POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE COMPARATOR AS A SCHMITT TRIGGER

USING OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER

An Electronics Project
Presented to
College of Engineering and Computer Studies and Architecture
(COECSA)
Department of Engineering
Lyceum of the Philippines University - Cavite

In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for

ELECTRONICS CIRCUIT ANALYSIS AND DESIGN
(ECAD - CK3L04E)

By
Borjal, Mark G.
Burgos, Ric Charles R.
De Leon, Neal Justine M.
Punongbayan, Aeron Gerard M.

To:
Engr. Den Whilrex R. Garcia
Lecturer

Date
July 22, 2019
 ABSTRACT

An Operational Amplifier, or op-amp for short, is fundamentally a voltage

amplifying device designed to be used with external feedback components such
as resistors and capacitors between its output and input terminals.

An Operational Amplifier is basically a three-terminal device which consists of two

high impedance inputs. One of the inputs is called the Inverting Input, marked
with a negative or “minus” sign, ( – ). The other input is called the Non-inverting
Input, marked with a positive or “plus” sign ( + ).

A third terminal represents the operational amplifiers output port which can both
sink and source either a voltage or a current. In a linear operational amplifier,
the output signal is the amplification factor,

The Schmitt trigger is a circuit used extensively in both the analogue and digital
areas. It has the purpose of eliminating comparator chatter in signal shaping and
on/off control, it finds application in relaxation oscillators and is applied to reduce
the sensitivity to noise disturbances.
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

It is a remarkable delight to recognize and offer our greatest thanksgiving to the

following people who helped the group in making this project.

To the ECAD lecturer, Engr. Den Whilrex R. Garcia, who gave us the
challenge and opportunity to do this ideal project on the topic of using
Operational Amplifier Circuits and for reviewing each component of the project,
providing advices and troubleshooting technique for Operation Amplifiers.

To the researchers’ parents and friends, who supported us and friends who
helped us a lot in completing this project within the limited time setting.

To the Lord Jesus Christ, the source of all grace that empowers us to be all
that He created us to be; thank you for conveying the wisdom and knowledge
needed to get this project completed. To You all glory and honor.
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

ABSTRACT…………………………………………………………………………………………ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT………………………………………………………………………..iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS………………………………………………………………………..iv
INTRODUCTION…………………………………………………………………………………1
1.1 Background………………………………………………………….1
1.2 Objectives…………………………………………………………….2
1.3 Significance of the Project……………………………………..2
1.4 Scope and Limitation…………………………………………….3
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE……………………………………………………..5
2.1 Operational Amplifier Concept………………………………..….5
2.2 Op-amp and Diode Circuits………………………………………..6
2.3 Diode Rectifier Circuits and
Limitations on Small Voltages………………………………..7
2.4 Limitations on Small Voltages of a Diode Rectifier…..…..8
2.5RectifierConcept……………………………………………….....……8
2.6 Precision Rectification………………………………………….…..10
2.7 Operation of Precision Diode…………………………………….10
2.8 Dead-Zone Circuit…………………………………………………...19
2.9 Precision Clipping using Dead Zone Circuit…………….…..21
PROJECT DETAILS……………………………………………………………………….…...22
3.1 Basic Description of the Project………………………….……..22
3.2 Main Features………………………………………………………….22
DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PROJECT………………………………….…….23
4.1 Details of Operation………………………………………………...23
4.2 Schematic Diagram………………………………………..………..27
4.3 Computations…………………………………….…………..……….28
4.4 Power Consumption Table………………….……………....……30
4.5 CAD Design…………………………….……….………………..…….31
4.6 Bill of Materials………………………………………………………..33
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION………………………………………………35
LIST OF REFERENCES………………………………………………………………………..37
APPENDIX A: DATA SHEETS OF INTEGRATED
CIRCUITS USED…………………………………………………………….38
APPENDIX B: COMPANY PROFILE OF
IC MANUFACTURERS …………………………………………………….53

iv
 CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background

An operational amplifier is a high-gain direct-coupled amplifier that is generally

used in feedback connections. If the amplifier characteristics are acceptable, the
transfer function of the amplifier with feedback can often be controlled mainly by
the stable and well-known values of passive feedback fundamentals.

