r t ga ge s , 1 89 , 1 9 1 , 1 9 9 .
P o lit ic a l O r di n a n ce . o f t r a n s fe rs , 1 45 .
Pro hi b it io n o f a li e n a t i o n , e ffe c t o f, Re gis t r y o f de e d s , 1 45 , 1 9 1 .
37 7, 3 7 8 (n . R e le ase , o f de b t , 2 7 6 .
P r o mi se n o t t o su e , 2 7 7 . o f se r v i t u de , 1 7 8 .
P r o m u l ga t io n o f s ta t u te s , 8 . Re li e f fr o m fi de ic o mm issu m , 3 87 .
Pro pe r t y , L a w o f, 1 2 4 Re lo ca t io n , ta c it , 3 0 3
q
. .
ac u ir e d du r i n g m a rr ia ge , 70 , Re m ar r ia ge , re st r ic t io ns o n , 33 ,
~
7 6 (n 77. . 9 8, 3 6 5 .
o f spo u se s , 6 8 . Re n t , 3 0 2 .
Pr o spe c t , r i ght o f, 1 7 1 . r e m i ssi o n o f, 3 0 4 .
Pr o te c t o r a te o f So u t h We st Afr ic a , -
R e pu ta t io n , w r on gs a ga in s t , 3 3 0
q
.
14 . Re s a li e n a , be u e s t o f, 3 63 .
Pr o v in c e s o f t he ni te d Ne t he r U sa le o f, 29 6 .
lan ds , 5 ( n . li tigio sa , 2 41 ( n 25 1 . .
Pr o v in c ia l Co ur t o f Ho llan d , 4 Re s c o m m u n e s , 1 2 6 , 1 3 1 .
(n 3 . de re li c t ae , 1 3 5 .
Pu be rt y , a ge o f, 3 1 . e x t r a c o m m e r c iu m , 2 41 ( n .
P u b li c m a r ke t , s ee Mar ke t , sa le s in . e x tra n o st ru m pa t r irn o n iu m ,

Pu b lic po lic y , 2 7 5 . 1 2 8 (n .
r o ads , 1 2 8 in n o st r o pa t r irn o n i o , 1 2 8 ( n
q
. .
se r v it u de s , 1 7 7 . ipsa lo u i t ur , 3 2 5 .
t r a de , 6 6 . n u lli u s , 1 3 1 .
wa ys , 1 6 9 ( n l ) , 1 7 7 . .
pu b li c ae , 1 2 8 .
Pu bli ca t io n n ece ssa ry in de fa m a

, sa cr ae , r e ligio sa e , sa n c tae , 1 3 1 .
t io n , 33 4 . s in gu lo ru m , 1 3 1 .
P u pil , se e G u a r dian s , Min o r s . u n i v e rs it a t is , 1 3 1 .
Pu rc hase r , bon a fi de , 3 83 , 43 3 . Re s ta bli s se m e n t , 1 6 4 .
Pu ta t iv e m a r r iage , 63 . Re st it u t io in in te gr um o n t he
gr ou n d o f du r e ss o f go o ds ,
Q t F l i di 3 6 9
u ar a a c a, . 2 33 ( n .
T b lli
re 3 69 e an a , o f m in o r it y , 49 , 1 1 4, 422
Q i t t 2 1 1 3 46
. .
u as -
co n r ac s, o f m is t ake , 2 2 2
Q i d li t 3 43
.
, .
u as -
e c s, w ife , n o t a v a ila b le to , 6 8
Q i p pill y b tit t i
. .
u as -
u ar su s u on , 369 Re st it u t io n o f co n u ga l r ight s, 88 j .
( 7 n Re st r ic t iv e c o v e n a n t s , 1 7 0 ( n
Q l i ffi i i t t m t i
. .
u e re a no c os es a en 3 68 Re te n t io n , r ight o f, 1 9 7 , 3 1 9 , 45 1
Q i k p i t 1 94
.
, .
u c u r su Re to rsio n , 3 3 4
Q i d p q 22 6
.
, .
u ro uo, R e t r ac tu s , 3 00
Q it t t
. .
u re n 157 e n ur e , . R e v o c a t io n o f gift s , 2 90 .
o f le gac ie s, 3 7 1 .
R a ilw a y t ic ke t s , & c .
, ac c e pt an ce R e w a r d , o ffe r o f, 2 1 5 ( n .
o f, 216 . R ho de sia , S o u t he rn , R o m an
Ra in w a t e r , di v e r sio n o f, 1 5 4
-
. D u t c h L a w in , 1 3 .
R a v ishe r a n d r a vi she d , m ar r ia ge
b e t w ee n , 5 4 . R ight s o f a c t io n , pre sc ri pt io n
R e aso n a ble c a use , 43 7 , 43 9 . 2 81 , 3 43 .
Re c e pt io n o f t he R o m a n L aw , 4 o f w a y , 1 68
q
. .
un e u al in t he v ar io u s pr o R ij pad , 1 6 8
-
.
v in ce s , 5 . R iv e r b e ds , 1 3 9 , 1 40
-
.
Re c ht v an be w o n in g, 1 85 . R iv e r s , n a v iga b le , 1 30 .
Rechtsge le er de Observa tie n , 1 8 .

