Module 1 - Plant Diversity PDF

Bansal Classes
BIOLOGY
BANSAL CLASSES
MODULE – 01
For – NEET/AIIMS
Contents Module - 1 (Plant Diversity)
Chapter Name Page No.
Chap. 1
The Living World 1 – 25
Theory 1 – 13
Exercise – 1 14 – 16
Exercise – 4 24
Quick Review Table 25
Chap. 2
Biological Kingdoms
I. Monera – Protista 26 – 70
Theory 26 – 51
Exercise – 3 60 – 66 Carl Linnaeus (1707 – 1778)
Exercise – 4 67 – 69 (Carl von Linné)
II. Fungi – Lichen – Virus 71 – 104

Theory 71 – 90
Exercise – 3 99 – 102
Exercise – 4 103
III. Algae – Bryophyta 105 – 130

Theory 105 – 115
Exercise – 1 116 – 119
Exercise – 2 120 – 123
Exercise – 3 124 – 127
Exercise – 4 128 – 129
M O P Iyengar
(1886–1966)
IV.Pteridophyta, Gymnosperm , Angiosperm 131 – 156
Theory 131 – 144
Exercise – 1 145 – 146
Exercise – 2 147 – 150
Exercise – 3 151 – 154
Exercise – 4 155
BANSAL Materials Provided By - Material Point Available on Learnaf.com
THE LIVING WORLD
INTRODUCITON
Life is a precious gift of nature. Life can be explain by its way of working. This universe has living and non
living intities. Viruses are connecting link between living and non living. The nature around us is full stuff of living
and non living objects. Now it is very essential to know the difference between living and non living. Living
organisms are self replicating, evolving and self regulating system, capable to respond the external stimuli.
To see the digram an idea about living being develops in our mind.
Of course the objects by itself exhibiting birth, death, life span,
consciousness, growth, metabolism are known as living being.
Mountain Human
CHARACTERISTIC OF LIVING BEING
All living being share certain characters which are listed below :
1. Growth 2. Reproduction 3. Metabolism 4. Consciousness
5. Respiration 6. Cellular organisation
1. Growth : Numerical and structural inhansment in the object is termed as growth. It can be explain on
the basis of catabolism and anabolism.
1. Anabolism > Catabolism = Growth
2. Catabolism > Anabolism = Degrowth
All though growth also notice in non living objects, but the growth of non living is extrinsic (by accumulation of
materials on the surface)
Conclusion :
1. Growth is not a defining property of living being because a dead organism does not grow.
2. Growth of non living is extrinsic and of living being is intrinsic.
3. Growth of plant is indefinte and of animal is definite.
2. Reproudction : The ability to produce new individuals called reproduction. New individuals are
similar to their parent. Reproduction may be of asexual or sexual type. In unicellular organism (Procaryotes and
Eucaryotes) reproduction and growth are same phenomenon. There are many living organisms where reproduction
is all together absent. e.g. mule, bee worker.
Conclusion :
1. Reproduction is not defining property of living being.
2. No non living object is capable of reproduction.
3. We are not clear about growth and reproduction
Bread Piece (Starch)
phenomenon in unicellular organisms.
Ptyline enzyme
3. Metabolism : ···· ·
··· ··
·····
··· Glucose
Metabolism is the combination of anabolism and catabolism.

There are thousands of metabolic reactions occuring in living
being. Metabolic reactions can be demonstrated in vitro (in cell
free system).
THE LIVING WORLD [1]

Conclusion :
1. An isolated metabolic reaction out side the body is neither living nor non living.
2. Metabolic reactions in in-vitro are non living.
3. Metabolic reactions in in-vivo (in side the cell) are living hence cellular organisation is defining property
of life from.
4. Consciousness : We may confuse about consciousness with awareness and sensitivness. All organism from
prokaryotes to eucaryotes sense their surroundings and respond. A man lying in coma on the life support system.
The heart and lungs replaces by machines. Such person have least chance to come back normal life. This patient
is living or non-living. Of course this patient is living.
Conclusion :
1. Consciousness is the defining property of living organisms.
2. Requisite amount of consciousness require to be the living being .
3. Only human have self consciousness.
DIVERSITY OF LIVING WORLD

Each different kind of Plant, animal and micro organism around us represent a species. The number of species
approximately 1.7-1.8 million which have been scientifically explained. The number and types of organisms present
on earth refer as biodiversity
1.7 million (Approximately)
1.2 million Animals 0.5 million Plants
Other animal groups Mosses Ferns and other

Crustaceans
Molluscs
Fungi Angiosperms
Insects
Algae Lichens
About 15,000 new organisms are discovered every year. It is quit difficuilt to know the character of every new
living organism. A clear understanding of this huge varitey of organism can be studided by dividing them in to small
groups or sub groups. These group comprises a category. This method of placing organisms into groups (category)
on the basis of similarities and dissimilarities called classification. The science of study of classificaiton is known
as Taxonomy.
TAXONOMY
This word was proposed by A.P.DeCandolle in his book ‘’Theories elementaire de la botaniqe’’ (Theory of
elementary botany).
Systematics
Branch related with taxonomy. It includes description of morphological characters of plants or living
organisms. e.g., Morphological characters of Root, Stem, Leaves, Flowers etc. This description is used
to know inter-relationship between living organisms.

Sr.No. Taxonomy Systamatics
1 Taxonomy includes following points Systematics deals the study of diversity of
(i) Characterisation living being. It includes
(ii) Identification (i) Characterisation (ii) Identification
(iii) Nomencleature (iii) Nomencleature (iv) Classificatio
(iv) Classification (v) Affinity
2 Unit of taxonomy is species Unit of systamatics is population
3 This term given by A.P.De Candolle This term is given by Linnaeus
4 ,  and  Taxonomy given by Turril New systmatics given by Julian Huxley (1940)
NEW SYSTEMATICS OR NEOSYSTEMATICS OR BIOSYSTEMATICS

Neo-systematics : Name given by Julian Huxley (1940) It includes description of all the characters
(external & internal) e.g Anatomical characters, Histological Characters, Embryological characters,
Cytological characters.
Note : New systematics is mainly based on evolutionary as well as genetic relationship as compared
to morphological characters.
TYPES OF TAXONOMY
Alpha taxonomy or classical taxonomy : It is based on external morphology, origin and evolution of
plants.
Beta taxonomy or Explorative taxonomy : Besides external morphology it also includes internal
characters like embryological, cytological, anatomical characters etc.
Omega taxonomy or Encyclopaedic taxonomy : Omega taxonomy have widest scope. It is based
on all the informations or data available about plants.
Chemotaxonomy : The uses of chemical characters of plants in classification or in solving taxonomic
problems is called chemotaxonomy or chemical taxonomy. It is based on the chemical constituents of
plants.
The basic chemical compounds used in chemotaxonomy are alkaloids, carotenoides, tannins,
polysaccharide, nucleic acids, fatty acids, amino acids, aromatic compounds etc.
Cytotaxonomy : The use of cytological characters of plants in classification is called cytotaxonomy.
Characters used in cytotaxonomy are : Chromosome number, Chromosome morphology chromosome
size, total length of chromatin, arms ratio, primary and secondary constriction. Chromosome behaviour
at meiosis.
Karyotaxonomy : Based on characters of nucleus and chromosomes. Pattern of chromosomal bands
(dark bands and light bands) is most specific character.
SIGNIFICANCE OF TAXONOMY
1. Most important significant is identification of living organism.
2. With the help of taxonomy diversity of living being can be studied easily.
TAXONOMIC CATEGORIES
There are 7 main taxonomic categories. They are obligate categories i.e. they are strictly used at the time
of any plant classification. There are some extra categories, like tribe, sub order etc. They are not
regularly used. They are used only when they are needed.

The classification of any plant or animal is written in Botany Zoology
descending order of categories. This is called Biggest Kingdom
group
Taxonomical Hierarchy. Taxon is plant groups or Division or Phylum
animal groups included in categories are called Taxon. Class
Adolf Mayer - First proposed the term “Taxon” for Order or Cohort
animals. H.J. Lan - First propsed the term “Taxon” Family
for plants. Genus
Smallest Species
group
Suffix for taxa (Taxon) e.g., Classification of ‘’Rose’’

Division – phyta Kingdom – Plantae
Sub div – phytina Division – Spermatophyta
Class – opsida, phyceae, ae Class – Dicotyledonae
Order – ales Order – Rosales
Sub-order – ineae Family – Rosaceae
Family – aceae Tribe – Roseae
Sub Family – oideae Genus – Rosa
Tribe – eae Species – indica
Sub tribe – inae
There is no suffix for Genus, Species and Kingdom
NOMENCLATURE
Polynomial system :
According to this system name of any plant consists of many words.
For e.g., Caryophyllum  Caryophyllum saxatilis folis gramineus umbellatis corymbis
Trinomial system :
Proposed by Huxley and Strickland. According to this system name of any plant or species is composed
of three names -
Generic name, Specific name, Subspecific name (Name of variety)
When members of any species have large variations then trinomial system is used. On the basis of
dissimilarities this species is classified into sub species.
e.g., Brassica oleracea var. botrytis (Cauliflower)
Brassica oleracea var. capitata (Cabbage)
Brassica oleracea var. caulorapa (Knol-Khol)
Binomial system :
Binomial system was first proposed by Gaspard Bauhin in his book - “Pinax Theatre Botanica”.
Linnaeus is the founder of binomial system. Linnaeus proposed scientific name of plants in his book
“Species Plantarum”. It was published on 1 May, 1753. So any name proposed (for plants) before this
date is not accepted today. Linnaeus proposed scientific name of animals in his book “Systema Naturae”
(10th edition) was published on 1 August, 1758. So initiation of binomial system for animals is believed
to be started on 1 August, 1758.

RULES OF NOMENCLATURE
Principle of priority : The nomenclature is done by principle of priority. If two names are proposed for
any plant after the 1753, the valid name is the name proposed earlier, just after 1 May, 1753 on priority
basis.
International Code of Botanical Nomenclature (ICBN) : Collection of rules regarding scientific
nomenclature of plants is known as ICBN. ICBN was accepted in 1961.
12th International congress, Leningrad (Russia), revised ICBN in 1975. After revision it was republised
in 1978. So ICBN was published two times. 1961, 1978.
ICNB = International Code of Nomenclature for Bacteria
ICVN = International Code of Viral Nomenclature
ICNCP = International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants
Main rules of ICBN :

(i) According to binonial system name of any species consists of two epithet-
Generic epithet - Name of genus
Specific epithet - Trival name
e.g., 1. Solanum - tuberosum (Potato) e.g., 2. Mangifera - indica (Mango)
      
Generic name Specific epithet Generic name Specific epithet
(ii) First letter of generic name must be in capital letter and first letter of specific epithet must be in
small letter. e.g., Mangifera indica.
(iii) If specific epithet is based on the name of some person, its first letter should be capital letter. e.g.,
Chaetomium Subramaniella.
(iv) Length of generic name or specific epithet should not be less than 3 letters and not more than 12
letters. e.g., Mangifera indica
Exception : Riccia pathankotensis
(v) In plant nomenclature (ICBN) tautonyms are not valid i.e. generic name and specific epithet should
not be same in plants. e.g., Mangifera mangifera
But tautonyms are valid in animal nomenclature (ICZN-International Code of Zoological
Nomenclature) e.g., Naja naja (Indian cobra), Rattus rattus (Rat)
(vi) When scientific name written with free hand or typed, then generic name and specific epithet should
be separately underlined. But during printing name should be italized.
(vii) Name of scientist (who proposed nomenclature) should be written in short after the specific epithet.
e.g., Mangifera indica Lin.
(viii) Name of scientist should be neither underlined nor written in italics, but written in roman letters
(simple alphabets)
(ix) If any scientist has proposed wrong name then his name should be written in bracket and the name
of the scientist who corrected the name should be written after the bracket. e.g., Tsuga canadensis
(Lin.) Salisbury
Note : Linnaeus named this plant as Pinus canadensis
(x) Scientific names should be derived from latin or Greek language because they are dead languages.

TYPE SPECIMEN (HERBARIUM SHEET)
Type specimen (Herbarium Sheet) of newly discovered plant should be place in herbarium
(Dry garden). Standered size of herbarium sheet is 11.5 × 16.5 inches.
Holotype - Herbarium sheet on which the first description of plant is based.
Isotype - Duplicate of holotype - In presence of holotype a second herbarium sheet prepared from the
original plant is called isotype.
Paratype - Additional herbarium sheet used in the first description of plant is called paratype. It is
prepared from some other plant of same species having some variations.
Lectotype - In case of holotype is lost, second herbarium sheet prepared from the original plant is called
lectotype.
Neotype - In case of holotype and original plant is lost, then herbarium sheet prepared from some other
plant of same species is called neotype.
Syntype - In case of holotype and original plant is lost then many herbarium sheet prepared from many
plants of same species is called syntype.
Note : Nomenclature is invalid in absence of Herbarium sheet.
SIGNIFICANCE OF SCIENTIFIC NOMENCLATURE
Scientific nomenclature are standard or universal names. Scientific nomenclature are meaningful i.e.
scientific nomenclature indicate some information regarding plants. e.g., Pyrus mallus -In this name
mallus indicates that this plant contains malic acid.
HERBARIUM
The collection of dried plant specimens is known as Herbarium.
PREPARATION OF HERBARIUM
Pressing of Specimens :
The specimen should be carefully displayed on the pressing sheet.
Drying of Specimens :
For drying, the press containing specimens is placed in
the sun. The press is opened after 24 hr., the specimens
are rearranged, placed between the fresh. The wet
blotters removed should be dried usually by placing them
in the sun.
Mounting of Specimens :
After drying, the specimens are ready for mounting. They
are mounted on herbarium sheets. Herbarium sheets are
usually made up of heavy hand-made card sheets which
DEPARTMENT OF BOTANY
are very durable. Several adhesives are used for attaching ................................................
FIELD NO.....................................
specimens to the sheet. For the preservation of herbarium FAMILY ........................................

BOTNICAL NAME .......................
LOCAL NAME ..... .......................
sheet for a long period after the mounting of plant, it is PLACE ..............LOCALITY.........
NOTES ........................................
treated with CuSO4 or mercuric chloride. COLLECTOR ........... DATE ........
STORGE OF HERBARIUM SHEETS

The mounted and properly identified specimens are stored systematically in special wooden or steel
cabinets. All the pasted specimens are sprayed with fungicides like 0.1% solution of mercuric
solution, DDT, Nepthalene and carbon di-sulphide to check the growth of fungus.

BOTANICAL GARDENS
Oldest botanical garden is “Padua Botanical Garden” Italy (Established - 1545). Largest Botanical
garden in the world is Royal Botanical Garden, Kew, Surrey, England, established by William Aition,
1759. Largest Botanical Garden of Asia is Indian Botanical Garden, Sibpur, Kolkata. Estabilshed
by Robert Kyd, 1786.
Indian Botanical Garden is famous due to the presence of “Great Banyan Tree” in its campus. Indian
Botanical Garden also harbours the Botanical Survey of India (BSI) which was establised by William
Rauxbugh (1890).
BSI  Botanical Survey in India.
NBRI - National Botanical Research Institude is located in Lucknow.
FRI - Research Institute is located in Dehradun.
Lloyd Botanical Garden - Darjeeling.
CDRI - Central Durg Research Institute - Lucknow
CAZRI - Central Arid Zone Research Institute - Jodhpur
CIMAP - Central Institute of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants - Lucknow
IARI - Indian Agriculture Research Institute (Pusa Institute) - New Delhi
Birbal Sahani Institute . of Paleobotany (National Institute of paleobotany) - Lucknow
SOME SPECIAL POINTS
(i) Cladogram : Family tree (line diagram) representing evolutionary relationship. (Ancestory of evolution)
of organsims.
(ii) Dendrogram : Family tree based on numerical taxonomy.
MUSEUM
Museums are educational institute. Biological museum develops in schools and colleges. These have
collections of preserved plants and animals specimen. If herbarium prepration is not possible then we
prepare museum of any object e.g. Algae, Fungi. No living object is displayed in museums.
Important Museum
Natural History Museum, London, England
National Museum of Natural History (Delhi)
Comperative Study of Botanical Garden, Herbarium and Museum :
Use as a Living Use as a dead Use as a dead
In Botanical In Herbarium In Museum

Garden sheet

ZOOLOICAL PARKS
1. Zoo / zoological gardens (parks) are protected areas or enclosed space where live wild animals are kept,
under human care. This enables us to learn their food habits and behaviour.
2. Objecives are public exhibition to understand wild life, recreation, education, ex situ consevvation and breeding
of rare fauna.
3. Largest zoo of the world is situated in Kruger (S. Africa) .
4. National Zoological Park (Dehli) is one of the finest zoo of Asia.
KEY
A scheme for identification of plants and animals is known as a Key. Taxonomic keys are based on the
contrasting characters (Similaraties and dissimilaraties). Key help in taxonomy by acceptance of one and
rejection of other (contrasting character use always in pair - out of which acception or rejection done).
Separate taxomic keys are required for each taxonomic category like family, genus or species. These
are more useful in indentification of unknown organisms. Key help in prepration of Flora, Manual,
Monograph, Catalogue etc.
1. Flora : Flora contains the actual details of habitat and distribution of plants of a given area. e.g., Flora
of British India by J.D. Hooker.
2. Manuals : Manuals are collection of information which is useful for indentification of a specimen in an area.
3. Monograph : They provide information about a single taxon in a particular area. e.g., member of a particular
family.
SPECIES CONCEPT
Jon Ray : - Proposed the term and concept of species. Different concepts has been proposed to explain
the species concept.
BIOLOGICAL CONCEPT
1. Ernst Mayer proposed this concept
2. All the members that can interbreed and produce fertile offsprings in a natural environment are belong to same
species.
. . . . . . . .. Can interbreed
Vairous type
of species
. . . . . . . .. Can interbreed
.. .. .. .. Can interbreed
Can not interbreed
That is why .. belong to one species and , belong to Sperate species. species is group of closely related
organisms which are sharing a common gene pool. Biological species is a reproductive confind system.
Exception :
1. Tigon – Tiger × +
Lion
2. Liger – Lion × Tiger

Cross in capitative condition but progenies are fertile
+
3. Mule – Donkey × +
Horse
Cross is natural but progenies are sterile
4. Hinny – Horse × +
Donkey
5. Biological concept of species only applicable on sexually reproducing organism

STATIC CONCEPT
The static concept was proposed by Linnaeus. According to Linnaeus “species” is unchangeable. The
species of present day are same as they were in past and they will remain same in future.
DYNAMIC CONCEPT
It was proposed by Lamarck. According to this concept, Species is always changeable. Changes always
occur in the characters of species from one generation to next generation and these changes are known
as Evolution.
TYPOLOGICAL CONCEPT
It was proposed by “Aristotle” and “Plato”. According to this concept, “There is a definite type or
pattern of characters are present in the each species and all the members of species shows maximum
resemblance with this pattern”. The species in which one fixed pattern of characters is present are
called as monotypic species. e.g., Bacteria, Blue green algae if more than one type of pattern of
characters are present. These are called “Polytypic species” or “Macrospecies”. e.g., B r a s s i c a
oleracea  Cauliflower, Cabbage, Knol-Knol.
Type of Polytypic Species :
Biotype : Members of same species inhabiting similar environment and having some genetic variations are
known as biotypes. Variations found in these members are permanent. These members can not interbreed
among themselves. e.g. Cauliflower, Cabbage, Knol-Khol are three biotypes of one species
Ecotypes : Members of same species inhabiting different environment and having some genetic variations
are known as ecotypes. Variations are permanent. These members can interbreed among themselves
but due to geographical barrier they can not interbreed.
e.g., Crow (Corvus splendense) found in different regions are ecotype of one species
Corvus splendense splendense - Indian crow
Corvus splendense insolense - Myanmar crow
Corvus splendense protegatus - Srilankan crow
Ecospecies : It contains one or more ecotype which although interfertile (capable of interbreeding), but do
not produce viable offsprings due to some natural interruption (mountain, ocean etc).
Ecads or Ecophenes : Members of same species having some non genetic variation due to environment.
These variations are temporary.
In light Small leaves, Light colored
e.g. Money plant
In dark Large leaves, Dark colored
TERMS RELATED TO SPECIES

Linneon species : Those taxonomic species whose determination is based on morphology. They are called
as linneon species. They are also called morpho species or taxonomic species.
Microspecies or Joardan’s species : Those species in which variations are very less. They reproduce
asexually so they have very less variations.
Sibling species or Cryptic species : Members of species which are morphologically similar but
reproductively isolated are known as sibling species i.e. they can not interbreed among themselves.
Sibling species is one taxonomic species (because these members have similar morphology) but they are
different biological species. [Because they can not interbreed] e.g., Brassica oleracea.
Allopatric species : Those species that are found in different geographical regions and have geographical
barriors between them are known as allopatric species. They may or may not reproductively isolated.
Geographical barriors like hills, oceans, Himalyan mountains etc.
e.g., Darwin finches

Sympatric species : The species found in similar geographical regions. Genetically different and can not
interbreed. e.g., Mostly polyploid
Allochronic species : The species found in different time periods. e.g., Man and Dinosaurs
Synchronic species : Those species that are found in same era. e.g., Dinosaurs and Archaeopteryx
Palaeo species : Those species that are extinct now and are found in the form of fossils.
e.g., Dinosaurs
Neontological species : - Those species which are presently available.
TYPE OF CLASSIFICATION
ARTIFICIAL CLASSIFICATION :
In this type of classification plants are classified on the basis of one or two morphological characters/Few
morphological characters. This classification was proposed by Linnaeus
Aristotle :
Father of biology & Father of zoology
Book written - Historia animalia
Theophrastus : He is known as father of ancient plant taxonomy and father of botany. Theophrastus wrote
many books on plants. Few of them are as follows :
Historia Plantarum; Causes of plants;Enquiry into plants
Theophrastus proposed the first classification of plant kingdom. He classified plant kingdom into four
groups on the basis of growth habit -
Trees, Shrubs, Under shrubs, Herbs
He proposed the term Annual, Biennial and Perennials.
Carolus Linnaeus : - [1707 - 1778] His real name was Carl Von Linne. On the basis of work in Latin
language he changed his name to Carolus Linnaeus. He is known as Father of taxonomy, Father of
plant taxonomy and Father of animal taxonomy. Linnaeus gave the Two kingdom classification.
Linnaeus wrote many books. Some important books are : -
(1) Hortus uplandicus (First book).
(2) In “Philosophia botanica” Linnaeus gave the principles of nomenclature.
(3) In “Systema naturae” Linnaeus gave the scientific names and detailed description of
animal kingdom.
(4) In “Genera plantarum“ Linnaeus gave the detailed description of plant kingdom.
He classified the plant kingdom into 24 classes on the basis of stamens and style. The main basis of
Linnaeus classification was the “Sex organs”. Therefore this classification is also called as “Sexual
system of classification”.
(5) In “Species plantarum” he gave the scientific names of plants. He also gave the description of
6000 plant species.
NATURAL CLASSIFICATION :
Also known as horizontal system of classification or 2-D system. Plants are classified on the basis of
their complete morphology. In it the characters of whole plant are included (stem, leaf, flower, root etc.).
Natural classification is believed to be the best classification.
John Ray : He wrote the book “Historia Generalis Plantarum”. He gave the concept of species.
A.P. De Candolle : He firstly proposed the significance of vascular tissue in taxonomy. On this basis of
vascular tissue he classified plants into two groups:-
Cellular plants (Non vascular plants) - This group includes Thallophyta and Bryophyta
Vascular plants - This group includes Pteridophyta, Gymnosperm and Angiosperms.

Bentham and Hooker : Both Bentham and Hooker are related to Royal botanical garden (as curator).
They wrote the book “Genera plantarum”. In this book, he gave the biggest and natural classification
of spermatophyta i.e. plants with seed and described 202 Families.
Division — Spermatophyta (202 families)
3 Classes
Dicotyledonae Gymnospermae Monocotyledonae

(165 families) (3 families) (34 families)
3 Sub classes
Polypetalae Gamopetalae Monochlamydae

(Free petals) (United petals) (No petals) Cycadaceae Coniferaceae Gnetaceae
(84 families) (45 families) (36 families)
Merits of Bentham and Hooker classification :
The classification of Bentham and Hooker was mainly based on the floral characters. In this classification,
class is like division, series is like class, cohort is like order and order is like family.
Demerits of Bentham and Hooker :
In this classification the phylogeny of plants is not considered. Because in it, gymnosperms are placed
in between dicots and monocots. The rael sequence of evolution is as follows :
Phylogeny = Gymnosperm  Dicots  Monocots
PHYLOGENETIC CLASSIFICATION
Hutchinson, Takhtajan, Cronquist gave phylogenetic classification.
A.W. Eichler : Eichler gave the first phylogenetic classification of plant kingdom and modify the Bentham
and Hooker’s system of classification and put gymnosperm in beginning. His classification is minimum
in phylogenic nature.
Plant Kingdom
Cryptogamia Phenerogamia
Those plants in which reproductive Those plants in which reproductive
organs are not visible. organs are visible
3 divisions 2 divisions
Thallophyta Bryophyta Pteridophyta Gymnosperm Angiosperm

(Seed without flower) (Seed with Flower & Fruit)
Engler & Prantl : This classification was more phylogenetic as compared to Eichler’s classification. Book
of Engler & Prantl is “Die Naturalichen Pflanzen Familien”. Main demerits is Monocots were considered
primitive to dicots.
Ostwald Tippo (1942) : He proposed the biggest phylogenetic classification of plant kingdom. This
classification is the complete classification of plant kingdom. This is the most acceptable for books and
study. Tippo does not accept the group Pteridophyta
Haeckel : Three kingdom (Protista, Plantae & Animalia) Classification given by Haeckel. Haeckel established
the kingdom Protista. The term ‘Protista’ was given by C.Cuvier. Haeckel grouped those living organisms
in Protista which did not have tissues. Kingdom Protista includes Prokaryotes, Protozoa, Porifera, Algae
& fungi.
Ist tissue origin in animal kingdom in - Coelentrata.
Ist tissue origin in plant kingdom in - Bryophyta

Copeland : Four kingdom classification given by copeland. Dougherty & Allen gave the name “Monera”
to the Mychota of Copeland. All the prokaryotes are grouped in Monera. e.g., Bacteria, Mycoplasma,
Blue Green algae. In Protista or Prototista kingdoem copeland grouped those eukaryotes in protista,
which are visually different than normal plants and animals. e.g.,Brown algae, Red algae, Fungi,
Protozoa
Plantae or Metaphyta : Remaining all eukaryotic plants are grouped.
Animalia or Metazoa : Remaining all eukaryotic animals are grouped
Whittaker : This classification was believed to be modern. The five kingdom classification of Whittaker
was based on 5 important features which explained here.
These five features are :
(i) Cell structure (ii) Thallus organization (iii) Nutrition
(iv) Reproduction (v) Phylogeny
COMPARATIVE ACCOUNT OF IMPORTANT CHARACTERISTICS OF FIVE KINGDOM

Cell organization Means of Mode of Reproduction Members
and cell types mobility Nutrition
1 Monera Unicellular, pro- Motile by by photosynthesis asexual, binary Archae
karyotic, lakcs means of or absorption fission or bacteria,
main cell flagella. budding eubacteria
organelles BGA, my-
coplasmas
2 Protista Unicellular, non motile by photosynthes asexual and protozoans

Multicellular or motile is or absorption sexual Euglena,
eukaryotic, by means or some time reproduction slime moulds
all cell of flagella holozoic Diatom
of cilia
3 Fungi Multicellular but lack motility, by absorption asexual and Fungi(bread
or eukaryotic sexual mould, yeast
Mycota plastid absent reproduction etc.)
4 Plantae Multicellular, Lack motility Predominatly asexual, Plants (algae,
eukaryotic, (non-motile Photosynthetic vegetative and mosses, ferns
plastid and all forms) sexual conifers,
other cell motility in reproduction flowering
organelles present gametes plants)
5 Animalia Multicellular, Motile forms heterotrophic Mainly sexual Animals (worms
eukaryotic, motility by mode reproduction insects, Amphi-
plastid absent muscle fibres of nutrition mainly bians, reptiles,
and all other cell by ingestion. mammals etc.)
organelles present
Carl woese : Six kingdom / Three Domain system of classification given by Carl Woese (1990).
Archaebacteria separated from eubacteria on the basis of some major differences. As the absence of
peptidoglycan in the cell walls of the Archebacteria and the occurrence of branched chain lipids (a
monolayer instead of a phospholipid bilayer) in the membrane.
Based on the sequence of 16S ribosomal RNA genes, Woese found that the six kingdoms naturally
cluster into three main categories. he called these categories as domains. These domains are Bacteria,
Archae and Eukarya,

Organism
3 Domain
Archaea Bacteria Eukarya

Kingdom Kingdom Kingdom
Archaebacteria Monera Protista Mycota Plantae Animalia
COMPARATIVE ACCOUNT OF THREE DOMAIN OF CARL WOESE'S SYSTEM

Eukarya
Habitat Soil, water and air Soil, water and air Specialy in soil and water
(cosmopolitan). In all specially in unfavourable
kinds of habitats habitats or extreme habitats.
Cellular Unicellular, prokaryotes Unicellular prokaryotes Unicellular Mostly Multi
organisation cellular eukaryotes
Cell wall Made up of mucopeptide Cell wall do not made up Cell wall consist of
of mucopeptide instead chitin and cellulose. In
consist of complex animalia cell wall is lacking.
polysaccharides and
polypeptides.
Intron in DNA Absent Present Present

EXERCISE – 1
Q.1 Most acceptable concept of species is - Q.11 Suffix for sub species is -
(1) Static concept (1) Phytina (2) Oideae
(2) Biological concept (3) Ineae (4) None
(3) Typological concept Q.12 Individuals of same species having non-genetic
(4) Genetic concept difference due to environment are called -
Q.2 Artificial system of classification classifies (1) Biotypes (2) Ecotype
plants on the basis of - (3) Ecophenes (4) None
(1) One or two characters Q.13 Morphologically similar but reproductively
(2) Phylogenetic trends isolated species are called -
(3) Many naturally existing characters (1) Neontological species
(4) None of the above (2) Sibling species
Q.3 The term new systematics was introduced by - (3) Allopatric species
(4) Morpho-species
(1) Linnaeus (2) Bentham
(3) Hutchinson (4) Huxley Q.14 Plant nomenclature means -
Q.4 Group of organisms that closely resemble each (1) To give names to plants without any rules
other and freely interbreed in nature, constitute (2) Nomenclature of plants under the
a - international rules
(1) Species (2) Genus (3) Nomenclature of plants in local language
(3) Family (4) Taxon (4) Nomenclature of plants in english language
Q.5 ICBN was first revised in - Q.15 Taxonomy refers to -
(1) 1961 (2) 1964 (1) Plant classification
(3) 1975 (4) 1753 (2) Plant nomenclature
Q.6 The term taxon refers to - (3) Plant affinity
(1) Name of a species (2) Name of genus (4) All the above
(3) Name of family Q.16 Which of the following is a correct name -
(4) A taxonomic group of any rank (1) Solanum tuberosum(2) Solanum
Q.7 The herberium specimen on whose basis a new tuberosum
species is described for the first time is called (3) Solanum tuberosum Linn.
as - (4) All the above
(1) Syntype (2) Holotype Q.17 Systematics deals with -
(3) Paratype (4) Neotype (1) Classification
Q.8 The scientific naming of plants begain with (2) Nomenclature
publication of Linnaeus book - (3) Plant description
(1) Genera plantarum (2) Systema naturae (4) Plant exploration
(3) Species plantarum (4) Charaka sanhita Q.18 Scientific name of Mango plant is Mangifera
Q.9 Which book most impressed the opinion of indica (Linn.) Santapau in the above name
taxonomists - Santapau refers to -
(1) Enquiry into plants (2) Origin of life (1) Variety of Mango
(3) Genera plantarum (4) Origin of species (2) A taxonomist who proposed the present
Q.10 The basic unit of classification is - nomenclature in honour of linnaeus.
(3) A taxonomist who proposed first the details
(1) Genus (2) Species
of mango plant.
(3) Order (4) All of the above
(4) A taxonomist who proposed the new name.

Q.19 Type specimen selected from the original Q.30 The binomial system of nomenclature was
material in case the holotype is missing is initiallly proposed by -
called- (1) Magnus (2) Bauhin
(1) Lactotype (2) Neotype (3) Caesalpinno (4) Discorides
(3) Syntype (4) Paratype
Q.31 Biochemical resemblances are used in the
Q.20 Phylogeny refers to - identification of -
(1) Natural classification
(1) Prostistan species (2) Moneran species
(2) Evolutionary classification
(3) Fungal species (4) Higher plants
(3) Evolutionary history
Q.32 Concept of phylogeny was proposed by -
(4) Origin of algae
(1) John Ray (2) Lamarck
Q.21 Static concept of species is given by -
(3) Ernest Haeckel (4) Darwin
(1) Linnaeus (2) Bentham
(3) Koch (4) Mayr Q.33 A division is formed by combining several -
Q.22 In taxonomy the first step is - (1) Orders (2) Families
(1) Identification (2) Nomenclature (3) Classes (4) Tribes
(3) Classification (4) Affinities Q.34 An international code of botanical
Q.23 The suffix-inae singnifies the rank - nomenclature was first proposed in the year-
(1) Tribe (2) Sub-tribe (1) 1930 (2) 1830
(3) Sub-order (4) Sub-family (3) 1913 (4) 1813
Q.24 Species living in different geographical areas Q.35 For declaration of new species of higher plants
are called - what characters are used -
(1) Allochronic (2) Allopatric (1) Floral character of new species
(3) Sympatric (4) Siblings (2) Anatomical characters of new species
Q.25 A large number of unknown species of plants (3) Physiological character of new species
and animals are believed to be present in - (4) Character of endosperm
(1) Temperate forests (2) Antarctica
Q.36 The standared size of herbarium sheets is -
(3) Taiga (4) Tropical forest
(1) 11.5’’ × 16.5’’ (2) 15.5’’ × 16.5’’
Q.26 Biological concept of species proposed by - (3) 18.5’’ × 10.5’’ (4) 20.5’’ × 21.5’’
(1) Linnaeus (2) Mayr
Q.37 Which statement is true -
(3) John Ray (4) De Candolle
(1) Tautonyms do not occur in plants
Q.27 For higher plants, flowers are chiefly used as
a basis of classification, because- (2) Tautonyms do not occur in animals
(1) These show a great veriety in colour (3) Tautonyms normally occur in animals and
(2) It can be preserved easily some time occur in plants
(3) Reproductive parts are more conservative (4) Tautonyms occurs only in bacteria
than vegetative parts Q.38 Trinomial nomenclature of classification was
(4) None of these proposed by -
Q.28 Individuals of same species having genetic (1) Linneaus
variation and occur in same environment are (2) Huxley and Stricklandt
called- (3) John-Ray
(1) Biotypes (2) Ecotype (4) Theophrastus
(3) Ecophenes (4) Ecads
Q.39 Most of the botanical names are drawn from
Q.29 The smallest unit of classification is-
the following language -
(1) Family (2) Order
(1) German (2) Greek
(3) Latin (4) Spanish

Q.40 Evolutionary classification is called - Q.45 Herbarium is -
(1) Artificial system (1) A garden where medicinal plants are grown
(2) Natural system (2) Garden where herbaceous plants are
(3) Phylogenetic system grown
(4) None of the above (3) Dry garden
Q.41 Which of the following statements regarding (4) Chemical to kill plants
nomenclature is correct - Q.46 The year of publication of ‘’Species
(1) Generic name always begins with capital plantarum’’-
letter whereas specific name with small letter (1) 1853 (2) 1857
(2) Scientific name should be printed in italics (3) 1753 (4) 1786
(3) Scientific name when typed or handwritten Q.47 The biological concept of species is mainly
should be underlined based on -
(4) All the above (1) Morphological features
Q.42 The systematic arrangement of taxa is called- (2) Morphology and method of reproduction
(1) Key (2) Taxonomy (3) Method of reproduction only
(3) Geneology (4) Hierarchy (4) Reproductive isolation
Q.43 Which is the most important but generally not Q.48 A duplicate of holotype is called -
used criteria for the identification of the (1) Isotype (2) Syntype
species- (3) Neotype (4) Paratype
(1) Interbreeding (2) Morphology Q.49 Term taxon given by -
(3) Genetic material (4) None (1) Adolf Mayer (2) Linnaeus
Q.44 Number of obligatory categories in taxonomy (3) Darwin (4) Koch
are- Q.50 Which of the following is a correct scientific
(1) 7 (2) 8 name -
(3) 9 (4) 5 (1) Tamarindus (2) Indicus
(3) Indica (4)Tamarindus indicus
ANSWER KEY
EXERCISE – 1
Ques. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. 3 1 4 1 3 4 2 3 4 2 4 3 2 2 4 3 3 4 1 3
Ques. 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
Ans. 1 1 2 2 4 2 3 1 4 2 2 3 3 1 1 1 1 2 3 3
Ques. 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50
Ans. 4 4 1 1 3 3 4 1 1 4

EXERCISE – 2
Q.1 Tautonmys are valid names according to- Q.12 Angiosperms (dicotyledons) were distinguished
(1) ICBN into archichlamydae and metachlamydae by -
(2) Species plantarum (1) Candolle
(3) Genera plantarum (4) ICZN (2) Hutchinson
Q.2 Practical significance of taxonomy is - (3) Engler and Prantl
(1) Classification (4) None
(2) To understand diversity Q.13 Chief merit of Bentham and Hooker ’s
(3) To understand evolution classification is that -
(4) Identification of organisms (1) It is a system mostly based on evolutionary
Q.3 Which name is invalid- concepts
(1) Name not published in species plantarum (2) It is a natural systems of classification of
(2) Name proposed prior to 1961 all groups of plants
(3) The description of the taxa are based on
(3) Name which is in latin
actual obervation of the specimen (4) It
(4) Name for which holotype is not designatd
also considers the phylogenetic aspects
Q.4 Which system classifies a plant in more than
Q.14 Bantham and Hooker classified dicots into-
one groups -
(1) Polypetalae, gamopetalae and glumiflorae
(1) Practical classification
(2) Polypetalae, gamopetalae and monochlamydae
(2) Artificial classification
(3) Achlamydae, diclamydeae and metachlamydae
(3) Natural classification
(4) Archichlamydae, sympetalae & apetalae
(4) Phylogenetic classification
Q.15 Zoodiogama includes -
Q.5 Author of book ‘’Flora British Indica’’ -
(1) Gymnosperms and pteridophyta
(1) Father Santapau (2) J.D. Hooker
(2) Dicots, monocots, gymnosperm
(3) William Rouxburgh (4) G. Bentham
(3) Bryophyta and pteridophyta
Q.6 Eichler divided plant kingdom in - (4) Only thallophyta
(1) Two divisions (2) Four division Q.16 Four kingdom system of classification proposed
(3) Five divisions (4) Ten division by -
Q.7 A.P. De-Candole classified plants on the basis (1) Whittaker (2) Copeland
of - (3) Linnaeus (4) Oswald Tippo
(1) Vascular tissues (2) Embryo Q.17 In two kingdom system of classification
(3) Stem (4) Flower Euglena is included in -
Q.8 Embryophyta includes - (1) Animalia (2) Plantae
(1) Angiosperms only (2) Algae and fungi (3) Both the above (4) Protista
(3) Bryophyta & Pteridophyta Q.18 The system of classification proposed by
(4) All plants except thallophyta Bentham and Hooker is -
Q.9 According to Tippo. BGA is included in - (1) Artificial (2) Natural
(1) Chrysophyta (2) Pyrrophyta (3) Phylogenetic (4) Numerical
(3) Chlorophyta (4) Cyanophyta Q.19 The classification of Linnaeus was mainly
Q.10 Oswald Tippo placed slime molds in - based on -
(1) Cyanophyta (2) Pyrrophyta (1) Sepals (2) Carpels
(3) Phaeophyta (4) Myxomycophyta (3) Petals (4) Stamens
Q.11 ‘’Genera Plantarum’’ was written by - Q.20 Kingdom monera comprises the -
(1) Engler and Prantal (1) Plants of economic importance
(2) Hutchinson (2) All the plants studied in botany
(3) Bentham & Hooker (3) Prokaryotic organisms
(4) Bessey (4) Plants of Thallophyta group

Q.21 Embryophyta include - Q.30 The group ‘’Pteropsida’’ proposed by Oswald
(1) Algae (2) Fungi Tippo includes -
(3) Bryophyta (4) All of these (1) Ferns (2) Gymnosperms
Q.22 Whittaker is famous for - (3) Angiosperms (4) All the above
(1) Two kingdom classification Q.31 In Whittaker’s five kingdom classificaion,
(2) Four kingdom classification eukaryotes were assigned to-
(3) Five kingdom classification
(1) All the five kingdom
(4) Distinguishing in Bacteria & blue green
(2) Only four of the five kingdoms
Algae
(3) Only three kingdom (4) Only one kingdom
Q.23 First phylogenetic system of plant classification
was given by - Q.32 The book genera plantarum which contains the
(1) Engler and Prantl classification of seed plants was wrote by -
(2) Eichler (1) Linnaeus
(3) Ostwald Tippo (2) De jussieu
(4) Bentham & Hooker (3) Bentham and Hooker
Q.24 System of classification proposed by Linnaeus (4) Eichler
was - Q.33 ‘’Theories elementaire de la botanique’’ is the
(1) Artificial (2) Natural book of -
(3) Sexual (4) (1) and (3) both (1) Takhtajan (2) De Candolle
Q.25 ‘’Die Naturlichen Pflanzen familien’’ wrote by - (3) Eichler (4) Linnaeus
(1) Eichler Q.34 Carolus Linnaeus classified plant kingdom on
(2) Linnaeus the basis of -
(3) Engler and Prantl (1) Floral morphology
(4) Bentham and Hooker (2) Overall morphology of plants
Q.26 Engler and Prantl created metachlamydae to
(3) Type of sexual reproduction
include -
(4) Anatomical character
(1) Polypetalous dicots
Q.35 Serology can be used to know the phylogenetic
(2) Gamopetalous dicots
relationship -
(3) Gamopetalous monocots
(4) Gymnopserm (1) Plants (2) Animals
(3) Both the above (4) Dinosours
Q.27 In which of the following systems, plants are
classified in geneological order - Q.36 Which of the following book was written by
(1) Artifical (2) Natural Theophrastus -
(3) Phylogenetic (4) Nonphylogenetic (1) Enquiry of plants (2) Causes of plants
Q.28 Which book is the starting point for (3) Historia Plantarum (4) All the above
phylogenetic system - Q.37 Whittaker placed prokaryotes and akaryotes in -
(1) Origin of species
(1) Protista (2) Protozoa
(2) Die Naturlichen Pflanzen familien
(3) Plantae (4) Monera
(3) The phytogentic taxonomy of flowering
Q.38 Oswald-Tippo included how many divisions in
plants
sub kingdom thallophyta-
(4) Historia plantarum
(1) 20-divisions (2) 10-divisions
Q.29 Which of the following taxonomists first
(3) 7-divisions (4) 2-divisions
employed the charcterstics of vascular tissue
in taxonomy- Q.39 First plant classification was given by -
(1) Tippo (2) Engler and Prantl (1) Linneaus (2) John-Ray
(3) Takhtajan (4) A.P. de Candolle (3) Theophrastus (4) Darwin

Q.40 Division ‘’Tracheophyta’’ includes - Q.50 According to Eichler cryptogamia includes-
(1) Bryophyta (1) Gymnosperm and Angiosperm
(2) All vascular plants (2) Thallophyta and Gymnosperm
(3) All non-vascular plants (3) Thallophyta, Bryophyta and Pteridophyta
(4) All non-vascular and vascular plants (4) Only angiosperm
Q.41 Which group of plant have embryo but not Q.51 According to Whittaker kingdom monera
vascular tissue - includes -
(1) Cyanophyta (2) Tracheophyta (1) Unicelluler eukaryotes
(3) Bryophyta (4) Chlorophyta (2) Prokaryotes & akaryotes
Q.42 According to Benthum & Hooker total families (3) Slime molds & protozoa
of real flowering plants- (4) Multicellular & eukaryotes
(1) 202 (2) 199 Q.52 ‘’Cellular plants’’ and ‘’ Vascular plants’’ are
(3) 34 (4) 85 the group created by -
Q.43 Who gave importance of serology in taxonomy- (1) Tippo (2) Eichler
(1) Willis (2) Karl Menz (3) Takhtajan (4) De candolle
(3) Hutchinson (4) Whittaker Q.53 According to Copeland the ‘’Red algae’’
Q.44 The word Cryptogamia was coined by - belongs to-
(1) Theophrastus (1) Monera (2) Protista
(2) Linnaeus (3) Plantae (4) Animalia
(3) Benthum & Hooker Q.54 Linnaeus proposed an outline of plant
(4) John-Ray classification in -
Q.45 Siphonogama includes- (1) Genera Plantarum (2) Species Plantarum
(1) Bryophyta and thallphyta (3) Systema Naturae (4) Philosphia Botanica
(2) Pteridophyta & Bryophyta Q.55 Who classified are Embryophyta on the basis
(3) Gymnosperm & angiosperm of fertilization -
(4) Thallophyta and gymnosperm (1) Eichler (2) Tippo
Q.46 The phylogenetic relationship among organisms (3) Takhtajan (4) Engler & Prantl
can be established by the technique - Q.56 The earliest serious efforts to classify the living
(1) Autoradiography things were made by -
(2) X-ray crystallography (1) Greek philosophers (2) Latin American
(3) Serology scientist
(4) Geneology (3) British herbalists
Q.47 According to four kingdom system of (4) Indian Hakims
Copeland, the fungi belong to kingdom- Q.57 Classification proposed by Bentham and
(1) Protista (2) Mychota Hooker is mainly based on -
(3) Mycota (4) Plantae (1) Embryological characters
Q.48 According to Oswald Tippo Angiosperms are (2) Floral characters
placed under - (3) Vegetative characters
(1) Atracheata (2) Thallophyta (4) Phylogenetic characters
(3) Tracheophyta (4) Spermatophyta Q.58 The separation of living beings into five
Q.49 ‘’Systema Naturae’’ book was written by- kingdoms is based on -
(1) Angler and prantle (1) Complexity of cell structure
(2) Darwin (2) Complexilty of organism’s body
(3) Linnaeus (3) Mode of obtaining nutrition
(4) Oswald & Tippo (4) All the above

Q.59 Which of the following organisms were never Q.64 Fertilization by zoodiogamy occurs in -
included in protista- (1) Cryptogams (2) Phanerogams
(1) Bacteria (2) Red algae (3) Only bryophyta (4) Only pteridophyta
(3) Silmemolds (4) Mosses Q.65 Swedish botanist who proposed the artificial
Q.60 In which book. Linnaeus proposed the system of classification on the basis of floral
principles of nomenclature - morphology was -
(1) Species plantarum (2) Systema Naturae (1) De-Jussieu
(3) Flora lapponica (2) Bentham and Hooker
(4) Philosophia botanica (3) John Ray
Q.61 Which of the two groups includes the similar (4) Carl von linne
plants - Q.66 Kingdom of unicellular eucaryotes -
(1) Siphonogama and spermatophyta (1) Monera (2) Protista
(2) Siphonogama and zoodiogama (3) Fungi (4) Plantae
(3) Metachlamydae and monochalamydae Q.67 Who among the following proposed a
(4) Polypetalae and gamopetalae classification in which plants with one stamen
Q.62 In Tippo’s classification the group atracheata were placed under the class Monandria, with
includes - two in Diandria and with many stamens in
(1) Thallophyta polyandria-
(2) Bryophyta (1) Hutchinson
(3) All the vascular plants (2) Bentham and Hooker
(4) All the non-vascular plants (3) Cronquist
Q.63 Phylogenetic relationship of plants can be (4) Linnaeus
established by - Q.68 Polypetalae, Gamopetalae and monochalmydae
(1) Plant serum (2) Animal serum are subclasses of -
(3) Chromatography (4) Autoradiography (1) Dicotyledonae (2) Gymnospermae
(3) Monochlamydae (4) Siphanogama
ANSWER KEY
EXERCISE – 2
Ques. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. 4 4 4 1 2 3 1 4 4 4 3 3 3 2 3 2 3 2 4 3
Ques. 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
Ans. 3 3 2 4 3 2 3 1 4 4 2 3 2 1 3 4 4 2 3 2
Ques. 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
Ans. 3 1 2 2 3 3 1 3 3 3 2 4 2 3 4 1 2 4 4 4
Ques. 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68
Ans. 1 2 2 1 4 2 4 1