These feedback components determine the resulting function or “operation” of

the amplifier and by virtue of the different feedback configurations whether
resistive, capacitive or both, the amplifier can perform a variety of different
operations, giving rise to its name of “Operational Amplifier”.

The term operational amplifier evolved from original applications in analog

computation where these circuits were used to perform various mathematical
operations such as summation and integration. Because of the performance and
economic advantages of available units, present applications extend far beyond
the original ones, and modern operational amplifiers are used as general purpose
analog data-processing elements.

High-quality operational amplifiers were available in the early 1950s. These

amplifiers were generally committed to use with analog computers and were not
used with the flexibility of modern units. The range of operational-amplifier usage
began to expand toward the present spectrum of applications in the early 1960s
as various manufacturers developed modular, solid-state circuits. These
amplifiers were smaller, much more rugged, less expensive, and had less
demanding power-supply requirements than their predecessors. A variety of
these discrete-component circuits are currently available, and their performance
characteristics are spectacular when compared with older units.

1
1.2 Objectives

The project entitled Implementation of Positive Precision Half-Wave Rectifier

Using Op-Amp Circuits seeks to attain the following objectives:

 To successfully create a functional precision rectifier using operational

amplifier circuits;

 To fully understand the concept of operational amplifier circuits; and

 To know how operational amplifiers work as a Schmitt Trigger

 To know the purpose of an operational-amplifier.

 To be able to determine the difference between the different kinds of

rectifiers.

 To learn how to operate operational amplifier.

1.3 Significance of the Project

This project aims to provide vast knowledge about implementation positive

precision half-wave rectifier using op amp circuits. The project would be

significant and beneficial to the following:

 To the Engineering Students

The project about the precision rectifier circuits and a precision

clipper can be used for educational purposes and project references and

for the students to have an idea about the precision rectifiers and its

application. The project would more significant especially to those who are

taking engineering courses related to electronics, are the best

beneficiaries of the project.

2
  To the Researchers

For the future researchers the project would give a general

knowledge about the precision rectifiers and precision clipper using op-

amps. The project aims for the future researchers to have a deeper

understanding about the concept of precision rectifiers, its characteristics

and operation, and for designing a precision rectifier circuit. And for the

researchers, the project intends to give a desired output for the conducting

a future research.

1.4 Scope and Limitations

The project will mainly anchor on implementation of a Precision Full

rectifier and Positive Precision Half wave rectifier using Operational Amplifier

Circuits and Precision Clipper using Operational Amplifier Dead Zone Circuits and

be able to generate different kinds of rectified waves.

Affiliated topics will be addressed such as Rectifier concept, Diode Rectifier

Circuits, limitations on small voltages, Operational Amplifier concepts, Op-amp

and Diode Circuits and Precision Rectification. Moreover, technical specifications,

schematic diagrams, power consumption and current rating computations of the

study.

The designed Precision Full-wave and Half-wave rectifier circuitry of the

project can operate lower than 500 mV up to 10 mV input voltage and for a

minimum frequency of 20 Hz up to 1 kHz, higher than the given frequency range

it would have a distorted and much noisy output signal.

Additionally, for the designed circuit of Precision Clipper the project will be

clipped after it reach the maximum power supply (Vcc) of 12V.

3
 In this project, the students will encounter planning, discussions, related

literature gathering, circuit analysing, prototype building, and testing to fully

create a product that delivers the desired output.

The study is conducted at Lyceum of the Philippines University - Cavite

Campus and to be done by the students of Group of BSCPE 301 and BSEE 301,

for the whole 2nd semester School Year 2018-2019 and to be passed before the

end of the semester

4
 Chapter Two

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

This chapter provides the overview of the Precision Rectifiers concept and

Precision Clipper concepts using Operational Amplifier (Op-Amp) and how they

operate. In this chapter also includes the discussion on the concepts of

Operational Amplifier, Operational Amplifier and Diode Circuits and limitation of

the Diode Rectifier and Clipper Circuits in small voltages using the Dead Zone

Circuits.

