Fluid Mechanics

Fluid mechanics is that branch of physics related to the study of the mechanics of fluids
(liquids, gases, and plasmas) and the forces on them. Fluids are classified as Newtonian and
non-Newtonian fluids. A Newtonian fluid is one whose shear stress is linearly proportional to
the velocity gradient in the direction perpendicular to the plane of shear i.e. regardless of the
forces acting on a fluid, it continues to flow. Fluid mechanics can be divided into fluid statics,
the study of fluids at rest; and fluid dynamics, the study of the effect of forces on fluid motion.
Flow by definition is the quantity of fluid passing through a point in unit time.

Viscosity
When a layer of a fluid slips or tends to slip on another layer in contact, the two layers exert
tangential forces on each other. The directions are such that the relative motion between the
layers is opposed. This property of a fluid to oppose relative motion between its layers is called
viscosity. The forces between the layers opposing relative motion between them are known as
viscous forces. Thus, viscosity can be regarded as the internal friction of a fluid in motion.

dx v - dv
v

Consider a tube filled with fluid as shown in the figure above. The layer of fluid adjacent to
the edge moves with zero velocity and the layer adjacent to it moves with slightly higher
velocity. Thus, the velocity of each layer increases with distance from the edge and the layer
along the axis of the tube has maximum velocity. The magnitude of the force F between two
layers of fluid is found to be proportional to the cross-sectional area A and velocity gradient
dv/dx in the direction perpendicular to the layers. Mathematically
𝑑𝑣
𝐹 = −𝜂𝐴
𝑑𝑥
The term η is called the coefficient of viscosity of the fluid which strongly depends on the
temperature. The negative sign indicates that the force is frictional in nature and opposes
relative motion. The SI unit of the coefficient of viscosity is N.s/m2 and the CGS unit is
dyne.s/cm2 also called poise.
Continuity Equation

Consider two cross-sections of a tube of flow at the points A and B as shown in the figure
above. Let the area of cross-section at A be 𝐴1 and that at B be 𝐴2 . Let the speed of the fluid be
𝑣1 at A and 𝑣2 at B. In the absence of any leakage or fluid-absorbent within the tube, the mass
of fluid entering at A must be equal to the mass of fluid leaving at B.
To calculate how much fluid goes into the tube through the cross-section at A in a time interval
Δt , construct a cylinder of length 𝑣1 ∆𝑡 at A as shown in the figure. As the fluid at A has
speed 𝑣1 , all the fluid included in this cylinder will cross through 𝐴1 in the time interval At.
Thus, the volume of the fluid going into the tube through the cross-section at A is 𝐴1 𝑣1 ∆𝑡.
Similarly, the volume of the fluid going out of the tube through the cross-section at B is
𝐴2 𝑣2 ∆𝑡. If the fluid is incompressible i.e. the density of the fluid is same at all the points and
remains constant as time passes, we have

𝐴1 𝑣1 ∆𝑡 = 𝐴2 𝑣2 ∆𝑡 𝑜𝑟
𝐴1 𝑣1 = 𝐴2 𝑣2
This means that the product of the cross-sectional area A and the velocity v of fluid is constant
at all points in the fluid. This is called the equation of continuity.

Bernoulli's equation
Bernoulli’s theorem states that for an incompressible fluid, the sum of the pressure, potential
energy per unit volume and the kinetic energy per unit volume is constant at all points within
the fluid.

Consider an incompressible fluid having density flowing through a tube as shown. Let the
mass of fluid, pressure, velocity of flow and height of the tube within a small element 𝑑𝑙1 and
𝑑𝑙2 at points A and B respectively be 𝑚1 , 𝑃1 , 𝑣1 , ℎ1 and 𝑚2 , 𝑃2 , 𝑣2 , ℎ2 . The difference in kinetic
1 1
energy of the fluid at the points A and B is given by 2 𝑚2 𝑣22 − 2 𝑚1 𝑣12 . Therefore, the difference
in kinetic energy is
1 1
𝑊1 = 𝑚𝑣22 − 𝑚𝑣12
2 2
The difference in potential energy of the fluid due to the difference in heights is 𝑚𝑔ℎ1 − 𝑚𝑔ℎ2 .
Therefore, the difference in potential energy per unit volume is

𝑊2 = 𝑚𝑔ℎ2 − 𝑚𝑔ℎ1
Since the mass of fluid is constant, we have,
𝑚
𝐴1 𝑑𝑙1 = 𝐴2 𝑑𝑙2 =
𝜌
The work W done to move the fluid from point A to point B is.
𝑚
𝑊 = 𝑃1 𝐴1 𝑑𝑙1 − 𝑃2 𝐴2 𝑑𝑙2 = (𝑃 − 𝑃2 )
𝜌 1
From principle of conservation of work and energy, we have