EXERCISE – 3 PREVIOUS YEAR’S QUESTIONS
Q.1 Two species which are morphologically almost Q.10
Which of the following is not included under in
identical but they do not interbreed.Such species situ conservation : [AIPMT 2006]
are called : [Kerala PMT 2005] (1) National park
(1) evolutionary species (2) Santuary
(2) sibling species (3) Botanical garden
(3) polytypic species (4) Biosphere reserve
(4) evolutionary trend Q.11 Select the false statement :
Q.2 A taxon is : [DPMT 2005]
[Kerala PMT 2006]
(1) a hierarchical unit of taxonomy
(1) Scientists who study and contribute to the
(2) an animal
classification of organisms are known as
(3) a plant
systematists.
(4) a virus
(2) C. Linnaeus developed the first scientific
Q.3 Class is present between :
system of naming species.
[HP PMT 2005]
(3) A five kingdom arrangement of organisms
(1) Kingdom and phylum
(2) phylum and order was introduced by R.H. Whittaker.
(3) order and family (4) Genus is a group of species which are related
(4) family and genus and have less characters in common as
Q.4 Order is placed between : compared to species.
[AICEE BVSE 2005] (5) Phycomycetes are called club fungi because
(1) Kingdom and phyla (2) Kingdom and class of club shaped basidium as end of mycelium.
(3) Class and family Q.12 Darwin is the auther of :
(4) Genus and species [CET Chandigarh 2006]
Q.5 Those species which can interbreed among (1) Genera plantarum (2) Origin of Species
themeselves but cannot do so with other species (3) Natural Selection
is known as : [DPMT 2005] (4) Theory of evolution
(1) morphological species Q.13 Who proposed the term, ‘alpha’, ‘beta’ and
(2) biological species ‘gamma’ in taxonomy? [CET Chd. 2006]
(3) ecological species (1) de Candolle (2) Turill
(4) interbreeding species (3) Huxley (4) Lamarck
Q.6 Which of the following is highest in hierarchy? Q.14 Two plants are taxonomically related if :
[Pb. PMT 2005]
[CMC Vellore 2007]
(1) Order (2) Species
(1) They store carbohydrate in the same type
(3) Class (4) Genus
of molecule.
Q.7 The word ‘hierarchy’ was given by :
[Maharashtra CET 2005] (2) Both obtain energy from hydrolysis of ATP.
(1) Carolus Linnacus (2) John Ray (3) Both have similarly lobed palmate leaves.
(3) Lamarck (4) Bersey (4) Both have pinnately veined leaves.
Q.8 Two species occupying same or overlapping area Q.15 Which of the following pairs are not related?
is called : [Orissa JEE 2005] [CMC Vellore 2007]
(1) sympatric (2) allopatric (1) Mendel – Pisum sativum
(3) parapatric (4) ring species (2) Morgan – Drosophila
Q.9 Binomial nomenclature was first mentioned in (3) Bentham & Hooker – Binomial nomenclature
the book : [Orissa JEE 2005] (4) Hugo de Vries – Oenothera lamarckiana
(1) Systema Naturae Q.16 In which of the following organisms are very
(2) Historia animalium much similar to each other : [BHU 2007]
(3) Historia plantanum (1) Order (2) Class
(4) Philosphic zoologique

Q.17 Bionomical nomenclature was given by : Q.25 Which one of the following statements correctly
[Hry. PMT 2006; BHU 2007] defines the term ‘Homonym’?
(1) Linnaeus (2) Whittaker [WB JEE 2008]
(3) Huxley (4) Darwin
(1) Identical name of two different taxon.
Q.18 ICBN stands for : [AIPMT 2007]
(2) Two or more names belonging to the same
(1) International Code of Botanical
taxon.
Nomenclature
(3) When species name repeats the generic
(2) International Congress of Biological Names
name.
(3) Indian Code of Botanical Nomenclature
(4) Indian Congress of Biological Names (4) Other name of taxon given in a language
other than the language of Zoological/
Q.19 The living organisms can be unexceptionally
distinguishied from the non-living things on the Botanical nomenclature.
basis of their ability for : [AIPMT 2007] Q.26 Linnaeus associated with : [HP PMT 2008]
(1) Interaction with the environment and (1) Historia Plantarum
progressive evolution. (2) Origin of species
(2) Reproduction (3) Systema Nature
(3) Growth and movement (4) Origin of life
(4) Responsiveness to touch Q.27 ‘Oryza sativa’ is a binomial name of rice plant.
Q.20 Genera Plantarum was written by : The ‘sativa’ stands for : [WB JEE 2008]
[CMC Vellore 2007]
(1) specific name (2) specific epithet
(1) Engler and Prantl (3) species name (4)specific nomenclature
(2) Benthum and Hooker
Q.28 External fertilization occurs in majority of :
(3) Carolus Linnaeus
[DPMT 2009]
(4) Arthur Cronquist
(1) algae (2) fungi
Q.21 The standard size of herbarium sheet is :
(3) liverworts (4) mosses
[HP PMT 2006]
(1) 29 × 41 cms (2) 50 × 10 cms Q.29 Largest number of species are traced in :
(3) 41 × 29 cms (4) variable size [Chd. CET 2009]
Q.22 New systematics and the concept of life was (1) arthropoda (2) echinodermata
given by : [Chd. CET 2008] (3) bacteria (4) fungi
(1) Clementia (2) Elton Q.30 Taxonomic hierarchy refers to :[DPMT 2009]
(3) Odum (4) Huxley (1) Stepwise arrangement of all categories for
Q.23 In which book Benthum and Hooker proposed classification of plants and animals.
their classification? [WB JEE 2008]
(2) A group of senior taxonomists who decide
(1) Genera Plantarum the nomenclature of plants and animals.
(2) Species Plantarum
(3) A list of botanists or zoologists who have
(3) Historia Plantarum
worked on taxonomy of a species or group.
(4) Historia Nature
(4) classification of a species based on fossil
Q.24 New systematics introduced by Sir Julian Huxley
record.
is also called : [Kerala PMT 2008]
Q.31 In five kingdoms of classification of R.H.
(1) Phenetics
Whittaker, how many kingdoms contain
(2) Cladistics
eukaryotes? [Orissa JEE 2005]
(3) Biosystematics
(1) four (2) one
(4)Numerical Taxonomy
(3) two (4) three
(5) Chemotaxonomy

Q.32 In five kingdom classification, unicellular Q.39 Classification that considers several character
eukaryotic organisms are included in : of ancestors is : [CET Chd. 2009]
[DY PATIL Pune, 2006] (1) phylogenetic (2) artificial
(1) virus (2) protista (3) natural (4) phylotaxy
(3) fungi (4) monera Q.40 According to Whittaker's five kingdom
Q.33 The five kingdom classification was given by : classification the unicellular, non-nucleated
[BVP Pune 2002; HP PMT 2006] organisms are placed in :
(1) Whittaker (1969) (2) Linnaeus (1758) [COMED K UGET 2009]
(3) Copeland (1966) (4) Haeckel (1866) (1) monera (2) protista
Q.34 Protozoans are kept under kingdom :
(3) plantae (4) animalia
[Manipal PMT 2007]
Q.41 The highest number of species in the world is
(1) Monera (2) Plantae
represented by : [AIPMT Pre 2012]
(3) Animalia (4) Protista
(1) Mosses (2) Algae
Q.35 Actinomycetes are being put under which of
the following? [AMU 2007] (3) Lichens (4) Fungi
(1) Kingdom Fungi (2) Kingdom Monera Q.42 Which one single organism or the pair of organisms
(3) Kingdom Pantae (4) Kingdom Protista is correctly assigned to its or their named
Q.36 In the light of recent classification of living taxonomic group ? [AIPMT Pre 2012]
organisms into three domains of life (bacteria, (1) Lichen is a composite organism formed from
archaea and eukarya), which one of the the symbiotic association of an algae and a
following statements is true about archaea? protozoan.
[AIPMT 2008] (2) Yeast used in making bread and beer is a
(1) Archaea resemble eukarya in all respects. fungus.
(2) Archaea have some novel features that (3) Nostoc and Anabaena are examples of
are absent in other prokaryotes and protista.
eukaryotes. (4) Paramecium and Plasmodium belong to the
(3) Archaea completely differ from both same kingdom as that of Penicillium
prokaryotes and eukaryotes.
Q.43 Which one of the following is common to
(4) Archaea completely differ from prokaryotes.
multicellular fungi, filamentous algae and
Q.37 A phylum common to unicellular animals and protonema of mosses ? [AIPMT Pre 2012]
plants is : [DPMT 2009]
(1) Members of kingdom Plantae
(1) monera (2) plantae
(2) Mode of Nutrition
(3) fungi (4) protista
(3) Multiplication by fragmentation
Q.38 The most widespread group of organisms of
(4) Diplontic life cycle
earth belongs to kingdom : [AMU 2009]
(1) monera (2) protista
(3) fungi (4) plantae
ANSWER KEY
EXERCISE – 3
Ques. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. 2 1 2 3 2 3 1 1 1 3 5 2 2 1 3 4 1 1 2 3
Ques. 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
Ans. 1 4 1 1 1 3 1 1 4 1 1 2 1 4 2 2 4 2 1 1
Ques. 41 42 43
Ans. 4 2 3

EXERCISE – 4 AIIMS SPECIAL
Q.1 Species belonging to narrow overlapping zone of two different ecosystems are called
(1) Allochronic species (2) Parapatric species
(3) Sympatric species (4) Allopatric species
Q.2 Family tree of organisms based on the concept of E. Haeckel is
(1) Cladogram (2) Dendrogram (3) Monogram (4) Cryptogram
Q.3 The taxon Pteroopsida represents which one of the following categories in taxonomic hierarchy?
(1) Order (2) Cohort (3) Division (4) Class
Q.4 Father of Indian Botany is associated with which one of the following botanical garden?
(1) National Botanical Garden (2) Lloyd Botanical Garden
(3) The Indian Botanical Garden (4) Royal Botanical Garden
Q.5 Specimen selected from original material to serve as new nomenclature type when holotype is missing
(1) Syntype (2) Paratype (3) Lectotype (4) lsotype
INSTRUCTIONS FOR Q. NO. 6 TO 10

In the following questions (6 to 10), a statement of assertion (A) is followed by a statement of reason (R).
(1) If both Assertion & Reason are true and the reason is the correct explanation of the assertion, then mark
(1).
(2) If both Assertion & Reason are true but the reason is not the correct explanation of the assertion, then
mark (2).
(3) If Assertion is true statement but Reason is false, then mark (3).
(4) If both Assertion and Reason are false statements, then mark (4).
Q.6 A : De Candolle introduced the term taxonomy.
R : He proposed plants classification in his book "Theorie Elementaire de la Botanique”.
Q.7 A : Eichler proposed first true phylogenetic system of classification.
R : This classification was based on genetic affinities.
Q.8 A : Species is a genetically closed system.
R : Because the reproductive isolation constitutes the most important boundary between different species.
Q.9 A : Scientific names have been standarized through ICBN.
R : First international botanical congress was held in Paris in 1967.
Q.10 A : Dried specimens are poisoned by HgCl2.
R : It prevents the specimen from the moisture.
ANSWER KEY
EXERCISE – 4
Ques. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Ans. 3 1 4 1 2 2 1 1 3 3

Bansal Quick Review Table
Instruction to fill
(A) Write down the Question Number you are unable to solve in column A below, by Pen.
(B) After discussing the Questions written in column A with faculties, striks off them in the manner so
that you can see at the time of Revision also, to solve these questions again.
(C) Write down the Question Number you feel are important or good in the column B.
COLUMN : A COLUMN : B
EXERCISE NO. Question I am unable to Good / Important

solve in first attempt questions
Exercise # 1
Exercise # 2
Exercise # 3
Exercise # 4
Other Exercise
Advantages
1. It is advised to the students that they should prepare a question bank for the revision as it is very difficult to
solve all the questions at the time of revision.
2. Using above index you can prepare and maintain the questions for your revision.

BIOLOGICAL KINGDOMS
KINGDOM MONERA
The Kingdom Monera includes all prokaryotes. Monerans are the most primitive forms of life,
originating from more ancient living stock termed progenote.C.B. Van Neil divided the living organisms
into prokaryotes and eukaryotes.
MAIN CHARACTERISTIC OF MONERANS

1. Monera term given by Allen and Daughtry.
2. Mostly monerans are hetrotrophic but some are autotrophic also e.g., BGA.
3. Except 70 S type of a ribosome and plasma membrane all membrane bounded cell-organelles are absent in
monerans.
4. DNA is circular and without histone protein. Polyamines are present in the place of histome in monerans.
5. Cyclosis absent and cell division is amitotic type.
6. Monera incude all procaryotes e.g., Archebacteria, Eubacteria, Cynobacteria, Actinomycetes, Rickettsia,
Chlamydiae, Mycoplasma.
ARCHAEBACTERIA
These are belived to have evolved immediately after the origin of life on earth, as even now these are
living under extremely adverse conditions like very high temperature (hot-water springs) and high salt
concentration (salt marshes). These are termed as oldest “Living fossils”. All archaebacteria are obligate
anaerobes
Cell wall :
It is made up of complex polysaccharides but not of peptidoglycan like that of eubacteria.
Cell membrane :
Cell membrane of archaebacteria is composed of a single layer of branched chain molecules of lipids
while the lipids present in the cell membrane of eubacteria are straight chain molecules. Due to the
branched chain structure, archaebacteria have more resistance ability as compared to eubacteria.
Archaebacteria are not effected by high temperature, high salinity, radiations and change in pH. In
archaebacteria sequence of nucleotide in 16s-rRNA is differ from other prokaryote. These posses
introns in DNA. Their ribosomal proteins are highly acidic. These prokaryotes possess histone proteins
different from that of eukaryotes.
TYPE OF ARCHAEBACTERIA
METHANOGENS
Methane producing bacteria. These bacteria convert CO2 of swampy areas (Marshy) into methane
(CH4). e.g.,, Methanobacterium, Methanococcus, Methanomicrobium. These bacteria convert the
organic substance (cellulose) present in cow dung into methane by fermentation (Gobar gas fermenter).
e.g.,, Methanobacterium, Methanococcus, Methanomicrobium
An archaebacterium is found in the rumen of cattle, where it digests the cellulose by fermentation and
convert it into methane. e.g., Rumenococcus.
Monera – Protista [26]

HALOPHILES
These archebacteria are found in highly saline habitat e.g., Halobacterium halococcus. Halophiles
surrounded by purple membrane. This membrane absorbs the bright light and directly forms ATP i.e.,
They cannot prepare food (carbohydrates) like eubacteria, instead of it they directly form ATP. Therefore
Halophiles are non photosynthetic.
THERMO-ACIDOPHILES
These are chemoautotrophs. These archaebacteria are found at those places where temperature is
approx 80ºC and medium is acidic [pH = 2]. They are found in hot sulphur springs. These can also
survive at 100ºC temperature. They oxidise sulphur to H2SO4 and obtain energy. This energy is used
to prepare food. Due to conversion of sulphur to H2SO4 the medium (water) becomes acidic in nature.
Hot water sulphur springs are found in the Himalayan region. Exceptionally these archaebacteria are
obligate aerobes. e.g., Thermus aquaticus, Sulpholobus, Thermoplasma
EUBACTERIA
HISTORY
Bacteria are cosmopolitan and occur in every habitat wherever living or dead organic matter is present.
Anton von Leeuwenhoek discovered in rain water which had been allowed to stand for many days
and tartar scrapped from teeth. In 1695, he published his work ‘‘The Secrets of Nature discovered by
Anton von Leeuwenhoek’’.
F.J. Cohn and Ehrenberg first of all coined the name ‘’Bacteria’’
Lister :
Lister developed “culture technique”. He also developed the “sterlization technique” to sterlize the
surgical instruments. He discovered, the antiseptic nature of carbolic acid. Lister first of all cultured
bacteria artificially.
Louis Pasteur :
He proposed “germ theory” and called the bacteria “germ”. He discovered the “Pasteurisation technique’’
(it is a process which means heating of drinks to make bacteria free). It is carried out a 60°C
temperature and for 30 minutes duration.
Robert Koch :
Koch first obtained pure culture of bacteria. He discovered the Anthrax, T.B. and Cholera causing
bacteria. Koch gave some rules to prove that the bacteria are the cause of disease. These rules are
known as ‘’Koch postulates’’. He awarded ‘’Nobel Prize’’ for his work. Koch postulates do not
applicable on obligate parasite (e.g., Mycobacterium leprae).
SIZE
Smallest eubacteria :
Dialister pneumosintes (0.15 to 0.3 m)
Haemophilus influenzae (0.2 – 0.3 × 0.5 – 2.0 m)
Longest/Largest eubacteria :
Epuloepiscium fishelsoni (600 m or 0.6 mm )
Thiomargarita namibiensis
Largest/longest Filamentous bacterium : Beggiatoa mirabilis (few mm)
SHAPE
Bacteria have variation in their shape. On the basis of their shape bacteria are of different types.

(A) Coccus (Pl. Cocci) - These bacteria are spherical, Non-flagellate. They are smallest shape and highly
(Maximum) resistant. These are following types on basis of cell arrangement :
(a) Monococcus - These spherical bacteria live alone. e.g., Micrococcus, Dialister pneumosintes
(b) Diplococcous - These are found in group of two cocci. e.g., Diplococcus pneumoniae, Neisseria,
Gonococcus.
(c) Tetra coccus - These are found in group of four cocci. e.g., Micrococcus luteus.
(d) Streptococcus - These are found in form of chain. e.g., Streptococcus lactis.
(e) Sarcinae - 8 to 64 or more bacteria are found in cubical mass form. e.g., Sarcina lutea.
(f) Staphylococcus - These bacteria are found in a irregular bunch like cluster of grapes.
e.g., Staphylococcus aureus.
(B) Bacillus (Pl. Bacilli) - This group includes most of the bacteria. These are rod shaped. They are of
following types:
(a) Monobacillus - Only one rod-like structure or bacterium. e.g., E.coli, Lactobacillus.
(b) Diplobacillus - They are found in pairs. e.g., Diplobacillus.
(c) Streptobacillus - They are found in a chain. e.g., Bacillus anthracis.
(C) Palisade bacillus - These rod shaped bacteria are found in form of stacks. e.g., Corynebacterium
diphtheriae.
(D) Spirillum (Pl. Spirilli - Sing Spirillum) These are spiral shaped bacteria. e.g., Spirillum volutans,
Spirochete, Heliobacter, Treponema
(E) Comma (Vibrio) - These are comma shaped bacteria. e.g., Vibrio cholerae, Vibrio comma
(F) Stalked bacteria - These are single celled bacteria with narrow stalked. e.g., Caulobacter
(G) Budding bacteria - They appear like a beaded cell.e.g., Rhodomicrobium
(H) Pleomorphic bacteria - These bacteria change their shape according to the medium. e.g., Rhizobium
MOTILITY IN BACTERIA
Bacteria are motile as well as non motile. Movement in bacteria takes place by means of flagella.
On the basis of flagella bacteria are of following types
(a) Atrichous - When flagella are absent, it is called atrichous form. e.g., Micrococcus, Pasteurella,
Lactobacillus
(b) Monotrichous - When Only one flagellum on one end of the bacterium. e.g., Vibrio, Thiobacillus,
Pseudomonas
(c) Lophotrichous - When a bunch of flegellum is present on both end of bacterium.
e.g., Salmonella
(d) Amphitrichous - When bunch of flagellum or single flagellum are present on both the ends of bacterium.
e.g., Spirillum, Nitrosomonas
(e) Peritrichous - When flagella are found on the whole body of bacterium. e.g., E.coli, Salmonella typhi
(f) Cephalotrichous : Two or more flagella attached at one end, e.g., Pseudomonas fluorescence
STRUCTURE OF FLAGELLA
A flagellum of bacteria is made up of three parts
(A) Basal body (B) Hook (C) Filament
(A) Basal body -
It is the basal part of flagellum and rod shaped in structure. It lies with in the cell wall and cell
membrane. This proteinaceous rod shaped structure is surrounded by two pairs of rings.
(i) Outer pair (ii) Inner pair
Outer pair of ring lies with in the cell wall. One ring of this pair is called “L” and the another called “P”. Inner
pair of ring lies with in the cell membrane. One ring of this pair is called “S” and the another is “M”. In
Gram (+) bacteria only one pair of rings (inner S & M pair) is found.

(B) Hook -
It connect the basal body to filament. It is the middle part of flagellum and lies with in the cell wall.
(C) Filament -
It is cylindrical hollow structure made up of protein monomers. Each monomers is made up of
flagellin protein. Flagellin is a contractile protein like the tubulin of eukaryotes. These monomers are
arranged in 4 + 4 manner. All monomers are joined with each other and so that in bacteria flagella is
monofibrillar.
PILI
Bacterial cell wall is covered by numerous hair like structure called pili. Pili are smaller than flagella.(Plu
pili Sing. - Pilus). They are of two types - (A) Longer pili, (B) Shorter pili. Longer pili is also known
as ‘F’ pili or ‘sex’ pili. Longer pili occurs in only donar (F+ or male) bacteria and help in conjugation.
These are absent in recipient bacteria or female.
Structure - Every pilus is cylindrical hollow structure and composed of protein monomers. Each monomer
is made up of ‘pilin’ protein. Pilin is non-contractile protein.
Note : Pili have been reported only in Gram negative E. coil bacteria.
STRUCTURE OF BACTERIAL CELL
Capsule or Glycocalyx or Slime layer -
When bacteria is surrounded by capsule, it is called capsulated bacteria. Formation of capsule is done
by cell membrane. Capsulated bacteria are mostly pathogenic. Capsule is made up of dextran, dextrin
and lavan polysaccharides and polypeptides. Capsule protects the bacteria from W.B.C. and also helps
in colony formation.
Plasmid

Cell Wall -
Bacterial cell wall made up of mainly peptidoglycan or murein which is type of muco-peptide.
Acetobacter acetoenum bacteria have cellulosic cell wall.
Conclusion : NAM and NAG joined together by -1, 4 linkage. Chain of amino acid (Tetrapeptide) that link the
layers of polyracchride NAM and NAG. Gram positive bacteria has diaminopimelic acid instead of L- lysin.
Cell wall is useful for staining purpose.
GRAM STAINING
Gram staining develop by Hans Christian Gram a Danish physician in 1884. It is also known as differential
staining because it enable to separate two different type of organisms.
Flow chart of differential staining (Gram staining) :
Bacterial smear
Air drying
Stained with crystal violet

(30 seconds)
Bacteria get stained (Bluish purple)
Iodine staining (0.5% solution)

(Iodine works as mordant)
Formation of crystal violet Iodine

(CVI) complex
Treatment with alcohol
Some bacteria Destained bacteria

retain the stain
Counter Staining with Safranin
Gram positive
Pink colour appears
Gram negative

Diffe re nce s be tw e e n Gra m positive a nd Gra m ne ga tive Ba cte ria
Gra m positive Gra m ne ga tive
1 The bacteria re m a in coloure d purple with The bacteria do not re ta in the stain when
Gram staining even after washing with washed with alcohol
alcohol.
2 Cell wall is single layered. Cell wall is bila ye re d.
3 Cell wall of peptidoglycan (20 - 80 nm) Cell wall of peptidoglycan is (8-12 nm)
4 Low Lipid content High Lipid content
5 M urein (Peptidoglycan) content is 70-80% Murein (Peptidoglycan) content is 10-20%
6 Ba sa l body of the flagellum contains 2 rings Basal body of the flagellum has 4 rings (L,
(S & M ) P, S & M )
7 M esosom es are quite prominent Mesosomes are less prominent
8 A fe w pathogenic bacteria belong to Gram- Most of the pa thoge nic bacteria belong to
positive group Gram-negative group
9 Te choic a cid pre se nt Te choic a cid a bse nt
Ziehl Neilson staining :-

In this method first of all bacteria are stained with the phenolic solution of basic fuschin (carbon fuschin).
Then washed with alcoholic solution of HCl or H2SO4. If bacteria retain the stain after washing, then
they are called ‘’Acid fast’’ while the bacteria in which stain is lost are known as ‘’Non acid fast’’.
Non acid fast bacteria are counter stained by methylene blue. Quantity of wax is more in acid fast and
less in non acid fast.
e.g., All mycobacteria (M.tuberculosis, M.Leprae), Nocardia etc.
L-FORM BACTERIA
Bacterial cell wall can be dissolved by lysozyme enzyme. When bacterial cell wall is removed artificially
then bacteria are surrounded by only cell membrane. These bacteria are called L-form (Lister form).
Listor form - It is first developed by Klieneberger in lister laboratory London.
Cell membrane-
Bacterial cell membrane is made up of lipoprotein like the eukaryotes membrane.
It is Specifically resembles to mitochondria inner membrane (respiratory enzymes and succinate
dehydrogenase).
CYTOPLASMIC ORGANELLES
(A) Mesosomes - [Chondroid]
Mesosome was discovered by F. James. The cell membrane of bacteria invaginates in cytoplasm at
different places and form mesosomes. These are functionally mitochondria like structures as oxidative
enzymes are found in mesosome. On the basis of position and function mesosome are of two types:
(a) Peripheral mesosome - They are situated near the cell membrane in peripheral part and their main
function is cell respiration and cell wall secretion.
(b) Central mesosome - They are situated deep in cytoplasm and their main function is providing help in
DNA replication and cell division. These are connected with nucleoid.

(B) Storage granules-
(a) Glycogen granules - They store carbohydrate.
(b) Volutin granules - These are also known as metachromatic granules. They are made up of RNA.
The stored RNA as a source of nitrogen and phosphorus.
(C) Chromatin material (Nucleoid) or Prochromosome-
Nucleus of bacterial cell is called nucleoid or genophore or incipient nucleus or fibrillar nucleus. Nuclear
membrane and nucleolus are absent. True chromosome are also absent in bacterial cells instead they
contain a single chromosome. It consist of a ds circular, naked DNA without histone and non histone
proteins. Non histone proteins are polyamine. Nucleoid is connected to mesosome.
PLASMIDS
Term plasmid was given by Lederberg and Hays. These are small, extrachromosomal, non-essential,
circular, double stranded, free naked DNA molecules. The genes present on them have no vital role in
survival and growth of bacteria. These perform autonomous replication. If plasmids can temporarily
integrate with bacterial chromosome, then they are called episome. Plasmids have the ability to replicate
independently. On the basis of functions plasmids are of following types :
(A) F or fertility factor (F-plasmid) :
On the basis of presence or absence of ‘F’ plasmid, there are two mating types of bacteria. F+ Cells,
carrying ‘F’ factor act as donor and are called F+ or male. F– Cells, lacking F’ factor act as recipient
and are called F– or female. When ‘F’ plasmid is attached with main DNA, it is designated as episome
and this type of cell is known as Hfr cell. (The word episome was given by Jacob & Wollman)
(B) R or Resistance factor (R-plasmid) -
Cells, carrying this ‘R’ factor become resistant to certain drug.
(C) Col. or colicinogenic factor -
Cells, carrying ‘col’ factor secrete the colicin, which have an antibiotic effect on other microbes.
(D) Ti Plasmid :
Obtained from Agrobacterium tumifacians used in genetic engineering.
NUTRITION IN BACTERIA
Most of the bacteria are heterotrophic but some are autotrophic. On the basis of nutrition bacteria are
classified into following categories.
Nutrition of Bacteria
Autotrophic Bacteria Hetrotrophic Bacteria

They can produce their own food (They are depends on
other for food)
Photoautotrophic Bacteria Chemoautotrophic Bacteria

(They use sunlight for the synthesis
of food because they have pigments)
Photolithotrophic Bacteria Photoorganotrophic Bacteria
Purple Sulphur Green Sulphur Purple Non Green Non

Bacteria Bacteria Sulphur Bacteria Sulphur Bacteria
e.g. Chromatium e.g. Chlorobium e.g. Rhodospirillrum e.g. Chloronema
Bacteriopurpurin Bacterioviridin Bacteriopurpurin pigment Bacterio Viridin pigment
pigment pigment Use organic compound for Use organic compound for
— — — + — +
Use inorganic Sulphur for e Use H2S as e e & H donor e & H donor
+ +
and H donor and H donor

(1) AUTOTROPHS
These bacteria use light or chemical energy for their own food synthesis. On the basis of source of
energy autotrophs are of following two types.
(B) Photosynthetic autotrophs - (Photoautotrophs)
These bacteria use light energy for food synthesis. In these bacteria photosynthesis is non oxygenic. (No
oxygen liberation). Photolysis of water does not take place here, so hydrogen is received from other
sources like inorganic sulphur compound (H2S, Thiosulphate) or organic compound (Amino acids, Isopropyl
alcohol Fatty acid).
Solar
CO2 + H2S (e–, H+ donar)  Sugar + S  + H2O + energy
energy
On the basis of hydrogen donor. Photoautotrophs are further classified into following two categories.
(a) Photo-lithotrophs :
Hydrogen donor is inorganic sulphur containing compounds viz.H2S. Thiosulphate. This category includes
only two types of bacteria.
Purple sulphur bacteria - e.g., Chromatium, thiospirillum
Green sulphur bacteria - e.g., Chlorobium, Thiothrix
(b) Photo-organotrophs :
Hydrogen donor is organic compounds viz. Isopropyl alcohol, amino acids, fatty acids. This category
involves only one type of bacteria. Purple non sulphur bacteria and green non sulpher bacteria - e.g.,
Rhodospirillum, Rhodopseudomonas. Pigment used are Bacteriopurpurin.
(C) Chemosynthetic autotrophs - (Chemoautotrophs)
These are nonphotosynthetic autotrophs i.e. photosynthetic pigments are absent. They use chemical
energy instead of light energy for food synthesis. Chemical energy is obtained from oxidation of inorganic
or organic compounds. On the basis of oxidised compound chemoautotrophs are further classified into
following two categories.
(a) Chemo-lithotrophs -
These bacteria oxidise the inorganic compounds and release energy which is used for food synthesis.
Types of chemolithotrophs :
(i) Iron bacteria - These bacteria convert Ferrous compounds into Ferric compound.
Fe+2  Fe+3 + energy
e.g., Ferrobacillus, Leptothrix
(ii) Sulphur bacteria - Convert the H2S into Sulphur and water.
2H2S + O2  2S + 2H2O + energy
e.g., Thiobacillus, Beggiatoa
(iii) Carbon bacteria - Convert CO into CO2
2CO + O2  2CO2 + energy
e.g., Bacillus oligocarbophyllus
(iv) Nitryfying bacteria - They oxidised nitrogenous compounds and obtain energy.
• Nitrite bacteria - Converts ammonia into Nitrite
1
NH3 + 1 O  NO2– + H2O + H + energy
2 2
e.g., Nitrosomonas, Nitrococcus
• Nitrate bacteria - Convert nitrite into nitrates.
1
NO2 + O2  NO3– + energy
2
e.g., Nitrobacter, Nitrocystis

(v) Hydrogen bacteria - Convert the hydrogen into water
1
4H2 + CO2  CH4 + 2H2O + energy or H2 + O  H2O + energy
2 2
e.g., Bacillus pentotrophs, Hydrogenomonas
(b) Chemo-organotrophs :
These bacteria oxidise the organic compounds and released energy is used for food synthesis. This group
includes only one type of bacteria
Methano bacteria - These are found in the marshy places. They convert CH4 into CO2.
CH4 + 2O2  CO2 + 2H2O + energy
e.g., Methanomonas
(2) HETEROTROPHS
Most of the bacteria are heterotrophic i.e. they can not manufacture their own food. They receive their
own food from dead organic matter or living organism. These are following types :
(A) Saprotrophic bacteria : These bacteria obtain food from dead and decaying organic matter. These are
of two types
(a) Obligate saprotrophic - These bacteria obtain food only from dead organic matter. These are completely
saprotrophic. e.g., Bacillus vulgaris, Clostridium botulinum
(b) Facultative parasite - These are normally saprotrophic in nature, but in the absence of dead organic
matter they can become parasitic. e.g., Pseudomonas, Staphylococus
(B) Parasitic bacteria : These bacteria obtain food from living organism. These are of two types
(a) Obligate parasite - They always remain parasitic. e.g., Mycobacterium leprae
(b) Facultative Saprotrophic - They are normally parasitic in nature but in the absence of living host. they
may become saprotrophic. e.g., Mycobacterium tuberculosis
(C) Symbiotic
These bacteria convert atmospheric nitrogen into nitrogenous compounds like Amino acid, NO3 or Salts
of ammonia. e.g., Rhizobium
Note : Some nitrogen fixers are free living and aerobic are Azotobactor, Beijerinckia, Kelebsiella.
RESPIRATION
On the basis of respiration bacteria are of two types :
(A) Aerobic bacteria : These are of two types
(a) Obligate aerobic - These are completely aerobic and die in the absence of O2.
e.g., Azotobacter, Bacillus subtilis, Beijerinckia, Kelebsiella
(b) Facultative anaerobic - These are normally aerobic but can survive in the absence of O2 also have
capacity of anaerobic respiration. e.g., Acetobacter aceti, Pseudomonas, Clostridium, tetani
(B) Anaerobic bacteria : These are of two types
(a) Obligate anaerobic - These are completely anaerobic bacteria and do not have capacity of aerobic
respiration. e.g., Clostridium botulinum
(b) Facultative aerobic - These are normally anaerobic but also have capacity of aerobic respiration. e.g.,
Fermentation bacteria except Acetobacter aceti
REPRODUCTION
Bacteria reproduce by three methods :
(A) Vegetative reproduction; (B) Asexual reproduction ; (C) Genetic recombination

(A) VEGETATIVE REPRODUCTION
By budding
This type of vegetative reproduction was discovered by Bisset and Hale in Bifidi bacterium. Bacterial
cell produce a bud like out growth. Genophore of bacterium replicates and one copy is transfered to the
bud. Now due to the constriction at the place of bud formation, it separates from the bacterial cell and
acts as a new bacterial cell.
(B) ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
(a) Binary fission :
This is the most common method of bacterial reproduction. Binary fission takes place by amitosis.
(characteristic of prokaryote). First of all DNA replication (Theta model) takes place in bacterial cell.
Under favourable conditions bacterial cell divide into two cells due to formation of transverse septum
in the centre of the cell. Each daughter cell grow into a new bacterium. Under favourable conditions,
the cells of bacteria divides after every 20 minutes.
(b) By Endospore -
Endospore formation occurs under unfavourable conditions. It is a highly resistant structure. It is resistant
to high tempature radiations, antibiotics and chemicals etc. It is also known as ‘’reproduction without
multiplication’’. Bacterium Endospore is highly resistant structure due to presence of Ca-dipicolinate in its
wall (in cortex region). Endospore is stain by Nigrosin reagent.
Structure of endospore -
(i) Exosporium  Lipid Protein
 Outer spore coat  Lipid  protein

(ii) Spore coat  
Inner spore coat  Lipid  Protein  Sulphur
(iii) Cortex  Ca-dipicolinate (Dipicolinic acid) + Peptidoglycan

(iv) Core mem./Cell mem./Inner mem  Lipid + protein
(v) Core/Cytoplasm   DNA & other material
Under the favourable conditions protective layers rupture and the cytoplasm with cell membrane comes
out side in the form of young bacterium.
Note : Endospore formation is seen in mostly Bacillus and clostridium type of bacteria.
(c) By Cyst -
Under unfavourable conditions some bacteria reproduce by cyst formation. Bacterial cell secretes a
thick wall arround it self. Under favourable conditions protective layer breaks and bacterium bceomes
free.

(C) GENETIC RECOMBINATION/SEXUAL RECOMBINATION
True sexual reproduction is absent in bacteria because it does not involve fusion of male and female
gamete to produce a diploid zygote. Genetic recombination involves transfer of some genes from a
bacterium to another bacterium. There are three methods of genetic recombination.
(a) Transformation (Griffith - 1928)
Transformation was discoverd in Diplococcus pneumoniae. (New name-Pneumococcus pneumonie).
Detailed study was carried out by Avery, Macleod and Mc Carty. In this process one kind of bacterium
is transformed into another kind. In this method gene transfer occur through Media.
Griffith’s experiment :
Griffith selected two strains of Diplococcus pneumonia for his experiment. S-III strain - This strain
was virulent/pathogenic, capsulated, smooth. R-II strain - This strain was non virulent/non pathogenic,
non capsulated, rough.
Four steps were performed in experiment-
(i) S-III bacteria Injected
  Healthy mice  Mice died.
into
(ii) R-II bacteria Injected

  Healthy mice  Mice survived.
into
(iii) S  III bacteria Injected

  Healthy mice  Mice survived.
into
(Heat killed)
(iv) R-II (living) + S - III (heat killed) bacteria  Healthy mice  Mice died.
(But R-II is not virulent and S-III lost its virulent capacity upon heating).
Conclusion -
On the basis of this experiment grifith concluded that some material of S-III strain transformed the R-
II into S-III. But Griffith could not indentify the material responsible for transformation. It was later
indentified by Avery, Macleod and mc Carty as DNA.
(b) Conjugation : Lederbeg and Tatum (1946)
Conjugation was discoverd in E.coli. Both were awarded Nobel prize for their work. Detail study was
carried out by Wollman and Jacob in E.coli.
Conjugation between F+ and F– :
First of all donor cell (F+) is attached to recipient cell (F–) with the help of sex pili. Sex pili functions
as conjugation tube. The ‘F’ factor (F plasmid) now replicates and the repilca moves to F– through
conjugation tube. Both the cells are then separated. Due to transfer of ‘F’ factor F– bacteria now
becomes F+ bacteria

Conjugation between Hfr (male) and F– (female) :-
Hfr - (High frequency or super male). Name Hfr was given by Cavalli. Some times the ‘F’ factor (F
plasmid) incorporates in genophore then this cell is called Hfr male or high fertility male. First of all Hfr
attached to the F– cell. The genophore now replicates and ‘F’ factor also replicates along with the
genophore.
Now the replica of the genophore and ‘F’ factor moves in to the F– cell in the form. The ‘F’ factor lies
at the last end. Only a part of genophore can be transfered to F– because even a slightest disturbance
in nature leads to the separation of conjugating bacteria. DNA segment of Hfr cell now attaches with
the homologous segment of F– genophore. Transferred DNA of Hfr cell is called exogenote and
homologous part F– genophore called endogenote. F– Cell is now called merozygote (partial diploid)
or partial zygote (False zygote). F– cell now develop some character of F+ cell.
(c) Sexduction :
It was discovered by Jacob and Adelberg. When ‘F’ factor detaches it self from the genophore. It also
carry some genes of genophore. Hfr male now converted into F+ male. When this cell conjugates with
F–, its ‘F’ factor transfered into the F–. Due to the genophore segment of donor cell the F–, or recepient
cell becomes partially diploid and also converted in male.
(d) Transduction : Zinder and Lederberg (1952) in Salmonella typhimurium.
During transduction, a small double stranded piece of DNA is transfered from donor to recipient by a
bacteriophage (virus).
ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF BACTERIA
HARMFUL ACTIVITIES
Disease in Human beings :
Disease Bacterium
Tuberculosis (T.B.) – Mycobacterium tuberculosis
Leprosy – Mycobacterium leprae
Diptheria – Corynebacterium diptheriae
Tetanus – Clostridium tetani
Typhoid – Salmonella typhi
Plague – Pasteurella pestis or Yersinia pestis
Pneumonia – Diplococcus pneumoniae
or Pneumococcus pneumoniae
Jaundice – Leptospira ictero haemorahgeii
Pertusis – Bordetella pertussis
Meningitis – Neisseria meningitidis
Gonorrhoea – Neisseria gonorrhoeae
Cholera – Vibrio cholerae
Dysentery – Shigella dysenteriae
Syphilis – Treponema pallidium
Disease in Animals :
Anthrax – Bacillus anthracis
Black leg – Clostridium chanvei
Disease in plants :
Citrus canker – Xanthomonas citri
Leaf blight of rice – Xanthomonas oryzae
Leaf streak of rice – Xanthomonas oryzicola

Angular leaf spot of cotton – Xanthomonas malvacearum
Crown gall in many plants – Agrobacterium tumefaciens
Fire blight of stone fruit – Erwinia amylovora
(apple and peas)
Brown rot or wilt of potatoes – Pseudomonas solanacearum
Black leg and soft rot of potato – Erwinia caratovora atroseptica
Bacterial leaf blight of rice – Xanthomonas oryzae
SOME IMPORTANT HARMFUL ACTIVITY :

(a) Denitrification -
Some bacteria converts soil nitrates into nitrites and nitrogen. These bacteria reduce the fertility of soil.
e.g., Thiobacillus denitrificans, Pseudomonas denitrificans
(b) Food poisioning -
Some bacteria are responsible for food poisioning. These are of three types -
Salmonella enteridis - These bacteria survive on milk products and also in intestine of man. They
secrete toxins. Symptoms – Vomiting, Dysentery
Staphylococus aureus - These bacteria survive on milk and egg products. They secrete toxins which
damage the central nervous system. These toxins are heat resistant.
Botulism-Clostridium botulinum - It is most lethal type of poisoning. These bacteria survive in absence
of O2. These bacteria grow in canned food. Their toxins damage the parasympathetic nervous system. It
leads to paralysis of both smooth and striped muscles, resulting in immediate death.
(c) Water pollution -
Several bacterial forms cause water pollution. These bacteria spoil the water. e.g., Vibrio cholerae,
Salmonella typhi, Shigella dysenteriae
(d) Biological Weapons -
Some bacteria are used as bio weapons such as Anthrax, Botulism, Cholera causing bacteria.
BENEFICIAL ACTIVITIES
(a) Nitrogen fixation - Nitrogen fixing bacteria -
These bacteria convert the atmospheric nitrogen into nitrogenous compounds like amino acids, nitrate or
ammonium salts. Nitrogen fixation is done by two methods -
(i) Symbiotically - Some bacteria live symbiotically and do nitrogen fixation.
e.g., Rhizobium - In the root nodules of legumes
Aerorhizobium - In the stem nodules of sesbania
Azospirillum - Found root surface of cereals i.e., superficial symbiosis (e.g., Wheat,
Rice,Maize.)
Frankia - In root nodules of non leguminous plant Casurina and root nodules of Alnus
plant.
(ii) Asymbiotically - Some bacteria occur free in soil and do nitrogen fixation.
e.g., Clostridium, Chromatium, Azotobacter, Azospirillium, Beijerinckia, Klebsiella, Rhodomicrobium,
Rhodospirillum, Rhodopseudomonas
(iii) Ammonification - Some bacteria convert Protein (present in decaying plants & animals) into Ammonia.
e.g., Bacillus vulgaris, Bacillus mycoides, Bacillus ramosus
(iv) Nitrification - These bacteria convert Ammonia in Nitrite and later into Nitrate.
Nitrosomon as
 NO2 (Nitrite) Nitrobacte
NH3      r
 NO3 (Nitrate)

(b) Dairy products -
Dairy products are formed with the help of bacterial fermentation.
(i) Curd - It is made by milk.
Streptococcus lactis or
Milk   Curd
Lactobacillus lactis
(ii) Butter - It is made by churning cream that has been soured by lactic acid bacteria Streptococcus lactis
or Streptococcus cremoris.
Direct formation by
Milk      Churning cream Streptococ
 cus latics or
  Butter
mechanical method Streptococcus cremoris
Leuconostoc citrovorum provides flavours to it.

(iii) Yoghurt - It is made by fermenting milk with a mixture of Lactobacillus bulgaricus and Streptococcus
thermophilus.
Lactobacil lus bulgaricus 
Milk Streptococ
 cus lactis
  fermented milk         Yoghurt
Streptococ cus thermophil us
(iv) Cheese - It is made by curd with the help of Streptococcus lactis and Lactobacillus lactis.
Milk Streptococ
 cus lactis
  Curd Lactobacil
  lus lactis 
 Cheese
Streptococcus lactis
(c) Antibiotics -
Term antibiotic was given by S.A. Waksman. First discovered antibiotic was Penicillin it was obtained
from fungi Penicillium notatum. First discovered antibiotic from bacteria was streptomycin. Many
substances produced by microorganism which inhibit the growth of other micro-organism are called
antibiotic substances. These antibiotic medicine cure the disease through the competitive inhibition.
Bacteria Antibiotics
Bacillus licheniformis - Bacitracin
Bacillus polymyxa - Polymyxin
Bacillus brevis - Gramicidin
Bacillus subtilis - Subtilin & Bacitracin
Streptomyces griesus - Chloromycetin (chloramphenicol)
Streptomyces aureofaciens - Aureomycin (Chlorotetracycline) & Tetracycline
Streptomyces aureofaciens - Terramycin (oxytetracycline)
Streptomyces fradiae - Neomycin
(d) Industries -
Many bacteria are used in industries
Alcohol formation : Ethanol is formed with the help of yeast (fungi) or bacteria (Sarcina ventriculi)
by the process of fermentation.
C6H12O6 Sarcina
 ventriculi
 Alcohol (Ethanol)
Vinegar formation (Acetic acid) -
Acetobacter aceti
Ethanol     Acetic acid

Butyric acid formation -
C6H12O6 Clostridiu
  m acetobutyl icum
  Butyric acid
Fermentation
(e) Retting of fibers - Controlled microbial decomposition of cell wall and middle lamella.
e.g., Clostridium perfringenes , Butyric acid bacteria, psedomonas fluroresence
(f) Flavouring of tea and tobacco leaves -
e.g., Bacillus megatherium (Tobacco), Micrococcus condiscence (Tea)
(g) Cleaning of hides - Any saprotrophic bacteria
(h) Production of Vitamins -
Clostridium butylicum produces Riboflavin (Vit. B2)
Propionibacterium and bacillus megatherium produce Vit.B12 (cynocobalomine)
E.coli produces Vit. E., Vit. K. and in alimentary canal of human beings
(i) Decomposing bacteria - Some bacteria decompose the harmful chemicals.
Flavobacterium  2,4 - D; Acetobacter  DDT
(j) Bacteria for specific pests - Bacteria are use to kill specific pests, e.g.,(Bacillus popilliae - Japaneese
Beetle) (Bacillus sphaericus - Anopheles)
(k) Purity of Ganga water - In Gangatic water a bacteria Bdellovibrio bacterovorus is found, it kill the
other water pollutant bacteria.
(l) Pollution indicating bacteria : Water in which E.coli bacteria are present known as polluted water.
E.coli are very much in noumber the water will be highly polluted. So the E. coli is known as pollution
indicating bacteria.
(m)Oil Clearing bacteria or carbon disposal : e.g., Pseudomonas putida
(n) Bacteria for genetic engineering - e.g., E.coli and Agrobacterium
TO BE REMEMBERED
(a) Mycolic acid - Present in all filamentous bacteria

(b) Bacteroids - Symbiotic bacteria which are present in root nodules of plants are known as bacteroids.
(c) Pus bacteria : Staphylococcus (produces yellow pus); Pseudomonas (Produces blue pus)
(d) nif gene - “Nitrogenase Inducing factor” nif gene is present in all nitrogen fixing bacteria.
(e) Bacillus thuringiensis - This bacteria is related with “Bt” toxin (Bt cotton, Bt brinjal).
CYNOBACTERIA [BLUE GREEN ALGAE]
INTRODUCTION
B.G.A. was included in class Cyanophyceae or Myxophyceae but now it is included in Kingdom Monera,
becuase it is a prokaryotic cell. The name cyanobacteria was suggested by ICNB [Internal Code of
Nomenclature for Bacteria] in 1978. Cyanobacteria are Gram negative photosynthetic prokaryotes.