2.1 Operational Amplifier Concept

Operational Amplifier is abbreviated as Op-Amp. Op-Amp is an amplifier

which could be easily modified by external circuitry to perform mathematical

operations addition, scaling, integration, etc. The advance of solid-state

technology has made Op-amp highly reliable, miniaturized, and consistently

predictable in performance. Op-amps are building blocks in basic amplification,

signal conditioning, active filters, function generators and switching circuits.

Figure 2.1 Basic Operational Amplifier

5
 The common IC Op-Amp has a very high gain. Op-amps are used in

analog linear amplification systems and digital logic systems. Pandey (2010)

listed the properties common to all Op-amps as follows:

• An inverting input.

• A non-inverting input.

• A high-input impedance, normally assumed infinite at both inputs.

• A low output impedance.

• A large voltage gain when operating without feedback, typically 105.

• Voltage gain remains constant over a wide frequency range.

• Almost no drift due to ambient temperature change, hence, the direct

• Voltage output is zero when there is no input signal.

• Good stability.

2.2 Op-amp and Diode Circuits

Op-amp diode can be used with diodes to rectify signals with peak to peak

values in the millivolt region. A conventional diode cannot do this by itself because

it required a larger voltage to turn on. A silicon diode requires about 0.7 V and

germanium diode requires 0.3 V. Putting a diode in the feedback loop of an op-

amp (along with a resistor to let the inverting input float), can build a rectifier

that eliminates the problems for voltages less than 0.6 V as the diode turns on.

The improved rectifier circuit keeps the output of the op-amp from being driven

to the rails when the circuit is blocking the wrong sign input. Since op-amp has

a limited slew rate, this improves performance. It also eliminates the 0.6 V offset

that a single diode introduces.

6
2.3 Diode Rectifier Circuits and Limitations on Small Voltages

Diode rectifier circuits obviously rely on diodes for their operation. Diodes

are devices that only pass current in one direction. When Ambrose Fleming

invented the first diode, a thermionic device or vacuum tube, he called it a valve

because of its one way action. Semiconductor devices are now used and these

provide exactly the same function.

The diode has a characteristic something like that shown in the figure 2.1.

In the forward direction, a small voltage is required across the diode before it

conducts the turn on voltage. The actual voltage depends on the type of diode

rectifier and the material used. For a standard silicon diode rectifier this turn on

voltage is around 0.6 volts. In the reverse direction, the diode rectifier will

ultimately break down. The breakdown voltage is normally well in excess of the

turn on voltage the scales on the diagram have been altered (compressed) in the

reverse direction to illustrate that reverse breakdown occurs.

Figure 2.2 Diode Rectifier Characteristic

7
2.4 Limitations on Small Voltages of a Diode Rectifier

There is a minimum threshold voltage required to overcome the

depletion region, which for most silicon diodes is a significant 0.7 volts.

Furthermore, reverse biased voltage does induce a small amount of

current through the diode called leakage current that is essentially

negligible for most purposes. Enough reverse voltage will result in the

complete electronic breakdown of the diode and allow current to flow

through the diode in the reverse direction. The diode rectifier will not

operate on small voltages, on a silicon diode needs 0.7 volts to operate

hence lower than 0.7 volts the diode rectifier circuits will have a 0 volt

output.

2.5 Rectifier Concept

Diode rectifier circuits are used where it is necessary to change alternating

current (AC) power source into a pulsating direct current (DC) power source.

Rectifier diodes are the most rugged and durable of the semiconductors in the

junction diode family. Rectifier diodes are especially noted for large forward

current and reverse breakdown voltage ratings.

Types of Diode Rectifier Circuit

• The Half-Wave Rectifier

The alternating current (AC) source produces a sinusoidal voltage.

The positive half-cycle of source voltage will forward-bias the diode, since

the switch is closed the positive half cycle will appear across the load

resistor and on the negative half-cycle, the diode is reverse biased. In this

8
case, the ideal diode will appear as an open switch and has no voltage

appears across the load resistor.

Figure 2.3 Half-Wave Rectifier Circuit and Output Waveform

• The Full-Wave Rectifier

The full-wave rectifier is equivalent to two half-wave rectifiers.