pr iv a te , 1 2 9 .
Re c re de n t ie , 1 6 3 .
pu b li c , 1 2 9 .
Re de lijk o o rz aak, 2 2 6, 43 7 .
[see St re a m s ]
47 2 INDEX
R ix a , 3 3 3 . Se r v i t u de s , 1 67 .
R o m an L a w , in l t r a t io n fi o f, 3 (n .
pe rso n a l , 1 80 .
r e c e pt io n o f, 3 , 4, 5 , 6 . c a nn o t b e c e ded , 2 5 0 ( n .
R o m a n D u tc h L a w , de v e lo pm e n t
-
pu b li c , 1 7 7 .
o f, 3 . re a l a n d pe r so n a l dis t in gu i she d ,
e x t e ns io n o f, in So u t h Afr i c a , 1 2 . 1 67 .
fu t u re o f, 2 4 r e a l o r pr ae di a l , 1 6 7
q
. .
in B r it ish G u i a n a , 1 1 . ac u is it io n o f, 1 7 2 .
in Ca pe Co lo n y , 9 . e x t in gu i shm e n t o f, 1 7 8 .
in Ce y lo n , 1 0 . in te rr u pt io n o f, 1 7 5 .
in Na t a l , 1 2 . r u l e s as t o , 1 7 9 .
in t he D u tc h Co lo n i e s, 7 . ru s t ic , 1 68 .
m e anin g o f, 5 . u r b an , 1 7 0 .
o r igin o f, 3 , 4 . Se r v it us n e lum in ib u s o ffi c ia t u r ,
o r igin o f t he t e r m , 2 . 171 .
pre se n t s ta te o f, 2 4 Se r v it u s se r v it u t is e sse n o n po te st ,
—2 1
.
so u r c e s o f, 1 4 . 1 79 .
su pe rse de d in Ho lla n d , 7 . Se t o ff, 2 7 5

-
.
R y lan ds v F le t che r , rul e in , 3 3 8

. Se t tle m e n t s , see Ma r r ia ge Se t t le
(n .
Se x , 3 1 .
S a le , 2 9 3 . S i sin e li be r is de ce sse r it , 3 80 .
b y a u c t io n , 2 40 2 9 4 ( n l ) , 433 , . . S il v a c ae du a , 1 83 ( n 30 7 ( n . .
fi
b y du cia r y o r t r u ste e , 43 5 . S o c a ge t e n u r e u n kn o w n in H o l
in a fr e e m a r ke t 43 3 , . l an d , 1 5 7 .
in in so lv e n c y , 43 4 . So do m y , a gr ou n d o f di v o r ce , 87 .
j u di c i a l 20 5 , 20 8, 43 4
, . S o lu t io , 2 5 3 .
o f r e s a lie n a , 296 . S o lu t io nis c a u sa ad je c t u s , 2 5 4

o f re s e xt r a c o m m e r c iu m , 2 41 (n .
(n . S o u t h Afr i ca , in te st a te su cc e ss io n
o f re s li t igio sa , 2 41 ( n . in , 40 9 , 41 0 .
o n c re di t , 2 9 4, 43 4 . R o m an D u t c h L a w in , 9 , 24
- .
w a r r a n t ie s o n , 29 6 , 2 9 7 . t he U
n i o n o f, 1 3 .
S alv a ge , 1 3 7 . w o r ks o n l a w o f, 22 .
S a n d , r igh t o f t a kin g, 1 70 . S o u t h Afr ic an R e pu b lic , s e e Tr a n s