Cyanobacteria Eubacteria
(1) T hey have membrane bound structure Photosynthetic pigments are scattered in
thylakoids. photosynthetic pigments are groups in the cytoplasm, these groups are
present on the surface of these thylakoids known as chromatophore.
Chromatophores are membranous structure
(2) In it photosynthesis is oxygenic In it, photosynthesis is non-oxygenic

i.e. O 2 is evolved during photosynthesis. i.e. O 2 is not evolved during photosynthesis.
(3) T hey have following pigments. They have following pigments :

 Chlorophyll 'a' – green  Bacteriochlorophyll ‘a’ and ‘b’
 Carotenoids – yellow (In purple bacteria)
 C - Phycocyanin – blue  Bacteriochlorophyll-a-and Bacteriovirdin
 C - Phycoerythrin – red (In green bacteria)
Gaudikov’s phenomenon or complementary chromatic adaptation –

Cyanobacteria or blue green algae can adaptively change their body colour according to different
wavelengths of available light.
Note : Trichodesmium is a red coloured. The red colour of water of red sea is due to this algae.
STRUCTURAL ORGANIZATION
The structure of B.G.A. is similar to Gram (–ve) eubacteria. Trichome is surrounded by a mucilagenous
sheath. This sheath is made up of mucopolysaccharides [Pectic acid]. Cell wall is also bilayered. Outer
wall - Lipopolysaccharides, inner wall - peptidoglycan. Cell membrane is made up of lipoproteins like
that of eubacteria.
Ribosome
Mucilagenous sheath
Nucleoid
||||||
||| ||||| Outer cell wall
||
Gas |||
|
| ||
||||
||||
vacuole
|||||
|||||||||||||||||||||||||
Inner cell wall

||||||||
Cell membrane
||||||||||||||
Photosynthetic pigments Peripheral cytoplasm

|||||
|||| ||||
|||
|||
|||
Thylakoids
|||
||
|||
|||| |||| Central cytoplasm
|||| |||| |||||
|
|||||||||||||
||||||||||||| |
-Granules
-Granules
The cytoplasm of prokaryotes lacks membrane bound cell organelles but exceptionally in B.G.A. two
membrane bound structure are present. Gas vacuole provides the buoyancy to the B.G.A. in water.
Photosynthetic pigments are present on Thylakoids surface. Exceptionally gas vacuoles are also present
in purple and green photosynthetic bacteria.
Stored Food
(a)  - granules - They are made up of cyanophycean starch. It is structurally similar to glycogen.
(b)  - granules - They are made up of fat droplets.

Nitrogen fixation :
Most of the B.G.A., can perform Nitrogen fixation. They converts atmospheric nitrogen in to nitrogenous
compounds like amino acids, nitrates. These nitrates increases the fertility of soil. Hence B.G.A. improves
the fertility of soil by nitrogen fixation under anaerobic conditions occurs mainly in large, specialized cells
called heterocysts. Thickened cell wall of these cells is impermeable to oxygen so this creates anaerobic
enviornment in the cell even under aerobic conditions.
Besides this, heterocysts also lack PS-II activities and CO2 fixation is done only by vegetative cells.
Oxygen is not evolved due to absence of PS-lI. However, PS-I remains active in heterocyst which
generates ATP required to fix nitrogen. Besides N2 fixation heterocyst promotes fragmentation. Nitrogenase
enzyme is necessory for nitrogen fixation. For the synthesis of this enzyme, their is a special type of
gene present in BGA, which is known as nif-gene [nif = nitrogenase inducing factor]. This gene
stimulates the production of nitrogenase enzyme. The discovery of nitrogen fixation in BGA was done
by an indian scientist P.K.De. Detailed study of N2 - fixation - Prof. R.N. Singh (Indian).
REPRODUCTION
In BGA reproduction is done by two main processes (Sexual reproduction absent)
1. Vegetative 2. Asexual
VEGETATIVE REPRODUCTION
Binary fission : This is the most common method of reproduction in prokaryotes. The daughter cells
formed by amitotic division and separate immediately after the division.
ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
It is method of protection from unfavourable conditions.
(a) Heterocysts : Under special conditions, the heterocysts germinate to form new filaments.
(b) Hormogonia : Due to the formation of biconcave, mucilage filled dead cells called necridia, in between
living cells of trichome, the filament breaks into hormogonia.
(c) Akinetes : Vegetative cells are transformed into thick walled akinetes due to the deposition of food
material followed by the thickning of wall. On the arrival of favourable conditions, they germinate to
form new filaments.
Note : In B.G.A. genetic recombination first discovered by H.D. kumar
ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF BGA

Useful Activities :
(i) They are the most ancient organisms having oxygenic photosynthesis and thus played significant role in
the evolution of aerobic forms of life.
(ii) They provides fertility to soil by nitrogen fixation. e.g., Nostoc, Anabaena
(iii) The most proteinacious food for animals. e.g., Spirulina
(iv) It gives fertility to sterile alkaline soil and user soil. BGA secretes an acidic chemical which decreases
the alkalinity of soil. e.g., Nostoc commune, Scytonema ocellatum, Aulosira fertilissima
(v) Some BGA are used as green manure. e.g., Anabaena, Spirulina, Oscillatoria
(vi) Some BGA secrete toxin, which inhibits the growth of mosquito larva in water. e.g., Oscillatoria,
Anabaena, Aulosira
Harmful Activities :
Water bloom : It is the excessive growth of BGA in water, that pollute the water. e.g., Anabaena
flows aquae, Microcystis, Aeruginosa, Aphanizomenon flos aquae. BGA grows rapidily in water and
secretes toxic substances. These toxic substances are known as death factor.

Note : Maximum cyanobacteria are non motile but some filamentous cyanobcteria show gliding and
oscillatory movement. e.g., Oscillatoria shows oscillatory movement, Rivularia & Scytonema develop
slipperyness at wet places.
ACTINOMYCETES - FILAMENTOUS BACTERIA / RAY FUNGI
These are branched, filamentous bacteria and are considered as intermediate form between bacteria and
fungi. The body of fungi is known as mycelium and the structure of actinomycetes is also similar to
mycelium. Therefore they were included in fungi. But fungi are eukaryotic while actinomycetes are
prokaryotic. So these are now placed in kingdom Monera. Now their new name is Mycobacteria or
Mycelial bacteria, Filamentous bacteria are found more in soil and acid fast in natur. These bacteria
have economic importance because they are used to prepare many antibiotics. Cell wall contains
peptidoglycan and is Gram positive in nature. It contains mycolic acid. They are facultative anaerobic,
saprophytic, non-motile and are important decomposers of dead organic matter. They reproduce commonly
by conidia, sporangiospore, oidia and fragmentation. Conidia are spore like structure and are formed in
basipetal manner in chains at the apex of conidiphores. Each condium gives rise to a new mycobacterium
Conidia Sporangiospores
Sporangium
B
Mycellal
Bacterium Arthrospores or Oidia
C
A
Modes of asexul reproduction in
Actinomycetes (A) Conidia, (B) Sporangiospores
(C) Anthrospores or oidia
e.g., Streptomyces, Mycobcterium, Beggiatoa, Frankia, Nocardia, Corynebacterium
Frankia can fix N2 symbiotically by root nodule formation in non legumes like Alnus, Myrica and
Casuarina.
RICKETTSIA
They are also called as bacteria because they are similar to eubacteria in structure. These are Intracellular.
These are non motile. Diseases caused by Rickettsia in humans are Typhus fever – Rickettsia prowazekii
and Rocky mountain spotted fever – R.rickettsii. Root knot disease of vegetable is caused by
Meloidogyne javanica.
Note : Barophilic prokaryotes – Prokaryotes which grow and multiply in very deep marine sediments.
MYCOPLASMA
E.Nocard and E.R.roux (1898) – Two French Scientists, discovered these organisms from pleural
fluid of cattles suffering from pleuropneumonia. These are pleomorphic and were called PPLO
(Pleuropneumonia Like Organisms) or Jokers of plant Kingdom.
Structure : These are unicellular, simplest free living prokaryotes. They do not have cell wall so they are
highly pleomorphic and can assume various shapes like spherical, granular, filamentous, coccoid etc.

CHLAMYDIAE
They are obligate intracellular parasite of vertebrates. They reproduce by elementary bodies.
They do not have their own ATP generating system and obtain this energy from host. So that they are
called energy parasite.
Trachoma (eye disease) – C.trachomatis
Conjuctivities – C.trachomatis
Psittacosis (Lung disease) – C.psittaci (Found in dropping of birds)

KINGDOM PROTISTA
KINGDOM PROTISTA
Term protista given by E. Haekel and organisms included in Protista are unicellular (acellular) eukaryotes.
Protista
(1) Autotrophic (2) Absorptive (3) Protozoans

or or
Photosynthetic organisms Consumer-Decomposer organisms
– Dinoflagellates – Slime mould – Zooflagellates

– Diatoms – Sarcodines
– Euglenoids – Sporozoans
– Ciliates
NUTRITION
Mode of nutrition in protist is different types
(a) Holophytic or Photosynthetic : They prepare their own food through photosynthesis. (Chloroplast and
pigments present) e.g., Diatom
(b) Holozoic : Some protist have holozoic mode of nutrition, which is similar to animals i.e. food is first
ingested and then digested. e.g. Noctiluca (Dinoflagellates)
(c) Absorptive : Some protists obtain their food from dead organic substances. These protists secretes
some extracellular enzymes. These enzymes convert the complex organic substances into simpler
substances. Now these simple substance can be easily absorbed through the body surface.
(d) Mixotrophic : Some Protists have both holophytic and holozoic type of nutrition. e.g. Ceratium,
Englena
REPRODUCTION
Asexual Reproduction : This is the most common method of reproduction in protists. Asexual reproduction
takes place in favourable condition. It is of following types
(a) Binary Fission : Two daughter cells are formed by the division of one mother cell.
(b) Spore Formation : Some protists have special structure known as sporangia. Spores are formed in this
sporangia.
Sexual Reproduction : Sexual reproduction was first of all seen in protists. In sexual reproduction two
haploid gametes fuse to form a diploid zygote. This process is known as syngamy. Syngamy is of three
types :
(a) Isogamy : In isogamy the fusing gametes are morphologically (i.e. shape, size structure) similar but
physiologically ( functionally or genetically) they may be similar or dissimilar. When fusing gametes are
physiologically dissimilar process is called physiological anisogamy.
Anisogamy : The fusing gametes are morphologically and physiologically dissimilar (smaller – motile, larger
- immotile).
Oogamy : It is the developed form of anisogamy. Male gamete is small and motile while female gamete
is large and immotile. This female gamete is known as egg. In it the formation of male & female
gametes take place in sex organs.

LIFE CYCLE OF PROTIST :
Haplontic Life :
When protist is haploid and meiosis occurs in zygote then it is known as zygotic meiosis. In this type
of life cycle the zygotic phase is only diploid and remaining all the phases are haploid so this type of
life cycle is known as haplontic life cycle. e.g., Ceratium, Gymnodinium Cellular slime moulds.
Adult Mitosis
N N gametes
Zygotic meiosis
Fertilization
Haplontic life cycle
2N Zygote
Meiosis
Diplontic Life :
When protists is diploid and meiosis takes place during gametes formation, then it is called gametic
meiosis. In this type of life cycle only gametic phase is haploid and remaining all phases are diploid so
this type of life cycle is known as diplontic life cycle. e.g., Noctiluca, Diatoms, Acellular slime
moulds.
Meiosis
2N
Growtn
N N gametes
Gametic meiosis
Fertilization
Diplontic life cycle
2N Zygote
Mitosis
DINOFLAGELLATES -
Division – Pyrrophyta
Class – Dinophyceae
They are Biflagellated protist. Dinoflagellates are golden brown photosynthetic protists. Dinoflagellates
are mainly marine. They are found on the surface of water.
Structure :
The body is enclosed by a rigid coat called theca or lorica consisting of 2 to many articulated plates
of cellulose and pectin, hence are also called armoured dinoflagellates. Dinoflagellates have two flagella-

one transverse and other is longitudinal (Hetrokont). Dinoflagellates shows a special type of movement
which is like whorling whips, therefore they are called as “Whorling whips”Dinoflagellates are haploid.
Histone protein is absent in its chromosome. Due to this reason Dinoflagellates are called as mesokaryote.
They have an osmoregulatory structure which is called ‘pusule’ (a non contractile vacuole). Dinoflagellates
are yellow brown or golden brown in colour. The colour of Dinoflagellates are due to the pigments
present in them – Chlorophyll ‘a’, Chl. ‘c’ - carotene and Xanthophylls. They have starch as stored
food.
In Dinoflagellates, the nutrition is mainly holophytic, because they have chloroplast. e.g., Ceratium,
Gonyaulax, Gymnodinium, Pyrocystis
Some Dinoflagellates
Noctiluca : It is an exception in Dinoflagellates because it is colourless. Chloroplast is absent therefore it
has holozoic mode of nutrition. Exceptionally Noctiluca is diploid so it reproduce by Gametic meiosis,
therefore its life cycle is diplontic type. It is also known as ‘sea - ghost’ because it glows in night.
But yet it is placed in Dinoflagellates because two flagella are present and plated cell wall. It is also
classified in protozoa due to its holozoic mode of nutrition and colurless body.
Ceratium : It is also an exception because, mode of nutrition is mixotrophic in it.
Reproduction :
Mainly Asexual reproduction takes place by Binary fission.
Sexual reproduction is very rare in them. Dinoflagellates are haploid so they reproduce by zygotic
meiosis. Therefore their life cycle is haplontic type. (Exception-Noctiluca)
Special Features of Dinoflagellates :
(i) Maximum Dinoflagellates (e.g., – Noctiluca, Gonyaulax, Procystis) show ‘Bioluminescence’. Their
protoplasm has photogenic granules. These granules are made up of luciferin protein.
(ii) Energy is released by the oxidation of luciferin. This energy is liberated in the form of light during
night. This is known as ‘‘Bioluminescence.
(iii) These dinoflagellates are also known as ‘night light / Fire algae’
(iv) Gonyaulax spreads on the surface of sea water, due to which the sea water appears red. It is called
as red tide.
(v) Both Gymnodinium & Gonyaulax are toxic. They secrete toxins, which are known as ‘‘Saxitoxin’’.
(vi) These toxins cause paralysis in human beings. Humans acquire these toxins through food chain. These
protist affect the marine animals.

DIATOMS
Division – Bacillariophyta
Class – Bacillariophyceae
They are also known as ‘‘Golden algae or Jewells of Sea’’. Diatoms means, ‘‘Cut in to two’’. This name
is based on the cell wall of diatoms which is divided into two parts. They have holophytic mode of
nutrition because they possess chloroplast. (Photo synthetic protist) e.g., – Navicula, Cyclotella,
Pinnularia.
Structure :
They are found different shapes such as circular, rectangular, triangular, elongated and boat shaped.
They are basically unicellular, but may form pseudofilament and colonies. They Lack Flagella except in
the reproductive stage. Cell wall is cellulosic and impregnated with silica to form transparent siliceous
shell, known as frustule. It is made up of two halves; one half covering the other (epitheca over
hypotheca) resembling a soap box. The cell wall does not get destroy after their death so at the bottom
of sea, very huge rocks of dead diatoms are formed which are known as ‘‘diatomite’’ or ‘‘diatomaceous
earth’’ or “keiselgurh”. Diploid nucleus present in Diatom.
Nutrition :
Their cells have chloroplasts, in which pigments are present, Chlorophyll ‘a’, Chl. ‘c’, and xanthophyll
(fucoxanthin). Due to these pigments it appears golden coloured. Stored food is Leucosin
(Chrysolaminarian) & fats (Oil). They are immotile, because flagella are absent in them. They float on
the surface of water. They floats with the help of stored fats.
Reproduction :
Mainly asexual reproduction takes place by binary fission. During binary fission, one half of cell wall
is retained by each of the daughter cells formed. The other half of the cell wall is secreted afresh.
Diagrammatic representation of cell division in diatoms

Sexual reproduction is very rare. If sexual reproduction takes place then gametic meiosis is present
(Diplontic Life Cycle). The zygote formed during sexual reproduction is called as ‘‘Auxospore’’.
Resting spores are called statospores.
Use of Diatoms :
(a) Sound proofing (b) Filteration of oil
(c) Stone polishing (d) Water pollution indicator
As ‘‘Heat insulator’’ in steam boilers i.e. they are used as thermostate because the wall of diatoms are
bad conductor of heat.
EUGLENOIDS
Division – Euglenophyta
Class – Euglenophyceae
Previously euglenoids were placed in plant kingdom due to their photosynthetic ability. But due to the
absence of cell wall and animals like nutrition some scientists placed them in animal kingdom. But Now
according to five kingdom classification they are included in Protista.

It is a group of chlorophyllous and non chlorophyllous protists. Their mode of nutrition is called as
mixotrophic because they have holophytic, holozoic and saprophytic mode of nutrition. e.g., – Euglena,
Paranema
STRUCTURE
Cell wall is absent around them. They are surrounded by a cell membrane which is made up of
lipoprotein and is covered with pellicle. Pellicle is made up of lipoprotein and it is elastic in nature. At
the anterior end of Euglenoids, a cavity is present, which is known as reservoir.
Flagellum is orginated from the base of reservoir. Euglenoids have only one functional flagellum. They
have a contractile vacuole. These contractile vacuoles helps in osmoregulation.
NUTRITION
Euglenoids have a haploid nucleus and chloroplast. Chloroplast has following pigments : Chl. ‘a’ Chl. ‘b’
and Xanthophyll (Zeaxanthin).
Stored food – Paramylum and fat.
Paramylum is a carbohydrate stored in the forms of paramylum granules which are chemically
 -1, 3-glucans. Euglenoids are motile. They are of two type - flagellated and Non-flagellated. Wriggling
movement is due to wave motion of the pellicle. Non flagellated euglenoids are also motile as they
locomote by wriggling movement which is also called as Euglenoid movement.
REPRODUCTION
Asexual reproduction by longitudinal binary fission During unfavourable conditions, palmella stage and
cysts are formed for perennation.
SLIME MOULDS
Division – Mastigomycotina
Class – Gymnomycota
They are known as Consumer – Decomposer Protist. These organisms develop a slimy mass at the time
of their vegetative phase, therefore they are called slime moulds. They are also called as false fungi.
They are found on decaying stem, leaves etc, so these ae saprophyte.
Slime moulds have characters of both animals & fungus therefore they also called Fungus animal.
Scientist Anton De Bary placed them in Mycetozoa by relating them with animals.
While mycologist ‘Ainsworth’ placed them in Myxomycota by relating them with fungi.
Characters similar to animals Character similar to fungi

Formation of cell wall at the time of
 Surrounded by cell membrane 
reproduction
Formation of sporangia at the time of

 Structure similar to amoeba 
reproduction
Sometimes nutrition is holozoic or Nutrition is absorptive or
 
Phagotrophic saprotrophic
Structure :
On the basis of structure they are of two types :
Acellular or plasmodial slime moulds : Their body is made up of wall less multinucleated protoplasmic
mass. This type of body is known as plasmodium. (Plasmodium = wall less coenocyte). Entire plasmodium

forms many fructifications (Fruiting body). The wall of sporangium is called peridium with stalk and
fruiting body called sporangium. Sporangium has an intricate network of cytoplasmic threads called
capillitium. They are diploid i.e., every nucleus found in the cell is diploid. e.g., Physarum, Stemonitis,
Physarella, Fulgio.
Cellular slime moulds : Their body consists of many wall less amoeba like cells (group of amoeba
like cells is known as cellular slime mould.) These cells are found in groups but they are not fused. Every
cell has a haploid nucleus. This type of body is called as myxamoeba or pseudoplasmodium.
Pseudoplasmodium exhibits primitive form of multicellularity and division of labour. So these are also
called as communal slime moulds. On these basis cellular slime moulds are regarded as advanced
protists and primitive fungi. They are haploid because the nucleus found in each cell is haploid. e.g.,
Dictyostellium, Protostelium, Acytostelium
Reproduction :
Slime moulds have both asexual & sexual type of reproduction :
Asexual reproduction : It is mainly with the help of spore formation (sporangia). The mucilagenous
sporangia of slime moulds is known as capillitium / Fruiting body / sporangium
Sexual reproduction : The cell of acellular slime moulds are diploid. So they reproduce by gametic
meiosis. Therefore their life cycle is diplontic. The cell of cellular slime moulds are haploid, so they
reproduce by zygotic meiosis. Therefore their life cycle is haplontic.
Points to be remembered
Some Unicellular, Eukaryotic Alga are may consider in protista for e.g., Chlorella, Acetabularia,
Chlamydomonas, Trebauxia etc.

EXERCISE – 1
Q.1 Halophiles, methanogens and thermoacidophils Q.12 Prokaryotic cell is characterized by -
are - (1) Presence of nucleus, mitochondria and
(1) Cyanobacteria (2) Eubacteria plastids
(3) Actinomycetes (4) Archaebacteria (2) Absence of cell wall, DNA fibrils and
Q.2 In blue green algae photosynthesis occurs at - plastids
(1) Chromatophore (2) Chloroplast (3) Presence of spindle fibres, DNA fibrils and
glogi bodies
(3) Photosynthetic lamellae or thylakoids
(4) Absence of endoplasmic reticulum, golgi
(4) Chromoplast
bodies and spindle fibres.
Q.3 Causes of water bloom is -
Q.13 Electron microscopic observation reveals the
(1) Green algae (2) Blue green algae absence of intracellular membranes in the cell-
(3) Bacteria (4) Hydrilla (1) Eukaryota (2) Mycota
Q.4 Streptomyces is included in - (3) Thallophyta (4) Prokaryota
(1) Fungi (2) Actinomycetes Q.14 Trichodesmium erythrium which imparts red
(3) Eubacteriales (4) Virus colour to sea water of red sea is a -
Q.5 Cyanobacteria is the new name of- (1) Cyanobacterium (2) Red Algae
(1) Mycoplasma (2) Green algae (3) Diatom (4) Red Coral
(3) Blue green algae (4) Red agae Q.15 Archaebacterial cell lacks -
Q.6 Cyanobacteria resemble bacteria in having- (1) Peptidoglycan (2) DNA
(1) Ribosomes (2) Naked DNA (3) Ribosomes
(3) Peptidoglycan wall (4) Branched Chain Lipids
(4) All the above Q.16 Ribosomes of prokaryotes are -
Q.7 Muramic acid is present in cell walls of - (1) 10 s (2) 20 s
(1) Bacteria (2) Green algae (3) 70 s (4) 80 s
(3) Yeast (4) All fungi Q.17 Photosynthetic prokaryotic plant is -
Q.8 Infoldings of plasma membrane in bacteria are (1) Rhizobium (2) Nostoc
called as - (3) Pseudomonas (4) Staphylococcus
(1) Episomes (2) Plasmid Q.18 Which of the following are wall less
(3) Pili (4) Mesosomes prokaryotes -
Q.9 The organisms participating most actively in (1) Mycoplasma (2) Bacteria
nitrogen cycle in nature are - (3) Cyanobacteria (4) Slime molds
(1) Bacteria (2) Legumes Q.19 Which enzyme specifically occur in Heterocyst
(3) Parasitic algae (4) Fungi of blue green Algae -
Q.10 Heterocyst is a structure which is associated (1) Cytochrome oxidase
with - (2) Nitrogenase
(1) Reproduction (2) Respiration (3) Zymase
(3) Nitrogen fixation (4) Locomotion (4) Peptidyl transferase
Q.11 The words prokaryota and Eukaryota were Q.20 Most common method of reproduction in
introduced by - prokaryotes -
(1) Mendel (2) Christensen (1) Budding (2) Binary fission
(3) Strassburger (4) Von Mohl (3) Transduction (4) Conjugation

Q.21 Bacterial cell wall is mainly composed of- Q.31 During the rainy season ground surface
(1) Cellulose (2) Lipid become slippery due to -
(3) Peptidoglycon (4) Chitin (1) Fungi (2) Blue green algae
Q.22 Mycelial bacteria are - (3) Bryophytes (4) Slime molds
(1) Eubacteria (2) Actinomycetes Q.32 Photosynthesis of Blue green algae is -
(3) Cyanobacteria (4) Fungi
(1) Oxgenic (2) Non-oxygenic
Q.23 Which of the following is a character of
prokaryotes- (3) Both oxygenic and non oxygenic
(1) Presence of membrane bound cell (4) None
organelles Q.33 No sexual reproduction occur in the algal form
(2) Presence of distinct nucleus belonging to -
(3) Nucleus is not distinct and cell wall is (1) Chlorophyeae (2) Myxophyceae
composed of mucopeptide (3) Rhodophyceae (4) Phaeophyceae
(4) Cytoplasm contain 80s ribosomes
Q.34 Which of the following is the only group of
Q.24 Chlorophyll ‘a’, C-phycocyanin and organisms capable of using inorganic
C-phycoerythrin are pigments of -
compounds as source of energy -
(1) Red algae (2) Blue green algae
(1) Eukaryotes (2) Prokaryotes
(3) Brown algae (4) Green algae
(3) Both the above (4) None
Q.25 The prokaryotes differ from eukaryotes in-
(1) The presence of mesosomes Q.35 Which of the following lack peptidolgycan in
(2) The presence of unit membrane bound their cell walls -
organelles (1) Halophiles bacteria
(3) The presence of 80s ribosomes in cytoplasm (2) Methanogens bacteria
(4) The packing of DNA into histone & nuclear (3) Thermoacidophilic bacteria
envelope (4) All the above
Q.26 Harmful activity of Blue green algae is -
Q.36 Blue green algae which like to grow in hot
(1) Denitrification
water springs -
(2) Water-bloom
(1) Oscillatoria (2) Rivularia
(3) Increase alkalinity of soil
(3) Trichodesmium (4) Azolla
(4) Decrease fertility of soil
Q.27 Peptidoglycan is not found in the cell wall of - Q.37 Link between prokaryotes and multicellular
(1) Cyanobacteria (2) Eubacteria eukaryotes -
(3) Archebacteria (4)Filamentous bacteria (1) Cyanobacteria (2) Protista
Q.28 The function of mesosomes in prokaryotes is- (3) Fungi (4) Plants
(1) Aerobic respiration (2) Cell wall formation Q.38 Which structure of prokaryotes is analogous to
(3) Both (1) and (2) (4) N2-fixation lysosome -
Q.29 Symbiotic prokaryotic organism which fix (1) Mesosome
atomospheric N2 - (2) Genophore
(1) Spirogyra (2) Anabaena
(3) Periplasmic space
(3) Cladophora (4) Slime-mold
(4) Perinuclear space
Q.30 Which of the following in not a character of
prokaryote- Q.39 Cyanobacteria are -
(1) Lack of well organized nucleus (1) Photosynthetic prokaryotes
(2) Presence of 70 s ribosome (2) Photosynthetic eukaryotes
(3) Presence of E.R (3) Chemoautotrophs
(4) Presence of plasma membrane (4) None photosynthetic prokaryotes

Q.40 True sexual reproduction absent in - Q.51 Which of the following division found in
(1) Yellow green algae prokaryotic cell -
(2) Red algae (1) Meiosis
(3) Green algae (2) Mitosis
(4) Blue green algae (3) Amitosis and mitosis
Q.41 Thylakoid occur in - (4) Amitosis
(1) Bacteria (2) Cyanobacteria Q.52 Which of the following structure is not found in
(3) Archebacteria (4) All of the above prokaryotic cells -
Q.42 Which of the following performs respiration (1) Plasma membrane
with the help of plasma membrane- (2) Ribosomes
(1) Bacteria (2) Mycoplasma (3) Nuclear membrane and membranous cell
(3) Fungi (4) All the above organelles
Q.43 Which of the following can utilize light energy (4) Hereditary substances
for the synthesis of ATP- Q.53 Which is not present in prokaryotes-
(1) Slime molds (2) Cephaleuros (1) Ribosome (2) Mitochondria
(3) Halophiles (4) Thermoacidophils (3) Cytoplasm (4) Mesosome
Q.44 Periplasmic space in bacteria function like- Q.54 Chlorophyll of prokaryotes found on -
(1) Golgi body (2) Lysosomes (1) Thylakoids (2) Granum
(3) Mitochondria (4) Vacuole (3) Thylakoids and granum
Q.45 Richest source of bacteria - (4) Plasma membrane
(1) Air (2) Soil Q.55 Which of the following is exception of monera
(3) Water (4) Milk kingdom -
Q.46 Which bacteria are reponsible for producing (1) Bacteria (2) Virus
methane in bio-gas fermenter- (3) Cyanobacteria (4) Mycoplasma
(1) Cyanobacteria (2) Archaebacteria Q.56 Mesosomes found in -
(3) Pseudomonas (4) Mycelial bacteria (1) Fungi (2) Virus
Q.47 Who studied sexual recombination in (3) Mycoplasma (4) Bacteria
cyanobacteria - Q.57 Prokaryotic smallest cell is -
(1) P.K. De (2) R.N. Singh (1) Mycoplasma (2) Cyanobacteria
(3) Leder berg (4) H.D. kumar (3) Bacteria (4) Bacillus
Q.48 Moneran phylogeny is best evidenced by Q.58 Organism which obtain energy by the oxidation
sequence of nucleotide in RNA of ribosome. of reduced inorganic compounds are called -
On the basis of this information, the most (1) Photo autotrophs
primitive monerans are - (2) Chemo autotrophs
(1) Archaebacteria (2) Eubacteria (3) Saprozoic
(3) Filamentous bacteria (4) Coproheterotrophs
(4) Cyanobacteria Q.59 Which bacteria is utilized in Gober gas plant-
Q.49 Prokaryotic cell that lack a cell wall is - (1) Methanogens
(1) Mycoplasma (2) Virus (2) Nitrifying bacteria
(3) Actinomycetes (4) Bacteria (3) Ammonifying bacteria
Q.50 Haploid DNA and Nuclear membrane less (4) Denitrifying bacteria
nucleoid are characteristic of -
Q.60 Site of respiration in bacteria is-
(1) Funaria (2) Azolla
(1) Episome (2) Microsome
(3) Nostoc (4) Yeast
(3) Ribosome (4) Mesosome

Q.61 Plasmid are - Q.71 An organism which is generally without plastid
(1) Virus and can synthesize its organic food is -
(2) New types of micro organism (1) Bacteria (2) Viruses
(3) Extra chromosomal genetic material of (3) Fungi (4) Bacteriophage
bacteria Q.72 The visible apperance of growth of Bacteria
(4) Essential bacterial genetic materials seen on laboratory culture media are called-
Q.62 A free living aerobic bacteria capable of fixing (1) A thallus (2) Spores
nitrogen is - (3) Colonies (4) Tissues
(1) Azotobactor
Q.73 Free living nitrogen-fixing bacteria are found in-
(2) Rhizobium
(1) Air (2) Soil
(3) Clostridium botulinum
(3) Root nodules (4) None of above
(4) Streptomyces
Q.74 Tuber culosis (T.B) is caused by -
Q.63 Wine turns sour becasue of -
(1) Mycobacterium tuberculosis
(1) Heat
(2) Mycobacterium Leprae
(2) Aerobic bacteria
(3) Anaerobic bacteria (3) Clostridium tetani
(4) Exposure to the light (4) Vibrio cholrae
Q.64 Which one of the following fixes CO2 in to Q.75 ‘’Transformation’’ experiments using
carbohydrates - pneumococcus bacteria led to hypothesis that-
(1) Rhizobium (2) Nitrobactor (1) DNA is genetic material
(3) Bacillus (4) Rhodospirillum (2) Bacteria have sexual reproduction
Q.65 Antibiotics cure disease is - (3) Chromosomes are made up of DNA
(1) Competitive Inhibition (4) RNA is a transfer link
(2) Fighting with the disease causing Q.76 Cell membrane of bacteria is made up of-
organism (1) Cellulose and lipid
(3) Turning the pathogen out of the body (2) Chitin
(4) Removing the pain (3) Lipid + Protein
Q.66 Pure culture of bacteria was first obtained by-
(4) Protein and Cellulose
(1) R. Koch (2) L.Pasture
Q.77 The habitat of E.Coli is -
(3) A. Leeuwenhock (4) Lister
(1) Water (2) Colon (intestine)
Q.67 When milk is heated at 60°C for 30 minute and
(3) Soil (4) Stomach
then cooled the process is called-
(1) Sterilisation (2) Pasteurization Q.78 Shape of E.Coli is -
(3) Nitrification (4) Freezing (1) Rod shaped (2) Round
Q.68 Antibiotic mostly obtained from - (3) Spiral (4) Comma shaped
(1) Bacteria (2) Viruses Q.79 Which organism is most useful for soil fertility-
(3) Fungi (4) Angiosperm (1) Algae (2) Fungi
Q.69 The main difference between gram Å and gram (3) Bacteria (4) Bacterio phage
Q residues in the composition of - Q.80 Triple antigen is or DPT is mean for -
(1) Cilia (2) Cell-wall (1) Vaccine against malaria, typhoid and cancer
(3) Cell-membrane (4) Cytoplasm (2) Mixture of viruses that caused tatanus,
Q.70 The hydrogen donor in bacteria photosynthesis diptheria and whooping cough
is usually - (3) Vaccine against polio rabis and hapatites
(1) Water (2) Hydrogen sulphide
(4) Vaccine against Diptheria, Pertusis and
(3) Sulphuric acid (4) ammonia Tetanus

Q.81 Bacterial Flagella made of - Q.91 Sex plasmid occurs in -
(1) Carbohydrate (2) Lipid (1) Recipient bacteria (2) Donor bacteria
(3) Protein (4) Amide (3) Bacteriophage (4) Diplococus
Q.82 The mode of the nutrition of bacteria is usually- Q.92 Chemical produced by one microbe and inhibit
(1) Photo autotrophic (2) Chemo autotrophic growth of another microbes are called-
(3) Heterotrophic and autotrophic (1) Antibiotics (2) Aflatoxin
(4) None (3) Antibodies (4) Phytoalexin
Q.83 Fertility of soil is Increased by - Q.93 Which of the following is free replicon -
(1) Nitrogen - fixing bacteria (1) Exons (2) Introns
(2) Denitrifying bacteria (3) Plasmid (4) Hexons
(3) Plasmalemma (4) Cell membrane Q.94 Plant pathogenic bacteria are -
Q.84 Mostly parasitic bacteria are - (1) Gram Å (2) Gram Q
(1) Intra cellular (2) Inter cellular (3) Both (4) None
(3) Obligate (4) None Q.95 Which bacterium develops flavour and aroma in
Q.85 nif gene found in - tea and tobacoo leaves -
(1) Pseudomonas (2) Salmonella (1) Streptococus lactis (2) Azotobacter
(3) Rhizobium (4) Mycobacterium (3) Bacilius megatherium
Q.86 Bacteria which converts ammonia to nitrites- (4) Radiocicola
(1) Nitrobacter (2) Nitrosomonas Q.96 Souring of milk is due to -
(3) Azotobactor (4) Bacillus (1) Aerobic bacteria (2) Anaerobic bacteria
Q.87 Pili in bacteria are used for - (3) Both (4) None
(1) Locomotion (2) Respiration Q.97 Which place bacteria are not found -
(3) Conjugation (4) Transformation (1) Soil (2) lce
Q.88 Which reproduce by producing conidia - (3) Sea (4) Distilled water
(1) Pseudomonas (2) Coccus Q.98 Which of the following involves the direct
(3) Sarcina (4) Streptomyces transfer of genetic material from one bacteria
Q.89 Bacteria which sythesized Riboflavin or to another -
vit B2 - (1) Conjugation (2) Transformation
(1) E. Coli (2) Clostridium tetani (3) transduction (4) Lysogeny
(3) Corynebacterium (4)Clostridium butylicum Q.99 Which disease is caused by Clostridium-
Q.90 Which bacteria reduce fertility of soil - (1) Jaundice (2) Diarrhoea
(1) Nitrosomonas (2) Cyanobacteria (3) Tetanus (4) Small pox
(3) Azotobacter (4)Bacillius denitrificans Q.100 ‘’Rickettsia’’ is -
(1) Bacteria (2) Virus
(3) PPLO (4) Micro organism
ANSWER KEY
EXERCISE – 1
Ques. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. 4 3 2 2 3 4 1 4 1 3 2 4 4 1 1 3 2 1 2 2
Ques. 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
Ans. 3 2 3 2 1 2 3 3 2 3 2 1 2 2 4 1 2 3 1 4
Ques. 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
Ans. 2 1 3 2 2 2 4 1 1 3 4 3 2 1 2 4 1 2 1 4
Ques. 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80
Ans. 3 1 2 4 1 1 2 1 2 2 1 3 2 1 1 3 2 1 3 4
Ques. 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100
Ans. 3 3 1 2 3 2 3 4 4 4 2 1 3 3 3 2 4 1 3 1

EXERCISE – 2
Q.1 Soap box like cell wall characteristic of - Q.11 According to five kingdom system the unicellur
(1) Archae bacteria (2) Diatoms algae like Dinoflagellates, Diatoms and
(3) Dinoflagellates (4) Euglenoids Euglenoids are included in kingdom -
Q.2 Pseudoplasmodium is characterstic of - (1) Monera (2) Protista
(1) Protozoans (3) Plantae (4) Animalia
(2) Acellular slime molds Q.12 The diatomaceous earth is used to insulate
(3) Diatoms boilers and steam pipes because -
(4) Cellular slime molds (1) The wall of diatoms is deposited with
calcium
Q.3 ‘’Golden Algae’’ is the common name of Algae
belonging to - (2) The diatomaceous earth is cheap
(1) Bacillariophyta (2) Pyrophyta (3) It is a good conductor of heat
(3) Euglenophyta (4) Cyanophyta (4) The wall of diatoms is made of silica
Q.4 Armoured cell wall and biflagellated cells are Q.13 Slime moulds resemble -
characteristic of - (1) Animals (2) Fungi and plants
(1) Bacillariophyta (2) Pyrophyta (3) Fungi and animals (4) Procaryotes
(3) Euglenophyta (4) Cyanophyta Q.14 Shell of diatoms is made up of -
Q.5 Holozoic nutrition is characteristic of which (1) Silica
group - (2) Calcium carbonate
(1) Pyrrophyta (2) Bascillariophyta (3) Keratin
(3) Euglenophyta (4) Cyanophyta (4) Calcium oxalate
Q.6 Oils and leucosin are characteristic stored food Q.15 ‘’Diatomite’’ (Keiselgurh) is obtained from-
in -
(1) Myxophyceae (2) Bacillariophyceae
(1) Dinoflagellates (2) Euglenoids
(3) Phaeophyceae (4) Rhodophyceae
(3) Diatoms (4) None
Q.16 Which one of the following is not a diatom?
Q.7 Armoured algae are -
(1) Nostoc (2) Navicula
(1) Dinoflagellates (2) Euglenoids
(3) Cyclotella (4) Pinnularia
(3) Red algae (4) Cyanobacteria
Q.17 Most characteristic feature of diatoms is -
Q.8 The diatoms do not easily decay like most of
(1) Pigments
the other Algae because -
(2) Stored food
(1) They have water proof cells
(3) Cell wall
(2) Their walls are mucilagenous
(3) They have highly siliceous wall (4) Non oxygenic photosynthesis
(4) They are non living Q.18 Taxonomically the most controversial group is-
Q.9 Slime-moulds includes in which class of protista (1) Dinoflagellates (2) Diatoms
kingdom - (3) Euglenoids (4) Prokaryote
(1) Myxomycota (2) Eumycota Q.19 Decomposer protists are -
(3) Gymnomycota (4) Myxomycophyta (1) Diatoms (2) Dinoflagellates
Q.10 ‘’Keiselgurh’’ a heat resistant material is (3) Slime moulds (4) Euglenoid
obtained from- Q.20 The dead remains of diatoms are known as-
(1) Red Algae (2) Brown Algae (1) Coenobium (2) Sporangia
(3) Diatoms (4) Fungi (3) Kieselgurh (4) Sporocarp

Q.21 Besides the flagellary movement, Euglenoids Q.30 The name ‘’ Protist’’ proposed by C. Cuvier
can also perform special movement by and the group protista raised by Haeckel to
membrane undulations called ‘’Euglenoid include -
movement’’ Euglendoids are incluled in - (1) Unicellular eucaryotes
(1) Monera (2) Metazoa (2) Unicellular procaryotes
(3) Metaphyta (4) Protista (3) All the living beings which do not produce
Q.22 Taxonomists feel difficulty in classification of- tissues
(1) Prokaryotes (4) Heterotrophs
(2) Unicelluler eucaryotes Q.31 ‘’Fire algae’’ belongs to group -
(3) Plants (1) Pyrrophyta (2) Bacillariophyta
(4) Animals (3) Euglenophyta (4) Rhodophyta
Q.23 Maximum types of nutrition occur in which Q.32 In euglenoids, the stored food is paramylum
kingdom - which is a -
(1) Protista (2) Monera (1) Conversion product of glycogen
(3) Mycota (4) Animalia (2) Conversion product of starch
Q.24 Which of the following unicellular algae
(3) A type of lipid
reproduce by auxospores, have silicified cell
(4) A type of protein
wall and store food in the form of fats,
leucosine and chrysolaminarin - Q.33 ‘’Naked fungi’’ (Slime moulds) are naked-
(1) Diatoms (1) When they are reproducing
(2) Yellow green algae (2) When they are not reproducing
(3) Dinoflagellates (3) Always naked
(4) Euglenoids (4) Never naked
Q.25 Dinoflagellates glow during dark because- Q.34 Type of nutrition in slime mould is -
(1) Their body contains large amount of (1) Holozoic
phosphorus (2) Holophytic
(2) Their body is covered by luminiscent (3) Absorptive and Holozoic
layer (4) Absorptive and Holophytic
(3) They absorb light and emit some part of it Q.35 Multinucleated acellular slime molds are -
(4) Of chemical reaction between Luciferin (1) Haploid (2) Diploid
Luciferase
(3) Tetraploid (4) Triploid
Q.26 Paramylum is stored food of -
Q.36 Dinoflagellates are called fire algae due to
(1) Dinoflagellate (2) Euglenoid
which character -
(3) Diatom (4) Slime mould
(1) They appear like fire due to pigments
Q.27 The most efficient locomotion in protista is
(2) They produce fire due to friction
through -
(3) They occur on burnt places
(1) Pseudopodia (2) Flagella
(4) They show bioluminiscence
(3) Cilia (4) Tentacles
Q.28 A colourless dinoflagellate which is also Q.37 Toxins (Saxitoxins) secreted by some
classified as protozoa - dinoflagellates enter the body of human beings
through food chain and result in -
(1) Euglena (2) Ceratium
(1) Madness (2) Paralysis
(3) Noctiluca (4) Gonyaulax
(3) Syphilis (4) Plague
Q.29 Oraganism of which kingdom feed like animals
and perform photosynthesis like plants- Q.38 Diatoms float in water due to -
(1) Monera (2) Protista (1) Stored fats (2) Gas Vacuoles
(3) Mycota (4) Animalia (3) Flagella (4) Air chambers

Q.39 Dead remains of Diatoms at sea bed are called- Q.49 Diatoms perform which type of movement in
(1) Keiselgurh (2) Frustule water -
(3) Coral reefs (4) None (1) Swimming (2) Amoeboid
(3) Floating (4) Ciliary
Q.40 Protists should be better termed as -
Q.50 Protist used for the construction of sound proof
(1) Acellular (2) Cellular rooms, is -
(3) Multicellular (4) Coenocytic (1) Dinoflagellate (2) Diatoms
Q.41 Unicellular algae which produce ‘’Auxospores’’ (3) Euglenoids (4) Zooflagellates
and have soap box like cell wall are - Q.51 One of the following dinoflagellate is called
(1) Dinoflagellates (2) Euglenoids night light -
(3) Diatoms (4) Slime Mould (1) Ceratium (2) Noctiluca
Q.42 Which of the following eukaryotes are devoid of (3) Navicula (4) Gymnodinium
histone proteins- Q.52 Auxospores are formed by -
(1) Diatoms (2) Euglenoids
(1) Golden algae (2) Euglenoids
(3) Dinoflagelates (4) bacteria
(3) Fire algae (4) Slime Mould
Q.53 Protists which are diploid reproduce sexually by
Q.43 Which of the following algae secrete the process of -
‘’Saxitoxins’’ - (1) Zygotic meiosis (2) Cyst formation
(1) Gonyaulax (2) Oscillatoria (3) Binary fission (4) gametic meiosis
(3) Noctiluca (4) Pyrocystis Q.54 Which is found in slime moulds but not in fungi?
Q.44 In which of the following cell wall is divided in (1) Non motile spores
two half parts - (2) Amoeboid adult
(1) Diatoms (2) Dinoflagellates (3) Zygote formation
(3) Euglenoids (4) Red algae (4) Photosynthesis
Q.55 Photosynthetic protists are mainly -
Q.45 The diatomaceous earth is used for insulating
(1) Multicellular, prokaryotic,
boilers and steam pipes because-
photosynthetic
(1) The diatomaceous earth is very cheap
(2) Unicellular, prokaryotic,
(2) It is a good conductor of heat
photosynthetic
(3) It is a bad conductor of heat (3) Unicellular, eukaryotic, photosythetic
(4) It is composed of calcium carbonate (4) Multicellular, eukaryotic,
Q.46 ‘’Keiselgurh’’ is - photosynthetic
(1) Silicified deposits of Diatoms Q.56 Red tides are proudced by -
(2) Calcified deposits of Diatoms (1) Red algae (2) Dinoflagellates
(3) Pigments of Diatoms (3) Diatoms (4) Brown algae
Q.57 Nucleus of Noctiluca is -
(4) Deposite of calcium oxalate in Euglenoids
(1) Haploid (2) Diploid
Q.47 In which of the following, the body is an
(3) Tripoid (4) Tetraploid
aggregation of amoeboid cells -
Q.58 Select correct statement :
(1) Acellular slime molds (1) Some protists are colonical without
(2) Cellular slime molds much cellular differentiation
(3) Diatoms (2) Pyrrophytes are exclusively marine
(4) Dinoflagellate forms.
Q.48 Class Gymnomycota includes - (3) Lorica or theca is absent in endozoic
dicoflagellates.
(1) Fungi (2) Slime moulds
(4) Primordial utricle is present around a
(3) Lichens (4) Algae large central vacuole in diatoms.