Because of the center tap, each of these rectifiers has an input

voltage equal to half the secondary voltage. Diode D1 conducts on

the positive half-cycle, and diode D2 conducts on the negative half-

cycle. The rectified load current flows during both half-cycles. The

full wave-rectifiers act as a back-to-back half-wave rectifiers. On

the negative half-cycle diode D2 is now the forward biased and

diode D1 is reverse biased and this cycle will produce a positive load

voltage. The load voltage has the same polarity and the load

current is in the same direction.

Figure 2.4 Full-Wave Rectifier Circuit and Output Waveform

9
2.6 Precision Rectification

The precision rectifier or super diode is an arrangement achieved with one

or more op-amps (operational amplifiers) in order to have a circuit perform like

a rectifier and an ideal diode. When the voltage given in the circuit is negative,

then there will be a negative voltage on the diode. So this circuit works like an

open circuit. It means there is no flow of current in the load, as well as output

voltage, is zero. When the input is positive, it is improved by the op-amp, which

activates the diode and there will be a flow of current through the load, because

of the response, the output voltage is equivalent to the input voltage. The super

diode’s actual threshold is very near to zero. It equivalents the actual threshold

of the diode, separated by the operational amplifier gain.

2.7 Operation of Precision diode

For normal silicon diode to be on the minimum positive bias should

be greater than the cut in voltage. Hence the diodes when used in

rectification will have a dead time in which they will not conduct currents

even when the voltages are positive (0< Vd< Vcut in voltage). An ideal diode

should have zero cut in voltage. A simple half wave rectifier is shown in

the figure 2.4.

Figure 2.5 Precision Diode

10
 When Vout < V’out, diode will be on and the circuit reduces to voltage

follower in which Vout = Vin. Because of high gain of op amps the input cut

in voltage will be reduced to Vγ/Avo, where Avo is the open loop gain of

op-amp. Thus for even for very small input positive voltages the output

will be high, the combination of op amp and diode acts as diode with zero

cut in voltage hence it is named as precision diode. The output of precision

diode (ideal diode) and practical diode rectifier with drop across diode (Vd)

and non-zero cut in voltage (Vγ) for an input sine wave is shown in the

figure 2.5.

Figure 2.6 Precision Diode Output

The combination of op amp and diode (precision diode) acts as

diode with zero cut in voltage.For normal silicon diodes there exists a dead

time when the voltages are within (0< Vd< Vcut in voltage).Because of high

gain of op amps even for very small input voltages in rising mode the

output will be high and the dead time can be made negligible. A precision

diode has practical zero cut in voltage.

11
 Types of Precision Rectifier

• The Half-Wave Precision Rectifier

The precision half-wave rectifier inverts and transfers only the

negative-half input of a time varying input signal (preferably

sinusoidal) to its output. By appropriately selecting the feedback

resistor values, different gains can be achieved. Precision half-wave

rectifiers are commonly used with other op amp circuits such as a

peak-detector or bandwidth limited non-inverting amplifier to

produce a DC output voltage.

Figure 2.7 Half-Wave Precision Rectifier

Circuit operation of Op-amp Half Wave Rectifier Circuit

Consider a sine wave signal applied to half wave rectifier circuit.

When Vi > 0 volt the half wave rectifier can be simplified and redrawn as

follows

12
 Figure 2.8 When Vi > 0 volt

Then the diodes D1 and D2 are forward biased, the diode D1 shorts

the output of the op-amp to the inverting terminal. Using the concept of

virtual ground the inverting terminal will be at ground potential (Non-

inverting terminal will be at 0 volts). Hence the output of op-amp will be

zero volt.

Figure 2.9 When Vi < 0 volt

The diodes D1, D2 will be reverse biased and are open. The circuit

of half-wave rectifier is redrawn and simplified as shown in figure 2.9 and

figure 2.10.

The combination shown in the figure resembles an inverting

amplifier with gain -Rf/R1. Hence the output of the op-amp.