𝑊 = 𝑊1 + 𝑊2
𝑚 1 1
∴ (𝑃1 − 𝑃2 ) = 𝑚𝑣22 − 𝑚𝑣12 + 𝑚𝑔ℎ2 − 𝑚𝑔ℎ1
𝜌 2 2
1 1
∴ 𝑃1 + 𝜌𝑣12 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ1 = 𝑃2 + 𝜌𝑣22 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ2
2 2
1
𝑂𝑟 𝑃 + 𝜌𝑣 2 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑞. 𝑒. 𝑑.
2

Applications of Bernoulli's equation

Aircrafts

Imagine air flowing over a stationary airfoil, such as an aircraft wing. Far ahead of the airfoil,
the air travels at a uniform velocity. To flow past the airfoil, however, it must split in two, part
of the flow traveling on top and part traveling on the bottom. The shape of a typical airfoil is
asymmetrical - its surface area is greater on the top than on the bottom. As the air flows over
the airfoil, it is displaced more by the top surface than the bottom. According to the continuity
law, this displacement, or loss of flow area, must lead to an increase in velocity. The Bernoulli
equation states that an increase in velocity leads to a decrease in pressure. Thus, the higher the
velocity of the flow, the lower the pressure. Air flowing over an airfoil will decrease in
pressure. The pressure loss over the top surface is greater than that of the bottom surface. The
result is a net pressure force in the upward (positive) direction thus causing the lift.
Ventury Tube

A ventury tube is used to measure the flow speed of a fluid in a tube. It consists of a constriction
or a throat in the tube. Figure above shows a ventury tube through which a fluid of density ρ is
flowing. The area of cross-section is 𝐴1 at the wider part and 𝐴2 at the constriction. A vertical
tube connected at each part. Let the speeds of the liquid at 𝐴1 and 𝐴2 be 𝑣1 and 𝑣2 and the
pressures at 𝐴1 and 𝐴2 be 𝑃1 and 𝑃2 respectively. By continuity equation, 𝐴1 𝑣1 = 𝐴2 𝑣2
1 1
implying that 𝑣1 < 𝑣2 . Using Bernoulli’s equation 𝑃1 + 2 𝜌𝑣12 = 𝑃2 + 2 𝜌𝑣22 , it is clear that
𝑃1 > 𝑃2 .
𝜌 2
𝑃1 − 𝑃2 = (𝑣 − 𝑣12 )
2 2
Let the difference in heights of fluid in these tubes be h. 𝑃1 − 𝑃2 = 𝜌𝑔ℎ.

(𝑣22 − 𝑣12 ) = 2𝑔ℎ

Knowing h, 𝐴1 and 𝐴2 , it is then possible to determine the velocities be 𝑣1 and 𝑣2 and hence
the flow rate.

Poiseuille's equation
Consider a fluid having coefficient of viscosity η and density ρ flowing with velocity v through
a cylindrical tube of radius R and length 1. Because of viscosity, the layer in contact with the
wall of the tube remains at rest and the layers away from the wall move fast. Let P1 and P2 be
the pressures at the entry and exit points respectively. Consider a solid cylinder of radius r and
thickness dr within the tube. The cross-sectional area of this shell is πr2 and its surface area is
2πrl.
l

r
P1 P2
v
The applied force on this shell is given by 𝐹𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 = 𝜋𝑟 2 (𝑃1 − 𝑃2 ). For streamline flow with
constant velocity v, this is opposed by the viscous force given by
𝑑𝑣
𝐹𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑠 = −2𝜋𝜂𝑟𝑙
𝑑𝑟
𝑑𝑣
∴ −2𝜋𝜂𝑟𝑙 = 𝜋𝑟 2 (𝑃1 − 𝑃2 )
𝑑𝑟
𝑃1 − 𝑃2
∴ 𝑑𝑣 = − 𝑟𝑑𝑟
2𝜂𝑙
𝑣 𝑟
𝑃1 − 𝑃2
∴ 𝑣 = ∫ 𝑑𝑣 = − ∫ 𝑟𝑑𝑟
2𝜂𝑙
0 𝑅

𝑃1 − 𝑃2 2
∴𝑣= (𝑅 − 𝑟 2 )
4𝜂𝑙
The flow rate dQ of the fluid through the cylindrical shell is given by
𝜋(𝑃1 − 𝑃2 ) 2
𝑑𝑄 = 2𝜋𝑣𝑟𝑑𝑟 = (𝑅 − 𝑟 2 )
2𝜂𝑙
𝑅 𝑅
𝜋(𝑃1 − 𝑃2 ) 𝜋(𝑃1 − 𝑃2 )
𝑄= ∫(𝑅 2 − 𝑟 2 ) 𝑟𝑑𝑟 = ∫(𝑅 2 𝑟 − 𝑟 3 )𝑑𝑟
2𝜂𝑙 2𝜂𝑙
0 0

𝜋(𝑃1 − 𝑃2 ) 2 𝑅 2 𝑅 4
∴𝑄= [𝑅 . − ]
2𝜂𝑙 2 4

𝜋𝑅 4 (𝑃1 − 𝑃2 )
∴𝑄=
8𝜂𝑙