Q.59 Which kingdom includes nutritionally most Q.66 Bivalved siliceous shell or frustule occur in :
diversed group of organism and has no well (1) Diatoms (2) Radiolarians
defined boundaries? (3) Zooflagellates (4) Archaebacteria
(1) Monera (2) Protista Q.67 Rejuvenescent spore of diatom is :
(3) Fungi (4) Plantae (1) Haploid and exospore
Q.60 Chrysophytes are : (2) Diploid and statospore
(1) Diatoms and desmids (3) Haploid and statospore
(2) Diatoms and dinoflagellates (4) Diploid and auxospore
(3) Slime moulds and desmids Q.68 Diatomaceous earth is due to :
(4) Slime moulds and diatoms (1) Silicon (2) Zinc
Q.61 Red tide is caused by rapid multiplication of : (3) Phosphorus (4) Calcium
(1) BGA (2) Desmids Q.69 Leucosin (Chrysolaminarin) is a carbohydrate
(3) Diatoms (4) Dinoflagellates which is stored as reserve food in case of :
Q.62 Which of the following option for diatoms is (1) Diatom (2) Euglea
correct? (3) Dinoflagellates (4) Paramecium
(1) Pecto-cellulosic cell wall Q.70 Reserve food in Euglena is :
(2) Silicified cell wall (1) Paramylum (2) Starch
(3) Multicellular eukaryotes (3) Glycogen (4) Mannitol
(4) Produce saxitoxin Q.71 Flagellation in Euglena is :
Q.63 Acellular slime moulds show : (1) Uniflagellation and stichonematic
(1) Haploid uninucleate plasmodium (2) Isokont and whiplash type
(2) Naked sporangia (3) Heterokont and whiplash type
(3) Autotrophic nutrition (4) Heterokont and stichonematic
(4) Isogamous type reproduction Q.72 Special type of red pigment present in the eye-
Q.64 The photosynthetic protists are : spot of Euglena and Crustacea is called :
(1) Diatoms, euglenoids and slime moulds (1) Phycoerythrin (2) Astaxanthin
(2) Sacrodines, dinoflagellates and (3) Carotene (4) Xanthophyll
diatoms Q.73 Mixotrophic nutrition occurs in :
(3) Euglenoids, diatoms and (1) Paramecium (2) Euglena
dinoflagellates (3) Plasmodium (4) Amoeba
(4) Ciliates, zooflagellates and Q.74 Paraflagellate body of Euglena helps in :
dinoflagellates (1) Locomotion (2) Photoreception
Q.65 Sea water glows during night mainly due to (3) Reproduction (4) Osmoregulation
occurrence of : Q.75 The structure formed in the life cycle of cellular
(1) Gonyaulax (2) Noctiluca slime-mould due to chemotactic movement is :
(3) Euglena (4) Cyclotella (1) Pseudoplasmodium (2) Swarm cells
(3) Macrocyst (4) Capillitia
ANSWER KEY
EXERCISE – 2
Ques. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. 2 4 1 2 3 3 1 3 3 3 2 4 3 1 2 1 3 3 3 3
Ques. 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
Ans. 4 2 1 1 4 2 3 3 2 3 1 2 2 3 2 4 2 1 1 1
Ques. 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
Ans. 3 3 1 1 3 1 2 2 3 2 2 1 4 2 3 2 2 1 2 1
Ques. 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75
Ans. 4 2 4 3 2 1 4 1 1 1 4 2 2 2 1

CBSE PM/PD-1998 Q.11 Modern farmer's can increase the yield of Paddy
upto 50% by the use of -
Q.1 Indicator of water pollution -
(1) Cynobacteria
(1) E. Coli (2) Chlorella
(2) Rhizobium
(3) Beggiatoa (4) Ulothrix
(3) Cyanobacteria in Azolla pinnata
Q.2 DNA of E.Coli -
(4) Farm yard manure
(1) ds circular (2) ss circular Q.12 Koch's postulates not applicable to -
(3) ds Linear (4) ss Linear (1) Mycobacterium leprae
Q.3 Species separated by geographical barriers are (2) Tuberculosis
called - (3) Pneumonia
(1) Allopatric (2) Sympatric (4) Cholera
(3) Sibling (4) Endemic
Q.4 Typhoid caused by - CBSE PM/PD-1999
(1) Rickettssiae (2) Chlamydia
(3) Salmonella typhi (4) Mycobacterium Q.13 Plant pathogenic bacteria are mostly -
Q.5 Non-symbiotic nitrogen fixing bacteria - (1) Gram + Non spore forming
(1) Rhizobium (2) Azospirilium (2) Gram - Negative non spore forming
(3) Azotobacter (4) Nitrosomonas (3) Gram - spore forming
Q.6 Difference between eukaryotes and (4) Gram (-) spore forming
prokaryotes- Q.14 Anabaena is associated with Azolla's -
(1) ss circular DNA in prokaryotes (1) Stem (2) Leaves
(2) Histone with prokaryotic DNA (3) Roots (4) Flowers
(3) Operon in eukaryotes Q.15 Nitrogen fixing bacteria converts -
(4) Membrane bound organelles in eukaryotes (1) N2  NH3 (2) NH4+ Nitrates
Q.7 According to five kingdom system blue green (3) NO2  NO3 (4) NO3  N2
algae belongs to - Q.16 Main reason of water bloom in rivers, lakes, sea
(1) Metaphyta (2) Monera etc. is -
(3) Protista (4) Algae (1) Brown algae and green algae
Q.8 Bacteria are essential in carbon cycle as - (2) Cyanobacteria and dinoflagellates
(1) Decomposer (2) Synthesizer (3) Eichornia (4) Fishes
(3) Consumer (4) Pri. Producer Q.17 Azolla is used in the cultivation of -
Q.9 Transduction in bacteria carried out by - (1) Maize (2) Sorghum
(1) Bacteriophage (2) B.G.A. (3) Wheat (4) Rice
(3) Mycoplasma (4) Rickettssiae Q.18 Which one produce gas by decomposing the
Q.10 Which of the following most used in genetic gobar (Dung) in gobar gas -
engineering - (1) Fungus (2) Virus
(1) E.coli and Agrobacterium (3) Methanogenic (4) Algae
(2) Mycobacteria and Salmonella Q.19 Maximum photosynthesis takes place by -
(3) Aspergillus (1) Phytoplankton (2) Zooplankton
(4) Penicillium (3) Marsh plants (4) Woody plants

Q.20 Genetic material of prokaryotic cell - Q.28 Which of the following is nonsymbiotic,
(1) Non histonic double stranded DNA anaerobic, nonphotosynthetic nitrogen fixing
(2) Histonic double stranded DNA bacteria? [Maharashtra CET 2005]
(3) Histone & DNA both are absent (1) Clostridium (2) Nostoc
(3) Anabaena (4) Azotobacter
(4) Histone without DNA
Q.29 Bacterial cell includes all except :
Q.21 Diatomaceous earth is used as heat insulator in
boilers and steam pipes because the cell wall of [DPMT 2005]
diatom- (1) nuclear material without membrane
(1) Composed of Iron (2) cell wall of murein
(2) Composed of Silicon dioxide (3) DNA compound with histones
(4) ribosomes
(3) Is conductor of heat
Q.30 The pigment phycosyanin and phycoerythrinare
(4) Is bad conductor of heat
present in : [Kerala PMT 2005]
Q.22 One of the free-living anaerobic nitrogen-fixer
(1) bacillariophyceae (2) archibacteria
is–
(3) eubacteria (4) cyanobacteria
(1) Beijernickia (2) Rhodospirillum
Q.31 Barophilic prokaryotes : [AIPMT 2005]
(3) Rhizobium (4) Azotobacter
(1) grow slowly in highly alkaline frozen lakes
Q.23 Some hyperthermophilic organisms that grow in
at high altitudes.
highly acidic (pH2) habitats belong to the two
(2) occur in water containing high
groups –
concentrations of barium hydroxide.
(1) Eubacteria and archaea
(3) grow and multiply in very deep marine
(2) Cyanobacteria and diatoms sediments.
(3) Protists and mosses (4) readily grow and divide in sea water enriched
(4) Liverworts and yeasts in any soluble salt of barium.
Q.24 Bacteria can be considered to be a plant because: Q.32 Teichoic acid is present in : [Pb. PMT 2005]
[BHU 2005] (1) Gram +ve bacteria (2) Gram –ve bacteria
(3) spirochaete (4) actinomycetes
(1) some of the bacteria are photosynthetic
Q.33 For retting of jute the fermenting microbe used
(2) some of the bacteria have chlorophyll
is : [AIPMT 2005]
(3) some of the bacteria can make their own food
(1) Helicobactor pylori
(4) bacteria have cell wall
(2) Methophilic bacteria
Q.25 The major component of bacterial cell wall is a (3) Streptococcus lactin
polymer called (4) Butyric acid bacteria
(1 ) Chitin (2) Xytan Q.34 Free living aerobic nitrogen fixing bacterium is:
(3) Cellulose (4) Peptidoglycan [Pb.PMT 1995; HPPMT 2005]
Q.26 Oxytetracycline is produced by : (1) Azotobacter (2) Rhizobium
[JIPMER 2005] (3) Clostridium (4) Anabaena
(1) mycoplasma (2) actinomycetes Q.35 Cyanobacteria is : [Maharashtra CET 2005]
(3) cyanobacteria (4) eubacteria (1) nitrogen fixing free living photosynthetic
Q.27 Cyanobacteria existed .............. years ago : organism.
[HP PMT 2005] (2) symbiotic mycorrhizae
(1) 2.9 billion (2) 3.4 billion (3) photosynthetic algae
(4) saprophytic fungus
(3) 1 million (4) 44 thousand

Q.36 Genetic element which may be present inside as Q.44 Widal test is performed as diagnotic value in :
well as extrachromosomal entities are : [CET Chd. 2006]
[AICEE BVSE 2005] (1) tuberculosis (2) typhoid
(1) episomes (2) mesosomes (3) cholera (4) tetanus
(3) oxysomes (4) autosomes Q.45 The two bacteria found to be very useful in
Q.37 The bacterial cell wall is made up of : genetic engineering experiments are :
[Kerala PMT 2006] [AIPMT 1998, 2006]
(1) cellulose (2) hemicellulose (1) Nitrosomonas and Klebsiella
(3) both 1 and 2 (4) peptidoglycan (2) Escherichia and Agrobacterium
(5) glycogen (3) Nitrobacter and Azotobacter
Q.38 Most widely used bioweapon is :[BHU 2006] (4) Rhizobium and Diplococcus
(1) Bacillus Subtilis Q.46 Pili of bacteria are useful for :
(2) Pseudomonas putida [CMC Vellore 2003; HP PMT 2006]
(3) Bacillus anthracis (4) None above (1) locomotion (2) sexual contacts
Q.39 A bacterial cell divides once every minute and (3) asexual reproduction
it takes 1 hour to fill a cup. How much time will (4) transformation
it take to fill half the cup? (5) feeding
(1) 30 minutes (2) 60 minutes Q.47 The bacterium (Clostridium botulinum) that
(3) 29 minutes (4) 59 minutes causes botulism is : [AIPMT 2006]
Q.40 Bacteria is Pathogenic due (1) an obligate aerobe
(1) Mitochondria (2) Cell membrane (2) a fecultative anaerobe
(3) Cell wall (4) Nuclic acid (3) an obligate anaerobe
Q.41 Which of the following is nonpathogenic (4) a fecultative aerobe
bacteria of colon? Q.48 In prokaryotes what helps in annerobic
(1) Escherichia coli respiration? [BVP Pune 2006]
(2) Balantidium coli (1) Mitochondria
(3) Entamoeba coli (2) Folds of plasma membrane
(4) Enterobius vermicularis (3) Ribosomes
Q.42 Treponema pallidum is : (4) Cell wall
[AMU 2004; CMC Ludhiana 2006] Q.49 Blue green algae as Nostoc and Anabaena can
(1) causative agent of syphilis photosynthesize due to presence of :
(2) the example of spirochaete bacterium [Maharashtra CET 2006]
(3) the causative agent of sexually transmitted (1) heterocysts (2) akinetes
disease (3) chromatophores (4) leghaemoglobin
(4) all are correct. Q.50 The exceptional feature of blue green algae
Q.43 Which of the following is correct? which is basis of their studies is :
[DY PATIL Pune 2006] [BVP Pune 2006]
(1) Bacteria are only autotrophic (1) aplanospores (2) sclerodia
(2) Bacteria are only heterotrophic (3) heterocysts (4) haplospores
(3) Most are heterotrophic but few are Q.51 Crown galls are caused in plants due to infection
autotrophic of : [GGSIPPU 2006]
(4) Most bacteria are autotrophic but few are (1) insects (2) virus
heterotrophic (3) bacteria (4) fungi

Q.52 Curing of ten leaves is brought about by the Q.58 Some bacteria can live also in the absence of
activity of : [AIPMT 2006] oxygen. These are : [CMC Vellore 2007]
(1) fungi (2) bacteria (1) Obligate aerobes (2) Facultative aerobes
(3) micorrhizae (4) viruses (3) Obligate anerobes (4)Facultative anerobes
Q.53 In prokaryotes, chromatophores are : Q.59 What are infoldings of plasma membrane called
[AIIMS 2006] in prokaryotes which store respiratory pigments?
(1) specialized granules responsible for [AFMC 2007]
colouration of cells. (1) Glyoxysomes (2) Oxysomes
(2) structures responsible for organizing the (3) Mesosomes (4) Cristae
shape of the organism. Q.60 Plasmid is : [CMC Vellore 2007]
(3) inclusion bodies lying free inside the cells for (1) small extrachromosomal circular self
carrying out various metabolic activities. replicating DNA that can be carry genes into
(4) internal membrane systems that may host organism
beocme extensive and complex in (2) bacteriophage
phtosythesis bacteria. (3) DNA found in mitochondria
Q.54 Which one of the following pathogen cause (4) DNA incorporated in bacteria
canker disease? [Kerala PMT 2007] Q.61 Difference between Gram –ve and Gram +ve
(1) Meloidogyne ineognita bacteria is in their : [AFMC 2007]
(2) Anguina tritici (1) cell membrane (2) cell wall
(3) Xanthomonas citri (3) ribosome (4) mitochondria
(4) Pseudomonas rubilineans Q.62 The cell wall of bacterium is made up of :
(5) Phytophthora infestans [BHU 2007; Kerala PMT 2007]
Q.55 Find out the pairs, which are correctly matched: (1) Cellulose (2) Hemicellulose
[Kerala PMT 2007] (3) Lignin (4) Peptidoglycan
(a) Cyanobacteria (i) Biopesticides (5) Glycogen
(2) Mycorrhiza (ii) Solubilization of Q.63 Which of the following Moneran's lack cel wall?
phosphate [BHU 2007]
(3) Bacillus (iii) Cry protein (1) Actinomycetes
thuringiensis
(2) Photosynthetic bacteria
(4) Single cell protein (iv) Rhizobia
(3) Eubacteria
(1) a and ii (2) b and iii
(4) None above
(3) c and iii (4) a and iii
Q.64 Bacteria can live under sub zero temperature for:
(5) b and iv [Uttranchal PMT 2008]
Q.56 Which one of the following statements about (1) more than 1000 years
mycoplasma is wrong? [AIPMT 2007]
(2) 100–1000 years
(1) They are pleomophic
(3) few years
(2) They are sensitive to penicillin (4) few days
(3) They cause diseases in plants
Q.65 Set of bacterial diseases is :
(4) They are called PPLO
[Pb. PMT 2000; Uttranchal PMT 2008]
Q.57 The presence of a cluster of polar flagella is
(1) diptheria, leprosy and plague
termed as : [CMC Vellore 2007]
(2) malaria, mumps and polio
(1) Monotrichous (2) Amphitrichous
(3) cholera, typhoid and mumps
(3) Lophotrichous (4) Peritrichous
(4) tetanus, TB and malaria

Q.66 In prokaryotes, genetic recombination can occur Q.73 Bacterial brown rot of potato is caused by :
during [AFMC 2008]
(1 ) Transduction (2) Transformation (1) Xanthomonas citri
(3) Conjugation (4) All of these (2) Eschirichia coli
Q.67 Thermococcus, Methanococcus and (3) Agrobacterium tumofaciens
Methanobacterium exemplify : (4) Psuedomonas solanacearum
[AIPMT 2008]
(5) Salmonella typhosa
(1) archaebacteria that contain protein
Q.74 Which of the following is a bacterial disease?
homologous to eukaryotic core histones.
[AFMC 2008]
(2) archaebacteria that lack any histones
resembling those found in eukaryotes but (1) Red rust of tea
whose DNA is negatively supercoiled. (2) Citrus canker
(3) bacteria whose DNA is relaxed or positively (3) Red rot of sugarcane
supercoiled but which have a cytoskeleton (4) Late light of potato
as well as mitochondria. Q.75 Shorter generation time of E. coli compared to
(4) bacteria that contain a cytoskeleton and eukaryotes may be explained on the basis of :
ribosomes. [WB JEE 2008]
Q.68 Which one of the following is not characteristic (1) shape
of Gram-positive bacteria?
(2) large surface : volume ratio
[Kerala PMT 2008]
(3) presence of cell wall
(1) Cell wall is smooth
(4) absence of organelles
(2) Mesosomes are distinctively prominent
Q.76 Division in a bacteria cell is carried out through:
(3) Basal body of flagellum contains 2 rings
[WB JEE 2008]
(4) Outer membrane is present
(5) Murein content of cell wall is 70–80% (1) multiple fission (2) binary fission
Q.69 Pathogenicity of bacteria causing tuberculosis (3) budding (4) plasmotomy

and leprosy is due to : [Kerala PMT 2008] Q.77 Antibiotic resistance genes are present on :
(1) cholesterol (2) ergosterol [ICAR AIEEA 2008]
(3) prostaglandins (4) glycerol (1) plastid (2) DNA
(5) wax-D (3) plasmid (4) RNA
Q.70 Bacterial leaf blight of rice is caused by a Q.78 Cyanobacteria is the member of :
species of : [AIPMT 2008] [ICAR AIEEA 2008]
(1) Xanthomonas (2) Pseudomonas (1) fungi (2) protozoa
(3) Alternaria (4) Erwinia (3) monera (4) pteridophytes
Q.71 Streptomyces griseus gives which of these Q.79 The gram negative bacteria detect and respond
antibiotic : [DY Patil Pune 2008] to the chemicals in their surroudings by :
(1) Chloamphenicol (2) Sterptomycin [WB JEE 2008]
(3) Tetracycline (4) Penicillin (1) muramic acid (2) lipopolysaccharide
Q.72 Indirect transfer of genetic material from one (3) volutin granules (4) porins
bacterium to another through bacteriophase is: Q.80 Which of the following is not bacteria?
[CMC Vellore 2008]
[HP PMT 2008]
(1) transduction (2) transcription
(1) Methanogens (2) Diatoms
(3) conjugation (4) transtation
(3) Archeabacteria (4) Blue-green algae
(5) transformation

Q.81 A bacterium is capable of withstanding extreme Q.90 Which protist reproduces both by binary fission
heat, dryness and toxic chemicals. This indicates and conjugation [BHU 1994]
that it is probably able to form : [KCET 2009] (1) Amoeba (2) Paramecium
(1) a thick peptidoglycan wall (3) Euglena (4) Monocystis
(2) endospores Q.91 Total parasites belongs to protozoan group
(3) endotoxins (4) endogenous buds [CPMT 1991, 2001, BHU 2002]
Q.82 The vector for plague is : [GGSIPU 2009] (1) Sporozoa (2) Ciliata
(1) Anopheles (2) Aedes (3) Sarcodina (4) Zooflagellata
(3) Xenopsylla (4) Culex Q.92 Protozoan protists respire through
Q.83 Lung tuberculosis is caused by :[DPMT 2009] (1) Pseudopodia (2) Contractile vacuole
(1) Pseudomonas aeruginosa (3) Mitochondria (4) General surface
(2) Mycobacterium tuberculosis Q.93 Which one is not a protozoan protist
(3) Streptococcus pneumoniae [Manipal 1995]
(4) Escherichia coli (1) Plasmodium vivax
Q.84 An example for symbiotic bacteria is : (2) Paramecium caudatum
[DPMT 2009] (3) Enterobius vermiclaris
(1) Erwinia amylovora (4) Trypanosoma gambiense
(2) Rhizobium leguminosarum Q.94 Protozoan protists are differentiated on the basis
(3) Xanthomonas campestris of [MP PMT 1996; CPMT 1998]
(4) Agrobacterium tumefaciens (1) Nuclei
Q.85 Nonpathogenic bacteria found in our vermiform (2) Size
appendix is : [AFMC 2009] (3) Shape
(1) Entamoeba histolytica (4) Locomotory structures
(2) Shigella Q.95 Endoparasitic protistan protozoans belong to
(3) Esherichia coli (4) Ascaris [CPMT 1998]
Q.86 Which one of the following organisms possesses (1) Sporozoa (2) Ciliata
characteristics of plant and an animal (3) Sarcodina (4) Mastigophora
[CBSE PMT 1995] Q.96 Protozoan found commensal in human colon is
(1) Euglena (2) Bacteria [CPMT 1998]
(3) Mycoplasma (4) Paramoecium (1) Entamoeba coli (2) P. vivax
Q.87 The scientist who coined the term 'protista' to (3) A. aegypti (4) All of these
include both plant and animal like unicellular Q.97 Primary grouping of protozoan protists is based
organism was [BHU 1982] on [DPMT 2002; MP PMT 2002]
(1) Robert Koch (2) E.F. Haeckel (1) Locomotor organelles
(3) L. Pasteur (4) Joseph Lister (2) Size and shape
Q.88 Protista includes (3) Mode of feeding
(1) Protozoa, algae and fungi (4) Mode of reproduction
(2) Algae, bryophyta, bacteria and fungi Q.98 Protozoans are able to live efficiently due to
(3) Fungi, slime moulds and vascular plants their [AMU 1999]
(4) Protozoa, bacteria, algae and bryophyta (1) Motility
Q.89 Slime moulds belong to kingdom (2) Rapid reproduction
(1) Monera (2) Protista (3) Ability to manufacture food
(3) Plantae (4) Animalia (4) Specialized organelles

Q.99 Protista contains [Orissa 2002] Q.102 Nuclear membrane is absent in :
(1) Euglena, dinoflagellates and yeast [AIPMT Pre 2012]
(2) Amoeba, paramecium, hydra (1) Agaricus (2) Volvox
(3) Euglena, paramecium, mushroom (3) Nostoc (4) Penicillium
(4) Amoeba, paramecium and dinoflagellates Q.103 Maximum nutritional diversity is found in the
Q.100 The cyanobacteria are also referred to as : group : [AIPMT Pre 2012]
[AIPMT Pre 2012] (1) Antimalia (2) Monera
(1) golden algae (2) slime moulds (3) Plantae (4) Fungi
(3) blue green algae (4) protists Q.104 The most abundant prokaryotes helpful to
Q.101 Which one of the following does not differ in humans in making curd from milk and in
E.coli and Chlamydomonas? production of antibiotics are the ones categorised
as : [AIPMT Pre 2012]
[AIPMT Pre 2012]
(1) Archaebacteria
(1) Chromosomal Organization
(2) Chemosynthetic autotrophs
(2) Cell wall
(3) Heterotrophic bacteria
(3) Cell membrane
(4) Ribosomes (4) Cyanobacteria
ANSWER KEY
EXERCISE – 3
Ques. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. 1 1 1 3 3 4 2 1 1 1 3 1 2 2 1 2 4 3 1 1
Ques. 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
Ans. 4 2 1 4 5 2 2 1 3 4 3 2 4 1 1 1 4 3 5 4
Ques. 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
Ans. 2 4 3 2 2 2 3 2 3 3 3 2 4 3 3 2 3 2 3 1
Ques. 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80
Ans. 2 4 4 1 1 1 4 5 1 2 1 4 2 2 2 3 3 2
Ques. 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100
Ans. 2 2 3 2 2 3 1 2 1 2 2 1 2 3 4 1 1 1 4 3
Ques. 101 102 103 104
Ans. 3 3 2 3

Q.1 Bacteria with flagella all over its body, is called
(1) Monotrichous (2) Amphitrichous (3) Lophotrichous (4) Peritrichous
Q.2 Nodules with nitrogen fixing bacteria are present in
(1) Wheat (2) Cotton (3) Mustard (4) Gram
Q.3 Cyanobacteria is a new name for
(1) Mycoplasma (2) Nostoc (3) Myxophyceae (4) Myxomycetes
Q.4 The similarity between bacterium and cyanobacterium is in the presence of
(1) Chloroplast (2) Flagella (3) 80 S ribosomes (4) Nucleoid
Q.5 Which of the following terms is not concerned with genetic recombination in bacteria?
(1) Transformation (2) Transduction
(3) Translation (4) Conjugation
Q.6 When a bacteriophage, in its lytic phase, carries some part of the partially digested chromosome of one
bacterium to another host cell, the process is called
(1) Generalised transduction (2) Conjugation
(3) Transformation (4) Specialised transduction
Q.7 Match the following and choose the correct combination from the options given :
Column–I Column–II
(Types of bacteria) (Activity)
(a) Escherichia coli (i) nif gene
(2) Rhizobium meliloti (ii)Digestive hydrocarbons of crude oil
(3) Bacillus thuringiensis (iii) Human insulin production
(4) Pseudomonas putida (iv) Bio control of fungal disease
(v) Bio degradable insecticide
(1) a = iii, b = i, c = v, d = iv (2) a = i, b = ii, c = iii, d = iv
(3) a = ii, b = i, c = iii, d = iv (4) a = iii, b = i, c = v, d = ii
Q.8 Match column–I and II and select the correct option.
Column–I Column–II
(a) Aerobic (i) Frankia
(2) Cyanobacteria (ii) Azosprillum
(3) Casuarina (iii) Clostridium
(4) Tropical grasses (iv) Aulosira
(v) Azotobacter
(1) a-iv, b-iii, c-ii, d-i (2) a-iii, b-v, c-iv, d-ii
(3) a-ii, b-i, c-iii, d-v (4) a-v, b-iv, c-i, d-ii
Q.9 Some Gram -ve bacteria have peptidoglycan and an extra layer of
(1) Lipo-polysaccharide (2) Lipo-protein
(3) Protein (4) Both (1) & (3)
Q.10 In prokaryotes, chromatophores are

(1) Specialized granules responsible for colouration of cells
(2) Structures responsbile for organizing the shape of the organism
(3) Inclusion bodies lying free inside the cells for carrying out various metabolic activities
(4) Internal membrane systems that may become extensive and complex in photosynthetic bacteria
Q.11 Myxomycetes are
(1) Saprobes or parasites, having mycelia, asexual reproduction by fragmentation, sexual reproduction by
fusion of gametes
(2) Slimy mass of multinucleate protoplasm, & having pseudopodia-like structures for engulfing food, reproduction
through fragmentation or spores
(3) Prokaryotic organisms, cellular or aceiiular sap robes or autotrophic, reproduce by binary fission
(4) Eukaryotic, single-celled or filamentous, sap robes or autotrophic, asexual reproduction by fusion of two
cells or their nuclei
Q.12 Monerans which have chlorophyll a in their photosynthetic apparatus also possess/shows
(1) 2 layered cell wall (2) Chemotrophic mode
(3) Flagella (4) Oxygenic photosynthesis
Q.13 Pathogen causing witches broom of potato is
(1) BGA (2) PPLO (3) Virus (4) Fungi
Q.14 Monerans with eukaryotic feature like presence of introns and histones are
(1) Rickettsiae (2) Eubacteria (3) Actinobacteria (4) Archaebacteria
Q.15 Somatic phase of acellular slime moulds is
(1) Haploid myxamoebae (2) Diploid microcyst
(3) Haploid plasmodium (4) Diploid plasmodium
Q.16 Pusules are ____ found in ____
(1) Contractile vacuoles; Chlamydomonas (2) Noncontractile vacuoles; Diatoms
(3) Gas vacuoles; Cyanobacteria (4) Noncontractile vacuoles; Dinoflagellates
Q.17 Photoorganotrophic bacteria utilises H-donor in their photoautotrophic mode of nutrition as
(1) H2S (2) Hp
(3) Sodium thiosulphate (4) Nonsulphur aliphatic organic compounds
Q.18 Curing of tea leaves is done using
(1) Micrococcus candisans (2) Bacillus megatherium
(3) Pseudomonas fluorescence (4) Bacillus ramosus
INSTRUCTIONS FOR Q. NO. 19 TO 24

In the following questions (19 to 24), a statement of assertion (A) is followed by a statement of reason (R).
(1) If both Assertion & Reason are true and the reason is the correct explanation of the assertion, then mark
(1).
(2) If both Assertion & Reason are true but the reason is not the correct explanation of the assertion, then
mark (2).
(3) If Assertion is true statement but Reason is false, then mark (3).
(4) If both Assertion and Reason are false statements, then mark (4).
Q.19 A : Bacterial photosynthesis is anoxygenic.
R : Reductant as NADH2 is used by bacteria.
Q.20 A : Gymnodinium is red tide causing alga.

R : Phycoerythrin is responsible for red colour.
Q.21 A : BGA is one of the most successful group of organism on earth.
R : BGA shows both oxygenic and anoxygenic photosynthesis.
Q.22 A : Cyanobacteria are photosynthetic, blue green algae with all the prokaryotic structures.
R : They are green due to presence of chloroplasts.
Q.23 A : Gram-negative bacteria do not retain the stain when washed with alcohol.
R : The outer face of the outer membrane of Gram-negative bacteria contains lipopolysaccharides, a part
of which is integrated into the membrane lipids.
Q.24 A : Cyanobacteria can adaptively change their body colour according to different wavelength of available
light.
R : The characteristic feature of cyanobacterial cell is the presence of a system of photosynthetic lamellae
called thylakoids.
Q.25 A : Gram-negative bacteria do not retain the stain when washed with alcohol.
R : The outer face of the outermembrane of Gram-negative bacteria contains lipopolysaccharides, a
part of which is integrated into the membrane lipids.
ANSWER KEY
EXERCISE – 4
Ques. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
Ans. 4 4 3 4 3 1 4 4 1 4 2 2 2
Ques. 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
Ans. 4 4 4 4 1 2 3 3 3 1 2 1

Instruction to fill

Exercise # 1
Exercise # 2
Exercise # 3
Exercise # 4
Other Exercise
Advantages

KINGDOM FUNGI
Mycology – Study of fungi
Father of Mycology – Mitcheli  Book : Nova plantarum genera
Father of modern mycology – De Bary
Father of Indian mycology – B.B. Mundker / E.J. Butler
Fungi name given by – Gaspard Bauhin
Study of rust of wheat – K.C. Mehta
Fungi are found mostly in humus rich soil. But in the presence of moisture, these can grow on leather,
wood, pickle and bread. Some fungi live parasitically in plants, animals and human body. Chloroplast is
absent in fungi, so fungi are heterotrophs. Fungi obtain their own food from dead organic matter or living
organisms.
On the basis of source of food fungi are of two types :
(a) Saprophytic : These fungi obtain their own food from dead organic matter such as bread, rottening
fruit, vegetable and dung etc. Nutrition is absorptive type in saprophytic fungi
(b) Parasitic : These obtain their own food from living organism such as plants, animals and human
beings. They obtain nutrition with the help of haustoria.
(c) Symbiotic : Some fungi are found symbiotically associated with algae and form lichens. Some fungi
are found symbiotically in the roots of higher plants and form mycorrhiza.
STRUCTURE
The body of fungi is called Mycelium. Mycelium is composed of filaments called hypha. The body is
haploid (n) and thalloid. The hyphae may be aseptate and multinucleate, but in most of the fungi, the
mycelium is septate. The septum has a pore through which continuity of the cytoplasm of the adjoining
cells is maintained. The septum may have simple central pore as in ascomycetes, but in higher fungi
(class basidiomycetes), the septum has dolipore septum. In septate mycelium, individual cell may contain
single nucleus (monokaryotic – feature of primary mycelium) or an intermediate phase of two nuclei
(dikaryotic – feature of secondary mycelium). Hypha
Cell wall is present around fungi, which is made up of
chitin or fungal cellulose. Some quantity of proteins, lipids
and cellulose also present with chitin.
Note : (i) Cell wall of the members of class-oomycetes is
mainly made up of cellulose.
(ii) In fungi the stored food remains in the form of
glycogen and oil.
(iii)They are multicellular except Yeast and Synchytrium.
Mycelium
DIFFERENT FORMS OF MYCELIUM
(a) Plectenchyma : When hyphae of a mycelium grow together like plates and intertwine with one another
forming a thick woven structure, it is called plectenchyma. Plectenchyma may have :
(b) Prosenchyma : Loosely interwoven structure whose hyphal components lie more or less parallel to
each other and are recognizable, is known as prosenchyma.
Fungi [71]

(c) Pseudoparenchyma : Hyphae are compactly arranged and hyphal components have lost their identity
and appear isodiametric and continuous in section resembling parenchyma of higher plants and is known
as pseudoparenchyma.
Fungal tissues
(d) Sclerotia (Singular Sclerotium) : In some fungi like Claviceps the mycelium may pass into a dormant
or resting stage by the formation of hard resting bodies resistant to unfavourable conditions.
(e) Rhizomorph : When the fungal hyphae aggregate together below surface they behave as an organized
unit to form a root like strand with a thick hard cortex. It also develops a growing tip somewhat
resembling that of a root tip, e.g., Agaricus.
(f) Appressorium : Terminal swollen structure of germ tube for attachment and penetration.
(g) Haustoria : Terminal swollen structure for absorption of food, e.g., Albugo.
Most of the fungi, posses two distinct phases in the life cycle, the vegetative and the reproductive phase.
On this basis fungi are of two types :
(a) Holocarpic Mycelium : Fungal bodies in which entire cell gets transformed into reproductive structures
in unicellular yeasts, the same cell performs both vegetative and reproductive functions.
(b) Eucarpic Mycelium : In which a part of mycelium is used up in the development of reproductive
structures.
On the basis of the mycelium nature fungi are of two types :
(a) Heterothallic species
Those species in which fertilization takes place between two genetically different gametes are called as
heterothallic species. In heterothallic condition, the fertilizing gametes are formed on different thallus
(mycelium). e.g., Mucor, Rhizopus, Albugo, Puccinia & Mostly fungi.
(b) Homothallic Species :
Those species in which fertilization takes place between two genetically similar gametes are called as
homothallic species. In Homothallic condition, the fertilizing gametes are formed on same thallus. e.g.,
Chaetomium.
REPRODUCTION
Vegetative reproduction :
(a) Fragmentation : Some times the fungi filament (mycelium) breaks into
small pieces due to any reason. Now these pieces form a new fungal
filament and starts working like normal filament. Fragmentation
(b) Budding : Some times a bud like protuberance is formed in non-mycelial fungus. Now this bud,
separates from the mother fungi and functions as young fungi. At the time of separation of bud from
its mother cell or fungi, the nucleus of mother cell divided mitotically (or amitotically - in yeast) into two
parts. Out of these two nuclei, one remains with in the mother cell while the other migrates to the bud.
e.g., Saccharomyces (Yeast)
Fungi [72]

(c) Fission : Some times the fungal cell divides into two parts. Its nucleus also divides in to two parts. Now
the nuclei go to both cells and each cell starts working as a new cell. e.g., Schizosaccharomyces
(Yeast)
Note : Reproduction through bud formation and fission takes place only in nonmycelial form.
Asexual reproduction :
Asexual reproduction takes place by the formation of different types of spores. These spores are formed
by mitotic division.
Types of spores :
(a) Sporangiospores :
They are formed in sporangia and sporangia is formed at the tip of fungal filament. Those fungal
filaments on which sporangia are formed is called as sporangiophore. Numerous spores (sporangiospores)
are present in the sporangia, that comes out by rupturing of sporangia and germinate to forms fungal
filaments. The formation of sporangiospores takes place endogenously. e.g., Rhizopus, Mucor.
Sporangiospores are of Two types

(i) Zoospore : When the sporangiospores formed
in sporangia are flagellated and motile. then they
are called as zoospores. In this condition the
sporangia are called as zoosporangia.
(ii) Aplanospore : When sporangiospores are non
flagellated and non motile then they are called
aplanospores.
(c) Conidia : The formation of conidia takes place
exogenously. These conidia are formed on the tip of condiophores
(i) Conidiophore : Straight fungal filament on which conidia are formed are called conidiophore.
Conidiophore may be unbranched, branched, septate or aseptate.
(ii) Conidia : Conidia are formed single or in chain. Each conidia forms fungal filament (mycelium) by
germination. These are non-motile
Fungi [73]

(d) Chlamydospores : They are formed in adverse condition. These are thick walled resting, resistant
spores.
(e) Oidia : Sometimes in plenty of food, the cells of fungal hyphae gets seperated and starts working like
spores. Now these cells are called oidia. May produced under sugar rich conditions in medium.
Sexual Reproduction :
In fungi specific and reduced type and takes place by fusing gametes. The structure in which gametes
are formed are called gametangia. Sexual reproduction in fungi completes in three steps.
N N
Plasmogamy
N NN Dikaryon
Synkaryon
Meiosis
2N
(a) Plasmogamy : This is the first stage of sexual reproduction. In this stage two sex cells fuse with each
other but their nuclei do not fuse, due to which a single cell has two nuclei. This binucleate stage is called
dikaryon
(b) Karyogamy : In this stage the nuclei present in the cell fuse with each other (delayed in Fungi) to form
a diploid nucleus which is known synkaryon.
(c) Meiosis : In this stage, meiosis takes place in the diploid nucleus due to which again haploid nuclei or
haploid cells are formed.
Method of Sexual Reproduction :
(a) Planogametic Copulation :
In this process whole mycelium (vegetative cell) starts as a sex cell i.e. whole cell starts working as
gametangia. Each nucleus of gametangia behaves like gametes. After that the gametangia ruptured and
its nuclei (gametes) becomes free. Now these gametes fuse with each other to form zygote. Now
meiotic division takes place in zygote. As a result of which haploid spores are formed. Now each spore
germinates and gives rise to a new mycelium.
e.g., Chytridiomycetes, plasmodiophoromycetes.
Mycelium
Gametangia
Mycelium (N)
Germination
gametes gametes
Spores Zygote (2N)

Meiosis
Fungi [74]

(b) Gametangial Contact
In this process, first of all male and female sex organs are formed on two different mycelium. Male
sex organ is called antheridium and female sex organ is called oogonium. Both antheridium &
oogonium have one nucleus. Now antheridium and oogonium come close to each other. After that a
fertilizing tube comes out from antheridium, through this tube nucleus move to oogonium and fuse with
its nucleus.
As a result of which a diploid zygote is formed, which is called oospore. Now meiotic division takes
place in the nucleus of oospore, as a result of which haploid spores are formed. Now each spore
germinates and gives rise to a new mycelium. e.g., oomycetes
Mycelium Mycelium
Antheridium Oogonium
Male nucleus female nucleus (egg)

(N) (N)
Plasmogamy and Karyogamy
Zygote (Oospore)
(2N)
Meiosis
Spores
Germination
Mycelium
(c) Gametangial copulation :

In this process, gametangia formed on two different mycelium. First of all the apical part of mycelium
become swollen and form gametangia. Both the gametangia have many nuclei. Now these gametangia
come close and fuses with each other. Due to which zygote is formed which is known as zygospore.
Now meiotic division takes place in zygospore, as a result of which haploid spores formed. Now each
spore germinates and gives rise to a mycelium. e.g., Zygomycetes
Germination
Gametangia Zygote Meiosis Spores Mycelium
(Zygospore)
Fungi [75]

(d) Somatogamy :
This takes place in most of the higher true fungi, where formation of gametes is absent. In such fungi,
direct fusion of somatic hyphal cells occur to establish dikaryophase. e.g., Ascomycetes and
Basidiomycetes.
(e) Spermatization :
Some fungi produce many minute, spore like, single-celled structure called spermatia (non motile male
gametes) on spermatiophores (hyphae). These structures are transfered through agencies like water,
wind and insects to special female receptive hyphae. The contents migrate into receptive structure
where, by plasmogamy, dikaryotic condition is established. e.g., Basidiomycetes (Mostly rust fungi).
CLASSIFICATION OF FUNGI
Fungi divided into following classes on the basis of structure of mycelium & sexual reproduction–
• PHYCOMYCETES • ASCOMYCETES
• BASIDIOMYCETES • DEUTEROMYCETES
PHYCOMYCETES
All the fungi included in this class are called as lower fungi. The fungal filament (mycelium) of all the
fungus included in this class are coenocytic and aseptate. Alexopolus was a mycologist did not
consider Phycomycetes as a class. He dissolved phycomycetes into four different classes.
(a) Chytridiomycetes : e.g. Synchytrium endobioticum causes ‘‘Black hert of Potato’’ or ‘‘Wart of
Potato’’ disease.
(b) Plasmodiophoromycetes : e.g. Plasmodiophora
(c) Oomycetes : e.g.,
(i) Phytophthora infestans – Causes ‘‘Late blight of potato’’. This disease is known as’’ Famine of
Ireland’’ (1845).
(ii) Pythium species – Causes ‘‘Damping off’’ disease in tobacoo & ‘‘Vegetable crops’’.
(iii) Sclerospora graminicola – Causes ‘‘Green ear disease’’ of Bajra. The main characterstics of this
disease is (Phylloidy – i.e. all the parts of flower are modified into green leaves).
(iv) Albugo candida or Cystopus candidus – It causes ‘‘White rust disease’’ in the members of cruciferae
family. It cause Hypertrophy of floral parts in Brassica. It is heterothallic fungi.
(d) Zygomycetes (Conjugation Fungi) e.g.,
(i) Pilobolus : It grows on dung, since it is dung loving fungi therefore it is called as coprophilous fungi.
It prefers to grow horse dung. It is also called as ‘‘Hat thrower’’ or ‘‘fungal shotgun’’. This name is
given on the basis of blasting of sporangium.
(ii) Rhizopus & Mucor : These are known as bread mold – They prefer to grow on bread. The tip of
mycelium of Rhizopus is black coloured. Therefore this fungus looks black coloured. So called black –
mucor produce citric acid
ASCOMYCETES (The sac fungi)
Mycelium : Uninucleate and septate. Septa are found in mycelium of ascomycetes. Pores are present
in septa. These pores allow cytoplasm to pass from one cell to other cell. Pores do not allow passing
of nucleus.
Asexual reproduction : Mostly by conidia formed on conidiophores.
Sexual reproduction : Mostly by ‘‘Somatogamy’’.
Ascospores are formed during sexual reproduction. On this basis they are named as Ascomycetes.
There are three stages in sexual reproduction of Ascomycetes. (Plasmogamy, Karyogamy, Meiosis) In
it two different mycelium come close to each other and fuse to form dikaryon. So there is delay in
Fungi [76]

Karyogamy. After this an outgrowth originates from dikaryon which is called ascogenous hypha.
Ascogenous hypha develops and form a sac like structure which is called ascus (Plural – Asci). Due
to this sac like ascus, ascomycetes are called as sac fungi. Now both the nuclei reach in ascus and
fuse. As a result diploid nucleus is formed. Now meiosis takes place in the nucleus of Ascus, as a result
of which haploid spores are formed, which are called ascospores. Ascospore produced endogenously.
Note : Minimum four ascospores are formed in one ascus but generally 8 ascospores are formed in one
Ascus.
Plasmogamy
Dikaryon
Germination
Ascogenous hypha
Ascogenous hypha
Ascus
Ascospores
Karyogamy
Diploid nucleus
Meiosis
Ascocarp
Ascus (fruiting body)
Ascospores
After the formation of ascospores, the mycelium grows around the ascus and forms a covering which
is called as fruiting body or ascocarp, 1 to 4 ascus are present in one ascocarp, 4 or 8 ascospores are
present in one ascus. By the rupturing of ascoarp & ascus, ascospores becomes free and each
ascospore forms a new mycelium.
TYPES OF FRUITING BODIES

Cleistothecium :
This is a closed and spherical fruiting body. There is no way for ascospores to come out.
After maturation it ruptures and ascopores become free. e.g., Erysiphe.
Perithecium :
This fruiting body is flask like. Pore is present (ostiole) on the apical part of this fruiting body for
the elimination of ascospores. On the rupturing of ascus, these ascospores comes out of the pore.
Fungi [77]

This type of fruiting body is found in the members of sub-class Pyrenomycetes.
e.g., Neurospora, Claviceps.
Apothecium :
This fruiting body is like open disc or cup shaped. This type of fruiting body is found in the members
of sub class – Discomycetes. e.g., Peziza, Morchella
Special Note :
The fruiting body of Morchella is edible, because it is delicious. The classification of class ascomycetes
is based on fruiting body. Ascus are naked in Yeast, because fruiting body is absent in it.
Examples of Ascomycetes :
(1) Penecillium notatum – A. Flemming obtained the antibiotic penicillin from it. Penecillin is the first
discovered antibiotic. A Flemming was awarded Nobel Prize for it. Now a days more quantity of
Penecillin is obtained from P. chrysogenum. A.Flemming was doctor in British army and while
working on bacterium Staphylococcus, by chance discovered the penicillin. Discovery of Penecillin
is a serendipity i.e. by chance discovery.
(2) P.griesofulvum : ‘‘Griesofulvin’’ an antifungal antibiotic is obtained from it. P.roqueforti are used in
the manufacturing of roquefort cheese. Cheese is made by fermentation which is done by fungus.
(3) Aspergillus : Black or Brown mold or Blacky - smoky mold. A. proliferans – An antibiotic ‘Proliferin’
is obtained from it. A. fumigatus – It causes many diseases in human & cattles. These disease are
known as ‘‘aspergillosis’’. e.g., Aspergillosis of ear – Main cause of ear pain. Aspergillosis of
lungs – Its symptoms are similar to T.B. A. flavus – It prefers to grow on stored food (groundnut,
cashewnuts etc.) and fodder. It secrets toxic substances. These toxic substances are known as
aflatoxins. A.flatoxins – They are carcinogenic i.e. they develop cancer. Aflatoxin causes liver
cancer. A.niger – Weed of laboratory.
(4) Claviceps : Claviceps purpurea causes ‘‘Ergot disease’’ of Bajra. ‘‘Ergotin’’ (drug) is obtained
from it. Use to cause clinical abortion. A narcotic drug (LSD) is obtained from it LSD (Lysergic acid
diethylamide) is a hallucinogenic drug.
(5) Morchella : The species of Morchella are commonly called as morels. It is an edible fungus.
(6) Neurospora : It is also known as Red or Pinkmold. It is called ‘‘Drosophila of plant Kingdom’’. It
is used for the study of genetics in Plant kndom. Beadle and Tatum Proposed ‘‘One gene – one
enzyme theory’’ in Genetics by experimenting on Neurospora. They were awarded Nobel prize for it.
(7) Erysiphe : Different species of Erysiphe causes ‘‘powdery mildew’’ disease on plants.
E.tritici – It causes powdery mildew of wheat.
E.polygoni – It causes powdery mildew of pea.
(8) Peziza : It is called as club fungi.
(9) Trichophyton & Microsporum : It produces ‘‘Ringworm’’ In humans. e.g. - eczema, itching.
(10) Trichophyton interdigital and Tenia pedis : It causes ‘‘Athelete foot disease’’ in humans. It is also
called as ‘‘Ring worm of foot’’.
(11) Gibberella fujikuorii – gibbreline extraction.
(12) Yeast : Yeast is an unicellular fungi. According to five kingdom classification, it should be placed in
Protista. But exceptionally it is placed in Mycota (fungi) because its life cycle is similar to class-
Ascomycetes. Yeast grows on ripened fruits like grapes, sugarcane, date palm and flowers. Mycelium
is absent in yeast. If yeast is dissolved in sugar solution then pseudomycelium is formed. Because in
sugar solution, it grows very fast i.e. it reproduces fast .
Fungi [78]

Vegetative Reproduction : Yeast reproduces vegetatively either by fission or by budding. Depending on
this character, they are grouped as fission yeast (Schizosaccharomyces) and budding yeast
(Saccharomyces).
By fission : During reproduction by fission the parent cell elongates, the nucleus divides into two
daughter nuclei and gradually a transverse partition wall is laid down somewhat near the middle, starting
from periphery to the centre dividing the mother cell into daughter cells.
By budding : Budding yeasts are rather common than the fission yeast.
In Yeast three types of life cycle are found

Haplontic life cycle – Present in most of genera. In this type of life cycle, haploid stage (haplophase)
is very elaborated, whereas the diploid stage (diplophase) is very short (being confined to the zygote
cell only). e.g., – Schizosaccharomyces octosporus
Diplontic life cycle – Here the diploid somatic stage is long and the haploid stage is very short. The
diploid somatic cells produce buds which eventually enlarge to function as asci.
The diploid nucleus divides meiotically forming four haploid nuclei that develops into four ascospores.
The haploid stage is represented by the ascospores only. e.g.,– Saccharomyces ludwigii.
Haplo-diplontic life cycle – In this life cycle, both haploid and diploid phases are equally well represented
constituting alternation of generations. Two haploid cells copulate to form a diploid cell. The diploid cell
multiplies by budding porducing large number of diploid cells.
Eventually, each diploid cell behaves as an ascus bearing four ascospores (Meiosis takes place during
the development of ascospores). e.g., – Saccharomyces cerevisiae
Special type of reproduction :
Pedogamy : Sexual reproduction by young ones. In yeast some times a bud may fuse with it’s mother
cell and perform sexual reproduction.
Adelphogamy : Sexual reproduction between sisters. In yeast some time two daughter buds produced
from the same mother cell may fuse to perform the sexual reproduction.
Economic Importance of yeast :
Yeast is also called as fermentation fungi, because different types of products are formed by fermentation
with the help of yeast. Some of them are –
Saccharomyces cerevisiae – It is used as fermentation agent in bakery (bread industry) and brewery
(wine industry). So Saccharomyces cerevisiae is also called ‘‘Baker’s yeast’’.Riboflavin (vitamin B2) is
obtained from Saccharomyces cerevisiae.
BASIDIOMYCETES : (Club fungi)
Mycelium is septate and uni or binucleate (dikaryotic). Mycelia are of two types, primary and secondary.
Primary mycelium contains monokaryotic cells and is short lived. Secondary mycelium is long lived and
dominant phase of life cycle. It is represented as dikaryophase. It consists of profusely branched septate
hyphae.
Fungi [79]

In basidiomycetes, septum are of special type and they are called dolipore septum. One big pore is
present between every septum. The boundry of pore is spread on both sides, this boundry is called as
parenthosome. Due to the spreading of the boundry on both sides, the shape of septum becomes dome
shaped due to which it is called as dolipore septum. These septa allow cytoplasm and nucleus to pass
from one cell to other cell.
Clamp connection : It is a tubular relationship between two neighbouring cells With the help of the
connection the nucleus of one cell can migrate to the neghbouring cell, due to which the other cell
becomes dikaryotic (binucleate). Clamp connection is used to change monokaryotic mycelium to dikaryotic
in basidiomycetes.
These are best decomposer of wood.
Sexual Reproduction :
Sexual reproduction is done by two methods
(1) Somatogamy (2) Spermatization
Somatogamy :
This is the most common method of reproduction among the members of Basidiomycetes. e.g., Ustilago,
Agaricus, Polyporus, Lycoperdon
First of all, the two primary mycelium come close to each other. Now their apical ends fuse with each
other (Plasmogamy), as a result of which dikaryon is formed. Now, with the help of clamp connection,
all the cells of mycelium becomes binucleate or dikaryotic. Now both the nucleus of each cell fused with
each other (karyogamy), due to which each cell becomes diploid.
Now club shaped structure is formed on every cell, which is known as basidium. After that diploid
nucleus goes in to this Basidium and divides by meiosis, as a result of which four haploid spores are
formed on every basidium, which are known as basidiospores. (Exogenous in origin) Now the surrounding
fungal hyphae grows to form a fruiting body, which is known as basidiocarp. Now the basidiospores
becomes free from basidium and produce a new mycelium through germination. It is belived that
basidium is similar to ascus. because both of them produces spores but basidiospore is different from
ascopores because the origin of ascospores is endogenous and that of basidiospores is exogenous.
Fungi [80]