S an d dr ift , 1 40
-
. v aa l .
J
S a n de , o a n n e s a, 20 . S o u t he r n R h o de sia , 2 .
S a u v e ga r de , Ma n da m e n t v an , 1 6 3 . in t e st a te su c ce ssio n in , 40 7 ( n l ) . .
S ch a de e n in t e re sse , 3 22 . R o m an D u t ch L a w in 1 3-
, .
S c he pe n do m s L aw , su c c e ss io n S o u t h We st A fr ic a , Pro te c to r a te
-
u n de r t he n e w , 40 0 . o f, 1 4 .
su c c e ssio n u n de r t he o ld , 39 8 . Spa ni s h r u l e in Ho ll an d 6 , .
S c he pe n do m sr e c ht , 39 7 . Spa t iu m de li b e r a n di , 3 5 1 , 3 5 2 .
S c ho re r , Wille m , his n o te s to S pe c ia l c o n t r ac t s , 2 87 .
G ro t iu s , 1 5 , 1 8 . fi
Spe c i c pe r fo r m a n ce , 2 68 448 , .
Se a sho r e , lim i t s o f, 1 2 9 . o f c o n t r ac t t o m a r r y , 5 2 .
u se o f, 1 2 9 . S po li e , Man da m e n t v an , 1 6 4 .
Se c o n d m a rri a ge s , 9 8 . S po nsa li a , 5 1 .
S e du c t io n , a c t io n fo r , Spon so rs , co u l d n o t t ake u n de r
Se lf de fe n c e , 3 34, 3 41 ( n . w ill s o f m in ors , 3 6 4 .
Se n a t u s Co n su l tu m Mac e d o n ia Spo u se s , a n te n u pt ia l li a b ilit ie s o f,

num , 3 1 4 (n .
V e lle ia n u m , 3 1 5 .
gift s be t w e e n , 9 6 , 2 88 .
S en ten ti e n e n gew ezen Z a ke n va n S t e ds kin de re n , 1 0 5 ( n

-
.
de n Ho ogen e n P r o vi n cia le n S ta t e s G e n e r a l , Th e , 8
-
.
R a a d, 1 9 . St a te s o f Ho ll an d , 8 .
S e pa r a t io n a m e n sa e t t ho r o , 9 1 . S t a t u te L a w , o f Ca pe Co lo n y , 1 0 .
b y agr e e m e n t , 9 3 . o f Ho lla n d , ho w m u c h in fo r c e ,
o f go o d s, 7 1 . 8, 2 7 .
47 4 IND EX
U n i te d Ne the r lan ds , Re pu b lic o f, n on e o n gift , 290 .
2 (n 5 (n
. 7 . . Wa r r a n ty o f a u t ho r it y , 3 1 1 ( n 7 .
U ni v e r sit ie s , infl u e n c e o f, 3 . Wa ste , u su fr u ct u a r y lia b le fo r ,

U n pa id v e n do r , r ight o f, t o r e c la im 1 83 .
pr o pe r t y , 2 9 4, 434 . Wa te r , c o n t a mi n a t io n o f, 1 5 4 .
U n so u n dn e ss o f m in d , 1 1 9 . Wa t e r g a n g, 1 7 0 .
U se , s e e sus U . ha lin g , 1 69
-
.
U se a n d o c cu pa t io n , 30 2 ( n . le idin g, 1 69
-
su fru c t , 1 81 —
.
U 5 . lo o p , 1 75 ( n
-
.
life in te re s t c re a t e d b y , 3 85 . lo z in g, 1 6 9
-
.
w i t h po w e r o f a l ie n a t io n , 3 7 9 r i ht s , 1 5 4, 1 7 0
-
g .
(n . 3 85 ( n Wa y , r ight s o f, 1 68 .
U su fru c t u a r y d u t i e s o f, 1 82 . Wa y s , pu blic , 1 69 ( n l ) , 1 7 7 . .
r ight s a n d po w e r s o f, 1 81 . We g, 1 6 8 .
U su r pa t io , 1 48 . We st In di a Co m pa n y , D u t ch, 7 -
.
U su s , 1 80 , 1 85 . We st I n di e s, L a w o f, 8 ( n 11 .
U t r e c ht , Pr o v in c e o f, 5 ( n Wido w , le ga l po sit ion o f m in o r , 45