V0 = -Rf/R1 (Vi)

13
The output will be positive as Vi is negative.

figure 2.10 Redraw on Vi > 0 volt

figure 2.11 Redraw on Vi < 0 volt

The characteristics can be summarized as follows:

Vi > 0 volt ; D1, D2 ON ;Vo = 0

Vi < 0 volt ; D1, D2 OFF ;Vo = –(Rf/R1)*Vi

• The Full-Wave Precision Rectifier

Full-wave rectification can be achieved by inverting the negative

halves of an input-signal waveform and applying the resulting signal to

another diode rectifier. The outputs of the two rectifiers are then joined

to a common load. This idea is described in figure 2.12. The waveforms

at various nodes are also shown in the same figure.

14
 Figure 2.12 Basic Principle of Full-wave rectification

A practical circuit can be obtained from figure 2.12 by replacing

diode DA with a super diode and by replacing diode DB and the inverting

precision half-wave rectifier but without the catching diode. The actual

circuit of a precision full-wave rectifier of this kind is shown in figure 2.13.

Figure 2.13 Precision full-wave rectifier based on the conceptual circuit of figure
2.12, and its transfer characteristic

Full-wave precision bridge rectifier

15
 A full wave precision rectifier can be made also by using a diode

bridge. One such arrangement is shown in figure 2.14. This circuit can be

useful for instrumentation applications because it can provide a balanced

output (on RL) and, also relative accurate high-input impedance.

The circuit causes a current equal to |ui|/R+RL to flow through

RL. Thus, the current or the differential voltage in RL's terminals is

proportional to the absolute value of the input voltage ui. All the non-

idealities of the diodes are masked by placing the bridge circuit in the

negative-feedback loop of the op-amp.

When uA is positive, current flows from the op-amp through D1,

RL, D3, and R. When ui is negative, current flows into the op-amp output

through R, D2, RL, and D4. Thus the feedback loop remains closed for

both polarities of ui. The resulting short circuit at the input terminals of

the op-amp causes a replica of ui to appear across R.

Figure 2.14 Full-wave precision bridge rectifier

Clipper Concept

16
 The Diode Clipper, also known as a Diode Limiter, is a wave shaping

circuit that takes an input waveform and clips or cuts off its top half,

bottom half or both halves together.

Positive Diode Clipping Circuits

Figure 2.15 Positive Clipped Diode

In this diode clipping circuit, the diode is forward biased (anode

more positive than cathode) during the positive half cycle of the sinusoidal

input waveform. For the diode to become forward biased, it must have

the input voltage magnitude greater than +0.7 volts (0.3 volts for a

germanium diode).

When this happens, the diodes begin to conduct and holds the

voltage across itself constant at 0.7V until the sinusoidal waveform falls

below this value. Thus, the output voltage which is taken across the diode

can never exceed 0.7 volts during the positive half cycle.

During the negative half cycle, the diode is reverse biased (cathode

more positive than anode) blocking current flow through itself and as a

result has no effect on the negative half of the sinusoidal voltage which

17
passes to the load unaltered. Thus, the diode limits the positive half of the

input waveform and is known as a positive clipper circuit.

Negative Diode Clipping Circuits

Figure 2.16 Negative Clipped Diode

The diode is forward biased during the negative half cycle of the

sinusoidal waveform and limits or clips it to –0.7 volts while allowing the

positive half cycle to pass unaltered when reverse biased. As the diode

limits the negative half cycle of the input voltage it is therefore called a

negative clipper circuit.

Clipping of Both Half Cycles

Figure 2.17 Both Half Cycle Clipped

Two diodes connected in inverse parallel as shown in Figure 2.16,

then both the positive and negative half cycles would be clipped as diode

18
 D1 clips the positive half cycle of the sinusoidal input waveform while diode

D2 clips the negative half cycle. Then diode clipping circuits can be used

to clip the positive half cycle, the negative half cycle or both.

For ideal diodes the output waveform above would be zero.

However, due to the forward bias voltage drop across the diodes the actual

clipping point occurs at +0.7 volts and –0.7 volts respectively. But we can

increase this ±0.7V threshold to any value we want up to the maximum

value, (VPEAK) of the sinusoidal waveform either by connecting together

more diodes in series creating multiples of 0.7 volts, or by adding a voltage

bias to the diodes.