Spermatization :
This type of reproduction is more commonly seen in those fungi that develop rust. e.g., Rust fungi
(Puccinia). Three different species of Puccinia develop rust in wheat
Puccinia graminis – Black rust or stem rust
Puccinia recondita – Brown rust or leaf rust
Puccinia striiformis – Yellow rust or stripe rust
PUCCINIA
It is a heterocious (That needs two types of host to complete its life cycle) and Macrocyclic fungi
(Which produce many dikaryotic spores) Wheat (Primary host), Berberry (Secondary host).
LIFE CYCLE OF PUCCINIA – RUST CYCLE
Rust cycle was discovered by Prof. K.C. Mehta. He has done a lot of hard work on rust.
Starting of rust disease on wheat plants through aeciospores. i.e. Primary infection takes place through
aeciospores and secondary infection takes place through uredospores. In it, the infection takes place
mainly on wheat plant i.e. the Berberry plant acts as an alternate host.
Fungi [81]

Stage of life cycle on wheat (primary host) :
(a) Uredia and uredospores : The dikaryotic aeciospores germinate on the leaves of wheat on both the
surfaces and may also germinate on the stem. They form the dikaryotic mycellium. This mycellium
forms the uredospore. As a result, some pressure is exerted on the epidemis which bursts exposing the
uredospore. A uredospores is reddish-brown, unicelled, oval or globose, stalked dikaryotic spore. These
uredospore spreaded in whole field by air (Secondary infection).
(b) Telia and teliospores : Towords the end of the season, the dikaryotic mycelium of the uredospores
begins to produce teliospores (or teleutospores) in the same sorus. They are dark brown or black,
stalked, thick walled, bi-celled and binucleated spores. Fusion of nucleus occurs inside ech cell of
teliospore and as a result they become diploid. The teliospores cannot infect fresh wheat plants. They
germinate in soil to form the basidiospores.
(c) Basidia and basidiospores : Diploid nucleus of teleutospore undergoes meiosis to form four haploid
nuclei each of them develops as a basidiospore on the Basidium. Out of these, two basidiospores belong
to ve strain and two to –ve strain. These spores are not capable to infect a wheat plant. Each spore
is unicelled, monokaryotic and unstalked. These can infect the berberry plant (Berberis vulgaris) which
is the secondary or alternate host occuring on the hills in India.
Stage of life cycle on berberry (alternate host)
(a) Spermatia or pycniospores : The basidiospores of both the strains ( and –) can germinate on upper
surface of berberry leaf. They produce haplophase or primary mycelium of the respective strains. Soon
the mycelium organizes like a flask shaped structure near the upper epidermis called as spermogonia
or pycnidium. They open by a single pore called ostiole. From the mycelium large number of uninucleate
spores produced called pycniospores or spermatia. In addition to these, some thin walled hyphae are also
given out which are called as flexuous hyphae or receptive hyphae. The spermatia function as the male
cells, the flexous hyphae behave as the female hypha. The insects transfer the spermatia to other strains
receptive hyphae Spermatization is brought about when spermatia of one strain come in contact with
the tricogyne of flexous hyphae of the other strain. The nucleus of pycniospore or spermatium passes
into the flexous hyphae, thus bringing about dikaryotization. An aecium or aeciosorus is produced on the
lower surface of berberry leaves from dikaryotic mycelium produced by spermatization.
(b) Aeciospores : The aeciospores are polyhedral or ovate, binucleate, unicelled and double layered. They
cannot infect the berberry bushes while infact wheat plant (primary infection). They germinate on the
leaf surface of wheat plant form a germ tube which enters the wheat host through stomata and again
produce uredospore.
Bracket or shelf fungi : These are epixylic fungi i.e. these like to grow on wood. Their fruiting body is
similar to bracket therefore they are called as bracket fungi. e.g., Polyporus, Ganoderma
Puff balls : These are a saprophytic fungi. Fruiting body of puff balls is large and beautiful. If touched,
fruiting body bursts violently to release a black powder (basidiospores) out side. e.g., Lycoperdon,
Clavatia
Note : Clavatia – A drug ‘clavatin’ is obtained from it. It is an anticancer medicine.
Mushrooms : These are umbrella like fungi often seen growing in grounds during rainy season.
Some mushroom are edible. Most delicious mushroom is Agaricus bisporus. World’s most poisonous
mushroom is Amantia muscoides. (Poisnous mushrooms are known as Toad Stool)
Inky cap mushroom is Coprinus muscatus.
Smut fungi : It causes smut disease on plant. Smut diseases mainly affect the seeds of crop plants. Smut
fungi infect seed and form black sooty spores inside the seed. It is two type (1) Loose smut (2) covered
smut. e.g., Ustilago nuda or Ustilago tritici causes ‘‘Loose smut of wheat. ‘‘This disease spreads
by infected flowers and seeds.
Fungi [82]

Ustilago maydis – Smut of maize. This disease spreads by infected seeds.
Ustilago hordei – Covered smut of barley.
Ustilago scitaminea – Whip smut of sugarcane.
Note : Prof J.C. Luthra discovered a technique to control smut.
Agaricus : It is called as ‘‘gill fungi’’ because gills like structure are present in its fruiting body. It is also
called fairy rings because its fruiting body grows continously like rings.
DEUTEROMYCETES (Fungi Imperfecti)

It is also called ‘‘Fungi Imperfecti’’, because perfect stage or sexual reproduction is absent in this class
of fungi. Those fungi are included in this class in which sexual reproduction is absent or is not discovered
at yet.
Mycelium : Septate and multinucleate or uninucleate.
Asexual reproduction : Takes place with the help of conidia. Conidia have oblique septa.
Sexual Reproduction : Sexual reproduction is absent in this class. Instead a parasexual cycle is present.
Parasexual cycle was discovered by Potecorvo & Roper. Parasexual cycle is a method for producing
variation in these fungi. Importance of Parasexual cycle – Mitotic recombination. During mitosis,
recombination takes place in these fungi due to which variations are develop. e.g., Arthrobotrys &
Dactylella. These are entomophagous fungi i.e. insect predating fungi. These fungi can be used in
biological control of insect pests.
Economic Importance :
(1) Alternaria solani Early blight of Potato
(2) Cercospora personata Tikka disease of groundnut
(3) Colletotrichum falcatum Red rot of sugarcane
(4) Helminthosporium oryzae Leaf sport of Rice
(5) Fusarium udum Wilt of pigeon pea
Note : Leaf spot of rice (Helminthosporium oryzae) - This disease in known as famine of Bengal
(1945).
MYCORRHIZA (FUNGAL ROOTS)

The mutually beneficial or symbiotic association of a fungus with the roots of higher plants is termed
mycorrhiza. Mycorrhizal roots differ in shape from normal roots and often show a wooly covering. These
roots lack root cap and root hairs. A fungus may get associated with roots of a number of plants and a
particular plant may form association with a number of fungi.
Depending upon the location of the fungus, the mycorrhiza is of two i.e., ectomycorrhiza and
endomycorrhiza.
In ectomycorrhiza, the fungal hyphae are mainly external, forming a wooly covering on external surface
of root and forms network of mycelium (Hartig net) in the intercellular spaces of the cortex. Fungal
partner is commonly basidiomycetes, e.g., Pinus roots.
In endomycorrhiza, the fungal hyphae enter the tissue of the root, spreading intracellularly and
intracellularly. The fungus is able to break the cell wall in a limited way and is restricted to cortical region of
the root. Some hyphae send small projections into cortical cells without destroying them. Such fungi are
termed VAM (Vesicular Arbuscular Mycorrhiza), e.g., Orchid roots.
Fungi [83]

Mycorrhizal association is a symbiotic relationship as both the partners are mutually beneficial to each
other. The fungal partner obtains nourishment from the cortical cells of the root and depends upon the plant for
shelter. The root cells excrete sugars and other soluble gradients which are used by fungal hyphae spreading
in intercellular spaces. The hyphae may get nourishment from the cells directly and also by sending small
projections into cortical cells. The fungus seems to be essential for the growth of the plant having mycorrhiza.
The plant also gets benefit from the association as the fungal hyphae spreading in soil substantially increases
the surface area of absorption, thereby enabling the plant to get enhanced supply of water, nitrogen, phosphorus
and other minerals from the soil. Orchids seldom occur without mycorrhiza. Certain forest trees like pines,
birches show stunted growth if their roots are not associated with fungus.
LICHENS
Lichens are dual (composite) organisms or entities which contain a permanent association of a fungus
partner or mycobiont and an alga partner or phycobiont. Mycobion is dominant partner and mostly belongs
to ascomycetes (Ascolichens -, e.g ., Graphis, Cladonia, Parmelia, Usnea, etc.) or sometimes basidiomycetes.
(Basidiolichens -, e.g., Corella, Cora, etc.). Phycobiont is a ember of Chlorophyceae (e.g., Chlorella, Trebouxia,
Protococcus, Palmella, etc.) or can be a BGA (e.g., Nostoc, Chlorococcus, Scytonema, etc.). The term
lichen was coined by Theophrastus (370 – 285 B.C .), as called Father of Botany. Lichens often grow in
most inhospitable and uninhabited places like barren rocks (saxicolous), soil (terricolous), icy tundra or alpines,
sand dunes, roofs, walls, wood (Iignicolous), tree ark (corticolous), leaves, etc. They commonly live under
humid and exposed conditions but can tolerate extreme desiccation. However, lichens, cannot tolerate air
pollution, especially due to sulphur dioxide (so are considered indicators of SO2 pollution).
Lichens are perennial. Their growth is slow. Lichens have greyish, yellowish, greenish, orange, dark brown or
blackish colouration.
Structure : Based upon external morphology, the lichens are of three types :
(i) Crustose : Crust like, closely appressed to the substratum and attached to it at several places, e.g. ,
Graphis, Lecanora, Rhizocarpon.
(ii) Foliose : The body of the lichen is flat, broad, lobed and leaf-like, which is attached to the substratum at
one or a few places with the help of rhizoid like structures called rhizines, e.g., Parmelia, Peltigera.
(iii) Fruticose : The lichen is branched like a bush and attached to the substratum by means of a disc, e.g.,
Cladonia, Usnea, Evernia, Bryonia.
Fungi [84]

The bulk of lichen body is formed by fungal partner called mycobiont. It includes the surface, medulla (or
interior) and rhizines (attaching devices). The algal partner or phycobiont constitutes hardly 5% of the lichens
body. It is generally restricted to a narrow zone (algal zone) below the surface.
Relationship:
The fungus performs following functions : (i) Body structure and covering (ii) Anchoring (iii) Absorption of
water and minerals. It can absorb water from wet air (atmosphere), dew and rain. Minerals are picked up both
from substratum and atmosphere. Special chemicals are excreted by the fungal partner of the lichen to dissolve
minerals from the substratum. (iv) Sex organs and fruitifications are of fungal origin. .
The major function of alga is photosynthesis.
The cyanobacterial alga additionally takes part in nitrogen fixation . The alga picks up water and mineral salts
from the fungus while the fungus obtains part of the food manufactured by the alga. Therefore, in a lichen the
association between alga and fungus is that of mutual benefit (mutualism) popularly called symbiosis. However,
at times the fungus is found to (i) send haustoria into algal cells (ii) induce alga to secrete organic substances
and (iii) prevent alga to develop pectic covering. Therefore, some workers believe that the fungus is a controlled
parasite over the alga. The phenomenon is called helotism.
Reproduction : Lichens multiply by four methods :

(i) Progressive death and decay resulting in the separation of a lichen thallus into two or more parts.
(ii) Fragmentation caused by mechanical injury, due to wind or animal bites.
(iii) Isidia are superficial outgrowths of the lichens which are primarily meant for increasing surface area and
photosynthetic activity. At time, they are broken off. Each isidium is capable of forming a new lichen
because it has a core of a few algal cells surrounded by a sheath of fungal hyphae.
(iv) Soredia These are most efficient means of asexual reproduction. They are microscopic lichen propagules
Fungi [85]

which are produced in large numbers inside sori called pustules. Soredia are dispersed by air currents.
After falling on a suitable substratum each soredium gives rise to a lichen, because it has a few algal cells
surrounded incompletely by a weft of fungus.
Special structures in the thallus of lichen:
(i) Cyphellae : Help in exchange of gases, present in lower cortex.
(ii) Cephalodia : Help to retain moisture and its algal partner fix nitrogen also.
(iii) Breathing pores : For aeration, present in upper cortex of thallus.
(iv) Early Colonisers : Lichens are early or pioneer colonisers of barren rocks, cliffs, mountains and new
terrains. During their growth, lichens stick to the rocks and cliffs by secreting acids. It produces minute
crevices where organic matter accumulates. It paves the way for growth of mosses.
(v) Food: In tundra, Cladonia rangifera (Reindeer Moss) constitutes the staple food of reindeer, caribou,
musk ox, etc. Cetraria islandica (Iceland Moss) is used as a food article in Iceland, Sweden and Norway
Lecanora esculenta is regarded as bread of heaven by Jews. Parmelia (Rock Flower) is also a table
delicacy Dermatocarpon miniatum (Stone Mushroom) is a vegetable in Japan.
(vi) Dyes : Orchil is obtained from Rocella tinctoria. The latter was also the source of litmus (R.montagnei)
before the advent of synthetic products. Litmus is a pH indicator.
(vii) Perfumes : Scented incense is got from species of Ramalina and Evemia.
(viii) Medicines : Usnic acid got from Usnea (Old Man's Beard) and Cladonia has antibiotic propetties. It is
used in preparation of ointment for bums and wounds.
(ix) Air Pollution : Decrease in 1ichen population of an area is indicative of SO 2 pollution.
(x) Fires: In hot season, Usnea may produce forest fires.
VIRUS
Term virus was coined by Pasteur
Viruses are obligate intracellular parasites. They are intermediate between living and non living entities.
Non living nature of virus
1.Lacking protoplast.
2.Ability to get crystallized, e.g., TMV, poliomyelitis virus.
3.Inability to live independent of a living cell. (Lack functional autonomy).
4.High specific gravity which is found only in non living objects.
5.Absence of respiration.
6.Absence of energy storing system.
7.Absence of growth and division.
Living nature of virus
1.Being formed of organic macromolecules.
2.Presence of genetic material.
3.Ability to multiply.
4.Occurrence of mutations.
5.Occurrence of certain enzymes like, neuraminidase (first discovered), transcriptase and lysozyme in certain
viruses.
6.Infectivity and host specificity.
7.Viruses can be 'killed' by autoclaving and ultraviolet rays.
8.They take over biosynthetic machinery of the host cell and produce chemicals required for their multiplication.
9. Viruses are responsible for a number of infectious disease like common cold, epidemic influenza, chicken
pox, mumps, poliomyelitis, rabies, herpes, AIDS, SARS etc .
(i) Mayer described Tobacco Mosaic disease in 1886.
(ii) Iwanowsky is credited with the discovery of virus in 1892. TMV was the first virus to be discovered.
Fungi [86]

(iii) Beijerinck called virus as "Contagium vivum fluidum" (living infectious fluid).
(iv) In 1935, Stanley crystallised TMV.
(v) Twort and d'Herelle discovered bacteriophage.
(vi) Lwoff and Wollmann discovered temperate viruses.
(vii)Shafferman and Morris discovered cyanophage, e.q., LPP-1.
(viii) Bawden and Pirie studied the chemical nature (nucleoproteins) of TMV.
(ix) Sinsheimer discovered single stranded DNA in bacteriophage </> x 174
(x) Issac and Lindemann discovered interferon
(xi) Delbruck (1938), found viruses to undergo mutations.
(xii)Reverse transcription in Retroviruses was discovered by Temin and Baltimore, so the phenomenon is
called teminism. The enzyme reverse transcriptase is RNA dependent DNA polymerese.
Structural components of viruses
(i) Envelope is the outer thin loose covering composed of proteins (from virus), lipids and carbohydrates
(both from host). It has smaller subunits known as peplomers, e.q., Herpes virus, HIV, Vaccinia virus etc .. If
it is not present the virus is said to be naked.
(ii) Capsid : It is the outer protein coat made up of subunits called capsomeres, their number is virus specific.
These possess antigenic properties.
(iii) Nucleoid: Viruses contain either DNA or RNA.
(a) DNA containing viruses are called deoxyviruses. These are of two types:
(i) Double stranded DNA (dsDNA) virus, e.q., Pox virus, Cauliflower mosaic virus.
(ii) Single stranded DNA (ssDNA) virus, e.g., Coliphage  ×174, M 13 phage.
(b) RNA containing viruses or riboviruses are of two types.
(i) Double stranded RNA (ds RNA) virus, e.g., Reo virus, Wound Tumour Virus.
(ii) Single stranded RNA (ss RNA) virus, e.g., TMV, Influenza virus, Foot and Mouth disease virus,
Retroviruses (HIV).
Classification of virus
Holmes (1948) has divided viruses into three groups on the basis of specific hosts.
(a) Phytophagineae are plant viruses. They generally have ssRNA. e.q., TMV, Potato Mosaic Virus, Yellow
Vein Mosaic virus, Cauliflower Mosaic virus.
(b) Zoophagineae are animal viruses. They commonly have ssRNA/dsRNA/dsDNA. e.g., Poliomyelitis
virus, Influenza viruses, Small pox virus, Mumps virus, Rabies virus.
(c) Phagineae attack lower organisms
(i) Bacteriophages are bacterial viruses and they usually possess dsDNA. e.g., T 2' T4' lambda () phage.
(ii) Coliphages are viruses of E.coli, e.g., Coliphage fd.
(iii) Cyanophages attack blue green algae, e.g., LPP-1, SM-1.
(iv) Phycophages attack algae.
(v) Mycophages attack fungi.
(vi) Zymophages attack yeast.
Reproduction
It is of two main types: Phagic and Pinocytic
(a) Phagic Reproduction : It is further of two types.
(i) Lytic cycle: Occurs in virulent phages, e.g., T4 bacteriophages.
(ii) Lysogenic cycle : Occurs in temperate viruses such as A phage.
(b) Pinocytic Reproduction : It is found in viruses like TMV, HIV, Hepatitis B etc., in which whole of virus
particle enters host cell except envelope (if present).
Fungi [87]

Structural details of some viruses
(1) Tobacco Mosaic Virus (TMV) is elongated rod like, 3000 Å long, 180Å in diameter with molecular
weight 39.4 × 106 dalton. 2130 capsomeres are arranged helically to form the capsid. RNA strand is
helical. ssRNA consists of 6400 nucleotides. Thus, the ratio of nucleotides : capsomeres = 3:1
(2) Pox virus/variola is the causal agent of small pox. These are among the largest of animal viruses, are
rectangular (brick shaped), 300 × 230 nm in size. Genome is dumbell shaped with central core of dsDNA.
The core has two enzymes RNA polymerase and ATP phosphohydrolase.
(3) AIDS virus consists of single stranded RNA. It has 2 copies of ssRNA. Outer cover has 5 layers i.e.,
outer most glycoprotein, followed by double lipid layer and the innermost has two protein layers.
(4) T4 Bacteriophage has a tadpole like structure with polyhedral head connected to a helical tail (binal). The
head consists of nucleic acid surrounded by a protein coat or capsid. Nucleic acid is double stranded
DNA. Tail is proteinaceous tube-like, core surrounded by sheath. At one end, tube is joined to the head by
thin collar. At the other end, it has a hexagonal base plate with six small tail pins and six tail fibres which
help in attachment of the phage to the host cell.
Sub Viral Agents : These are viruses which lack one of the essential component e.g. , viroids, virusoids,
prions
(1) Viroids (L. virus -poison, eidos -diminutive) They are the smallest self replicating particles which were
discovered by Diener (1971). Viroids are infectious RNA particles which are devoid of protein coat. They are
obligate parasites. Molecular weight of a viroid is low. The RNA is tightly folded to form circular or linear
structures. Viroids are known to causes diseases (some 20) in plants only, e.g., Potato spindle tuber,
Chrysanthemum stunt and Citrus exocortis.
(2) Virusoids
Discovered by Randle et. al., these are RNA viruses but inside he capsid of other larger virus. They
Fungi [88]

replicate within the host and do not cause any infection.
(3) Prions
Discovered by Alper et al.
Proteinaceous infectious particles, causing certain diseases like
(i) Kuru disease (laughing death disease in humans).
(ii) Bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE or Mao cow disease).
(iii) Scrapie disease in sheep.
(iv) Creutz Feldt Jakob disease.
Table : Viral diseases of Plants
Disease Causal agent

Tobacco mosaic Tobacco Mosaic virus
Cucumber mosaic Cucumber mosaic virus
Potato mild mosaic Potato virus X
Potato rugose mosaic Potato virus Y
Potato leaf roll Potato leaf roll virus
Rosette of groundnut Groundnut mosaic virus
Bunchy top of Banana Banana bunchy top virus
Sugarcane mosaic Sugarcane (or Saccharum) Virus I
Table : Viral diseases of Man
Name of the disease Causal Virus

Common cold Rhinoviruses
Influenza Influenza virus
German measles (Rubella) Rubella virus
Measles Measles virus
Poliomyelitis Polio virus
Small pox Variola virus
Yellow fever Arbovirus
Animal viral diseases : Foot and mouth disease, Rinderpest, Ranikhet, Bird flu etc.
Nomenclature of viruses :
International committee of virus nomenclature has given a system of naming the virus. The system
consists of two parts. First part is common name of the virus and second part has the coded information about
the virus. This is called as Cryptogram.
In a cryptogram
(1) First pair : Represents type of nucleic acid 1 no. of strands in nucleic acid.
(2) Second pair : Represents molecular weight of nucleic acid 1 amount of nucleic acid/amount of nucleic
acid expressed as percentage.
(3) Third pair : Denotes shape of virus 1 shape of nucleoprotein.
(4) Fourth pair : Denotes type of host 1 carrier used in the transmission of virus.
(a) Cryptogram of TMV (Tobacco Mosaic Virus)
R/1 : 2/5 : E/E : S/A
It can be explained as
Fungi [89]

(1) First pair : Nucleic acid RNA (R) is single stranded (1)
(2) Second pair : Mol. wt. of nucleic acid is two (2) hundred thousands/amount of nucleic acid (5%).
(3) Third pair : Shape of virus - elongated (E)/shape of nucleoprotein - elongated (E)
(b) Cryptogram of Polio virus
R/1, 2.5/30, S/S, V/O [O means no vector is needed]
(c) Crytogram of T4 bacteriophage
D/2, 130/40, X/X, B/O [X means complex shape and B for bacteria]
Fungi [90]

EXERCISE – 1
Q.1 One of common fungal disease of man is- Q.13 In Puccinia, dikaryotisation first occurs-
(1) Cholera (2) Plague (1) On barberry plant
(3) Typhoid (4) Ring worm (2) On wheat plant
Q.2 Fungal hyphae penetrate hard cell walls of their (3) In soil
hosts with the help of-
(4) In water
(1) Enzymes (2) Hormones
Q.14 Puccinia, form -
(3) Sharp tipes (4) Sugar Exudates
(1) Uredia and aecia on barberry
Q.3 A fungus completing its life cycle on a single
(2) Uredia and telia on wheat
host is known as -
(1) Dikaryotic (2) Autoecious (3) Uredia and aecia on wheat
(3) Heterocious (4) Heterothallic (4) Telia and pycnia on barberry
Q.4 A flask shaped fruiting body of Ascomycetes Q.15 LSD is obtained from -
is called - (1) Cercospora (2) Colletotrichum
(1) Sclerotium (2) Apothecium (3) Claviceps (4) Aspergillus
(3) Cleistothecium (4) Perithecium Q.16 Penicillium roquefortii and P. camementii and
Q.5 Early blight of potato is caused by - used in the prepration of cheese. These fungi
(1) Alternaria (2) Albugo belong to class -
(3) Rhizopus (4) Puccinia (1) Zygomycetes (2) Oomycetes
Q.6 Which of the following characters indicate (3) Deuteromycetes (4) Ascomycetes
similarity between fungi and animals - Q.17 The fungi are -
(1) Heterotrophic nutrition (1) Autotrophic (2) Holotrophic
(2) Type of stored food (3) Chemotrophic (4) Heterotrophic
(3) Presence of chitin Q.18 All fungi are -
(4) All the above
(1) With chlorophyll
Q.7 The sac fungi belongs to - (2) Without chlorophyll
(1) Ascomycetes (2) Basidiomycetes
(3) With carotene
(3) Phycomycetes (4) Deuteromycetes
(4) Wall less
Q.8 Neurospora, which is popularly known as
Q.19 In class phycomycetes the mycelium is -
drosophilla of plant kingdom, belongs to-
(1) Coenocytic and aseptate
(1) Phycomycetes (2) Ascomycetes
(2) Coenocytic and septate
(3) Basidiomycetes (4) Deuteromycetes
Q.9 The basidiomycetes includes- (3) Uninucleate and aseptate
(4) Multinucleate and septate
(1) Rusts (2) Smuts
(3) Mushrooms (4) All the above Q.20 The Fungi which grow on dung is called -
Q.10 Which of the following causes wheat rust (1) Epixylic (2) Coprophilous
disease - (3) Keratinophillic (4) Xyllophillous
(1) A red Algae (2) A green Algae Q.21 The disease ‘’Wart of potato’’ is caused by-
(3) A fungi (4) Mycoplasma (1) Synchytrium endobioticum
Q.11 Plectenchyma is a type of tissue, occurs in (2) Sclerospora graminicola
some - (3) Claviceps purpurea
(1) Fungi (2) Slime molds (4) Puccina graminis
(3) Bryophyta (4) Bacteria Q.22 Coenocytic mycelium is found is -
Q.12 Parasexual cycle occurs in - (1) Rhizopus (2) Mucor
(1) Phycomycetes (2) Deuteromycetes (3) Penicillium (4) Both 1 and 2
(3) Ascomycetes (4) Basidiomycetes
Fungi [91]

Q.23 Stored food material of fungi - Q.33 Infective stage of Puccinia on wheat is -
(1) Cellulose (1) Basidiospores (2) Pycnia
(2) Starch (3) Aeciospores (4) Teleutospores
(3) Glycogen and starch Q.34 Which spores of Puccinia cause primary
(4) Glycogen and oil infection of wheat plant-
Q.24 The cell wall of Fungi is composed of - (1) Uredospores (2) Basidiospores
(1) Chitin (2) Cellulose (3) Teleutospores (4) Aeciospores
(3) Mucopeptide (4) Pseudomurin Q.35 Edible part in mushrooms -
Q.25 The Chief characteristic of class Ascomycetes (1) Basidiosperes
is - (2) Mycelium
(1) Formation of spores (3) Pseudomycelium
(2) Hyphae (4) Complete basidiocarp
(3) Formation of ascospores Q.36 Parasexual cycle first discoverd by -
(4) Formation of zoospores (1) Lederberg and tatum
Q.26 Which is commonly called ‘’Drosophilla of plant (2) Pontecorvo and roper
kingdom’’ - (3) Blakeslee
(1) Morchella (2) Neurospora (4) Wollman
(3) Rhizopus (4) Claviceps Q.37 A Flemming isolated penicillin from -
Q.27 Aflatoxin is produced by - (1) P. chrysogenum
(1) A virus (2) P. notatum
(2) Aspergillus flavus (3) Aspergillus flovus
(3) Agaricus (4) A. niger
(4) An algae Q.38 Pseudoparenchyma occurs in some-
Q.28 Normally how many ascospores are formed in (1) Fungi (2) Bryophyta
a ascus - (3) Bacteria (4) Angiosperms
(1) 4-ascospores (2) 8-ascospores Q.39 The fungus without mycelium is -
(3) 16 ascopores (4) 24 ascospores (1) Phytopthora (2) Rhizopus
Q.29 Life cycle of Saccharomyces ludwigi is- (3) Saccharomyces (4) Microsporum
(1) Haplontic (2) Haplo-diplontic Q.40 Indian scientist who worked on Puccinia-
(3) Diplontic (4) All the above (1) J.C. Luthra (2) K.C. Mehta
Q.30 Entomophagous fungi is - (3) C.V.Subramanian (4) K.G. Mukherji
(1) Colletotrichum (2) Cercospora Q.41 Alexender flemming isolated penicillin from P.
(3) Dactylella (4) Rhizopus notatum. but now a day penicillin is obtained
from -
Q.31 Which fungi is concerned with ‘’Famine of
bengal’’ (1) Aspergillus niger
(2) Penicilium roqeforti
(1) Helminthosporium
(3) P.comemerti
(2) Alternaria
(4) P. chrysogenum
(3) Phytopthora infestence
Q.42Fusion between two adjoining sister cells of
(4) Pythium
Yeast is called -
Q.32 ‘‘Griesofulvin’’ is antifungal antibiotic obtained
(1) Pedogamy
from -
(2) Adelphogampy
(1) P. chrysogenum (2) P. notatum
(3) Parthenogamy
(3) P. griesofulvum (4) Neurospora
(4) Pedogamy & adelphogamy
Fungi [92]

Q.43 Pseudomycelium occurs in - Q.54 Yeast grows more quickly in -
(1) Mushroom (2) Mucor (1) Salt water
(3) Bread mold (4) Yeast (2) Sugar solution
Q.44 Life cycle of Saccharomyces cerevissae is- (3) Double distilled water
(1) Haplontic (2) Diplontic (4) Marine water
(3) Haplo-diplontic (4) Diplo-halplontic Q.55 Which of the following is a imperfect fungi-
Q.45 ‘’Dolipore septum’’ is the characteristic of- (1) Deuteromycetes (2) Basidiomycetes
(1) Myxomycetes (2) Phycomycetes (3) Rhodophyceae (4) Euglenophyceae
(3) Deuteromycetes (4) Basidiomycetes Q.56 Ergot fungi belongs to -
Q.46 Deuteromycetes are called ‘’Imperfect fungi’’ (1) Ascomycetes (2) Basidiomycetes
as - (3) Phycomycetes (4) Deuteromycetes
(1) They have no cell wall Q.57 Professor K.C. Mehta is known for his
(2) No mycelium contribution in-
(3) No sexual reporduction (1) Bryology (2) Plant physiology
(4) No asexual reporduction (3) Virology (4) Plant pathology
Q.47 Fungi which requires two different hosts to Q.58 Fungi are ecologically important because-
complete it’s life cycle called is -
(1) They yield antibiotics
(1) Homothallic (2) Heterothallic
(2) They are used in genetic studies
(3) Heteroecious (4) Autoecious
(3) They function as decomposers
Q.48 Late blight of potato disease caused by -
(4) All the above
(1) Helminthosporium oryzae
Q.59 Tikka disease of ground nut is caused by-
(2) Phytopthora infestans
(1) Colletotrichum falcatum
(3) Alternaria solani
(2) Cercospora personata
(4) Synchytrium endobioticum
(3) Alternaria solani
Q.49 How many type of spores are formed in life
cycle of Puccinia - (4) Pythium
(1) Four (2) Five Q.60 Alexander Flemming discovered penicillin in
1928 while working with -
(3) Three (4) Many
(1) Streptomyces
Q.50 Aeciospores of Puccinia are produced on-
(2) Bacteria (Staphylococcus)
(1) Berberis leaves (2) Wheat leaves
(3) Penicillium notatum
(3) Mustard leaves (4) Raphanus leaves
Q.51 In Puccinia karyogamy & meiosis takes place (4) P. chrysogenum
inside - Q.61 Green ear disease of Bajara is caused by -
(1) Basidiospores (2) Aeciospores (1) Pythium (2) Colletotrichum
(3) Telutospores (4) Uredospores (3) Synchytrium (4) Sclerospora
Q.52 Heterotrophic and absorptive mode of Q.62 In fungi group of hyphae is refered to as-
nutrition is found in - (1) Thallus (2) Haustorium
(1) Algae (2) Fungi (3) Mycelium (4) Carpogonium
(3) Bryophytes (4) Euglenoid Q.63 The traditional classification of fungi is based
Q.53 Which of the following is called ‘toad stools- on-
(1) All mushrooms (1) Reserve food
(2) Edible mushrooms (2) Sexual reproduction
(3) Poisonous mushrooms (3) Flagella
(4) None (4) Structure of spores
Fungi [93]

Q.64 Plant group which shows Heterotrphic mode of Q.70 All fungi are -
nutrition is - (1) Symbionts (2) Parasites
(1) Algae (2) Fungi (3) Saprophytes (4) Heterotrophs
(3) Bryophytes (4) Pteridophytes Q.71 Aspergillosis is caused by -
Q.65 Sexual reproduction absent in - (1) Virus (2) Bacteria
(1) Phycomycetes (2) Deuteromycetes (3) Fungi (4) Mycoplasma
(3) Zygomycetes (4) Basidiomycetes Q.72 Nucleated, spore bearing non chloro-phyllous
Q.66 Inky cap mushroom is called as- plant belongs to -
(1) Pyricularia (1) Monera (2) Thallophyta
(2) Agarites wardianus (3) Fungi (4) Bryophyta
(3) Xylari hypoxylon Q.73 Which fungal disease spreads by seed and
(4) Coprinus muscatus flowers -
Q.67 Non-septate mycelium occurs in - (1) Loose smut of Wheat
(1) Phycomycetes (2) Corn stunt
(2) Ascomycetes (3) Covered smut of Barley
(3) Basidiomycetes (4) Soft rot of Potato
(4) Deuteromycetes Q.74 Which of the following secretes toxins during
Q.68 In fungi pitcher shaped, embedded body which storage conditions of crop plants-
opens to exterior by ostiole is called- (1) Aspergillus (2) Penecillium
(1) Cleistothecium (2) Perithecium (3) Fusarium (4) Colletotrichum
(3) Pycnidium (4) Apothecium Q.75 Warm and humid condition is most favourable
Q.69 Clamp connections present in - for the growth of
(1) Basidiomycetes (2) Ascomycetes (1) Mucor (2) Moss
(3) Deuteromycetes (4) Phycomycetes (3) Selaginella (4) Pinus
ANSWER KEY
EXERCISE – 1
Ques. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. 4 1 2 4 1 4 1 2 4 3 1 2 1 2 3 4 4 2 1 2
Ques. 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
Ans. 1 4 4 1 3 2 2 2 3 3 1 3 3 4 4 2 2 1 3 2
Ques. 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
Ans. 4 2 4 3 4 3 3 2 2 1 3 2 3 2 1 1 4 3 2 2
Ques. 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75
Ans. 4 3 2 2 2 4 1 3 1 4 3 3 1 1 1
Fungi [94]

EXERCISE – 2
Q.1 Coenocytic mycelium are & Q.12 The disease produced by Albugo on the cruci-
(1) Uninucleated (2) Multinucleated fers is-
(3) Binucleated (4) Non-nucleated (1) Rust (2) White rust
Q.2 Cell wall of fungi is composed of & (3) Redrust (4) Black rust
(1) Hemicellulose (2) Chitin Q.13 The mycelium of the albugo is
(3) Cellulose (4) Cutin (1) Inter cellular & septate
Q.3 Saccharomyces cerevisae is used in the for- (2) Intracellular & aseptate
mation of– (3) Intra cellular & septate
(1) Ethanol (2) Methanol (4) Intercellular & aseptate
(3) Acetic acid (4) Antibiotics Q.14 The male gamete in albugo reaches to the fe-
Q.4 Genus Penicillium belongs to – male gamete by-
(1) Basidiomycetes (2) Ascomycetes (1) Flagella
(3) Phycomycetes (4) Deuteromycetes (2) Fertilization tube
Q.5 The yeast and Penicillium are included under– (3) Swimming
(1) Phycomycetes (2) Ascomycetes (4) Chemotaxis
(3) Basidiomycetes (4) Myxomycetes Q.15 Which stain and mount is generally used for
Q.6 Penicillium is economically important because fungi-
it – (1) Cotton blue and glycerine
(1) Spoils food material (2) Saffranine and glycerine
(2) Provides antibiotic drugs (3) Cotton blue and lactophenol
(3) Causes pathogenic diseases (4) Eosine & Lactophenol
(4) Used in the preparation of alcohol Q.16 Bordeux mixture is first fungicide, is discov-
ered by-
Q.7 Penicillin was discovered by –
(1) Millardet (2) de-berry
(1) S. Waksman
(3) Mitchelli (4) Alexopoulus
(2) Robert Koch
Q.17 At which stage septa are formed in albugo
(3) Alexander Flemming
(1) At the time of vegetative growth
(4) P. Ehrilich
(2) At the time of haustorial formation
Q.8 Sir alexander flemming extracted penicillin
(3) At the time of sexual & asexual reproduc-
from –
tion
(1) Penicillium citrinum
(4) Never formed
(2) Penicillium notatum
Q.18 Albugo is found
(3) Penicillium claviforme
(1) In dung
(4) Penicillium brevis
(2) In streams
Q.9 Penicillium is a –
(3) In decaying organic matter
(1) White mould (2) Black mould
(4) On the leaves of a living plant
(3) Blue mould (4) Yellow mould
Q.19 Albugo produces conidiosporangia
Q.10 First antibiotic isolated was –
(1) In chain (2) In clusters
(1) Streptomycin (2) Neomycin
(3) Singly (4) In clumps
(3) Penicillin (4) Terramycin
Q.20 The order of development of conidia in Albugo
Q.11 One of the common fungal diseases of man is- is
(1) Plague (2) Ring worm (1) Acropetal (2) Basipetal
(3) Cholera (4) Typhoid (3) Irregular (4) Radial
Fungi [95]

Q.21 Albugo draws nutrition from its host by Q.31 Fungi are always-
(1) Extra cellular phagocytosis (1) Autotrophs (2) Heterotrophs
(2) Club shaped conidiophores (3) Saprophytes (4) Parasites
(3) Tuber-culate rhizoids Q.32 Yeast is an important source of-
(4) Globular or Button shaped haustoria (1) Vitamin C (2) Vitamin B
Q.22 In what form of the food is stored in the myce- (3) Vitamin A (4) Vitamin D
lium of Albugo- Q.33 Pseudomycelium is characteristic feature of-
(1) Sugar, oil and mainitol (1) Mushroom (2) Mucor
(2) Starch and protein (3) Bread mould (4) Yeast
(3) Protein and cellulose
Q.34 Common form of food stored in a fungal cell
(4) Glycogen and oil droplets is-
Q.23 Which stage of albugo exhibits symptoms of (1) Glycogen (2) Starch
white rust disease-
(3) Glucose (4) Sucrose
(1) Mycelium (2) Conidia
Q.35 Saccharomyces cerevisiae is-
(3) Gametangia (4) Oospore
(1) Akaryote (2) Prokaryote
Q.24 A single filament of Albugo can reproduce
(3) Mesokaryote (4) Eukaryote
(a) Sexually (b) Asexually
(c) Vagetatively Q.36 Gibberellin was first discovered from-
(1) ‘a’ and ‘b’ (2) ‘a’ and ‘c’ (1) Algae (2) Fungi
(3) ‘b’ and ‘c’ (4) ‘a’, ‘b’ & ‘c’ (3) Bacteria
Q.25 The gametes of albugo are (4) Roots of higher plants
(1) Non-flagellated and non motile Q.37 In the production of leavened bread, the
(2) Flagellated and Motile following is used-
(3) Male flagellated & Female non flagellated (1) Bacterium (2) Yeast
(4) Male non flagellated & Female flagellated (3) Rhizopus (4) None of these
Q.26 In what points the Albugo resemble Ulothrix Q.38 Rhizopus belongs to the class-
(1) In food reserves (1) Ascomycetes (2) Phycomycetes
(2) In unicelled gemetangia (3) Basidiomycetes (4) Deuteromycetes
(3) In cellulosic cell wall Q.39 All fungi differ from algae in-
(4) In uninucleated cells (1) Lacking chlorophyll and in having cell wall
Q.27 What holds the conidia together into a chain in which is chitinized
Cystopus (Albugo) (2) Being coenocytic
(1) Middle lamila (2) Cell-wall (3) Lacking unicellular forms
(3) Intercalary mucilagenous septum (4) Lacking motile ciliated gametes
(4) Plamodesmata Q.40 Generally, in culture of Rhizopus, zygospores
Q.28 Sexual reproduction by gametangial copulation are not formed-
occurs in- (1) Due to lack of oxygen
(1) Synchytrium (2) Yeast (2) Due to shortage of light
(3) Rhizopus (4) Both (2) and (3) (3) Due to absence of ‘+’ and ‘ – ‘ strains
Q.29 Red rot of sugar cane is caused by- (4) Due to presence of ‘ + ‘ and ‘ – ‘ strains
(1) Puccinia (2) Albugo Q.41 The structure in which ascospores are formed
(3) Ustilago (4) Colletotrichum is known as-
Q.30 ‘LSD’ is obtained from- (1) Basidium (2) Sporangium
(1) Clavatia (2) Claviceps (3) Ascus (4) Gametangium
(3) Amanita (4) Trichoderma
Fungi [96]

Q.42 Sexual reproduction can occur in the absence Q.52 Fusion between two morphologically similar but
of water in- physiologically different thalli in fungi is known
(1) Ulothrix (2) Albugo as-
(3) Marchantia (4) Fern (1) Isogamy (2) Anisogamy
Q.43 Commercial source of manufacture of citric (3) Homothallism (4) Heterothallism
acid is- Q.53 Heterothallism was discovered by-
(1) Citrus fruit (2) Bacteria (1) Alexopoulos (2) K.C. Mehta
(3) Aspergillus (4) Penicillium (3) Blakeslee (4) Louis Pasteur
Q.44 Rhizopus is- Q.54 Aflatoxin was discovered in-
(1) Autotrophic (2) Symbiotic (1) Penicillium (2) Rhizopus
(3) Saprophytic (4) Parasitic (3) Aspergillus (4) Agaricus
Q.45 Which of the following is not the mode of Q.55 Heterothallism refers to-
reproduction in yeast-
(1) Fusion is not accompanied with zygote
(1) Budding (2) Fission formation
(3) Plasmogamy (4) Oogamy (2) Fusion between morphologically similar
Q.46 Heating milk or any other liquid at 65° C and strain
then sudden cooling is known as- (3) Fusion between the strains structurally
(1) Sterilization (2) Pasteurization similar and physiologically different
(3) Preservation (4) Fermentation
(4) All of the above
Q.47 Albugo candida, the agent of white rust disease
Q.56 Wart disease of potato is caused by-
is a-
(1) Phytophthora infestans
(1) Protist (2) Microbe
(2) Synchytrium endobioticum
(3) Fungus (4) Prokaryote
(3) Pythium debaryanum
Q.48 Mycelium of Albugo is-
(4) Peronospora destructor
(1) Unseptate and multinucleate
(2) Unseptate and uninucleate Q.57 Which of the following can cause a disease in
human beings-
(3) Septate and uninucleate
(1) Rhizopus (2) Aspergillus
(4) Septate and multinucleate
(3) Puccinia (4) Cystopus
Q.49 Disease resistant plant varieties can be
produced by- Q.58 One of these is known as blue mould-
(1) Heat treatment (1) Penicillium (2) Erysiphe
(2) Colchicine treatment (3) Aspergillus (4) Peziza
(3) Hormonal treatment Q.59 Penicillin is obtained from-
(4) Crossing with wild varieties of plants (1) Aspergillus fumigatus
Q.50 Approximately one hundred diseases and pests (2) Penicillium chrysogenum
are reported on- (3) Penicillium griseofulvum
(1) Wheat (2) Gram (4) Streptomyces griseus
(3) Groundnut (4) Rice Q.60 In Mucor sps., usually isogamy takes place
Q.51 The reduction division in the cycle of Rhizopus between-
occurs- (1) Same strain (2) + and – strains
(1) At the time of germination of zygospore (3) Zygospores (4) Microspores
(2) During the formation of green sporangium Q.61 Tikka disease occurs in-
(3) During sexual reproduction (1) Rice (2) Sugar cane
(4) During the formation of gametangium (3) Groundnut (4) Sorghum
Fungi [97]

Q.62 The diseases produces by the fungus Ustilago Q.68 Heterotrophic absorptive mode of nourishment
are known as “Smuts” because- found in-
(1) The affected hosts become completely (1) Algae (2) Fungi
black (3) Bryophytes (4) Pteridophytes
(2) They produce sooty masses of spores Q.69 A chemical substance produced by one micro-
(3) They parasitize cereals organism that inhibits or destroy the growth of
other micro-organism is called-
(4) Their mycelium is black
(1) Antibiotic (2) Antibody
Q.63 Zygospores are formed in-
(3) Aflatoxin (4) Antiallergic
(1) Puccinia (2) Penicillium
Q.70 The fungus without mycelium is-
(3) Alternaria (4) Mucor
(1) Puccinia (2) Phytophthora
Q.64 Smut of maize is caused by- (3) Rhizopus (4) Saccharomyces
(1) Ustilago avenae (2) Ustilago mydis Q.71 Loose smut of wheat is caused by-
(3) Ustilago hordei (4) Ustilago nuda
(1) Ustilago tritici (2) cystopus
Q.65 Among plants ‘pheromones’ are secreted by (3) Puccinia (4) Aspergillus
the cells of following plants for the given
Q.72 Bordeuax mixture used extensively for
function-
treatment of plant diseases was discovered by-
(1) All plants for growth and development
(1) J.H. Millardet (2) Lister Jospelly
(2) Yeast for facilitating mating (3) Louis Pasteur (4) Beijerinck
(3) All fungi for sexual reproduction Q.73 Scientist famous for his researches on the
(4) Rhizopus for the formation of zygospore wheat problems in India-
Q.66 Claviceps purpurea is the causal organism of- (1) K.C. Mehta (2) Subramaniyam
(1) Smut of barley (3) M.O.P. Iyengar (4) Desikachary
(2) Ergotism of rye Q.74 Plasmogamy refers to-
(3) Powdery mildew of pea (1) The fusion of two haploid hyphae with
simultaneous nuclear fusion
(4) Rust of wheat
(2) The fusion of two haploid hyphae without
Q.67 Antibiotic ‘flavicin’ is obtained from-
simultaneous nuclear fusion
(1) Aspergillus fumigatus
(3) Fusion of egg cell with sperm
(2) Aspergillus clavatus (4) Fusion of sperm cell with polar nuclei
(3) Streptomyces grisesus Q.75 Ergot is obtained from-
(4) Streptomyces fradiae (1) Claviceps purpurea (2) Rhizopus arrhizus
(3) Puccinia graminis (4) Ustilago tritici
ANSWER KEY
EXERCISE – 2
Ques. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. 2 2 1 2 2 2 3 2 3 3 2 2 4 2 3 1 3 4 1 2
Ques. 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
Ans. 4 4 2 3 1 2 3 3 4 2 2 2 4 1 4 2 2 2 1 3
Ques. 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
Ans. 3 2 3 3 4 2 3 1 4 1 1 1 3 3 3 2 2 1 2 2
Ques. 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75
Ans. 3 2 4 2 4 2 1 2 1 4 1 1 1 2 1
Fungi [98]