q
.
Wife , a c u ir e s r an k, fo r u m , an d
V a c an t po sse ssio n , 2 9 6 . do m i c ile o f hu sb a n d , 64 .
V e e r r e cht , 1 30 ( n
-
. a c t io n b y , a ga in st hu s b a n d fo r
V e in st e r re c ht , 1 7 1 ( n
-
. de li c t , 3 40 .
V e ld die ns t b ae r he de n , 1 6 8
-
. b e co m e s a m in o r o n m a rr ia ge ,
V e n i a ae t a t is , gran t o f, 44, 1 1 7 65 .
(n 363 ( n
. . fi
b e n e t e d b y c o n t r a c t s o f hu s
pre ce de n t s o f 41 6 , 41 7 , . b an d , 6 8, 2 45 .
V e n ia a ge n di , 3 6 . c o n t r ac t s o f, 65 , 42 7 .
V e r kie z in g v a n lan dr e c ht , 40 7 fo r ho u se ho ld e xpe n ses , 6 6 ,

(n . 429 .
V e r t igt in g , 9 8 . w it h hu sb an d, 9 6 ( n .
V e st in g a n d div e st in g o f r ight s gift s b e t w e e n hu sb an d a n d , 9 6 ,

u n de r a w ill , 3 81 ( n . 2 88 .
V e t u s t as , 1 7 6 . hu s b a n d a dm i n iste rs pr o pe rt y
V i a , 1 68, 1 69 ( n . o f, 6 7 .
V ie r v ie re n de e le n , 1 0 2 , 3 1 1 , 39 9
-
. hu sb an d co n t r a ct s in n a m e o f,
Ville in t e n u r e in Ho lla n d , 1 5 8 .
Vin di can di , 1 5 5 , 1 7 0 , 2 9 4, 43 3 . hu sb a n d m ay m or t ga ge pr o
V inn i u s , Ar n o ldu s , 1 6 .
pe r t y o f, 6 7 , 1 88 .
o n a ll u v i o n , 1 3 9 . hu sb an d s a c t io n fo r in u r ia t o ,
’
j
j
Vis m a o r , 1 7 5 , 25 5 , 3 05 , 3 1 9 , 3 41 33 5 .
(n . j
fo r in u r y t o , 3 2 9 , 330 .
Vo e t , Jo han n e s , 7, 1 7 .
’
li a bili t y o f, fo r hu sb an d s c o n
o n a n t e n u pt ia l c o n t r a c t s , 75 . t r ac t s , 6 8, 81 ( n 2 45 . .
’
on m e a su r e of da m a ge s, 2 65 . n o t lia b le fo r hu sb an d s de lic t s ,
on
‘
pr o ts , fi ’
78 . 79 .
’
V o e t pa d, 1 6 8 po stpo n e d t o hu sb a n d s c re di
-
.
V o e t st o o t s , 2 9 7 . to r s , 82 .
V o lu n t ar y c o rpo r a t io n s , 1 22 (n . r e pu dia t io n o f t he c o m m u ni t y
V o o r ke ur , 2 1 5 ( n . by , 72 .
j
V r i ge z ic ht , 1 7 1 . r ight o f pre fe re n ce a n d le ga
j
V r i li cht , 1 7 1 . hypo t he c o f, 83 , 1 9 7 .
V r ije h o u t , 1 70 ( n . Wild a n im a ls, 1 3 5 .
V r ije m ar t , 29 7 ( n 433 . . Wills , c lo se d , 3 5 8 .
V r ije v ee w e i de , 1 70 ( n
- . ho w m ade in Ho llan d , 3 5 6 .
j
o in t , s e e m u t u a l .
Wa ge r s 2 41 , . m ili t a r y , 3 6 0 .
Wa r d s ee G u ar di an s
, . m u t u a l , 86 , 3 6 1 ( n 392 . .
t ac i t hyp o t he c o f, 1 1 7 , 1 9 7 . n o t ar ial , 3 5 7 , 3 6 2 .
W a rr an t y a gain s t de fe c t s , 2 9 7 . n u n cu pa t iv e , 3 5 6 , 3 6 1 .
a ga in s t e vic t ion , 2 9 6 . o pe n , 3 5 8 .
INDEX 47 5
Wills ( con ti n u ed) Wri t in g e ffe c t of a gr e e m e n t to
—
,
pre ce de n t s o f, 41 9 2 1 . re du c e c o n t r a c t to , 2 1 6 .
priv il e ge d , 3 5 9 , 3 60 , 3 6 2 in m o de r n la w so m e c o n t r a c t s
q
.