Q.1 There exist a close association between the alga Q.10 Zygospore is formed from [Wardha 2005]
and fungus within a lichen. The fungus : (1) gamentangial copulation
[AIPMT 2005] (2) gametic union
(1) fixes the atmospheric nitrogen for the alga (3) zygote (4) oogamy
Q.11 Fungi differ from algae in having
(2) provides protection, anchorage and
[DPMT 2005]
absorption for the alga
(1) chitinous cell wall and chlorophyll absent
(3) provides food for the alga
(2) chitinous cell wall and chlorophyll present
(4) release oxygen for the alga (3) cellulosic cell wall and chlorophyll absent
Q.2 Fungal flagellum originates from (4) cellulosic cell wall and chlorophyll present
[Orissa Jee 2005] Q.12 There can two statements Assertion(A) and
(1) dictyosomes (2) kinetosomes Reason(R) written below. Consider them and
(3) glyxisomes (4) oxysomes answer accordingly [AIIMS 2005]
A. The fungi are widespread in distribution and
Q.3 The famous Irish famine is related to a disease
they even live on or inside other plants and
of potato known as [Pb. PMT 2005]
animals.
(1) late blight (2) early blight
B. Fungi are able to grow anywhere on land,
(3) dry rot of potato (4) none of above water or on other organisms because they have
Q.4 ........ constitutes an edible fungi [BHU 2005] a variety of pigments, including chlorophyll,
(1) Agaricus (2) Morchella carotenoids, fucoxanthin and phycoerythrin
(3) Lycoperodon (4) a and b (1) If A is correct and R is its explanation
Q.5 Doliopore septum is only characteristic of (2) If A is correct and R is not its explanation
(3) If A is correct but R is wrong
[JIPMER 2003; DPMT 2005]
(4) If both A and R are wrong
(1) phycomycetes (2) zygomycetes
Q.13 Which of the following fungus can cause
(3) ascomycetes (4) basidiomycetes diseases in humans? [CMC Ludhiana 2006]
Q.6 Vit. B12 is released by (1) Penicillium (2) Ustilago
[Maharashtra CET 2005] (3) Puccinia (4) Smut
(1) Saccharromyces cerevisae Q.14 Red rot of sugarcane and white rust of radish
(2) Rhizopus stolonifer are respectively caused by
(3) Ashbya gossypi (4) Propioni bacteria [Orissa Jee 2005; Kerla PMT 2005]
Q.7 The litmus is obtained from [Pb. PMT 2005] (1) Albugo candida and Cerospora
(2) Colletotrichum and Fusarium
(1) Lecanora (2) Cetreria
(3) Pythium and Phytopthora
(3) Cladonia (4) None of above
(4) Albugo candida and Puccinia graminis
Q.8 Zygospore formation occurs in (5) Colletotrichum and Albugo candida
[Orissa Jee 2005] Q.15 Terrestrial fungus is [GGSIPU 2006]
(1) Mucor (2) Plasmodium (1) Urticularia (2) Sargassum
(3) Lentinum (4) Peziza (3) Agaricus (4) Albugo
Q.9 The fungi causing white rust belongs to which Q.16 The fungi in which sexual reproduction is absent
order [JIPMER 2005] or is under abnormal conditions is
[JIPMER 2002; Pb.PMT 2000, 2006]
(1) Ustilagoeles (2) Chytridieles
(1) phycomycetes (2) asomycetes
(3) Uredineles (4) Perenosporales
(3) basidiomycetes (4) deuteromycetes
Fungi [99]

Q.17 Edible part of mushroom is Q.24 Asperigillus niger is used for the manufacture
[CPMT 2003; BHU 2006] of [Manipal PMT 2007]
(1) basidiocarp (1) citric acid and gluconic acid
(2) primary mucelium (2) HCl and HNO3
(3) secondary mycelium (3) fumaric and malic acid

(4) succinic and fumaric acid
(4) tertiary mycelium
Q.25 Beedle and Tatum gave 'one gene and one
Q.18 VAM stands for [PIMS–AICET 2006]
enzyme' hypothesis while working on
(1) Vascular Arbuscular Mycorrihizae
[AIPMT 2007]
(2) Vesicle Arbuscular Mycorrihizae
(1) Salmonelly typhimurium
(3) Veremicular Arbuscular Mycorrihizae
(2) Neurospora crassa
(4) Vacuolar Arbuscular Mycorrihizae
(3) Eschericlia coli
Q.19 Ascomycetes are [GGSIPU 2006] (4) Diplococcus pneumoniae
(1) club fungi (2) algal fungi Q.26 An organism with eukaryotic multicellular nature
(3) pin moulds (4) sac fungi obtains its nutrition through its cell wall. It should
Q.20 Genus Aspergillus and Claviceps belongs to be placed under [Manipal PMT 2007]
[BVP Pune 2006] (1) Mycota (2) Plantae
(1) phycomycetes (2) ascomycetes (3) Animalia (4) Monera
(3) basidiomycetes (4) deuteromycetes Q.27 Which of the following pair belongs to
Q.21 Among rust, smut and mushroom all the three basidiomycetes? [AIPMT 2007]
[AIIMS 2006] (1) Puffballs and Claviceps
(1) all pathogens (2) are saprobes (2) Morchella and mushrooms
(3) bear ascocarbs (4)bear basidiocarps (3) Peziza and stink horns
Q.22 In the following table identify the correct (4) Bird's nest fungi and puffballs
matching of the crop, its disease and the Q.28 The toxins released by plants to save themselves
corresponding pathogen [AIIMS 2006] from fungal attack are [BHU 2007]
Crop Disease Pathogen (1) phytotoxins (2) phytoalexins
1. Citrus–Canker A. Pseudomonas (3) calmodulins (4) aquaporins
rubrilineans Q.29 LSD is extracted from [Manipal PMT 2007]
2. Potato–Late Blight B. Fusarium udum (1) Claviceps (2) Cannabis

(3) Agaricus (4) Amanita
3. Root-know C. Meoidogyn injection
Q.30 The pathoens for leaf spot disease in Arachis
4. Pigeon pee–See gall D. Phytophthora
hypogea is [KCET 2007]
infestans
(1) Fusarium (2) Cercosporia
A B C D
(3) Alternaria (4) Heminthosphorium
(1) 1 2 3 4
Q.31 Tundu disease of wheat is due to infection
(2) 1 4 3 2
caused by [GGSIPU 2007]
(3) 4 3 2 1
(1) Nematode and fungi
(4) 3 4 1 2
(2) fungi and bacteria
Q.23 Cell wall of fungi consists of [AMU 2007]
(3) Nematode and bacteria
(1) cellulose (2) hemicellulose
(4) algae and fungi
(3) chitin (4) both a and c
Fungi [100]

Q.32 'Ergot of rye' is caused by Q.40 Which one is the wrong pairing for the disease
[AIPMT 2007; Pb.PMT 2007] and its causal organism? [AIPMT 2009]
(1) Claviceps purpurea (1) Loose smut of wheat – Ustilago nuda
(2) Sclerospora graminicola (2) Root know of vegetables – Meloidogyne sp

(3) Late blight of potato – Alternaria solani
(3) Cannabis sativa
(4) Black rust of wheat – Puccinia graminis
(4) Algae and fungi
Q.41 Which one of the following has haplontic life
Q.33 Which of these is follose lichen
cycle? [AIPMT 2009]
[Pb. PMT 2008]
(1) Ustilago (2) Wheat
(1) Cladonia (2) Graphs (3) Funaria (4) Polytrichum
(3) Parmeia (4) Lecanora Q.42 Sexual reproduction in fungi may occur by means
Q.34 Saccharomyces is commercially used in .... of [AMU 2009]
industry [Dy Patil Pune 2008] (1) sporangiospore, oospore and ascospore
(1) baking (2) wine (2) zoospore, oospore and ascospore
(3) butter (4) both a and b (3) sporangiospore, ascospore and basidiospore
Q.35 Black rust of wheat is a fungal disease caused (4) oospore, ascospore, basidiospore
by [DPMT 2003; Pb.PMT 2008] Q.43 Lichens growing on tree bark are called
(1) Puccinia tritici (1) Lignicolour (2) Terricolous
(2) Claviceps purpurea (3) Corticolous (4) Saxicolous
(3) melamspora lini Q.44 Common mycobionts and phycobionts of lichen
(4) Sclerospora graminicola body are respectively
(1) Ascomycetes, Chlorophyceae
Q.36 Taxonomy of fungi is based on [DPMT 2008]
(2) Ascomycetes, Cyanophyceae
(1) Sexual reproduction
(3) Basidiomycetes, Chlorophyceae
(2) Nutrition
(4) Basidiomycetes, Cyanophyceae
(3) Shape of sperocap
Q.45 Foliose lichhens are attached to the substratum
(4) Cell wall at one or few places with the help of
Q.37 Cellulose is a major component of cell walls of (1) Branched, multicellular rhizoids
[AIPMT 2008] (2) Holdfast
(1) Pythium (2) Xanthomonas (3) Rhizines
(3) Pseudomonas (4) Saccharomyces (4) Rhizomorph
Q.38 Trichoderma harziahum has proved a useful Q.46 Specialised structure in the thallus of lichen for
microorganism for [AIPMT 2008] nitrogen fixation and retaining moisture is
(1) bioremediation of contaminated soils (1) Cyphellae (2) Isidia
(2) reclamation of wastelands (3) Cephalodia (4) Soredia
(3) gene transfer in higher plants Q.47 Select correct statement w.r.t. mycorrhizal roots
(4) biological control of soil-borne plant (1) They do not differ in shape from normal
pathogens roots
Q.39 The athlete's foot disease in humans is caused (2) Often show a wooly covering
due to [AMU 2009] (3) Possess root cap but lack root hairs
(1) bacteria (2) fungi (4) Fungal partner is commonly a member of
(3) virus (4) none of the above Ascomycetes
Fungi [101]

Q.48 Which of the following feature is not related with Q.52 Which one of the following microbes forms
virus ? symbiotic association with plants and helps them
(1) Infectivity and host specificity in their nutrition? [AIPMT Pre 2012]
(2) Presence of genetic material (1) Aspergillus (2) Glomus
(3) Occurrence of certain enzymes (3) Trichodrma (4) Azoiobacter
(4) Presence of respiration Q.53 Which statement is wrong for viruses ?
Q.49 Most of the viruses are/ have
[AIPMT Pre 2012]
(1) Enveloped nucleo-protein structure
(1) All of them have helical symmetry.
(2) Non-enveloped nucleo-protein structure
(2) They have ability to synthesize nucleic acids
(3) Infectious protein particles
and proteins
(4) Double stranded DNA as well as dsRNA
(3) Antibiotic have no effect on them.
Q.50 Infectious RNA particles without protein coat
(1) Have high molecular weight (4) All are parasites.
(2) Were discovered by Alper
(3) Known to cause disease in plants only
(4) More than one option is correct
Q.51 Yeast is used in the production of :
[AIPMT Pre 2012]
(1) Lipase and pectinase
(2) Bread and beer
(3) Cheese and butter
(4) Citric acid and lactic acid
ANSWER KEY
EXERCISE – 3
Ques. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. 2 2 1 4 4 1 1 1 2 3 1 3 1 5 3 4 1 1 4 2
Ques. 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
Ans. 4 2 4 1 2 1 4 2 1 2 3 1 3 4 1 1 1 4 2 3
Ques. 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53
Ans. 1 4 3 1 3 3 2 4 2 3 2 2 1
Fungi [102]

EXERCISE – 4 AIIMS SPECAIL
Q.1 Which one of the following pairs is correctly INSTRUCTIONS FOR Q. NO. 7 TO 10
matched? In the following questions (6 to 7), a statement of
(1 ) Rhizobium Parasite in the roots of leguminous assertion (A) is followed by a statement of
plants reason (R).
(2) Mycorrhizae Mineral uptake from soil
(1) If both Assertion & Reason are true and the
(3) Yeast Production of biogas
reason is the correct explanation of the assertion,
(4) Myxomycetes The disease ring worm then mark (1).
Q.2 Among rust, smut and mushroom all the three
(2) If both Assertion & Reason are true but the
(1) Are pathogens (2) Are sap robes
reason is not the correct explanation of the
(3) Bear ascocarps (4) Bear basidiocarps
assertion, then mark (2).
Q.3 Select incorrect statement w.r.t. T4 bacteriophages
(3) If Assertion is true statement but Reason is
(1) Have polygonal prismatic head
false, then mark (3).
(2) Contractile tail without tail-sheath
(4) If both Assertion and Reason are false
(3) Six tail fibres
statements, then mark (4).
(4) Ds-DNA as the genetic material
Q.7 A : Secondary mycelium in Agaricus is formed
Q.4 TMV is
by somatogamy.
(1) Ds Ribovirus (2) Ds Deoxyvirus
(3) Ss Ribovirus R : Mycelium consists of coenocytic hyphae.
(4) Ribovirus with 6400 capsomeres Q.8 A : Rhizopus stolonifer is heterothallic.
Q.5 Find correct match R : Heterothallism was discovered by Blackeslee.
Column I Column II Q.9 A : Rust diseases cannot be caused other than
a. Sac fungi (i) Sporangiospore Puccinia.
b. Club fungi (ii) Diplanetism R : White rust of crucifers is caused by Albugo
c. Algal fungi (iii) Dolipore (Cystopus).
d. Dung fungi (iv) Ascospore Q.10 A : The fungi are widespread in distribution and
(1) a(iv), b(iii), c(ii), d(i) they even live on or inside other plants and
(2) a(iii), b(ii), c(i), d(iv) animals.
(3) a(iv), b(iii), c(i), d(ii) R : Fungi are able to grow anywhere on land,
(4) a(iii), b(iv), c(ii), d(i) water or on other organisms because they have
Q.6 Hartig net is formed by a variety of pigments, including chlorophyll,
(1) Ecotomycorrhiza carotenoids, fucoxanthin and phycoerythrin.
(2) Basidiomycetes mostly
(3) Endomycorrhiza
(4) Both (1) & (2)
ANSWER KEY
EXERCISE – 4
Ques. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Ans. 2 1 2 3 1 4 3 2 2 3
Fungi [103]

Instruction to fill

Exercise # 1
Exercise # 2
Exercise # 3
Exercise # 4
Other Exercise
Advantages
Fungi [104]

ALGAE
Term “Algae” was given by Linnaeus.
Phycology - Study of algae.
Father of Phycology  Fristch  Book - ''Structure & Reproduction of Algae''
Father of Indian Phycology - M.O.P. lyengar
Nature :
Algae are mostly aquatic found in both fresh and marine water. Most of alga have dominant haploid plant
body. Algae are found in many forms like microscopic unicellular, colonial, filamentous and some marine
are parenchymatous & massive and some are multinucleated siphonaceous. Algae is surrounded by
mucilagenous sheath and below the sheath cell wall is present which is made up of cellulose (inner) &
pectin (outer).Tissue system absent.
Habitat of some Important Algae :
Terrestrial : The algae found in moist soil & wall. e.g., Terrentofolia.
Epiphytes : Algae which are present on plants. e.g., Protococcus.
Endophytes : Algae which are present inside plants. e.g., Coleochaete nitelum. (in Nitella plant)
Epizoic : Algae which are present on animals. e.g., Cladophora (present on Mollusca shell), on sloth
bear (Symbiotically).
Endozoic : Algae which are present inside the body of animals. e.g., Zoochlorella and Zooxenthellae
(inside the Hydra).
Parasites : Algae that live as parasite and causes diseases. e.g., Cephaleruos (algae remain in the
leves of tea plant). Cephaleruos causes red rust disease of tea.
Thermophilic : Algae found in hot water. e.g., Chlorella.
Cryophytes : Algae which are present in polar regions & Low temperature. e.g., Chlamydomonas
(some species). Haematococcus nivalis (It develops red snow in polar region).
Cryptophytes : Algae which found under the soil. e.g., Nostoc.
Sapophytes : Algae found on surface of soil. e.g., Vaucheria.
Epiphloephytes : Algae arise on bark of trees.
Reproduction :
(1) Vegetative (2) Asexual (3) Sexual
Vegetative reproduction
Binary fission : Cell is divided into two parts and nucleus is also divided into two parts by mitosis. e.g.,
Found only in unicellular algae.
Fragmentation – Filaments break down into small pieces & forms new filaments. e.g., all filamentous
algae.
Asexual reproduction
It is most commonly occur by different spores mostly Zoospore (Flagellated, motile). It is also a method
of protection in all unfavourable conditions by forming aplanospores, hypnospores, cyst etc.
Sexual reproduction
It is of three types.
(a) Isogamous – Chlamydomonas debaryanum, Ulothrix, Ectocarpus, spirogyra (non-flagellated
gametes)
(b) Anisogamous – Chlamydomonas brunii
(c) Oogamous – Chlamydomonas coccifera, Sargassum, Volvox, fucus, chara etc.
Algae & Bryophyta [105]

Note -
1. Chlamydomonas exhibits complete evolution of sexual reproduction.
2. Ulothrix (zonata sp.) exhibits origin of sexual reproduction. Male sex organ is called antheridium
and female is called oogonium. The sex organs of algae are unicellular & jacketless. Exceptionally
sex organs of Chara (Chara – green algae - known as stone wort) are multicellular and Jacketed.
The male sex organ of Chara is known as globule and female is known as nucule.
Life cycle :
Plant body of algae is haploid so sexual reproduction take place through zygotic meiosis. So their life
cycle is haplontic. Exceptionally brown algae is diploid so that sexual reproduction takes place through
gametic meiosis in it. So its life cycle is diplo-haplontic but Fucus (brown algae) have diplontic life cycle.
Some Red algae show Diplohaplontic (Diplontic) life cycle (polysiphonia). Algae mostly reproduce by
zygotic meiosis i.e. development of zygote by meiosis so embryo is not formed.
Classification :
The classification of algae is mainly based on the photosynthetic pigments. In addition to this, cell wall
composition and stored food are also the basis of classification.
Algae is devided into following divisions :
(1) Chlorophyta – Green algae
(2) Phaeophyta – Brown algae
(3) Rhodophyta – Red algae
(4) Xanthophyta – Yellow - Green algae
CLASSES OF ALGAE AND THEIR MAIN CHARACTERISTICS

Major Pigments Stored Cell Wall Flagellar Number and Habitat
Food Position of Insertions
Chlorophyll a,b Strach Cellulose 2-8, Isokont and anterior Fresh water
and -carotene position & salt water
Chlorophyll a,c, Mannitol, Cellulose 2, Heterokont, laterally Fresh water (rare)
fucoxanthin laminarin and algin inserted &
salt water
Chlorophyll a,d, Floridean Cellulose Absent Fresh water (some),
Phycobilins starch + &
(phyco-erythrin, Glycan salt water(most)
Phycocyanin) +
mannan
CHLOROPHYTA (GREEN ALGAE)

Green algae is the most advanced algae. It is believed that green algae is the ancestor of the higher
plants. Different forms of thallus of Green algae are as followes :
(A) Unicellular :
(i) Chlamydomonas : Motile unicellular algae. The algae moves with the help of flagella.
(ii) Chlorella : Non motile unicellular alge. Calvin discovered ‘‘Calvin Cycle’’ by experimenting on
Chlorella.
(iii) Acetabularia - (Umbrella plant) - It is the largest unicellular plant. The diameter of its cell is 10
cm. Hammerling experimented on Acetabularia.
(B) Coenocytic : Some green algae are coenocytic i.e. multinucleated. e.g., Caulerpa.

Note : According to five kingdom system the algae described above should be placed in Protista but
exceptionally its life cycle is similar to green algae. Therefore they are placed in plantae.
(C) Colonial : Some green algae are found in colonies. They form colony of cells. The number of cells
in a colony is fixed. Such colony is called coenobium. The number is decided at development stage. e.g.,
Volvox - Motile colony Hydrodictyon - Non motile colony (called as water net)
(D) Multicellular filamentous : Mostly algae are multicellular filamentous.
(a) Unbranched filament :
(i) Ulothrix - Known as pond wool
(ii) Spirogyra - Known as pond silk (they reproduce by conjugation)
(b) Heterotrichous branched : Some green algae have two types of branches prostrate and erect.
e.g., Fritschiella, Cladophora, Stigeoclonium, Coleochaete, Chara (Fritschiella tuberosa has
apprach to the early land plants).
(E) Multicellular thalloid or Parenchymatous : Some algae are multicellular in length & width. e.g.,
Ulva - Also called as sea lettuce
1. CELLULAR FEATURES
(A) Cell Wall : Inner cellulose and outer pectose layer.
(B) Photosynthetic pigments :
Chlorophyll - Chl ‘a’ and Chl ‘b’
Carotene -  carotene
Xanthophyll - Luteaxanthin and Viloxanthin - Yellow coloured
Note : The green colour of green algae is due to chlorophyll.
(C) Pryenoid - Proteinaceous structure sorrounded by starch located in chloroplast.
(D) Stored food : In green algae the food is stored in the fom of starch
2. REPRODUCTION
Vegetative - By fragmentation
Asexual - By Zoospore (Flagellated 2 - 8) produced in Zoosporangia.
Sexual - Isogamous, anisogamous and oogamous
3. Life cycle
Three types of life cycles occur in green algae – haplontic, diplontic and Haplodiplontic. In haplontic life
cycle the dominant phase is haploid. It is characterised by zygotic meiosis e.g. Ulothrix, Spirogyra,
Chlamydomonas. In diplontic life cycle, the dominant phase of the algae is diploid. It gives rise to
haploid gametes through meiosis (gametic meiosis) e.g. Caulerpa. The haplo-diplontic life cycle possesses
well developed multicellular haploid (Gametophyte) and diploid (sporophyte) thallus. It is
characterised by sporic meiosis produce Zoospore which germinate to produce the sexual haploid
gametophyte. e.g. Ulva, Cladophora.
4. Economic Importance
Food : Codium, ulva used as salad or vegetable. Chlorella is also used as food because it has largest
amount of protein.
Antibiotics : Chlorellin antibiotic is obtained from Chlorella
Space research : In space, Chlorella is used as a source of food and O2.
Parasitic algae : Cephaleurose viresence algae remains parasitically in the leaves of tea plant and
cause disease ‘red rust’ of tea.

PHAEOPHYTA - BROWN ALGAE OR KELPS OR SEA WEEDS
Brown algae are found in marine water. Brown algae are multicellular, Branched, filamentous in lower
form (Ectocarpus) and branched parenchymatous in higher form (Fucus, Macrocystis, Sargassum,
Laminaria). Brown algae are the largest in size (upto 60 - 100 meter in length). Largest brown algae
- Macrocystis
A. Cellular features
1. The plant body of brown algae is differentiated into following structures :
Lamina / Frond – Leafy part or photosynthetic part
Stipe / Stalk – Elongated tubes called trumpet hyphae are present for food
conduction in stipe. Trumpet hyphae are analogous to sieve
tubes of vascular plants.
Hold fast – For attachment to the substratum. Due to lamina and stipe
brown algae look like leaf (leafy algae)
2. Pigments :
Chlorophyll – Chl ‘a’, Chl ‘c’
Carotenoid – Only  -carotene
Xanthophyll – Mainly Fucoxanthin
Note : The amount of Fucoxanthin is more in brown algae due to which algae is brown in colour.
(Xanthophylls are mostly yellow but fucoxanthin is brown)
3. Stored food :
Laminarin and mannitol : Both are derivaties of carbohydrates.
4. Phycocolloids / Hydrocolloid :
The cell wall of brown algae contain some gelatinous coating of colloid substance like fucinic acid,
alginic acid and fucoidin in outer layer which are known as phycocolloids. Phycocolloids protects brown-
algae against dessication and shocks. Phycocolloids are used in ice-cream to make them more viscous.
Alginates, salts of alginic acid used for dentury measurement. The cells of brown algae have chloroplast,
centrally located vacuole and nucleus.
B . Reproduction
Vegetative - By fragmentation
Asexual - Mostly by Zoospore (Biflagellated) produced in Zoosporangia Sporangia
is specifically two types :
(a) Unilocular – Produced haploid spore
(b) Plurilocular – Produced diploid spores.
Zoospore are Pear Shaped. Two unequal flagella which are Laterally attached.
Sexual - Isogamous, anisogamous and oogamous type. Gametes are Pear shaped
Biflagellated and hapellr are Laterally attached.
C. Life cycle
Mostly Diplo-haplontic and Diplontic (Fucus)
Special Name :
1. Postelsia : It is known as Sea palm.
2. Ancyclonema : It is called Ice bloom because it grows on marine ice.
3. Sargassum : It is known as Gulf weed because Sargassum is a free floating algae. It grows rapidly
in North Atlantic ocean and covers thousands of hectares of area. Therefore this region is called
as sargasso sea.

4. Laminaria (Kelps) - It is called as Devil’s Aprin Other forms are Ectocarpus, Dictyota and Fucus.
D. Economic Importance
Fodder : Most of brown algae are used as fodder and about 70% species of marine brown algae used
as food source.
1. Alginates or Alginic acid : Obtained from Laminaria, Fucus, Macrocystis. Alginates is used in
the manufacturing of soap, ice-cream, polish, cream and plastic.
2. Iodine and Bromine : Obtained from Laminaria & Fucus. (mainly iodine)
RHODOPHYTA - RED ALGAE

Red algae is second most ancient algae after blue green algae i.e. they are developed after blue green
algae. e.g., Polysiphonia. Red algae mainly found in marine (more in warmer areas) water.
Exceptionally Batrachospermum is found in fresh water (river) and Porphyridium is found on land. There
is no motile stage found in life cycle of red algae and BGA i.e. cilia & flagella are absent. Red algae
are multicellular but exceptionally Porphyridium is unicellular.
(a) Cellular features :
The thallus of red algae are multicellular with complex body organization i.e. psedoparenchymatous.
Cell wall of red algae is complex and made up of cellulose & pectin. The cell wall of red algae is also
complicated like blue green algae. Their cell wall has many different type of substance such as xylan,
mannan, galactose, polyuronic acid, polysulphate esters. In some Red algae calcium carbonates is also
present in the cell wall. Due to which their thallus become stony. These algae form lime stone & coral
reefs e.g., Corallina and Lithothamnion. The prominent primitive pit connection develop in between
cells after fertilisation, Help in post fertilisation development.
(b) Pigments :
Chlorophyll - Chl ‘a’ and ‘d’
Carotenes - 
Phycobilins - R - phycoerythrin (red coloured) and R - phycocyanin (blue coloured).
On the basis of pigments red algae is similar to blue green algae. Colour of red algae changes according
to depth of sea is called Gaudikov’s effect. Such effect also seen in Blue green algae. When algae
present on the surface of sea then their colour appear blue and when they are at bottom, their colour
appear red. When they are on surface pigment R-phycocyanin is more while at depth pigment R-
phycoerythrin is more. Ultra-violet and violet light have high penetration power so these light reach at the
high depth in sea. And pigment R-phycoerythrin is only pigment which absorb these UV-lights at great
depth so red algae are deepest algae and appear Red coloured.
Red algae not always red, it may be blue coloured also. e.g., Batrachospermum – This is a blue coloured
algae.
(c) Stored Food :
Floridean Starch :
It is a primitive type of starch. Structurally floridean starch is similar to the cyanophycean starch of blue
green algae. Starch of higher plants is less branched yet floridean starch& cyanophycean strach is highly
branched. Glycogen is also highly branched so that floridean & cyanophycean starch is structurally
similar to glycogen and amylopectin.
Phycocolloids :
Agar, Carrageenin and funori (Type of glue) phycocolloids are found in the cell wall of red algae.

(d) Reproduction
Vegetative : By fragmentation
Asexual : Non motile spores [By monospore, carpospores, tetraspore]
Sexual Reproduction : By non-motile gametes.
Sexual reproduction is oogamous type accompanied by complex post fertilisation development.The female
sex organs are called carpognia. Carpogonia bear receptive neck tichogyne. They are apparently similar
to archegonia of bryophyta. Carpogonia is unicellular & jacketless but archegonia is multicellular &
jacketed. The male sex organs of red algae are known as spermatangia. Non motile spores like gametes
are formed in spermatangia which are known as spermatia.
(e) Life cycle
Exceptionally life cycle of Polysiphonia is diplohaplontic (Diplontic) but triphasic as carposporophyte,
tetrasporophyte and gametophyte plant appear in life cycle.
(f) Economic Importance
Polysiphonia, Rhodomela : Source of Bromine
Harveyella : It is a colourless parasitic algae. It remains as parasite on other algae.
Porphyra : It is an edible algae.
Gelidium and Gracilaria : Hydrocolloid (Agar - Agar) is obtained form these. It is used to prepare
culture medium.
Chondrus crispus : It is also called Irish moss. Carrageenin colloid is obtained from this algae.
It is used as gelating agent in food industries (i.e. to make the food item viscous). Capsule of medicines
is also prepared from carragenin.
Gloiopeltis : Funori (a glue) used as adehsive obtained.
Haematococcus nivalis : ‘‘Red snow’’ - It likes to grow on snow and imparts red colour to snow.
XANTHOPHYTA - YELLOW GREEN ALGAE
1. Habitat and Structure :
All the algae in this group are acellular coenocytic (Siphonaceous thallus) and are found in moist soil.
2. Pigments :
Chlorophyll – Chl ‘a’, ‘e’
Carotene –  carotene
Xanthophylls – Many
Note : The yellow colour of these algae is due to the presence of xanthophyll.
3. Stored Food :
Leucosin and Oil : (Leuosin is derivative of carbohydrate).
e.g., Vaucheria, Botrydium, Tribonema
Note : In Vaucheria algae some special type of spores are formed which are known as synzoospores.
(multinucleated zoospore).

BRYOPHYTA
The term ‘‘Bryophyta’’ was proposed by ‘‘Robert Braun’’. The study of Bryophytes is known as
Bryology. Hedwig is considered to be the father of Bryology. But according to some scientist it is
believed that Cavers is the father of Bryology. Father of Indian Bryology is Prof. Shiv Ram Kashyap.
General features
Bryophytes are the first land plant. It is believed that, they originated from aquatic plant and they come
on land through water. Because some bryophytes have features similar to aquatic plants (eg. presence
of air canals) Bryophytes are known as amphibians of the plant kingdom, because they live in soil but
need water to complete their life cycle during sexual reproduction. Bryophytes are not considered as
the successful land plants because vascular tissue is absent and they need water for fertilization.
The process of water conduction in bryophytes takes place with the help of parenchyma or Hardom
tissue (Sphagnum). Hadrom is dead tissue. The plant body is dominantly haploid, more differentiated than
algae i.e. Multicellular, thalloid, parenchymatous. Roots are absent in bryophytes (Rhizoids unicelled /
multicelled present). Bryophytes are sciophytes, i.e., bryophytes prefer to grow in moist (wet) and shady
places. Vegetative reproduction is quite common through fragmentation, tubers, gemmae (inside gemma
cup), buds, adventitious branches etc.
Habitat of some important Bryophytes
(A) Some bryophytes are found in water eg. Riccia flutains, Riccia abuensis, Ricciocarpus natans,
Riella, Fontinalis
(B) Some bryophytes are found in epiphytic form i.e. they grow on other plants eg. Dendroceros
(C) Some bryophytes are saprophytes (Non photosynthetic) eg. Buxbaumia and Cryptothallus
LIFE CYCLE OF BRYOPHYTES
The plant in bryophytes is gametophyte. It is haploid. Sex organs are formed on gametophyte. Sex
organs are multicellular and jacketed in bryophytes. Male sex organs are called as antheridium and
female sex organs are called as archegonium (Ist Archegoniate plant). The male gametes of bryophytes
are motile. These motile male gametes are called as antherozoids. Antherozoides are comma shaped and
biflagellate. Female gamete is called egg.

In Bryophyta, fertilization is done by zoodiogamy i.e. male gamete reaches the female gametes (for
which water is essential) and fertilizes it. As a result of fertilization, a diploid zygote is formed. The
zygote initiates the sporophytic generation. Sporophytic generation is a diploid stage. Zygote develops
inside archegonia and divides by mitosis to produce embryo (so these are considered as first
embryophytes). The embryo develops further into a sporophyte which is parasitic over the gametophyte
(may be partial parasite as in mosses).
The sprophyte of bryophytes is also called sporogonium, it is composed of three parts viz. capsule, seta
and foot. It produces meiospores or haploid spores inside the capsule part (after meiosis in spore mother
cells), while attached to the gametophyte. All bryophytes produce only one type of spores (Homosporous).
DEVELOPMENT OF SPOROPHYTE
During the development first division is transverse in zygote and second division is vertical. Third
division is also vertical but at right angle to second division, therefore an eight celled embryo is formed.
Now a periclinal division takes place in eight celled embryo. as a result of it a 16 celled embryo is formed.
Now these sixteen cells are arranged in two layers.
Outer 8 cells - Called Amphithecium
Inner 8 cells - Called Endothecium
Now cells of endothecium divided and form many cells which are known as sporogenous cells. Some
sporogenous cells become sterile and called nurse cells (2n). Remaining sporogenous cells function as
spore mother cells. Now meiosis takes place in spore mother cells, result of it haploid spores are formed.
Nurse cells provide nutrition to spore mother cells and spore. The germination of spores is direct or
indirect.
In Liverworts & Hornworts the germination of spore is direct i.e. each spore forms a gametophyte after
germination i.e. each spore forms one thallus.
Jacket cells
Zygote 2 Cells stage 4 Cells stage
Wall of sporophyte
Amphithecium
Sporogenous cells Endothecium
Sporophyte 16 Cells stage 8 Cells stage
The germination of spores in Mosses is indirect. i.e. a multicellular filament is formed after the germination
of spore. This filament is known as protonema. Now buds are formed on every cells of protonema. Each
bud develops into a gametophyte plant. Indirect germination is best for survival. Mosses are gregarious
in nature because they appear in group.
Importance of Bryophyta
1. Sexual reproduction in bryophytes is oogamous type and life cycle is haplo-diplontic type. In Bryophyta
the sporophyte is depend on gametophyte. (May be completely or partially) This is a unique character
of broyphyta.

2. Food : Some moss plant used as food for herbaceous animals, birds.
3. Fuel : Sphagnum : used as peat coal.
4. Packing material : Sphagnum peat have high water holding capacity so used as packing material
for living material.
5. Ecological importance : Bryophyte have important role in plant succession on bare rocks / soil
(lithosere).
6. Moss with lichen first colonize on rocks. They decompose rocks for growth of higher plant. Prevent
soil erosion by forming mat on soil.
CLASSIFICATION
Bryophyta is divided in to three classes
(A) Hepaticopsida (Liver Worts), (B) Anthoceropsida (Horn Worts), (C) Bryopsida or Musci (Mosses)
Hepaticopsida –
All the bryophytes includes in this class have shape like liver, so they are know as liverworts. Plant body
of this group is thallus like. Rhizoids and scales are present on thallus. Rhizoids are unicellular, unbranched.
Scales are multicellular. Rhizoids mostly on ventral surface while scales on margin and apical notch.
Thallus has two distinct zones i.e. photosynthetic and storage zone. Asexual reproduction occur by
means of fragmentation, or by specialized structure called gemmae (e.g. Marchantia).
Gemmae are ‘8’ shaped, stalked, green and multicellular asexual buds developing in small receptacles
(gemma cups) on dorsal surface of thallus. In marchantia specific structure found on which sex organs
found in groups called Archegoniophore (archegonia) and Antheridiophore (Antheridium). The
sporophyte of liverworts is completely depend on gametophyte i.e it is depend on gametophyte for food,
water and habitat.
Gametophyte
The sporophyte of liverworts made up of foot, seta and capsule. [Except Riccia sporophyte is made up
of only capsule). In this class formation of spores and nurse cells takes place by the cells of endothecium.
Cells of amphithecium form only wall of sporophyte.
Amphithecium = Wall of sporophyte
Endothecium = sporogenous cells = spore mother cells nurse cells
Elaters are present in sporophyte of some members of liverworts. (e.g. Marchantia - In Marchantia
nurse cells are modified in to elaters). Elaters are diploid, hygroscopic structures with spiral thickenings
bands which help in spore dispersal. eg. - Riccia, Marchantia, Cryptothallus, Riella, Pellia
Porella (Leafy thallus have two rows of leafy appandages on stem like structure)
Note : In Bryophytes, sporophyte of Riccia is the simplest.

Anthoceropsida
The plant body of this group also thallus like. Scales are absent but rhizoids are present on thallus.
Rhizoids are unicellular and unbranched on ventral surface. Thallus is undifferentiated ie. No photosynthetic
and storage zone. Thallus have very specific feature ie. presence of one chloroplast and one pyrenoid
in each cell.
The sporophyte of Hornworts is divided into foot and capsule. In place of seta a special, type of
meristematic zone is present. Due to the activeness of this meristem, the sporophyte grows rapidly like
the horn of animals. The sporophyte of Hornworts is not completely depend on its gametophyte i.e. it
is semiparasite because its sporophyte is photosynthetic therefore it can manufacture its own food. It
does not depend on gametophyte for food, it depends only for water and habitat. In horn worts wall of
sporophyte and spores are formed by cells of amphithecium. Cells of endothecium form only elaters.
Amphithecium = Wall of sporophyte and Spores
Endothecium = Elaters
In hornworts spore forming cells and elaters forming cells are separate, so elaters are known as
pseudoelaters. Pseudoelaters are structurally and functionally similar to true elaters. But do not have
thickening bands eg. Notothylus, Anthoceros
Anthoceros have some Algae like characters such as :

Archegonia jacketless. In each cell of Anthoceros, only one chloroplast is present which is a character
of green algae. In the cells of higher plants many chloroplast are present. Pyrenoids (starch storing
granule) are present in the chloroplast of Anthoceros, which is an algal character. Anthoceros show
ancestral characters i.e. bryophytes also termed as synthetic archaegoniatae.
Bryopsida or Musci
All the Mosses are included in this class. The plant body of mosses is made up of stem, leaves and
rhizoids. The Rhizoids present in the plants of this class are multicellular and branched. These rhizoids
have oblique septa.
POINT TO BE REMEMBERED
1. The presence of leaves in gametophyte is one of the unique character of Moss.
2. Sex organs produced at the apex of leafy shoots of gametophyte.
3. The sporophyte of moss in bryophyta is highly developed while the sporophyte of liverworts is the
simplest.
4. The sporophyte of mosses is also semiparasite like, that of Hornworts. i.e. it is photosynthetic.
5. The sporophyte absorbs the water from gametophyte with the help of foot. Capsule is the fertile part
of the sporophyte i.e. formation of spores takes place in it.
6. Foot and seta are the sterile part of the sporophyte.

7. Cells of endothecium form spores.
8. In bryopsida cells of amphithecium form wall of sporophyte.
9. Elaters and nurse cells are absent in bryopsida. So they have advanced methods of spore dispersal from
capsule like annulus, peristomial teeth, operculum (Funaria) etc.
10. Endothecium developes Spores
Evolutionary Note
In Riccia, the sporophyte is made up of only capsule i.e. the whole sporophyte is fertile in it. During
evolution there occur gradual sterlization of sporophyte i.e. gradual reduction of fertile part and gradual
development of strile part.
Riccia  Marchantia  Porella  Anthoceros  sphagnum  Funaria  Polytrichum
Common Name
1. Funaria : Rope moss or Cord moss 2. Andria : Granite moss
3. Polytrichum : Hair cap moss 4. Fontinalis : Brook moss
5. Dawsonia : Australian moss - The highest bryophyte - 5 cm.
6. Buxbaumia : Saprophytic moss - (Photosynthesis absent).
7. Sphagnum : This bryophyta has following type of masses.
a. Bog mass likes to grow on acidic bog, Quaking bog.
b. Peat moss : It is a fossil fuel that obtained from bog. The formation of peat takes place by the
fossilization of Sphagnum. Sphagnum grows in acidic bog. The number of bacteria are less in bog
due to which the degradation of dead cell could not takes place. Hence It is present in the form
of fossil.
c. Absorbent cotton : Sphagnum can absorb water in very high amount, therefore it is used in the
form of absorbent cotton in Europe (used in world war).
d. Carpet moss or Turf moss : It spreads like a carpet on bog due to which, the swamp cannot
be easily seen.

EXERCISE – 1
Q.1 Which algal groups have similarity in pigment Q.11 Zygotic meiosis is characteristic of -
composition - (1) Prokaryotes (2) Thallophyta
(1) Red algae and brown algae (3) Bryophyta (4) Spermatophyta
(2) Green algae and blue green algae Q.12 Photosynthetic pigments common to all algae-
(3) Kelps and diatoms
(1) Chlorophyll ‘b’ and carotene
(4) Diatoms and euglenoids
(2) Chlorophyll ‘a’ and ’b’
Q.2 Autotrophic thallophytes are called as -
(3) Chlorophyll ‘a’ and  -carotene
(1) Fungi (2) Lichens
(4) Chlorophyll and xanthophyll
(3) Algae (4) Microbes
Q.13 Acetabularia, a largest unicellular plant,
Q.3 Which of the following is parasitic algae-
belongs to -
(1) Cephaleouros
(1) Chlorophyta (2) Rhodophyta
(2) Harveyella
(3) Pyrrophyta (4) Phaeophyta
(3) Both (1) and (2)
Q.14 Algae deepest in sea-
(4) None of the above
(1) Red Algae (2) Brown Algae
Q.4 Red algae is red due to the presence of -
(3) Green Algae (4) Golden Algae
(1) R-Phycocyanin (2) R-Phycoerythrin
(3) C-Phycocyanin (4) C-Phycoerythrin Q.15 Phycobilins are charcteristic pigments of -
Q.5 Sea lettuce is the name given to - (1) Rhodophyta and Xanthophyta
(1) Laminaria (2) Fucus (2) Rhodophyta and Pyrophyta
(3) Sargassum (4) Ulva (3) Pyrophyta and Cyanophyta
Q.6 Fertile cells are not enclosed by sterile cells in (4) Rhodophyta and Cyanophyta
the group- Q.16 Which of the following plant groups have
(1) Thallophyta (2) Spermatophyta similar pigment composition -
(3) Pteridophyta (4) Bryophyta (1) Rhodophyta and phaeophyta
Q.7 ‘’Red rust of tea’’ is caused by parasitic- (2) Chlorophyta and phaeophyta
(1) Algae (2) Fungi (3) Rhodophyta and cyanophyta
(3) Bacteria (4) Bryophyta (4) Xanthophyta and euglenophyta
Q.8 No Zoospores formation has been observed in Q.17 Polyuronic acid and polysulphate esters are
the Algae members belonging to - characteristic in cell wall of -
(1) Chlorophyceae (2) Xanthophyceae (1) Brown Algae (2) Red Algae
(3) Phaeophyceae (4) Cyanophyceae (3) Dinoflagellates (4) Diatoms
Q.9 Which pigment is found in phaeophyceae- Q.18 Stone wort is common name of -
(1) Chl. a,c and fucoxanthin
(1) Chara (2) Chlorella
(2) Chl. a, d and violaxanthin
(3) Laminaria (4) Polysiphonia
(3)  Carotene and phycocyanin
Q.19 Irish moss, is a -
(4) None of these
(1) True moss (2) Lichen
Q.10 Food reserve in Rhodophyta is -
(3) Algae (4) Bryophyte
(1) Floridean starch
Q.20 Flagellated cells are absent in -
(2) Mannitol
(1) Red algae (2) Blue green algae
(3) Leucosin
(4) All of the above (3) Higher plants (4) All the above

Q.21 Which of the following is colour less parasitic Q.30 Most advance group of Algae is -
red algae - (1) Myxophyta (2) Chlorophyta
(1) Cephaleuros (2) Harveyella (3) Xanthophyta (4) Phaeophyta
(3) Polysiphonia (4) Laminaria Q.31 “Agar-agar’’ is obtained from -
Q.22 Green algae are considered as ancestors of (1) Green Algae
higher plants due to their resemblance with
(2) Red Algae
higher plants in -
(1) Pigments (2) Cell wall (3) Brown Algae
(3) Stored food (4) All the above (4) Yellow green Algae
Q.23 Pyrenoids are characteristically found in algae. Q.32 Motile stage are not found in life cycle of -
A pyrenoid consists of - (1) Red Algae & green Algae
(1) Core of starch surrounded by protein (2) Red Algae & brown Algae
(2) Core of protein surrounded by starch (3) Red Algae & blue green Algae
(3) Core of fatty acids coverd by starch (4) Green Algae & brown Algae
(4) Nucleic acid and protein Q.33 Embryo does not form in thallophta due to-
Q.24 In chlorophyta the mode of sexual reporduction (1) Zygotic meiosis (2) Zygotic mitosis
is - (3) Sporangial meiosis (4) Gametic meiosis
(1) Isogamy
Q.34 Oogonia of Thallophyta differs with archegonia
(2) Anisogamy of bryophyta-
(3) Oogamy (1) Being multi cellular
(4) Isogamy. Anisogamy and oogamy
(2) Being jacketed
Q.25 The name ‘’Thallophyta’’ was coined by -
(3) Being stalked
(1) Endlicher (2) Linneaus
(4) Being unicellular and jacket less
(3) Christenson (4) Hackel
Q.35 Which of the following best explain the
Q.26 Unique character of Thallophyta is -
evolution of sexual reproduction -
(1) Thalloid body
(1) Chlamydomonas (2) Ulothrix
(2) Absence of vascular tissue
(3) Puccinia (4) Albugo
(3) Zygotic meiosis
Q.36 Cephaleuras, which causes ‘’Red rust of tea’’
(4) All the above
is a -
Q.27 In thallophyta main plant body is -
(1) Red Algae (2) Brown Algae
(1) Gametophyte
(3) Dinoflagellate (4) Green Algae
(2) Sporophyte
Q.37 Heterotrichous habit is common among-
(3) Diploid plant body
(1) Brown Algae
(4) Leafy plant body
(2) Red Algae
Q.28 The character of thallophyta is/are-
(1) Plant body thallus (3) Yellow green Algae
(2) Non vascular plant (4) Green Algae
(3) Sex organ are unicellular and without jacket Q.38 Gametes are non-motile in -
of sterile cell (1) Blue green Algae (2) Red Algae
(4) All the above (3) Both 1 and 2 (4) Green Algae
Q.29 Sexual reproduction in Thallophyta takes place Q.39 Due to which pigment red algae are capable of
by - survive in deep sea -
(1) Isogamy (2) Anisogamy (1) Chlorophyll ‘d’ (2) Carotenes
(3) Oogamy (4) Any of the above (3) Phycocyanin (4) Phycoerythrin

Q.40 Blue-green Algae resembles more closely to- Q.49 Cilia & flagella are absent in life cycle of -
(1) Green Algae (1) Red algae
(2) Brown Algae (2) Brown algae
(3) Red Algae and bacteria (3) Green algae
(4) Slime molds
(4) Red algae & B.G.A
Q.41 Which of the following statement is true for
Q.50 Which algae best explains the evolution of
algae -
sexual reproduction -
(1) Algae have root, stem and leaves
(1) Green algae (2) Red algae
(2) Algae have true roots but lack leaves
(3) Algae have rhizoides and leaves (3) Brown algae (4) B.G. algae
(4) Body of algae is thallus Q.51 Red colour of sea may be due to-
Q.42 In which plant group reproductive organs are (1) Red algae (2) Trichodesmium
not enclosed in a layer of sterile cells- (3) Gonyaulax (4) All the above
(1) Pteridophyta (2) Thallophyta Q.52 Spermatia are male gametes of-
(3) Angiosperm (4) Gymnosperm (1) Red algae (2) Diatoms
Q.43 Classification of algae is mainly based up on -
(3) Spermatophyta (4) Euglena
(1) Reproductive organs
Q.53 Cap cells occur in -
(2) Structure of spores
(1) Oedogonium (2) Diatoms
(3) Pigments
(3) Dino flagellates (4) Euglena
(4) Stored food
Q.44 ‘’Carrageenin’’ is obtained from - Q.54 Algae which have food conducting tubes similar
(1) Chondrus crispus (2) Laminaria to phloem in vascular plants are-
(3) Gelidium (4) Macrocystis (1) Red algae
Q.45 Female sex organ of algae is called - (2) Brown algae
(1) Carpel (2) Oogonium (3) Blue green algae
(3) Archegonia (4) Oosphere (4) Green algae
Q.46 Change in colour of algae according to depth in Q.55 Chlorophylll ‘c’, ‘d’ and ‘e’ are characteristic
sea is called - pigments of respectively -
(1) Bohr’s effect (2) Gaudikov’s effect (1) Red algae, brown algae and yellow green
(3) Fogg’s effect (4) Pasteur effect algae
Q.47 In some algae two entire individual fuse with
(2) Brown algae, Red algae and yellow green
each other, Such a type of sexual reporduction
algae
is called -
(3) Diatoms, Dinoflagellates, Euglena
(1) Isogamy
(2) Anisogamy (4) High plants, Red algae, Diatoms
(3) Hologamy Q.56 Which of the following algae produces
(4) Gametangial contact synzospores -
Q.48 Which of the following is not correctly (1) Chlamydomonas (2) Polysiphonia
matched- (3) Chlorella (4) Vaucheria
(1) Heterocyst = N2-fixation structure of B.G. A Q.57 Reserve food of algae and fungi are -
(2) Hormogonia = Reproductive structure of (1) Starch and soluble floridoside
B.G.A
(2) Oil droplets and fats
(3) Floridean starch -Stored food of brown algae
(3) Starch and glycogen
(4) Cyanophycean starch = Stored food of
B.G.A. (4) Starch and Glycerol

Q.58 About 90 percent of total photosynthesis in Q.61 Plants of thallophyta are -
world is caused by - (1) Haploid and gametophyte
(1) Bryophytes (2) Algae (2) Haploid and sporophyte
(3) Pteridophytes (4) Angiosperms (3) Diploid and gametophyte
Q.59 Which type of algae are helpful in nitrogen (4) Diploid and sporophyte
economy - Q.62 Epiphloephytes algae arise on -
(1) Green algae (2) Blue green algae (1) Animals (2) Leaves surface
(3) Red algae (4) Brown algae (3) Bark of trees (4) Phloem of leaves
Q.60 Sea weeds belongs to - Q.63 Chlorphyll ‘a’ and chlorophyll ‘d’ found in -
(1) Red algae (2) Brown algae (1) Rhodophyta (2) Phaeophyta
(3) Green algae (4) Blue green algae (3) Chryosophyta (4) Myxophyta
ANSWER KEY
EXERCISE – 1
Ques. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. 3 3 3 2 4 1 1 4 1 1 2 3 1 1 4 3 2 1 3 4
Ques. 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
Ans. 2 4 2 4 1 3 1 4 4 2 2 3 1 4 1 4 4 2 4 3
Ques. 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
Ans. 4 2 3 1 2 2 3 3 4 1 4 1 1 2 2 4 3 2 2 2
Ques. 61 62 63
Ans. 1 3 1

EXERCISE – 2
Q.1 Embryo is present but true vasculature is Q.11 Jacket less archegonia occur in -
absent in phylum - (1) Riccia (2) Funaria
(1) Cyanophyta (2) Tracheophyta (3) Sphagnum (4) Anthoceros
(3) Bryophyta (4) Chlorophyta Q.12 Bryophytes differ from thallophytes in having -
Q.2 The unique feature of Bryophytes compared (1) Embryo (2) Rhizoids
to other green plant groups is that - (3) Sterile jacket around sex organs
(1) They produce spores
(4) All the above
(2) They lack vascular tisssue
Q.13 Spores do not form protonema but directly
(3) They lack root grow into flat branching thallus in -
(4) Their sporophyte is attached to (1) Liverworts (2) Mosses
gametophyte
(3) Ferns (4) Gymnosperms
Q.3 In Bryophytes diploid number of chromosomes
Q.14 In bryophyta, simplest sporophyte occur in-
occur in -
(1) Riccia (2) Marchantia
(1) Gametes (2) Spores
(3) Funaria (4) Anthoceros
(3) Spore mother cells
Q.15 In which of the following bryophytes are
(4) Nuclei of gametes
gemmae the means of vegetative reproduction-
Q.4 The plant used as an alternative of cotton-
(1) Riccia (2) Marchantia
(1) Sphagnum (2) Funaria
(3) Sphagnum (4) Anthoceros
(3) Riccia (4) Andria
Q.16 A saprophytic bryophyte found in the
Q.5 The Antherozoids of Bryophyts possess-
Himalayas is -
(1) 2-Flagella (2) 1-Flagella
(1) Sphagnum (2) Marchantia
(3) Multiflagella (4) No-flagella
(3) Porella (4) Buxbaumia
Q.6 Which of the following is bryophyte-
Q.17 Which of the following is example of moss-
(1) Funaria (2) Volvox
(1) Funaria (2) Riccia
(3) Chlorella (4) Spirullina
(3) Anthoceros (4) Pellia
Q.7 The group bryophyta includes-
Q.18 In Bryophytes what is absent -
(1) Liverworts and ferns
(1) Embryo formation
(2) Liverworts and club moss
(2) Fertilization
(3) Moss and ferns
(3) Motile gametes
(4) Liverworts and moss
Q.8 A leafy non vascular plant with parasitic (4) True roots and vascular tissue
sporophytic generation should properly be Q.19 In bryophytes fertilization takes place -
classified in - (1) At low temp
(1) Thallophyta (2) Bryophyta (2) In dry condition
(3) Pteridophyta (4) Spermatophyta (3) In presence of water
Q.9 Bryophyta includes - (4) In above all situation
(1) Mosses (2) Club mosses Q.20 Which statement is true about bryophytes that-
(3) Spike mosses (4) All the above (1) They are non photosynthetic
Q.10 A leafy gametophyte plant with multicellular (2) Zygote produces gametophyte on
rhizoids and sporophyte differentiated in foot, germination
seta and capsule should belongs to - (3) Spores form gametophyte plant on
(1) Psilopsida (2) Hepaticopsida germination
(3) Bryopsida (4) Lycopsida (4) They have vascular tissues

Q.21 Which bryophyta is of economic importance- Q.30 The bryophyte which can absorb water upto
(1) Funaria (2) Marchantia 18 times its weight-
(3) Riccia (4) Sphagnum (1) Anthoceros (2) Sphagnum
Q.22 Bryophytes are - (3) Davsonia (4) Marchantia
(1) Sciophytes (2) Cryophyte Q.31 In which of the following zygote forms a
(3) Halophytes (4) Xerophytes diploid structure -
Q.23 Which type of fertilization is found in (1) Thallophyta (2) Bryophyta
bryophytes- (3) Algae (4) Fungi
(1) Siphonogamous Q.32 Bryophytes are -
(2) Zoodiogamous (1) First successful land plant
(3) Zoodio-siphonogamous (2) Vascular cryptogames
(4) Fertilization in not found (3) Non vascular cryptogames
Q.24 Mosses are gregarious because they - (4) Vascular embryophytes
(1) Have vascular tissue
Q.33 Sex organ in bryophytes are -
(2) Have indirect germination of spores
(1) Unicellular and jacketed
(3) Have direct germination of spores
(2) Unicellular and non-jacketed
(4) Have spore mother cells
(3) Multicellular and jacketed
Q.25 Aquatic ancestry of bryophytes is evidenced
(4) Multicellular and non jacketed
by -
(1) Their green colour Q.34 Fossilised fuel obtained from bog is -
(2) Algae like protenema (1) Tar (2) Peat

(3) Many aquatic bryophytes (3) Bio-gas (4) Petrol
(4) Flagellated male gametes Q.35 Which structure produces, the gamete bearing
Q.26 Moss sporophyte is diffentiated in - plant of moss-
(1) Stem & leaves (1) Spore (2) Bud

(2) Root, stem & leaves (3) Protonema (4) Zygote
(3) Rhizoids, stem & leaves Q.36 Bryophyta show an advancement over algae
(4) None of these in -
Q.27 Oblique septa are found in which part of moss - (1) Having multi cellular sporophytic generation
(1) Rhizoids of sporophyte
(2) Having parasitic sporophyte
(2) Rhizoids of gametophyte
(3) Leaves (3) Having zygotic meiosis
(4) Stem (4) None of the above
Q.28 Leaves of Mosses and Ferns are - Q.37 Bryophyta like to grow in moist places
because-
(1) Analogous and homologous both
(2) Analogous but not homologous (1) Due to absence of roots, they has to absorb
the moisture of ground
(3) Homologous but not analogous
(2) Male gametes require moisture for
(4) None of the above
swimming
Q.29 Which of the following plants are similar to
amphibia animals in requirement of water for (3) They do not have water poof coating of
fertilisation - cutin on their aerial surface to prevent the
loss of water
(1) Bryophyta (2) Pteridophyta
(4) All the above
(3) Angiosperm (4) (1) and (2) both

Q.38 Bryophyta are ecologically important plants as Q.47 Non vascular embryophyta are -
they are - (1) Thallophyta (2) Bryophyta
(1) Best producer in nature (3) Pteridophyta (4) (1) and (2) both
(2) Pioneer in succession on barren lands Q.48 The water conducting tissue in bryophyta is-
(3) Decomposers
(1) Parenchyma (2) Sclerenchyma
(4) Nitrifying plants
(3) Trachieds (4) Sieve tubes
Q.39 Which of the following are saprophytic
Q.49 In which of the following elaters are found-
bryophytes -
(1) Bauxbaumia (1) Angiosperms (2) Bryophyta
(2) Cryptothallus (3) Algae (4) Bacteria
(3) Anthoceros Q.50 Bryophyta are not tall plants due to-
(4) Both (1) and (2) (1) Absence of meristem
Q.40 Which bryophyte indicates algal ancestory of (2) Absence of vascular tissues
bryophytes- (3) Presence of root system
(1) Riccia (2) Riella (4) All the above
(3) Anthoceros (4) Mosses Q.51 The first cell of sporophytic generation in
Q.41 Leafy gametophyte occurs in - bryophyta is -
(1) Liver worts (2) Horn worts (1) Spore (2) Spore mother cell
(3) Moss (4) Fern (3) Zygote (4) Protonema
Q.42 The sporophyte of moss absorbs water from Q.52 Riccia is a bryophyte due to -
gametophyte with the help of -
(1) Thalloid
(1) Capsule (2) Seta
(2) Rhizoids
(3) Foot (4) Haustoria
(3) Alternation of generations
Q.43 Sporophyte with indefinite growth occurs in -
(4) Dependent sporophyte
(1) Liver worts (2) Horn worts
(3) Mosses (4) Fern Q.53 In which of the following sporogenous tissue
(spores) is derived from amphithecium-
Q.44 Sphagnum may be use as a subsititue of -
(1) Absorbent cotton (1) Riccia (2) Marchantia
(2) Non absorbent cotton (3) Ricciocarpus (4) Anthoceros
(3) Plastic Q.54 In bryophyta, organs are referred to as ‘’Leaf
(4) Polythene like’’ and ‘’Stem like’ and not the true leaf and
stem because -
Q.45 Stem and leaves of bryophyta plants are-
(1) Analogous to stem and leaves of higher (1) They lack vasuclar tissues
plants (2) They are non-green
(2) Homologous to stem and leaves of higher (3) Thay do not function as leaf and stem
plants (4) All the above
(3) Both analogous and homologus Q.55 Structures for dispersal of spores in bryophyta
(4) None are -
Q.46 Aquatic ancestory of bryophyta is best (1) Elaters (2) Pseudoelaters
indicated by - (3) Peristome teeth (4) All the above
(1) Some bryophyta still aquatic
Q.56 Oblique septa in rhizoids are characteristic of-
(2) Flagellated male gametes
(1) Liverworts (2) Hornworts
(3) Aerenchyma in stem
(3) Mosses (4) Ferns
(4) All the above

Q.57 In which bryophyta germination of spore is Q.62 Sterile jacket cells around reproductive cells is
indirect - characteristic of -
(1) Riccia (2) Rhizopus (1) Algae (2) Bryophyta
(3) Puccinia (4) Funaria (3) Fungi (4) Thallophyta
Q.58 Leafy gametophytes occur in - Q.63 The vascular tissue is absent in -
(1) Angiosperm (2) Pteridophyta (1) Algae, fungi and pteridophytes
(3) Bryophyta (4) Gymnosperms (2) Thallophytes and bryophytes
Q.59 Male gametes of bryophytes are - (3) Bryophytes and pteridophytes
(1) Uniflagellate (2) Multiflagellate (4) Angiosperm and gymnosperm
(3) Biflagellate (4) Triflagellate Q.64 The sporophyte of bryophyte is -
Q.60 Seedless nonvascular plants are - (1) Parasitic
(1) Angiosperm (2) Gymnosperm (2) Autotrophic
(3) Pteridophyte (4) Bryophytes (3) Saprophytic
Q.61 Rhizoids of hepaticopsida and anthocerotosida (4) Semiparasitic or parasitic
are - Q.65 Non vascular land plants are called -
(1) Multicellular and branched (1) Bryophtyes (2) Pteridophytes
(2) Unicellular and unbranched (3) Fungi (4) Algae
(3) Unicellular and branched
(4) Multicellular and unbranched
ANSWER KEY
EXERCISE – 2
Ques. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. 3 4 3 1 1 1 4 2 1 3 4 4 1 1 2 4 1 4 3 3
Ques. 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
Ans. 4 1 2 2 4 4 2 2 4 2 2 3 3 2 2 1 4 2 4 3
Ques. 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
Ans. 3 3 2 1 1 2 2 1 2 2 3 4 4 1 4 3 4 3 3 4
Ques. 61 62 63 64 65
Ans. 2 2 2 4 1

Q.1 Trabecullae are present in [BHU 2005] Q.9 Bryophytes are exceptional as
(1) Capsule of Funaria [DY Patil Pune 2006]
(2) Ovule of gymnosperm (1) They produce spores
(3) Sporangia of a fern (2) Their sporophytic stage grows on
(4) Ovule of angiosperm gametophyte
Q.2 Engler and Prantl published a phylogenetic (3) They do not require water for fertillization
system in the monograph [Kerala PMT 2005] (4) Their gametophyte stage grows on
(1) Die Naturlichen Pflanzen sporophyte
(2) Historia plantarum
Q.10 Which of the following is the amphibians of the
(3) Species plantarum
plant kingdom?
(4) Genera plantarum (5) Origin of species
[JIMPER 2003, Manipal PMT 2007]
Q.3 Dominant generation in bryophtes is
(1) Pteridophyte (2) Bryophyte
[Orissa JEE 2005]
(3) Cycas (4) All above
(1) Capsule (2) Sporophyte
Q.11 Flasgellated male gametes are present in all the
(3) Gametophyte (4) Seta
Q.4 Which of the following plants has high water three of which one of the following stes?
retention capacity and is used to provide [AIPMT 2007]
moisture to plants? [BHU 2005] (1) Zygnema ; Saprolegnia and Hydrilla
(1) Sphagnum (2) Botrychilum (2) Fucus ; Marsilea and calotropis
(3) Marsilea (4) Marchantia (3) Riccia ; Dryopteris and Cycas
Q.5 If in a Funaria the leaf has 8 chromosomes. the (4) Anthoceros ; Funaria and Spirogyra
structrue with 16 chromosomes will be Q.12 Plant classification proposed by C. Linneaeus
[Pb. PMT 2005] was artificial because it was based
(1) Protonema (2) Rhizoids on [CMC Vellore 2007]
(3) Caosule and seta (4) All above (1) Few morphological characters
Q.6 Leptoids and hydroids are the vascular supply (2) Diverse evolutionary tendencion
of [DPMT 2005]
(3) Adaptive anatomical characters
(1) Hornworts (2) Irish mosses
(4) Physiological traits together with
(3) Liverwords (4) Pteridophytes
morphological characters
Q.7 Moss peat is used as a packing material for
Q.13 In which of the following, gametes are
sending flowers and live plants to distant places
produced by mitrotic division : [AIPMT 2008]
because [AIPMT 2006]
(1) Pteridophytes (2) Algae
(1) It serve as a disinfectant
(2) It is easily available (3) Cymnosperms (4) Angiosperms
(3) It is hygroscopic Q.14 Which one of the following is heterosporous?
(4) It reduces transpiration [AIMPT 2008]
Q.8 In a moss the sporophyte [AIPMT 2006] (1) Dryopteris (2) Salvinia
(1) Manufactures food for itself, as well as for (3) Adiantum (4) Equisetum
the gametophyte Q.15 4 rows and 6 rows of NCC are found
(2) Is partially parasitic on the gametophyte respectively in [Pb. PMT 2008]
(3) Prosuces gametes that give rise to the (1) Bryophytes and Pteridophytes
gametophyte (2) Pteridophytes and gymnosperms
(4) Arises from a spore produced from the (3) Gymnosperms and angiosperms
gametophyte (4) Pteridophytes and bryophytes

Q.16 Peat is formed from [Pb. PMT 2008] Q.24 Auxospore formation is seen in [KCET 2005]
(1) Funaria (2) Sphagnum (1) Nostoc (2) Yeast
(3) Mossess (4) Liverworts (3) Diatoms (4) Agaricus
Q.17 Liverwords, Hornwords and Mossess together Q.25 Which of the following is a flagellated algae?
constitute [MGIMS Wardha 2008] [HP PMT 2005]
(1) Pteridophytes (2) Lichens and plantae (1) Chlamydomonas (2) Ulthorix
(3) Bryophyta (4) Bryopsida (3) Saccharomyces (4) Agaricus
Q.18 Protonemma is a characteristic feature of Q.26 Which of the following is coenocytic?
[ICAR AIEEA 2008] [HP PMT 2005]
(1) Fern (2) Marchantia (1) Vaucheria (2) Centuria
(3) Moss (4) Cycas (3) Chlamydomonas (4) Pseudomonas
Q.19 Bryophytes resemble algae in the following Q.27 Auxospores and hormocysts are formed,
aspects [KCET 2009] respectively, by [AIPMT 2005]
(1) Filamentous body, pressure of vascular (1) several diatoms and few cyanobacteria
tissues and autotrophic nutrition (2) several cyanobacteria and several diatoms
(2) Differentiation of plant body into root, stem (3) some diatoms and several cyanobacteria
and autotrophic nutrition (4) some cyanobacteria and many diatoms
(3) Thallus like plant body, pressure of roots and Q.28 Alga which is parasite of tea plant is
autotrophic nutrition [Pb. PMT 2005]
(4) Thallus like plant body, lack of vascular (1) Cephalourous (2) Ulva
tissues and autotrophic nutrition (3) Oedogonium (4) Vaucheria
Q.20 Sphagum is commonly used as packing matrial Q.29 The largest alga is [Pb. PMT 2005]
for transshipment of living material due to its (1) Microcystis (2) Macrocystis
[AMU 2009] (3) red alga (4) blue-green alga
(1) Capacity to hold water Q.30 Triphasic life cycle is present in
(2) Easy availability [Pb. PMT 2005]
(3) Nature as it can grow any where (1) red alga (2) brown algae
(4) All the above (3) diatom (4) dinoflagellate
Q.21 A dominant gametophytic phase alternated by Q.31 Alginic acid is obtained from
multicelluer dependent sporophytic phase matrial [HP PMT 2005]
for transshipment of living [AMU 2009] (1) blue green algae (2) red algae
(1) Chlomydomonas (2) Politrichum (3) green algae (4) brown algae
(3) Asianum (4) All of the above Q.32 In Chlamydomonas, meiosis occurs in
Q.22 Which of the following plants do not produce [JK CET 2005]
seeds? [COMED K UGET 2009] (1) gamete (2) zygote
(1) Ficus and Funaria (3) sporogonium (4) zoospore
(2) Fern and Funaria Q.33 The zoospores of Ulothrix are
(3) Chlamydomonas and Ficus [Pb. PMT 1998; BVP Pune 2006]
(4) Punica and Pinus (1) quadriflagellated (2) biflagellated
Q.23 Algae which form motile colony is (3) monoflagellated (4) alagellated
[Orissa Jee 2005] Q.34 Kelps are [Pb. PMT 2000; GGSIPU 2006]
(1) Volvox (2) Nostoc (1) fresh water algae (2) marine algae
(3) Spirogyra (4) Chlamydomonas (3) terrestrial (4) amphibious

Q.35 Which of the following is not correctly matched? Q.42 Consider the following statement regarding the
[KERLA PMT 2005] major pigments and stored food in the different
(1) Chlamydomonas – unicellular flagellated groups of algae and select the correct options
alga given [KERLA PMT 2005]
(2) Laminaria – flattened leaf like thallus (1) In chlorophyceae the stored food material in
(3) Chlorella – Filamentous nonflagellated starch and the major pigments are
(4) Spirogyra – Filamentous structure chlorophyll-a and b
(5) Volvox – colonial nonflagellated (2) In phaeophyceae, laminarin is the stored food
Q.36 Agar-agar which is commonly used in micro- and major pigments are chlorophyll-a and b
biological studies and culture media is obtained (3) In Rhodophyceae, floridean starch is the
from [BHU 2006] stored food and the major pigments are
(1) Gelidium (2) Laminaria chlorophyll-a, d and phycoerythrin
(3) Polysiphonia (4) Batrachospremum (1) (1) is correct, but (2) and (3) are wrong
Q.37 From which of the following algae, agar is (2) (1) and (2) are correct, but (3) is wrong
commercially extracted? [KERLA PMT 2007] (3) (1) and (3) are correct, but (2) is wrong
(1) Gracilaria (2) Fucus (4) (2) is correct, but (1) and (3) are wrong
(3) Saragassum (4) Gelidium (5) (3) is correct, but (1) and (2) are wrong
(5) Turbinaria Q.43 Sex organs of algae and fungi are
(1) c and e (2) b and c [DYPATIL PUNE 2008]
(3) d and e (4) a and b (1) antheridium oogonia
(5) a and d (2) carpogonia and ascogonia
Q.38 Match column-I with column-II and select the (3) zygospore and akinetes
correct option [KERLA PMT 2007] (4) heterocyst and archegonia
Column-I Column-II Q.44 Pyerenoids are commonly found in
(Type of Chloroplast) (Algae) [PB. PMT 2005]
(1) Cup shaped 1. Ulothrix (1) red algae (2) green algae
(2) Girdle shaped 2. Oedogonium (3) brown algae (4) blue green algae
(3) Stellate 3. Chlmydomonas Q.45 Which pigments is not found in red algae?
(4) Reticulate 4. Zygnema [CHD. CET 2008]
(1) a-2, b-4, c-3, d-1 (2) a-3, b-1, c-4, d-2 (1) Chlorophyll a (2) Phycocyanin
(3) a-2, b-4, c-2, d-1 (4) a-4, b-3, c-1, d-2 (3) Chlorophyll b (4) Phycoerythrin
(5) a-3, b-4, c-1, d-2 Q.46 Nutrition of Protista [AFMC 2008]
Q.39 If you are asked to classify the various algae (1) Phagotrophic (2) saprotrophic
into distinct groups, which of the following (3) autotrophic (4) all above
characters you should choose? [AIPMT 2007] Q.47 Match the following choose the correct
(1) Nature of stored food materials in the cell combination from the options given
(2) Structural organization of thallus [KERLA PMT 2005]
(3) Chemical composition of cell wall Column-I Column-II
(4) Types of pigments present in the cell (Group Protista) (Example)
Q.40 All algae have [CMC VELLORE 2005] (1) Chrysophytes (i) Paramoecium
(1) chlorophyll a and chlorophyll b (2) Dinoflagel ates (ii) Euglena
(2) chlorophyll b and carotenes (3) Euglenoids (iii) Gonyaulax
(3) chlorophyll a and carotenes (4) Protozoans (iv) Diatoms
(4) phycobilins and carotenes (1) a-(i), b-(iii), c-(ii), d-(iv)
(5) chlorophyll a, b carotenes (2) a-(i), b-(iv), c-(iii), d-(ii)
Q.41 The edible green alga rich in protein is (3) a-(iv), b-(ii), c-(iii), d-(i)
[JIPMER 2000; HP PMT 2008] (4) a-(ii), b-(iv), c-(i), d-(ii)
(1) Porphyra (2) Chlorella (5) a-(iv), b-(iii), c-(ii), d-(i)
(3) Laminaria (4) Chondrus crispus

Sporophyte Q.51 In which of the following, all listed genera belong
(2n)
to the same class of algae [DPMT 2009]
(1) Chara, Fucus, Polysiphonia
Zygote (2n) 1 Gametogenesis (2) Volvox, Spirogyra, Chlamydomonas
Syngamy (3) Porphyra, Ectocarpus, Ulothrix
Meiosis
(n) (4) Saragassum, Laminaria, Gracillaria
Zygote Q.52 Mannitol is the stored food in [AIPMT 2009]
(2n) (1) Fucus (2) Gracillaria
Meiosis (3) Chara (4) Prophyra
Syngamy
2 Spores (n) Q.53 Which of relation does a fungus has with alga
Gametogenesis in lichens? [COMED K UGET 2009]
Gamegophyte(n) (1) Epiphytic (2) Parastic
Sporophyte (3) Symbiotic (4) Saprophytic
(2n)
Zygote (2n) Q.54 Cucas and Adiantum resemble each other in
Meiosis
having : [AIPMT Pre 2012]
Syngamy
e Spores (n) (1) Motile Sperms (2) Cambium
Gametogenesis (3) Vessels (4) Seeds
Gamegophyte(n) Q.55 Monascus purpureus is a yeast used
Q.48 Which of the following correctly represents the commercially in the production of :
type of life cycle patterns from the options given? [AIPMT Pre 2012]
[KERLA PMT 2008] (1) streptokinase for removing clots from the
(1) 1. Diplontic 2. Haplodiplontic 3. Haplontic blood vessels.
(2) 1. Haplodiplontic 2. Haplontic 3.Diplontic (2) citric acid
(3) 1. Haplontic 2. Diplontic 3.Haplodiplontic
(3) blood cholesterol lowering statins
(4) 1. Diplontic 2. Haplontic 3.Haplodiplontic
(4) ethanol
(5) 1.Haplontic 2.Haplodiplontic 3. Diplontic
Q.56 Which one of the following is correctly matched?
Q.49 Gracilaria and Gelidium are important source of
[AIPMT Pre 2012]
[GGSIPU 2009]
(1) Ginger - Sucker
(1) carragheen jelly (2) iodine
(2) Chlamydomonas - Conidia
(3) agar (4) vitamin B
(3) Yeast - Zoospores (4) Onion - Bulb
Q.50 Laminaria and Fucus belongs to [AMU 2009]
(1) chlorophyceae (2) rhodophyceae
(3) paeophyceae (4) cyanophyceae
ANSWER KEY
EXERCISE – 3
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
1 1 3 1 3 3 3 2 2 4 3 1 2 2 4 2 2 3 4 1
21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
2 2 1 3 1 1 3 1 2 2 2 2 1 2 5 1 5 2 4 3
41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56
2 5 1 2 2 4 1 4 3 3 2 1 3 1 3 4

Q.1 The thallus of Volvox is called Q.11 A mature ligule is having a prominent basal portion,
(1) Coenocyte (2) Filament which is called
(3) Heterotrichous (4) Coenobium (1 ) Trichocyst (2) Heterocyst
Q.2 Triphasic life cycle is found in (3) Rhizophore (4) Glossopodium
(1) Chondrus (2) Laminaria Q.12 Primitive types of stomata are found in the
(3) Polysiphonia (4) Macrocystis (1) Apophysis of capsule
Q.3 Homworts are represented by (2) Leaves of moss plants
(1) Hepaticopsida (2) Bryopsida (3) Axis of the moss plant
(3) Anthocerotopsida (4) Psilopsida (4) All of these
Q.4 Which of the following is not a correct match? Q.13 Elater mechanism for spore dispersal is exhibited
(1) Cord moss-Funaria by
(2) Maiden hair fern-Ginkgo (1 ) Riccia (2) Dryopteris
(3) Walking fern-Adiantum (3) Funaria (4} Marehantia
(4) Bog moss-Sphagnum Q.14 Find the correct match
Q.5 Single filament of Nostoc without mucilage sheath Column I Column II
is known as a. Royal fern (i) Adiantum
(1) Mycelium (2) Colony b. Sun fern (ii) Osmunda
(3) Trichome (4) Hyphae c. Grape fern (iii) Pteridium
Q.6 Bryophytes are not characterised by d. Walking fern (iv) Botrychium
(1) Vascular tissues (1 ) a(iv), b(ii), c(iii), d(i)
(2) Well-developed reproductive system (2) a(ii), b(iii), c(iv), d(i)
(3) Alternation of generation (3) a(ii), b(iii), c(i), d(iv)
(4) Presence of chlorophyll
(4) a(iii), b(ii), c(iv), d(i)
Q.7 Algae are useful because they
Q.15 Red algae shows resemblance with bryophytes
(1) Are large in number in having
(2) Are used in alcoholic fermentation
(1) Flagellation
(3) Purify the atmosphere (2) Dependent gametophyte
(4) Are used in study of photosynthesis
(3) Nature of male gametes
Q.8 The plant body of moss (Funaria) is (4) Female gametangia shape
(1) Completely sporophyte Q.16 Phycocolloidal substances having haemostatic
(2) Predominantly sporophyte with gametophyte properties and useful in the treatment of shock;
(3) Completely gametophyte are obtained from the cell wall of
(4) Predominantly gametophyte with sporophyte (1) Sargassum and Stigeoclonium
Q.9 In Ulothrix meiosis takes place in (2) Macrocystis and Microcystis
(1) Cells of the filament (2) Holdfast (3) Gracilaria and Char a
(3) Zygote (4) Zoospores (4) Laminaria and Macrocystis
Q.10 Mossess and ferns are found in moist and shady INSTRUCTIONS FOR Q. NO. 17 TO 20
places because both In the following questions (6 to 7), a statement of
(1 ) Require presence of water for fertilization assertion (A) is followed by a statement of
(2) Do not need sunllbht for photosynthesis\ reason (R).
(3) Depend for their nutrition on microorganisms (1) If both Assertion & Reason are true and the
which can survive only at low temperature reason is the correct explanation of the assertion,
(4) Cannot compete with sun-loving plants then mark (1).

(2) If both Assertion & Reason are true but the Q.18 A : Sporophyte in Funaria is semiparasite on
reason is not the correct explanation of the gametophyte.
assertion, then mark (2). R : Spore forms secondary protonema in Funaria.
(3) If Assertion is true statement but Reason is Q.19 A : Red algae contribute in producing coral reefs.
false, then mark (3). R : Some red algae secrete and deposite calcium
(4) If both Assertion and Reason are false carbonate over their walls.
statements, then mark (4). Q.20 A : Thallophytes are non-vascular, non-
Q.17 A : Gymnodinium is red tide causing alga. archengoniate and non-cormophytic plants.
R : Phycoerythrin is responsible for red colour. R : Thallophytes lack vascular bundles, archegonia
and differentiated plant body.
ANSWER KEY
EXERCISE – 4
Ques. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 23 24
Ans. 4 3 3 2 3 1 3 4 3 1 4 3 4 1 4 2 4 4 3 3 1 1 1 2

Instruction to fill

Exercise # 1
Exercise # 2
Exercise # 3
Exercise # 4
Other Exercise
Advantages

PTERIDOPHYTA
Term pteridophyta was proposed by Haeckel. The study of pteridophytes is known as pteridology.
Pteridophytes are known as reptiles of plant kingdom
General features
In pteridophyta main plant body is sporophytic. The plant body is completely differentiated in to true root,
stem and leaves. The primary root remains alive for short period. After some time it is replaced by
advantitious roots. Stem is erect or prostrate. In some pteridophytes stem is underground, which is known
as rhizome. On the basis of leaves, pteridophytes are of two types -
First, In which stem is larger and leaves are smaller. They are called as microphyllous Pteridophytes.
eg. Equisetum, Lycopodium, Selaginella
Second, in which stem is smaller while leaves are larger. They are known as macrophyllous Pteridophytes.
eg. Pteridium, Pteris, Marsilea (most of ferns)
Note : Differentiation in plant body starts from bryophytes.
Specific Feature
1. Most of the pteridophytes are found in moist soil and shady places. But some pteridophytes are
found in water. eg. Marsilea, Salvinia, Azolla, Isoetes
2. Petridophytes are not completely successful terrestrial plants because they need water for fertilization,
so pteridophytes grow in shady and moist places.
3. Pteridophytes are also called as vascular cryptogames. Pteridophytes are vascular plants i.e. xylem and
phloem are present in it.
4. In pteridophytes vessels in xylem and companion cells in phloem are absent. Exceptionaly xylem of
Pteridium, Selaginella and Marsilea contains false vessels. These false vessels formed by the modification
of tracheids, so false vessels are tracheids.
5. Vascular bundle in pteridophytes are Concentric, Amphicribal (Hadrocentric), mesarch and closed.
6. Secondary Growth is absent (due to absence of cambium) in pteriodophytes but exceptionally secondary
growth is present in stem of Isoetes.
7. Pteridophytes are called as the first successful terrestrial plants i.e. they are more adapted terrestrial
plants as compared to bryophytes.
8. Some pteridophytes grow on other plants called epiphytes. eg. Lycopodium phlegmeria, Ophioglossum
pendulum, Pleopeltis
Life cycle
Main plant body is sporophyte. i.e. diploid. Most of the pteridophytes are homosporus i.e. only one type
of spores are formed during reproduction. eg. Lycopodium, Pteridium, Equisetum, Dryopteris some
pteridophytes are heterosporus i.e. two types of spores microspores and megaspores e.g. Selaginella,
Isoetes, Marsilea, Salvinia, Azolla, Stylites. Formation of spores takes place in sporangia. Sporangia
is formed at the abaxial surface of leaves.
The leaves on which sporangia are formed are called sporophylls (reproductive leaves). Normal
photosynthetic leaves are called tropophylls (vegetative leaves). In some cases sporophyll with sporangia
aggregates to form compact structure called strobili or cones. eg. Seleginella, Lycopodium, Equisetum.
Mostly in ferns Sporangia are present in groups, are called sorus. Many sorus are found on sporophylls.
The groups of sorus are called sori. In pteridophyta, sporophylls are also photosynthetic. This is a unique
character of pteridophyta.
In pteridophytes development of sporangia takes place by two method.
Pteridopyta, Angiosperm, Gymnosperm [131]

(a) Leptosporangiate - Each sporangium develops from a single initial cells.
(b) Eusporangiate - Each sporangium develops from a group of initial cells (advance).
Spore mother cells are present in sporangia. Spores are formed from these spore mother cells by meiosis
and these spores start the gametophytic generation. In pteridophyta, the germination of spores is
exosporic i.e. germination takes place out side the sporangia (gametophyte develops in soil). In soil, a
multicellular gametophyte is formed by the germination of each spore, which is known as prothallus. The
formation of gametophyte takes place in the soil therefore it is free (independent) and autotrophic. There
is no relation between the main sporophytic plant and prothallus. Prothallus (gametophyte plant) is made
up of thallus bearing rhizoids. It is non vascular.
Note : In plant kingdom, gametophyte is always non vascular
Prothallus (gametophyte) is monoecious but in heterosporus pteridophyte prothallus is dioecious.
In heterosporus pteridophytes -
Microspores - Male gametophyte
Megaspores - Female gametophyte
The formation of sex organs takes place on this gametophyte. Male sex organs are called as antheridium
and female sex organs are called as archegonium. The formation of male gametes takes place in
Antheridia which are called as antherozoids. Atherozoids are spiral and multiflagellate. Exceptionaly
antherozoid of Selaginella are spindle shaped and Lycopodium is curved (comma) and biflagellate.
Egg is formed in archegonia.
Fertilization takes place by zoodiogamy and zygote is formed as a result of fertilization. Zygote develops
mitotically and forms an embryo. Now this embryo develops and forms a sporophytic plant with root,
stem, leaf.
Points to be remember
1. Type of sexual reproduction in pteridophyta is oogamous. Their life cycle is diplo-haplontic type.
2. The unique character of life cycle of Pteridophyte is - Independent alternation of generation. i.e.
sporophyte and gametophyte are separate to each other and morphologically different.
3. In some heterosporus species female gametophyte retained on parent sporophyte and develop embryo
on same sporophyte eg. Selaginella. This event is precursor to seed habit in evolution.
CLASSIFICATION
Pteridophyta is divided in to 4 classes

1. Psilopsida 2. Lycopsida 3. Sphenopsida 4. Fillicinae/Pteropsida
Psilopsida
The most ancient vascular plants are placed in this class. The plants in this class have many primitive
characters. Their plant body is differentiated in to stem, scaly leaves and rhizoids. Rhizoids are present
instead of roots. In psilopsida stem is underground called rhizome. This rhizome bears some aerial
branches. Sporangia are formed on these branches. Vascular tissue is present only in stem. Tropophylls
are absent, scaly leaves are known as cataphylls.
Scaly leaves are dry, brown coloured and non photosynthetic. They are only for protection of sporangia.
Their leaves do not have the capacity of photosynthesis, therefore photosynthesis is done by stem.
Sporangia are formed on stem. Sporophylls are absent. Most of the plants in this class are extinct. Only
one living genus is present in this class that is Psilotum it is a living fossil
Rhynia and Horneophyton are other Fossil plants
LYCOPSIDA OR LEPIDOPHYTA
Club mosses are placed in this class. Club mosses are microphyllous i.e. small green leaves are present
on stem. Leaves of club moss is uninerved i.e. only mid rib is present. Sporangia are formed on
sporophylls. These sporophylls are not scattered on stem. They are present in groups at the tip of plant.
In Lycopsida tropophylls and sporophylls are separate. Tropophylls are present whole year while
sporophylls are formed during reproduction.
Lepidodendron - Gaint club moss - fossil plant
Lycopodium - Common club moss or Ground pine or Trailing evergreen. It is a medicinal
plant. It is used as tonic in Homeopathic medicines.
Isoetes - Quill wort or Merlyn grass - Aquatic weed (Secondary growth present)
Selaginella - Little club moss or spike moss or Bird’s nest moss.
Resurrection plant - All the species of Selaginella are known as. ‘’Drought Escapers’’ i.e. do not
face drought condition, complete their life cycle in short wet season. In dry season plant dries and rolls
in a ball like structure. In this stage, it passes out dry season. When wet season return plant absorbs
water and again becomes normal. So it is also known as ‘’resurrection plant’’
Selaginella bryopteris - It is known as ‘’Sanjeevani’’ - No medicinal properties.
SPHENOPSIDA OR ARTHROPHYTE OR CALAMOPHYTA
In this class Horse tails are included. The plant body of horse tails are differentiated into root, stem &
leaves. Their stem is nodulated i.e. stem distinctly differentiated into node and internode. Scaly leaves
are present on these nodes (Microphyllous). Silica is present in the epidermis of stem and leaves. Due
to silicated surface, leaves become rough. If two horse tail plants collide, then there is a dangerous
chance of fire in the forest. The formation of sporangia takes place on sporophylls. Sporophylls are
arranged in a group and form a tall and condensed cone or strobilus. This cone is formed at the apical
part of aerial stem. The stem on which cone is formed is called as sporangiophore. eg. Equisetum
(Pipe), Sphenophylla, Hyenia
FILICINAE OR PTEROPSIDA OR FERNS
This is the largest group of pteridophytes. Ferns are included in this class. Most of the pteridophytes
are ferns. Ferns are megaphyllous (macrophyllus) i.e. stem is small and leaves are comparatively larger
these leaves are known as ‘Fronds’. Leaves are multinerved. Young leaves show circinate ptyxis, as
they are coiled in the form of a watch spring. This coiling protects the growing point which comes to
lie in the centre. Multicellular hair are present on the young leaf and young stem of ferns which are
called as rementa. They are for protection.
There is no difference between tropophylls and sporophyle in fern i.e. every leaf of fern bear sporangia
at the time of reproduction. Therefore cones are not produced in ferns. Sporangia occurs on the ventral

surface of leaves in clusters called sori (singular-sorus). The fertile leaves are known as sporophylls.
A sorus is covered by a flap-like outgrowth from its surface called Indusium (true indusium e.g.,
Dryopteris) or turned margin of the sporophyll (false indusium, e.g., Adiantum). Development of
sporangium in true ferns is leptosporangiate. e.g. Pteridium
Pteris - They are called ‘Braken fern’ or ‘Sun fern’
Dryopteris Also called as ‘Brook shield fern’
Adiantum - Walking fern or Maiden hair fern. This name is given to them due
to rapid vegetative reproduction. Vegetative reproduction in Adiantum
takes place means of leaf tip. It spreads very fast.
Osmunda - Royal fern or flowering fern
Ophioglossum - Adler’s tongue fern
Marsilea - Pepper wort fern
Azolla - Aquatic fern (smallest pteridophyte and biofertilizer)
Onychium - Gloden fern
Cyathea - Lofty tree fern
Alsophila - Tree fern (Largest pteridophyte)
Chielanthus - Silver fern
Botrychium - Moon wort fern
Points to be remembered
Selaginella - Vivipary is present in it i.e, partial endosporic germination.
Seed habit originated in Selaginella like pteridophytes. Ligulate leaves
(tongue shaped) are present in it
Function - Ligule is secretory structure, which secretes water and keeps the
sporangium and the yound leaf moist.
In some pteridophytes sporangia are formed at the axil of leaf. eg. Selaginella
In some pteridophytes sporangia are formed in spike. eg. Ophioglossum
In some pteridophytes sporangia are formed in sporocarp. eg. Marsilea, Azolla
Stele
Vascular tissue with or without pith surrounded by endodermis (part of cortex) is called stele i.e. all tissues
inside endodermis is reffered as stele. Stele hypothesis proposed by Van Tiaghem and Douliot. Presence of
stele is a pteridophycean feature (Primitive) which later evolved to vascular bundles in higher plants.
Type of stele
(A) Protostele or Mono stele or solid stele : Protostele is the most primitive and simplest type of stele. It
consists of a solid mass of xylem which is completely surrounded by phloem. Such type of stele devoid of pith,
in place of pith xylem is present in centre. Solid stele is of following types (on the basis of shape of xylem).
1. Haplostele : In this stele, xylem surrounded by a smooth layer of phloem. Central xylem is cylindrical, but
circular in T.S. Example : Rhynia, Selaginella, Selaginoides etc.
2. Actinostele : Actinostele is that stele in which the central xylem has radiating ribs and assume a star
shaped appearance. Example : Psilotum, Isoetes, Lycopodium serratum
3. Plecto Stele : Such type of solid stele in which the xylem divides into number of separate plates which
lie parallel to one another. Example : Most of the species of Lycopodium. (L.clavatum)
4. Mixed protostele : Some times the solid xylem core of the protostele is broken into small group of
tracheids which remain embedded in the phloem. Such a protostele is known as mixed protostele. Ex-
ample : Lycopodium crenum.

5. Siphonostele : Siphonostele is the stele in which the pith is present in the centre of vascular cylinder.
(B) Siphonostele is of following two types :
Ectophloic siphonostele : In vascular tissue of such type of stele, phloem always present out side of the
xylem. Example : Equisetum, Osmunda.
Amphiphloic siphonostele : In vascular tissue of such type of stele, xylem is surrounded by phloem on the
both side. Example : Adiantum, Marsilea.
(C) Solenostele : When a megaphyllous leaf develops on stem vascular cylinder of plant organ (stem) breaks
from one side and a gap is formed. It is called as leaf gap. Xylem and Phloem are absent in leaf gap and it is
filled with parenchyma. Vascular supply divert in from stem to leaf is called leaf trace. Due to the formation of
one leaf gap stele becomes horse shoe shaped called solenostele. Solenostele also may be Ectophloic or
Amphiphloic.
(D) Dictyostele or Polystele : Due to production of many leaf gaps in siphonostele, main vascular cylinder,
break into many fragments, then such type of siphonostele is called Dictostele. Each divided fragment (piece)
is called meristele. Each meristele has its own separate endodermis and pericycle. Pith is absent in meristele.
Meristele is complete stele so dictyostele is well developed type of stele in Pteridophytes. Example : Pteridium,
Pteris, Dryopteris.
(E) Eustele : In this type of stele, vascular bundles are arranged in a ring. Medullary rays are present between
vascular bundle. Such type of stele is found in stem of gymnosperm and dicotyledon plants.
(F) Atactostel : Many vascular bundles are distributed in ground tissue. Such type of stele is called atactostele.
Endodermis and pericycle are absent in atactostele. This is highly developed type of stele.
Note : Stele of stem connected with stele of leaf through a vascular system called as leaf trace.
A place where leaf trace originated from the vascular system of stem, parenchymatous cells are found, called
as leaf gap.

GYMNOSPERM
Introduction
The term gymnosperm was used by Theophrastus (300 BC) in his book Enquiry into plants. They are
popularly called naked seeded vascular plants. Goebel called them as phenerogames without ovary.
Gymnosperm & Angiosperm are collectively included under spermatophyta i.e. seed bearing plants.
Gymnosperms are very limited in distribution. They are mainly found in cold region. In India Gymnosperms
are found on Himalayan mountains. Xerophyte founds on slopes of mountain & cold region therefore
gymnosperms are xerophyte.
Specific features
1. Xylem lack vessels & phloem lack companion cells.
2. Exceptionally in xylem of Gnetum, Ephedra, Welwitschia true vessels are present.
3. In gymnosperms vascular bundle is Conjoint-Collateral-Endarch-Open. In the vascular bundle cambium
is present therefore secondary growth takes place in gymnosperms, so that Gymnosperms are
woody plants.
4. Most of the gymnosperms are occur as tree from-but some are present as shrub. eg. Ephedra
5. One member is specific shrub. eg. Welwitschia (bear two leaves in whole life)
6. Some Gymnosperm are liana wood climbers. e.g Gnetum ula
7. Wood of Gymnosperms is soft is of following types :
(a) Manoxylic : Soft wood, vascular tissues with medullary rays, commercially less important. e.g.
Cycas.
(b) Polyxylic : With many persistent cambium rings and bundles. e.g. Cycas
(c) Pycnoxylic : Compact wood without or with narrow medullary rays, commercially more important.
e.g. Pinus.
(d) Monoxylic : With single persistent cambium ring and bundles. e.g. Pinus
General features
The dominent plant body of gymnosperm is sporophyte differentiated into root, stem and leaves.
Roots :
Gymnosperms have Tap roots generally. Roots of pinus have mycorrhizal association. Cycas have
specialised roots called coralloid roots have N2-fixing cynobacteria (Nostoc, Anabaena).
Stem :
Gymnosperms generally have unbranched stem (cycas). Some have branched stem - Pinus, cedrus.
Leaves :
Gymnosperms have both simple or compound leaves. The leaves are well-adapted to withstand extremes
of temperature, humidity and wind. Leaves have adaptations to fight with extreme condition as : Needle
like leaves reduce the surface area in conifers, Thick cuticle, Sunken stomata.
LIFE CYCLE OF GYMNOSPERM
In Gymnosperms main plant body is sporophyte (diploid). All Gymnosperm are dioecious. i.e. male &
female plants are separate, but exceptionally pinus is monoecius.All Gymnosperms are heterosporus. At
the time of reproduction two types of spores are formed.
Microspores - Male
Megaspores - Female
These two types of spores are formed in different sporangia. Microspores are formed in Microsporangia.
Microsporangia also term as pollen sac. Megaspores are formed in Megasporangia. Megasporangia also
term as ovule. Both type of sporangia are formed on different sporophylls. Microsporangia are formed
on Microsporophyll. It is known as stamen.
Megasporangia are formed on Megasporophylls. It is known as carpel. Both types of sporophylls are
found in groups & form male cone (strobilus) & female cone.The male and female strobilli borne on

same tree (monoecious) (pinus) or on different trees (dioecious) (cycas). Gymnosperm’s cone are just
like flower of angiosperm. Carpels of Angiosperm & Gymnosperm are different to each other.
Carpel of Gymnosperm :
Carpel of gymnosperm is less modified leaf it keeps its identity. Ovule of gymnosperm develops openly
on carpel i.e. ovule does not enclose in any structure like ovary. Therefore carpel of gymnosperm is
termed as open carpel. Generally ovule is unitegmic i.e. single integument and orthotropus
Carpels of Angiosperm :
Male gametophyte is also known as pollen grain. Male gametophyte forms male gamete. In lower
gymnosperm, male gametes are motile & multicillate. In higher gymnosperm and angiosperm male
gametes are non motile due to the absence of cilia and flagella. They (higher gymnosperm) do not
require water for fertilization. In megasporangium (ovule), the one of cell of nucellus differentiated into
megaspore mother cell (2n). Megaspore mother cell divide meiotically to form megaspore (n) Female
gametophyte form after germination of megaspore.
Female gametophyte of gymnosperm contains two type of structures
Archegonia - It forms egg.
Endosperm - It provides nutrition for the development of embryo.
Pollination
Pollen grain (Male gametophyte) reach at the Micropyle of ovule by wind. Pollination occurs by
Anemophilly (by air) most commonly in Gymnosperms.
Fertilization
Two types of fertilization take place in gymnosperms
Zoodio - siphonogamy : This type of fertilization occurs in lower gymnosperms. Male gamete is motile
and contained in pollen tube.
Siphonogamy : This type of fertilization occur in higher gymnosperms. Male gamete is non motile and
transferred to female gamete (egg) by pollen tube. After Pollination male & female gametes are fused
& form a diploid zygote. In gymnosperm single fertilization takes place so that single zygote form
through fertilization. In Angiosperm double fertilization takes places so that two product are formed after
it (i) Zygote (ii) Endosperm. In gymnosperm endosperm form before fertilization so it is haploid but in
angiosperm endosperm are formed after fertilization so endosperm of angiosperm is triploid.
Development of Zygote
Embryo formed by the development of diploid zygote. After embryo formation ovule term as seed.
(Seed  Ovule Embryo). Ovule is a megasporangia. Embryo enclosed in ovule because development
of spore is endosporic. Seeds are not formed in pteridophyta because germination of spore is exosporic
i.e. embryo develops outside the sporangia.
Polyembryony
Polyembryony occurs in gymnosperm i.e. a single seed develops many embryo. There is two type of
Polyembryony.
Potential polyembryony :
Many embryo form by fertilization of many archegonia. eg. Cycas
Single ovule of Cycas contains two archegonia. Fertilization occurs in both archegonia so two zygote
form in a ovule, So two embryo form. Potential polyembryony is not true polyembryony because a zygote
form only one embryo.
Cleavage polyembryony :
Many embryo are formed by the cleavage in zygote so it is true polyembryony. eg. Pinus
Embryo enclosed in seed. Seed absorbs water & bursts. Now embryo germinate and form a new diploid
sporophytic plant.