re st r i c t i o n s o n m a ki n g, 3 68 . r e u i r e t o b e in , 2 2 7 ( n .
re v o c a t io n o f, 3 7 1 . 3 1 2 (n . 317 .
so le m n , 3 5 9 . Wr o n gs , s ee D e lic t s .
st a tu to r y o r u n de r ha n d , 3 5 8, Wr o n gs , a ga in st pr o pe rt y , 3 2 8 .
3 62 . a ga ins t re pu t a t io n , 3 30 .
w a y o f n e ce ssi t y , 1 6 8, 1 7 7 . a ga in s t t he do m e st i c re la t io ns ,
w ha t m a y b e le ft b y , 3 6 3 . 3 36 .
w h o m a y m a ke , 3 63 . a ga in st t h e pe rso n , 3 2 6 .
w ho m a y t a ke u n de r , 3 6 4 . b re a c h o f a sta t u to r y o r c o m
w h o m a y w itn e ss , 3 5 7 , 3 60 m o n la w du t y , 3 3 6 .
(n . 3 67 . m isc e ll an e o u s , 3 3 7 .
Wo e st b allin ge n , 3 64 ( n
-
3 66 .
(n . Ze e la n d , P r o v in c e o f, 5 ( n .
Wo m e n su re t ie s , 3 15 . Zul u l a n d , R o m a n D u t ch L a w in ,
-
Wre cka ge 1 3 6 , . 12 .
PRI NT E D IN
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An Introduction To Roman Dutch Law

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A N I NT R O D U C T I O N

Vice Preside nt de l A cadémi e I nte rna tio na le de D

( A DAPTE D F ROM THI RD E DI TI ON)

THE ﬁr st e dition of t h is b oo k p u bli she d in 1 9 1 5 w a s

as i t t h e n e x iste d i n So u t h Afr i c a in Ce ylon a n d i n B r i ti sh , ,

qu e n t ly in t he se co nd e diti on p u blishe d in 1 9 2 6 B r i tish

Ce ylo n r e m a in e d t he for m e r b e in g wit ho u t qu e stio n t he

p r e dom in a n t p art n e r In the i n te r v a l of t hir t y ye ar s whi ch

P a r lia m e n t a n d de ci sio ns of t he Appe ll a te D i visio n of t he

h alf ce n t u r y o r le ss re co u rse t o t he old au t hor it ie s wh ich

st i ll fo rm t he b asis of t h is book wi ll se ldo m b e m a d e ,

Afr i ca n o t p er sa ltu m a s in B ri t ish G u ia n a b u t by a

gr ad u a l pr o ce ss of disin te gr a t ion a n d re st a te m e n t This -

Me a n whil e in t he Un ion of S ou t h Afr i c a ifn o t e l se whe r e

in e qu a l d e gree m a n y in st itu t i o n s of t he old la w e x hi b it

a st u bbo r n pe r siste n cy The la w of m arr i a g e p ar t i cu l ar ly

see m e d t ill l a te ly t oo ﬁr m ly e st a blis h e d in pop u l ar se n t i

m u st b e u n de r st ood t o b e lim i te d t o t he Uni o n of S ou t h

Ce ylo n in de cl ar in g ( Marr ie d P e rso ns Pr op e r t y A ct 1 9 2 8)

t he m a r it a l powe r o r a n y li a bili t ie s o r pr ivile g e s r e sul t

Fur t he r in i m it at ion of t he law of N ata l t he A ct pr ovides

t h a t spo use s m arr i e d in c o mm u n i t y pr io r t o t he t akin g

ef fe ct of t he A c t m ay t a ke a dva n t a ge of it s p r ovisi ons by

in t he Un ion t h a t a Pri va te Me m b e r s B ill p r opo sin g

t he 1 945 Se s sio n of P a r li a m e n t ( 6 2 p 3 33) .