Life cycle
Life cycle of Gymnosperm & angiosperm is diplontic because gametophytic generation is short lived.
Gametophyte is very reduced & depend on its sporophyte unlike bryophyte and pteridophyte. Gametophyte
remain within the sporangia on sporophyte.
Sporophyte (2N) Sporophyte (2N)
Male cone Female cone

Diploid
Microsporophylls (Stamen) Megasporophylls (Carpel)
Microsporangium (Pollen sac) Megasporangium (Ovule)

Meiosis Meiosis
Microspores (N ) Megaspores (N )
Germination Germination
Male gametophyte (Pollen grain) Female gametophyte All
structures
found on
Haploid sporophyte
Male gametes plant
Archegonia Endosperm (n)
Female gamete (egg)

Fertilization
By
Zoodio-siphonogamy
OR
Siphonogamy
Zygote (2N)
Mitosis Diploid
Embryo
Seed Germination (Seed = Ovule + Embryo
i.e. ovule enclosing embryo)
Sporophyte (2N)
LIFE CYCLE OF GYMNOSPERM
Important points to be remembered

1. Antheridia is absent in gymnosperm & angiosperm i.e. pteridophyte is last group bearing antheridia.
2. Archegonia is also absent in angiosperm, So gymnosperm is last group of archegonia. Evolution of
archegonia starts from liverworts. It is well developed in moss.

3. Gymnosperm is last group of it. So in this group it is very reduced.
4. Compartive study of gymnosprem witn other group is following
Archegonia of Liver worts - NCC = - 6 VCC = 1 Egg cell = 1
Archegonia of Moss - NCC = 6 - 18 VCC = 1 Egg cell = 1
Archegonia of Pteridophyta - NCC = 1 -2 VCC = 1 Egg cell = 1
Archegonia of Gymnosperm - NCC = Absent VCC = 1 (Short lived) Egg cell = 1
5. Neck of archegonia of Ephedra is longest. During evolution Gametophyte becomes reduced & sporophyte
becomes well-develop.
 Very reduced  In Angiosperm

6. Gametophyt e Well developed  In Moss

 Very reduced  In Thallophyt a (Only zygote)

7. Sporophyte  Well developed  In Angiosperm

8. Different plant groups Female sex organ Male sex organ
Algae - Oogonium (mostly), Antheridium,
Nucule (Chara) Globule (Chara)
Bryophyte - Archegonium Antheridium
Pteridophyte - Archegonium Antheridium
Gymnosperm - Carpel, Archegonium Stamen, Androecium
Angiosperm - Carpel, Gynoecium Stamen, Androecium
Fungi - Oogonium Antheridium
- Ascogonium Spermatangium
(Ascomycetes) (Basidiomycetes)
CLASSIFICATION
Gymnosperms are divided into two groups.
(1) Cycadophyta (Lower Gymnosperm) (2) Coniferophyta (Higher Gymnosperm).
1. Cycadophyta
Many characters of this group resemble to fern pteridophyte. The plants of this group are megaphyllous
or macrophyllous. Presence of Ramenta. Male gamete is motile. Vascular bundle are hadrocentric /
Amphicribal. Cycadophyta is divided into three orders.
A. Cycadofillicales or Pteridospermae
This group includes seed fern. Now this group is completely extinct.
eg. Lyginopteris - Fossil plant
Seed habit
Cycadofillicales was first seeded plant. First time seed habit established in this group. In general way
seed habit was originated from those pteridophytes which are now extinct. These pteridophytes were
ancestor of cycadofillicales. Seed habit originated from those pteridophyte which were just like Selaginella.
Because Selaginella show origin of seed habit.
There is mainly three requirements for seed formation.
(i) Plant should be heterosporus
(ii) Germination of megaspores should be endosporic
(iii) Development of Zygote to embryo occur inside megasporangium (ovule)
B . Benettitales

It is also a completely extinct group.
eg. Williamsonia - fossil plant
Note : Its fossils were discovered by Prof. Birbal sahani
C. Cycadales
Presently living Gymnosperms are included in this order.
All the plants of this group are living fossils.
Zamia pygmea - Smallest Gymnosperm
Cycas - Fern palm or sago palm
Sago is obtained from its stem. (Starchy food)
Cycas thouarsii - The diameter of it ovules is 7 cm. Its ovules, male gamete, egg and
male cone are largest in plant kingdom.
2. Coniferophyta
Four orders are included in this group
A. Ginkgoales
It is the oldest order of coniferophyta. Maximum plants of this group are extinct. Only one plant of
Ginkgo biloba is present in India (In Manali). Some plants are also present in china. Ginkgo biloba - living
fossil - It is also known as ‘’Maiden hair tree’’. Exceptionally Ginkgo biloba belongs to higher gymnosperm
but its male gametes are motile and fertilization by zoodiosiphonogamy.
B . Cordaitales
It is completely extinct group. eg. Cordaites
C. Coniferales
Conifers are included in this group. It is the largest group of gymnospern
eg.
Pinus (Pines) - Roots have fungal association (mycorrhiza) -
Pinus species - A resin ‘’turpentine’’ is obtained from it. Turpentine is used in varnish.
Pinus gerardiana - It is known as ‘’chilgoza pine’’
Pinus roxburghii - It is known as ‘’chirpine’’
Cedrus - It is known as deodar. Wood used in match sticks, Railway sleepers,
Light furniture, packing case etc.
Taxus - It is known as Yew tree. An anticancer medicine ‘’Taxol’’ is
obtained from its bark.
Taxodium maxicanus - The stem of this plant is thickest in the plant kingdom.
Abies balsamea - A resin ‘’Canada balsam’’ is obtained from it.
It is used to manufacture permanent sildes in biology laboratory.
Juniperus virginiana - An oil obtained from this tree-’’Cedar wood oil’’.
It is used as cleansing fluid in biology laboratory.
This oil also used in microscope to increase the resolving power.
This oil is used as nail polish remover.
Wood used in pencil manufacturing Araucaria species.
Araucaria excelsa - Christmas tree, Ornamental plants
Araucaria araucana - Monkey puzzle tree
Sequoia species - The plants in this genus are heavy.
Therefore they are called as father of forest.
Sequoia giganteum - It is called “Red wood tree” or sherman tree,

It is the tallest gymnosperm.There is only one tree of this species
and that is in California (America)
Metasequoia - It is living fossil. This plant is present in China valley.
D. Gnetales
They are the most advanced gymnosperms. Exceptionally members of this group have vessels in xylem.
Ovule of this group is bitegmic. Archegonia is absent in the members of this group.
eg. Gnetum, Welwitschia - Two leaves in whole life, pollination by insects, Ephedra - Exceptionally
archegonia is present in Ephedra.
Ephedra : This gymnosperm is commonly found in Rajasthan. Ephedra is a medicinal plant. Ephedrine
(Medicine) is obtained from it. It is an effective medicine in asthma. Athletes misuse it, so ephedrine
is restricted for them.

ANGIOSPERMS
(FLOWERING PLANTS OR ANTHOPHYTES)
Angiosperms are those seed plants in which ovules and seeds are convered (inside fruits) and the sporophylls
are organised into flowers. These are found in almoest all the possible habitats. Tillandsia (Spanish moss) is an
epiphyttic angiosperm.
GENERAL CHARACTERS
1. Flowering plants or angiosperms are the most recent and highly evolved plants.
2. Sporophylls are aggregated in flowers. It is their most striking feature. therefore, angiosperms are also called
flowering plants.
3. Stamen (male sex organ) consists of a filament and an anther. carpel (female sex organ) is rolled and partly
sterilised to produce a stigma, style and ovary, containing ovules.
4. Pollination occurs through several agecies, but most prominent amongst them is by animals, especially insects.
5. pollen grains or microspores reach stigmatic surface found at the tip of carpal or megasporophyll
(indirect pollination).
6. Female gametophyte or embryo sac is highly reduced and generly develops upto 8-nucleate stage prior to
fertilization.
7. Archegonia are absent. Instead, there is one egg surrounded by two specialised synergid cells that attract the
pollen tube. The latter brings two naked non-flagellate male gametes.
8. There occurs double fertilization. One produces zygote, hence embryo. the other forms primary endosperm cell.
9. Endosperm is formed through triple fusion and is generally triploid.
10. Fertilized ovules ripen into seeds. The seeds are coverd by ovary wall. A fruit is technically a ripened ovary.
Fruit not only protect the seeds but also help in their dispersal.
11. Xylem contains vessels.
12. Phloem possesses sieve tubes and copanion cells.
13. Aniosperms are divided into two sub-groups-dicotyledons and monocotyledons, mainly on the basis of number
of embryonic leaves or cotyledons. The two are commonly called as dicots and monocots.
Differences Between Dicots and Monocots
Dicots Monocots
1. Seeds usally have two cotyledons. 1. The seeds contain one cotyledon.
2. Flowers are generally pentamerous 2. Flowers are usually (floral parts in
or tetramerous (floral parts in sets sets of three or its multiples).
of 5 and 4 or their multiples).
3. Leaves are net-veined with reticulate 3. The leaves possess paralle venation
venation with a few exceptions. with a fewexceptions.
4. Primary root often long lived, 4. Primary root short lived.
forming tap root system. Adventitious Instead adventitious roots are found.
roots occur in some cases.
5. Vascular bundles of the stem are 5. Vascular bundles are found scttered.
arranged in a ring.
6. Vascular bundles of the stem possess 6. Cambium is absent
cambium (vascular bundle open), so (vascular bundle open).
that secondary growth is possible.

Differences Between Various Plant Groups Having Embryo
Features Bryophyta Pteridophyta Gymnosperms Angiosperms
Dominat phase Gametophyte Sporophyte Sporophyte Sporophyte
Ploidy of main Haploid Diploid Diploid Diploid

plant body
Differentiation Thallus or foliose Root, stem Root, stem Root, stem

of body structures and rhizoids and leaves and leaves and leaves
Vascular bundles Absent Present Present Present
Nature of spores Homospores Homospores and Heterospores Heterospores

Heterospores
Seed and its Seed absent Seed absent Seed naked Seed with
coverings (without covering) covering
Flower and fruit Absent Absent Absent Absent
PLANT LIFE CYCLES AND ALTERNATION OF GENERATION

Life cycle of a plant is called alternation of generations. In plants, both haploid and diploid cells can divide by
mitosis. This ability leads to the formation of different plant bodies - haploid gamete producing plant (Game-
tophyte) and diploid spore producing plant (sporophyte)
The haploid plant body produce, gametes by mitosis. Following fertilization, the zygote may dvide by mitosis to
produce sporophyte or may divide by meiosis to produce haploid spores. Haploid spores in turn divide mitoti-
cally to produce gametophyte. Thus, during the life cycle of a sexually reproducing plant there occurs an
alternation of generations between the haploid and diploid phases. Syngamy and meiosis seems to be instru-
mental for this event.
There are three chief patterns of life cycle. They
fundamentally differ in the duration of the
haploid and diploid phases. These are :
is
os
Zygote
Sy
ei
ng
(2n)
M
Spores
am
(n)
y
(i) Haplontic : It is characterized by the dominance A

of haplophase. The plant body is gametophyte and Gametogenesis B
A = Diplophase
independent. The sporophyte is dependent on B = Haplophase
Haplontic
gametophyte, and is not a free living body. The major Life cycle
part of life is dominated by gametophyte, e.g.
majority of green algae viz.
Chlamydomonas, Ulothrix,Spirogyra etc.
Gametophyte
(n)

(ii) Diplo-haplontic or Haplo diplontic : It is
characterized by the existence of both sporophyte as
Sporophyte
well as gametophyte. Both of them are photosynthetic Zygote (2n)
multicelled bodies and often free living with two nearly (2n)
A
equal phases -the diplophase and haplophase. If
Syng
sporophytes and gametophytes are morphologically amy
Meiosis
different then the life cycle is termed as Diplo-
haplontic-heteromorphic, e.g., all pteridophytes; all
Haplo-diplontic B Spores
bryophytes some brown algae viz., Laminaria and Gametogenesis (n)
or
other Kelps. If the two phases are morphologically diplohaplontic
identical, then life cycle is termed as Diplo-haplontic- Life Cycle
isomorphic, e.g., green algae viz., Ulva and
Cladophora; brown algae, such Gametophyte
(n)
as Ectocarpus.
Sporophyte
(2n)
(iii) Diplontic : It is characterized by the dominance of
diplophase. The plant body is sporophyte which is
independent and free living. The gametophytes are Diplontic
extremely reduced and are dependent physically as Life Cycle
well as nutritionally on the sporophyte. The major part
of the life is enjoyed by the sporophyte, e.g., all
gymnosperms and angiosperms; Diatoms; some
Zygote (2n)
brown algae, viz. Fucus and Sargassum. Gametogenesis
y
gam
n
Sy (n)
(ii)

EXERCISE – 1
Q.1 Vascular cryptogams or seed less vascular Q.11 In pteridophyta, reduction division occurs when-
plants belongs to - (1) Prothallus is formed
(1) Bryophyta (2) Pteridophyta (2) Spores are formed
(3) Thallophyta (4) Spermatophyta (3) Sex organs are formed
Q.2 Seed habit first established in - (4) Gametes are formed
(1) Pteridophytes (2) Gymnosperms Q.12 The main plant body of Pteridophytes is -
(3) Angiosperms (4) None of the above (1) Sporophyte (2) Gametophyte
Q.3 Most conspicuous alternation of generation (3) Haploid (4) None of the above
occurs is - Q.13 Cryptogamic plants are -
(1) Thallophyta (2) Bryophyta (1) Seedless (2) Embryoless
(3) Pteridophyta (4) Spermatophyta (3) Leafless (4) Rootless
Q.4 Which of following is a heterosporous Q.14 Cone bearing pteridophyta are -
Pteridophyte - (1) Lycopsida and Psilopsida
(1) Lycopodium (2) Selaginella (2) Filicine and Lycopsida
(3) Pteridium (4) Dryopteris (3) Filicinae and Sphenopsida
Q.5 Rhizoid containing sporophytic plants are (4) Lycopsida and Sphenopsida
characetristic of - Q.15 Adiantum is called ‘’walking fern’’ due to -
(1) Bryopsida (2) Spenopsida (1) Power of locomotion
(3) Cycadophyta (4) Psilopsida (2) Vegetative reproduction
Q.6 Which group includes green leaf microphyllous (3) Motile antherozites
plants -
(4) All the above
(1) Lycopsida (2) Sphenopsida Q.16 Plants having vascular tissues but lacking seeds
(3) Psilotopsida (4) Pteropsida are -
Q.7 Pteridophytes with their sporophylls aggregated (1) Bryophyta (2) Pteridophyta
in cones, can be classified in - (3) Gymnosperms (4) Angiosperms
(1) Psilotopsida and Lycopsida Q.17 Heterospory and ligulate leaves occurs in -
(2) Lycopsid and Pteropsida (1) Selaginella (2) Pteridium
(3) Sphenopsida and Lycopsida (3) Funaria (4) Riccia
(4) Sphenopsida and Pteropsida Q.18 In Lycopodium the antherozoids are -
Q.8 Which of the following is called as ‘’Adler’s (1) Biflagellate (2) Multiflagellate
tongue Fern’’- (3) Multiciliate (4) Non motile
(1) Cyathea (2) Marsilea Q.19 The aquatic fern, which is an excellent
(3) Ophigolossum (4) Adiantum biofertilizer is -
Q.9 Roots first originated in - (1) Salvinia (2) Azolla pinnata
(1) Algae (2) Fungi (3) Pteridium (4) Marsilea
(3) Bryophyta (4) Pteridophyta Q.20 Sporangia are found in fruiting structures called
Q.10 Pteridophyta differs from bryophyta in having- sporocarps in aquatic ferns, which of the
(1) Vascular tissue (2) Archegonia following are aquatic ferns-
(3) Alternation of generations (1) Azolla (2) Selaginella
(4) Motile sperm (3) Pteridium (4) Equisetum

Q.21 The antherozoids of fern are - Q.31 Young fern leaves and rhizome are protected
(1) Uniflagellate (2) Biflagellate by -
(3) Quadriflagellate (4) Multiflagellate (1) Root cap (2) Ramenta
Q.22 In pteridophytes the spore germinate to form- (3) Roots (4) Leaf bases
(1) Protonema (2) Prothallus Q.32 In ferns, the permanent roots are -
(3) Sporophyte (4) Archegonium (1) Tap root (2) Adventitious roots
Q.23 Secondary growth occur in which pteridophyte - (3) Tuberous roots (4) Rhizome
(1) Azolla (2) Salvinia Q.33 Independent alternation of generation found in-
(3) Isoetes (4) Selaginella (1) Pteridophyta (2) Spermatophyta
Q.24 Sporophylls are photosynthetic in - (3) Thallophyta (4) Bryophyta
(1) Gymnosperm (2) Angiosperm Q.34 Gametophytes of pteridophytes are-
(3) Bryophyta (4) Pteridophyta (1) Short lived, Free living and sexual organ
Q.25 Spindle shaped male gametes are found in- bearing
(1) Lycopodium (2) Pteris (2) Heart shaped, dependent on sporophyte and
(3) Pteridum (4) Salaginella sex organ bearing
Q.26 The botanical name of ‘’Sanjeevani’’ is - (3) Fibre like, dependent on sporophyte and
sex organ bearing
(1) Salaginella utricularia
(4) Semi parasite on sporophyte
(2) Selaginella bryopteris
Q.35 Stem distinctly differentiated in to node and
(3) Selaginella crotalaria
internode in -
(4) Selaginella botardia
(1) Psilopsida (2) Lycopsida
Q.27 Aquatic fern which supports the growth of blue
(3) Sphenopsida (4) Pteropsida
green algae, Anabaena, and used to increase
the yield of paddy crop is - Q.36 Spore producing part of pteridophytes is -
(1) Salvinia (2) Marsilea (1) Sporangia of gametophytes
(3) Isoetes (4) Azolla (2) Capsule of sporophytes
Q.28 Most distinct type of alternation of generations (3) Sporangia of sporophytes
is demonstrated by - (4) Capsule of gametophytes
(1) Angiosperms (2) Ferns Q.37 In pteridophytes, reduction division takes place
(3) Gymnosperms (4) Bryophytes in -
Q.29 Presence of motile stage in life cycle & (1) Zygote (2) Spore mother cells
requirement of water as a medium to complete (3) Gametangia (4) Prothallus
life cycle is diagnostic characters of - Q.38 Cambium is absent in-
(1) Thallophyta (2) Bryophyta (1) Pteridophytes
(3) Pteridophyta (4) Cryptogams (2) Gymnosperms
Q.30 Evolution of seed habit first started in - (3) Angiosperms
(1) Selaginella like ancestral pteridophytes (4) Pteridophytes and gymnosperms
(2) Psilotum like ancestral pteridophytes
(3) Gymnosperms (4) Mosses
ANSWER KEY
EXERCISE – 1
Ques. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. 2 2 3 2 4 1 3 3 4 1 2 1 1 4 2 2 1 1 2 1
Ques. 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38
Ans. 4 2 3 4 4 2 4 2 4 1 2 2 1 1 3 3 2 1

EXERCISE – 2
Q.1 Most advanced Gymnosperm belongs to - Q.12 Which character most differentiates
(1) Cycadales (2) Coniferales angiosperms from gymnosperms-
(3) Gnetales (4) Cycadofillicales (1) Triploid endosperm
Q.2 Which of the following is called father of (2) Vessels in xylem
forest- (3) Seeds enclosed in fruits
(1) Pinus (2) Banyan (4) Attractive petels
(3) Sequoia (4) Cedrus Q.13 Gametophyte embeded in sporophyte in -
Q.3 Zoodiogamy takes place in - (1) Bryophyta (2) Pteridophyta
(1) Lower Gymnosperms (3) Cryptogams (4) Spermatophyta
(2) Higher Gymnosperms Q.14 Eggs do not occur in archegonia in -
(3) Angiosperms (1) Bryophyta (2) Pteridophyta
(4) All the above (3) Angiosperms (4) Spermatophyta
Q.4 All Gymnosperms are - Q.15 Antheridia and archegonia are absent in -
(1) Heterosporus (2) Arborescent (1) Bryophyta (2) Pteridophyta
(3) Seed plants (4) All the above (3) Gymnosperms (4) Angiosperms
Q.5 Gymnosperm plants lack - Q.16 Ovules absent in -
(1) Vessels (2) Fruits (1) Pteridophyta (2) Gymnosperm
(3) Companion cells (4) All the above
(3) Angiosperm (4) (1) and (2) both
Q.6 Gymnosperm plants do not produce fruits
Q.17 Ephedrine is obtained by -
because they do not have -
(1) Ephedra (2) Gnetum
(1) ovary (2) gametes
(3) Pinus (4) Cycas
(3) fertilization (4) None of these
Q.18 In gymnosperms, the pollination is -
Q.7 Ovule is morophologically equivalent to -
(1) Anemophilous-micropylar
(1) Megaspore (2) Megasporangium
(2) Anemophilous-stigmatic
(3) Microspore (4) Megasporophyll
(3) Entomophilous-micropylar
Q.8 Cones in Gymnosperm plants are -
(4) Entomophilous-stigmatic
(1) Bisexual (2) Unisexual
Q.19 Resin turpentine is obtained from -
(3) Sterile (4) Any of the above
Q.9 Double fertilization and triple fusion are (1) Pinus (2) Adiantum
characterstic of - (3) Club mosses (4) Sequoia
(1) Spermatophyta (2) Gymnosperms Q.20 Which group is largest in gymnosperms-
(3) Pteridophyta (4) Angiosperms (1) Cycadales (2) Gnetales
Q.10 In which of the following characters, the (3) Coniferales (4) Cordaitales
angiosperms resemble gymnosperms- Q.21 Spore bearing tracheophytes-
(1) Presence of ovule (1) Pteridophyta (2) Gymnosperms
(2) Absence of endosperm (3) Angiosperms (4) All the above
(3) Presence of vessels Q.22 Which of the following Gymnosperm orders
(4) Mode of fertilisation by zoodio siphonogamy resembles with angiosperms-
Q.11 Ovules are naked in gymnosperm because- (1) Cycadales (2) Coniferales
(1) Fertilisation is absent (3) Gnetales (4) Ginkgoales
(2) True carpels are absent Q.23 Living fossils-
(3) Archegonia are absent (1) Cycas (2) Ginkgo
(4) Endosperm is absent (3) Psilotum (4) All the above

Q.24 ‘’Heterosprous-Archegoniatae’’ is a name for- Q.36 Which of the following is commonly known as
(1) Ferns (2) Gymnosperms ‘’Chilgoza pine’’-
(3) Angiosperms (4) (1) and (2) both (1) Pinus roxburghii (2) P. strobus
(3) P. gerardiana (4) P. sylvestris
Q.25 Double fertilization takes place in -
Q.37 If the haploid no. of chromosomes in
(1) Angiosperms (2) Gymnosperms
gymnosperm is 12, what will be the no. of
(3) Spermatophyta (4) Embryophyta chromosomes in its root and endosperm-
Q.26 Sequoia belongs to- (1) 12, 12 (2) 12, 24
(1) Cycadofillicales (2) Gnetales (3) 24, 12 (4) 24, 36
(3) Coniferales (4) Dicots Q.38 The gymnosperm resembles with angiosperm
Q.27 Which of the following are absent in group in having -
gymnosperm - (1) Ciliated sperms (2) Presence of ovary
(1) Trees (2) Shrubs (3) Presence of seed (4) Presence of fruit
(3) Liana (4) Herbs Q.39 In cycas the microsporangia are born on which
side of microsporophyll -
Q.28 Which plant group is exclusively perennial-
(1) Adaxial (2) Abaxial
(1) Dicots (2) Ferns
(3) Lateral (4) Terminal
(3) Gymnosperms (4) Monocots Q.40 [Vessels companian cells] are found in-
Q.29 In Ginkgoales the male gametes are - (1) Pteridophyta (2) Gnetum
(1) Motile (2) Non-motile (3) Ephedra (4) Angiosperm
(3) Amoeboid (4) Absent Q.41 Fruits are not formed in gymnosperm because-
Q.30 Male gamete of Cycas, largest in plant (1) Fertilization is absent
kingdom, is - (2) Pollination is absent
(1) Non motile (2) Biflagellate (3) Seeds are not formed
(3) Multiciliate (4) Uniflagellate (4) Ovary is absent
Q.31 The mode of pollination in gymnosperm is - Q.42 Which one have maximum power of
adaptation-
(1) Anemophily (2) Entomophily
(1) Bryophyta (2) Pteridophyta
(3) Hydrophily (4) Any of the above
(3) Gymnosperm (4) Angiosperm
Q.32 Which of the following order of gymnosperm
Q.43 Gymnosperms differ from pteridophytes in
is totally extinct-
having -
(1) Cycadales (2) Ginkgoales (1) Presence of tracheiods
(3) Gnetales (4) Cycadofilicales (2) Presence of embryo
Q.33 Which of the following remained unchanged (3) Presence of ovule
for last many million years- (4) Companian cell
(1) Pinus (2) Rice Q.44 Most gymnosperms have -
(3) Acacia (4) Ginkgo (1) Both archegonia and antheridia
Q.34 Ovule in gymnosperm is generally - (2) Antheridia but no archegonia
(1) Anatropous and bitegmic (3) Archegonia but no antheridia
(2) Orthotropous and bitegmic (4) No antheridia ir archegonia
(3) Anatropous an unitegmic Q.45 The ‘’endosperm’’ of a gymnosperm
represent-
(4) Orthotropous and unitegmic
(1) Gametophytic tissue
Q.35 Life cycle of gymnosperm is -
(2) Sporophytic tissue
(1) Haplontic (2) Haplodiplontic (3) Tissue formed by double fertilization
(3) Diplontic (4) Diplohaplontic (4) Polyploid tissue

Q.46 Bitegmic ovules occur in the following Q.57 Proffesor Birbal Sahani discovered a fossil
gymnosperm plant - plant from 100 million years old fossil forest at
(1) Ginkgo (2) Taxus Rajmahal Hills, Bihar. This plant was-
(3) Gnetum (4) All the above (1) Rhynia (2) Horneophyton
Q.47 In gymnosperm endosperm is - (3) Willliamsonia (4) Red alga
(1) Triploid (2) Diploid Q.58 Cycas and ferns resemble each other in
(3) Haploid (4) Tetraploid possessing -
Q.48 Which of the following is not heterosporous- (1) Seeds
(1) Selaginella (2) Pinus (2) Ovules
(3) Pteridium (4) Cycas (3) Pollen tube
Q.49 Multiciliate male gametes are found in - (4) Circinate ptyaxis and ramenta
(1) Pinus (2) Cycas Q.59 Polyembryony is mainly found in -
(3) Gnetum (4) Mango (1) Pterdophyta (2) Bryophyta
Q.50 Which character of gymnospermic leaf (3) Gymnosperms (4) Angisoperms
indicates its xerophytic nature - Q.60 Which of the following plants produces seeds
(1) Sunken stomata but not flowers -
(2) Epidermis with thick cuticle (1) Maize (2) Mint
(3) Mesophyll with pallisade and spongy tissue (3) Peepal (4) Pinus
(4) All the above Q.61 Taxol is obtained from -
Q.51 Which of the following plant form seed and (1) Texus (2) Acetabularia
have pollen tube -
(3) Cycas (4) Pinus
(1) Angiosperm (2) Pteridophytes
Q.62 Success and dominance of vascular plants on
(3) Gymnosperm (4) Siphonogama
earth is due to -
Q.52 Modern day (Advacned) plants are -
(1) Development of roots
(1) Monocots (2) Dicots
(2) Developement of water proofing materials
(3) Gnetales (4) Ferns like cutin on surface
Q.53 Which group of plants is exclusively
(3) Development of conducting tissues
arborescent (woody) -
(4) All the above
(1) Pteridophyta (2) Dicots
Q.63 Which major change occured in germination
(3) Gymnosperms (4) Monocots
of spores during evolution of seed -
Q.54 Seeds of gymnosperms have three generations,
(1) Endosporic to exosporic
that is -
(2) Exosporic to endosporic
(1) Two sporophytic and one gametophytic
generation (3) Direct to indirect
(2) Two gametophytic and one sporophytic (4) No change
(3) All the three sporophytic generations Q.64 Most specialized (much modifies) sporophylls
(4) All the three gametophytic generations found in -
Q.55 Fossils of Williamsonia were first discovered by- (1) Pteridophyta (2) Gymnosperms
(1) Williamson (2) Seward (3) Angisoperms (4) Spermatophyta
(3) Birbal sahani (4) kashyap Q.65 The most reduced gametophytic stage present
Q.56 Gymnosperms maintain their dominance over in -
angiosperms in - (1) Thallophyta (2) Angiospermae
(1) Colder regions of world (3) Gymnospermae (4) Bryophyta
(2) Warmer regions of world Q.66 The characteristic feature of gymnosperm is-
(3) Antarctica (1) Seeds are naked (2) Fruits are absent
(4) Oceans (3) True carpel absent (4) All

Q.67 Archegoniate plants belong to - Q.68 Endosperm in gymnosperms is -
(1) Bryopyta, pteridophyta, gymnosperms, (1) Haploid & developed after fertilization
angiosperms (2) Haploid & developed before fertilization
(2) Thallophyta, bryophyta, pteridophyta (3) Triploid & developed after fertilization
(3) Bryophyta, pteridophyta, angiosperm (4) Triploid & developed after fertilization
(4) Bryophyta, pteridophyta, gymnosperm Q.69 How many generations found in seed of
gymnosperm -
(1) 1 (2) 2 (3) 4 (4) 3
ANSWER KEY
EXERCISE – 2
Ques. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. 3 3 1 4 4 1 2 2 4 1 2 3 4 3 4 1 1 1 1 3
Ques. 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
Ans. 4 3 4 2 1 3 4 3 1 3 1 4 4 4 3 3 3 3 2 4
Ques. 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
Ans. 4 4 3 3 1 3 3 3 2 4 4 1 3 1 3 1 3 4 3 4
Ques. 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69
Ans. 1 4 2 3 2 4 4 2 4

Q.1 Which of the following is characteristic of ferns? Q.10 In which group will you place a plant which
[Manipal PMT 2005] reproduces by means of spores, has vescular
(1) Leafy gametophyte supply and dipoid sporophytic phase as dominant
(2) Circinate vernation phase? [HP PMT 2005]
(3) Mycorrhizal roots (1) Bryophyta (2) Pteridophyta
(3) Gymnosperm (4) Angiosperm
(4) Coralloid roots
Q.11 Which pteridophyta is called as horse tail?
Q.2 Vascular crytogams are
[Orissa JEE 2005, GGSIPU 2006]
[MH CET 2003, KCET 2005]
(1) Equisetum (2) Lycopodium
(1) Pteridophytes (2) Angiosperms
(3) Marsilea (4) Selagineila
(3) Mosses (4) Algae
Q.12 Which of the following is present in association
Q.3 Microspores of massulae in Azolla are found in
with Azolla? [Maharashtra CET 2005]
[BHU 2005]
(1) Anabaena (2) Nostoc
(1) Inducium (2) Sporangium (3) Clostridium (4) Azotobacter
(3) Antheridium (4) Archegonoum Q.13 Dehiscence of sporangia of fern occurs through
Q.4 First vascular plant is [Orissa JEE 2005] [Maharashtra CET 2005]
(1) Thallophyta (2) Bryophyta (1) Annulus (2) Stomium
(3) pteridophyta (4) Spermatophyta (3) Elaters (4) Sori
Q.5 Fronds are [JIPMER 2005] Q.14 In a fern prothallus the following occurs
(1) Leaves of ferns (2) Leaves of Cycas [BHU 2005, DY Patil 2005]
(3) Moss roots (1) Self fertillization (2) Cross fertillization
(4) Reproductive structure of ferns (3) Conjugation (4) Isogamy
Q.6 In pteridophytes, phloem is without Q.15 Sporophytes in Nephrolepis is ............ and the
[Orissa JEE 2005] spores are [MGIMS Wardha 2005]
(1) Diploid, haploid (2) Haploid, haploid
(1) Sieve cells (2) Sieve tubes
(3) Haploid, diploid (4) Diploid, diploid
(3) Companion cells (4) Bast fibres
Q.16 One of the following is a pteridophyte.
Q.7 Independent slternation of generation is found
[Maharastra CET 2006]
in [Maharashtra CET 2005]
(1) Cycas (2) Sphagnum
(1) Fern (2) Cycas
(3) Nephrolepis (4) All above
(3) Onion (4) Lotus
Q.17 Which one has the maximum number of
Q.8 Which of the following is called resurrevtion
chromosomes? [GGSIPU 2006]
plant? [HP PMT 2005]
(1) Marsilea (2) Equisetum
(1) Selaginella lipidophyla
(3) Ophioglossum (4) Lycopodium
(2) Gingko biloba
Q.18 Indusium id found in [BHU 2005]
(3) Cedrus deodara
(1) Algae (2) Fronds
(4) Sequoia sempervirans
(3) Moss (4) Cycas
Q.9 Female gametophyte in heterosporous ferms is
Q.19 One of the following differentiates pteridophytes
[MGIMS Wardha 2005] from mosses. [BVP Pune 2006]
(1) Archegonium (2) Prothallus (1) Prothallus (2)Homosporous spores
(3) Protonema (4) Megasporangium (3) Haplontic life cycle (4) All above

Q.20 Which one of the following is called maiden-hair Q.27 Circinate vernation is seen in
fern? [Kerale PMT 2006] [Manipal PMT 2008]
(1) Dryopteris (2) Pteris (1) Equisteum, Nephrolepis, Psilotum
(3) Adiantum (4) Lycopodium (2) Nephrolepis, Adiantum, Pteris
(3) Lycopodium, Nephrolepis
(5) Selaginella
(4) Psilotum, Nephrolepis, Adiantum
Q.21 Walking fern belongs to the genus
Q.28 Petiole and reactus in ferus are covered with
[CET Chd. 2003, AMU 2007] small hairs called [CMC Vellore 2008]
(1) Adiantum (2) Dryopteris (1) Spurs (2) Ramenta
(3) Pteris (4) Marsilea (3) Fronds (4) Ligule
Q.22 In the prothallus of a vascular cryptogam, the (5) Rhizoids
antherozoids and egg mature at different times. Q.29 Which one of the following is a vascular
At a result [AIPMT 2007] cryptogam? [AIPMT 2009]
(1) There is high degree of sterillity (1) marchantia (2) Cedrus
(2) One can cinslude that the plant is apomictic (3) Equisetum (4) Ginkgo
(3) Self fertilization is prevented Q.30 Fertile leaves of ferms are called
[CET Chd. 2009]
(4) There is no change in success rate of
(1) Sporophylls (2) posophylls
fertilization
(3) Mesophylls (4) Cataphylls
Q.23 Pick up the wrongly matched pair
[Manipal PMT 2007]
KINGDOM PLANTAE – III
(1) Equisetum – horse tail
(GYMNOSPERMS)
(2) Psilotum – whisk fern
Q.31 Top-shaped multiciliate male gametes, and the
(3) Selaginella – peat moss mature seed which bears only one embryo with
(4) Drypteris – male shield fern two cotyledons, are characteristic features of
Q.24 Match the following with correct combination [AIPMT 2005]
[Kerala PMT 2007] (1) Polypetalous angiosperms
Column I Column II (2) Gamopetalous angiosperms
(a) Anthoceros 1.Walking fern (3) Conifers (4) Cycads
(b) Adiantum 2. Alga Q.32 Match items in Column I with those in Column
(c) Sargassum 3. Inferae II
Column I Column II
(d) Prothalus 4. Gametophyte
(a) Peritrichous (J) Ginkgo flagellation
(e) Asterales 5. Hornwort
(b) Living fossil (K) Macrocystis
6. Liverwort (c) Rhizophore (L) Escherichia coli
(1) a – 6, b – 5, c – 1, d – 3, e – 4 (d) Smallest flowering (M) Selaginella
(2) a – 5, b – 4, c – 3, d – 2, e – 1 plant
(3) a – 5, b – 1, c – 2, d – 4, e – 3 (e) Largest perennial (N) Wolffia
(4) a – 3, b – 2, c – 1, d – 5, e – 4 alga
(E) a – 1, b – 4, c – 3, d – 5, e – 2 (1) A–K, B–J, C–L, D–M, E–N
Q.25 Which of the following has medicinal value and (2) A–N, B–L, C–K, D–N, E–J
is a pteridophyte [Manipal PMT 2008] (3) A–J, B–K, C–N, D–L, E–K
(4) A–L, B–J, C–M, D–N, E–K
(1) Lycopodium (2) Adiantum
Q.33 Angiosperms and gymnosperm resemble in
(3) Gnetum (4) Dryopteris
having [Maharastra CET 2005]
Q.26 Seed habit originated in certain
(1) Vessel in wood
[MGIMS Wardha 2008] (2) Mode of ferrilization
(1) Bryophytes (2) ferns (3) Sessile and oblong
(3) Angiosperms (4) Gymnosperm (4) Sessile of endosperm

Q.34 Leaflet in Cycas is [Maharastra CET 2005] Q.43 Which of the following gymnosperm is a bushy
(1) Sessile and linear trailing shrub? [Kerala PMT 2007]
(2) Sessile and lanceolate (1) Ephedra (2) Cycas
(3) Sessile and oblong (4) Sessile and obturate (3) Pinus (4) Aurocaria
Q.35 Ephedar and Gnetum are similar in having
(5) Cedrus
[DPMT 2005]
Q.44 Conifers differ from grasses in the
(1) Pollination mechanism
(2) Double fertilization [AIPMT 2006]
(3) Winged pollen (4) Heteromorph genes (1) Formation of endosperm before fertilization
Q.36 Which of the following statements is wrond (2) Production of seeds from ovules
about gymnosperm? [BHU 2005] (3) Lack of xylem tracheids
(1) They have naked seeds (4) Absence of pollen tubes
(2) They are perennial Q.45 In Pinus, many embryos are formed from single
(3) Their xylem consists of vessels zygote, it is [BHU 2006]
(4) They are xerophytic (1) Simple polyembryony
Q.37 Coralloid roots of Cycas has
(2) Cleavage polyembryony
[Maharastra CEI 2005]
(3) Polyspermy (4) Apogamy
(1) Anabaena (2) Nostoc
(3) Mycorrhizae (4) Rhizopus Q.46 In Pinus, male cone bears a large number of
Q.38 The integument of Cycas ovule is hard on [BHU 2006]
account of [KCET 2005] (1) Ligules (2) Anthers
(1) Testa (2) Tegmen (3) Microsporophylls (4) Megasporophylls
(3) Sclerotesta (4) Saecotesta Q.47 Which among the following is a living fossil
Q.39 Cycas is dicotyledonous yet not placed under gymnosper? [Chd. CET 2008]
dicotyledous because (1) Pinus roxburghii (2) Medullosa noei
[Maharastra CET 2005] (3) Ginkgo biloba (4) Abies pindrow
(1) It looks like a palm tree
Q.48 Cycas has an embryo with two cotyledous yet
(2) It has compound leaves
it is not classified in dicots because
(3) Its ovules are naked
[MGIMS Wardha 2008]
(4) It bears megasporophylls
Q.40 From which of the following plants is a medicine (1) It looks like palm (2) Its ovules are naked
for respiratoty disordes obtained? (3) It has compound leaves
[DPMT 2001, BHU 2006] (4) It bears megasporophyll
(1) Bambusa (2) Sesamum Q.49 In which one of the following, male and female
(3) Ephedra (4) Pinus gametophytes do not have free living
Q.41 Chilgoza pinus is independent existence? [AIPMT 2008]
[JK CET 2001, GGSIPU 2006] (1) Pteris (2) Funaria
(1) Pinus girardiana (2) Pinus rox burgi (3) Polytrichum (4) Cedrus
(3) Pinus wallichiana (4) Pinus merkurii Q.50 Turpentine oil is extracted from
Q.42 In gymnosperms, the pollen chamber represents [Uttaranchal PMT 2008]
[AIPMT 2007] (1) Angiosperms (2) Pinus
(1) A cavity in the ovule in which pollen grains (3) Oak (4) Citrus plants
Q.51 Largest ovule is present in
are stored after pollination
[MGIMS Wardha 2008]
(2) An opening in the megagametophyte through
(1) Cycas (2) Pinus
which the pollen tube approaches the egg (3) Wolffia (4) Rafflesia
(3) The microsporangium in which pollen grain Q.52 Resin nad turpentine are products of
develops [DPMT 2009]
(4) A cell in the pollen grain in which the sperms (1) Teak (2) Oak
are formed (3) Eucalyptus (4) Pine

Q.53 Pinus seeds are [CET Chd. 2009] Q.58 Typical embryosac of angiosperms is
(1) Naked and campylotropus [Maharastra CET 2006]
(2) Naked and anatopus (1) Tetranucleated
(3) Naked and orthotropus (2) Eight nucleated and seven celled
(4) Covered and othotropus (3) Tetranucleated and seven celled
(4) Tetranucleated and tetra celled
KINGDOM PLANTAE – IV Q.59 Male gametes in angiosperms are formed by the
(ANGIOSPERMS) division of [AIPMT 2007]
Q.54 The generic name of mulberry is (1) Genarative cell (2) Vegetative cell
[Manipal PMT 2005] (3) Microspore mother cell
(1) Morus (2) Ricinus (4) Microspore
(3) Salix (4) Techoma Q.60 Which of the following is a rootless aquatic plant
Q.55 Which of the following statements are true/ in which a portion of the leaf forms a tiny sac
false? [Kerala PMT 2005] for trapping insects? [DPMT 2009]
(a) Trimerous condition of floral whori is (1) Nepenthes (2) Drosera
characteristic of dicotyledons (3) Urticularia (4) Dionaea
(b) Adiantum is also called walking fern Q.61 Which one of the following contain xylem
(c) In gymnosperms the vascular system consists vessels? [COMED K UGET 2009]
of xylem without vessels and phloem without (1) Bryophyta (2) Pteridophyta
companion cells (3) Gymnosperm (4) Angiosperm
(d) Ricca and Marchantia are liver worts Q.62 Gymnosperms are also called soft wood
(1) a- and b-are true and c- and d- are false spermatophytes because they lack :
(2) a- and c- are true and b- and d- are false [AIPMT Pre 2012]
(3) a- and d- are true and b- and c- are false (1) Phloem fibres
(4) b, c - and d- are true and a- is false (2) Thick-walled tracheids
Q.56 The sieve tubes and companion cells are
(3) Xylem fibres (4) Cambium
exceptional feature of [DY Patil 2006]
Q.63 Which one of the following is a correct
(1) Gymnosperms (2) Angiosperms
statement? [AIPMT Pre 2012]
(3) Ferns (4) Pteridophytes
(1) Ingymnosperms female gametophyte is free-
Q.57 In angiosperms double fertillization means living.
[Haryana PMT 2006]
(2) Antheridiophores and archegoniophores are
(1) Fusion of egg cell with male gamete present in pteridophytes.
(2) Fusion of secondary nucleus with male
(3) Origin of seed habit can be traced in
gamete
pteridophytes.
(3) Both above (4) None above
(4) Pteridophyte gametophyte has a protonemal
and leafy stage
ANSWER KEY
EXERCISE – 3
Ques. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. 2 1 2 3 1 3 1 1 4 2 1 1 1 2 1 3 3 2 1 3
Ques. 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
Ans. 1 3 3 3 1 4 2 4 3 1 4 4 3 2 1 3 1 3 3 3
Ques. 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
Ans. 1 1 1 4 2 3 3 2 4 2 1 4 3 1 5 2 3 2 1 3
Ques. 61 62 63
Ans. 4 3 3

Q.1 Antherozoids of Dryopteris are INSTRUCTIONS FOR Q. NO. 7 TO 10
(1) Sickle-shaped and multiflagellate In the following questions (6 to 7), a statement of
(2) Coiled and multiflagellate assertion (A) is followed by a statement of
(3) Sickle shaped and biflagellate reason (R).
(4) Coiled and biflagellate (1) If both Assertion & Reason are true and the
Q.2 In Selaginella, reduetion division occurs during the reason is the correct explanation of the assertion,
formation of then mark (1).
(1) Sperms (2) Microspores only (2) If both Assertion & Reason are true but the
(3) Megaspores only (4) Both (2) & (3) reason is not the correct explanation of the
Q.3 Meiosis in Dryopteris takes place during assertion, then mark (2).
(1) Gamete formation (2) Spore formation (3) If Assertion is true statement but Reason is
(3) Sex organ formation (4) Spore germination false, then mark (3).
Q.4 In Pinus, the wood is (4) If both Assertion and Reason are false
(1) Manoxylic and monoxylic statements, then mark (4).
(2) Pycnoxylic and diploxylic
(3) Pycnoxylic and monoxylic Q.7 A : True indusium is present as protective covering
(4) Monoxylic and polyxylic of sori in Dryopteris.
Q.5 Fern prothallus is R : It develops from the margin of leaf.
(1) Protandrous, monoecious with apical Q.8 A : In Pinus ovule nucellus is protected by
antheredia
threelayered covering.
(2) Monoecious, with multicellular rhizoids
R : Three integuments are present in ovule.
(3) Monoecious, with unicellular rhizoids and
apical archegonia Q.9 A : Trabeculated endoderm is is present in
(4) Monoecious, protandrous with intermingled Selaginella stem.
antheredia and archegonia R : Here endoderm is is present in form of bands.
Q.6 Pollen grains reach directly at micropyler end of
ovule in Q.10 A : Resin duct in coniferales is schizogenous in
(1) Monocots origin.
(2) Dicots R : Resin duct helps to retain water as well as

seals the injured areas of plant.
(3) All phanerogams with ovary
(4) All phanerogams without ovary
ANSWER KEY
EXERCISE – 4
Ques. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Ans. 2 4 2 3 3 4 3 3 1 2

Instruction to fill

Exercise # 1
Exercise # 2
Exercise # 3
Exercise # 4
Other Exercise
Advantages

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Module 1 - Plant Diversity PDF

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Bansal Classes

Chapter Name Page No.

II. Fungi – Lichen – Virus 71 – 104

III. Algae – Bryophyta 105 – 130

Metabolism is the combination of anabolism and catabolism.

THE LIVING WORLD [1]

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DIVERSITY OF LIVING WORLD

1.2 million Animals 0.5 million Plants

Other animal groups Mosses Ferns and other

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NEW SYSTEMATICS OR NEOSYSTEMATICS OR BIOSYSTEMATICS

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Suffix for taxa (Taxon) e.g., Classification of ‘’Rose’’

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ICNB = International Code of Nomenclature for Bacteria

ICVN = International Code of Viral Nomenclature

ICNCP = International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants

Main rules of ICBN :

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specimens to the sheet. For the preservation of herbarium FAMILY ........................................

STORGE OF HERBARIUM SHEETS

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Use as a Living Use as a dead Use as a dead

In Botanical In Herbarium In Museum

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2. Liger – Lion × Tiger

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TERMS RELATED TO SPECIES

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THE LIVING WORLD [10]

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Dicotyledonae Gymnospermae Monocotyledonae

Polypetalae Gamopetalae Monochlamydae

Thallophyta Bryophyta Pteridophyta Gymnosperm Angiosperm

THE LIVING WORLD [11]

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COMPARATIVE ACCOUNT OF IMPORTANT CHARACTERISTICS OF FIVE KINGDOM

2 Protista Unicellular, non motile by photosynthes asexual and protozoans

THE LIVING WORLD [12]

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Archaea Bacteria Eukarya

Archaebacteria Monera Protista Mycota Plantae Animalia

COMPARATIVE ACCOUNT OF THREE DOMAIN OF CARL WOESE'S SYSTEM

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THE LIVING WORLD [17]

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