le ast in t he Unio n t o m a ke a se n t im e n t a l a pp e a l t he r e are

o the r in stit u t io ns of t he old la w whi ch h a ve n o thi ng t o

in e ffe ct u a l u n t il co nﬁr m e d by de at h a n d t he Appe ll a te

Division ha s r e ce n tly de cide d t h a t it is in com pe te n t to a

ho a ry ar ch a ism s The pr o ce ss of t yin g u p p r ope rt y t hr o u gh

su c ce ssive ge n e r a t i o n s by wh a t is c a ll e d ﬁde i co m missa r

p r ohi b ite d in Fr a n ce s in ce 1 7 9 2 a n d t he law is t he sam e

Afri ca a te st a to r if he goe s t he ri ght w a y a bo u t it m a y

su c h a tyr ann y of t he de a d h a n d ha s an y r e a son fo r e xistin g

The So u t h Afri can la w of in te st a te su cce ssion is of a n

Me ij e r s of Le yde n i s c orr e ct of a pr e hist or ic Li gu r i an or

Ce n tr a l a n d We ste r n E u r ope This syste m a ssu m e s t h a t

( p 40 8) has b ee n m or e in dul ge n t to a su r vivin g fa t he r or

m o t he r t he old la w is st ill e ffe c tu a l t o e x clu de a sur vivin g

t he e x a m ple of N a ta l a n d So u t h e r n Rhode sia has in tr o ,

du ce d a su cce ssi o n u nde mir et u xor u n kn own to t he co m

whi ch is ou t of h a r m o n y wit h t he sp ir it of t he age .

su r p r ise s Pe r h a p s t he gre a te st of t hese is it s pe rsiste n ce

u n d e r t he B r i t ish Cr own for m o re t h a n a ce n t ur y a fte r i t

ce ase d to fu n ct io n in t he l a n d of it s o r igi n a n d fo r a sho r t e r

pe r i od aft e r it s di sa pp e ar an ce fr om t he Colo ni e s st ill su b

e x t e n d e d t o t he Ma n d a t e d T e rri t o r y of S o u t h West Afr i ca -

in a b r og a t i on of t he m u ch m ore h ighly d e ve lope d syste m

E n glish L a w of Re a l Pr ope r t y has c o m e t o b e stu di e d by,

c an did at e s fo r t he E n gli sh B ar dr awn fr o m r e m o te p ar t s ,

of the wor ld who h a ve n o i n te n t ion of pr a ctisin g la w i n

hodi er n u m wh i ch in o n e for m o r a n o t he r co nst it u t e d for

E u r op e a n d has b e e n a u se fu l p e r h a p s n e ce ssa r y b ri dge

b e t wee n t he Middl e Age s a n d m ode rn t im e s .

o n I n her i ta nce a b i n tes ta to i n Ceylon t he o t h e r a s hort n o t e ,

Te sta m e n t ar y Su cce ssion h a ve b ee n m or e fu lly st a te d t h a n

n u m e r ou s a s e ve r Afte r a ll t he y a ffor d a n au t hor a m e an s

Be side s t h is book I h a ve b e e n t old ha s b e e n fo u n d u se fu l

The a u t hor of t hi s book c a n n ot b e su fﬁcie n t ly gr a te ful

d a ily disp u ta ti o for i D ista n ce m a y le n d de t a ch m e n t t o

t he vie w b u t it te n ds t o blu r t he de t a ils a n d e ve n t he

kin dl y co m pile d t he li st of c ase s an d give n m u ch v a lu a ble

Pre vi ou s e di tion s of t his book h a ve bee n d e di ca te d To ‘