2.8 Dead zone circuit

Dead-zone circuit basically, once a control loop has achieved its purpose

and reduced the error signal to zero (or very close to it), the output will remain

in tolerance even though the error signal is slightly off zero. There is a range of

error signal that is not necessary to correct. So, it makes sense to have a dead

band that treats all error signals in that band as being the equivalent of a zero

error input state. The alternative would see the loop constantly trying to remove

that error even though the controlled variable is within tolerance. An improved

dead-zone circuit includes a pair of amplifiers initially saturated in opposite senses

and another amplifier driven thereby to provide a null output until an input to the

pair of amplifiers exceeds predetermined dead-zone levels, whereupon the

output of the other amplifier follows the output of the pair of amplifiers applied

through corresponding current flow control devices to provide a circuit of the

19
type described featuring improved performance with a reduced number of

components.

Figure 2.18 Dead-Zone Circuit

Bipolar-Output Dead-Zone Circuit

The positive and negative output dead-zone circuits can be

combined. The outputs of the two dead-zone circuits are connected

to an inverting adder. The adder of the output tells how much

voltage goes above one positive reference voltage and also how

much voltage goes below a different negative reference voltage.

Figure 2.19 Bipolar Dead-Zone Circuit

2.9 Precision Clipping using Dead Zone Circuit
A Clipper or Amplitude Limiter circuit clips off all signals above a positive

reference voltage and all signals below a negative reference voltage. The

20
reference voltages can be made symmetrical or non-symmetrical around zero.

Construction of precision clipper circuit is accomplished by adding a single resistor

(RC) to the bipolar output dead-zone circuit. The output of each operational

amplifier is connected to the input of the inverting adder. The signal is connected

to the third input of the inverting adder via resistor (RC), if resistor (RC) is

removed the circuit will act as a dead-zone circuit. When (RC) is present input

voltage is subtracted from the dead-zone circuit’s output and the result is an

inverting precision clipper.

Figure 2.20 Precision Clipper Using Dead-Zone Circuit

Chapter Three

PROJECT DETAILS

21
3.1 Basic Description of the Project

The project implementation of positive precision half-wave and full-wave

rectifier and clipper using op-amp circuits with dead-zone circuits aim to produce

or convert the sinusoidal wave coming from the function generator with 500 mV

input voltage to have a precision rectified output of Half Wave, Full Wave and a

Clip Waveform. Also the major limitation of conventional rectifiers is that it cannot

rectify AC voltages below forward voltage drop 0.7 V of a diode. This project,

precision rectifier will make it possible to rectify input voltage of a very small

magnitude even less than forward voltage drop of diode.

3.2 Main Features

The project uses design uses the following features:

 10k ohm resistors

 20k ohm resistors

 1.5k ohm resistor

 1N4001 diode

 LM741 operational amplifier (8-pins)

 2 pole toggle switch

 Potentiometer

The LM741 operational-amplifier is powered by a dual power supply with

positive and negative 12 V supply. It is also a non-linear component that has a

flexibility to change the output voltage of the circuit for the desired voltage gain.

Chapter Four

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PROJECT

22
4.1. Details of Operation

Precision rectifier is implemented using an operational amplifier, it includes the

diode in the feedback loop. This effectively cancels the forward voltage of the

diode, and a very low-level signals can still be rectified with minimal error.

 Half Wave Rectifier

Figure 4.0 Half Wave Rectifier Circuit Diagram

For a low frequency positive input signal, 100% of the negative is

applied when the diode conducts. The forward voltage is effectively removed

by the feedback, and the inverting input follows the positive half of the input

signal almost perfectly. When the input signal becomes negative, the op-amp

23
has no feedback at all. When the positive input signal positive again, the op-

amps output voltage will take a finite time to swing back to zero, then the

forward bias the diode and produce an output. In the positive half cycle of

the input signal the diode in the feedback of the op-amp and the diode in the

output will also conduct. Having the same value of the resistors in the input

and feedback will give negative output signal but the same as the value of

input signal in the positive half cycle. In the negative half cycle of the input

signal the diode in the output will be off and the output in the negative half

cycle will be zero. After the operation performed in the op-amp 1 the output

signal will move to the op-amp 2 which will be the input signal of the op-amp

2. The negative input voltage will pass through to an inverting amplifier. In

the positive half cycle the negative input signal will be inverted as a result the

output signal will be positive and in the negative half cycle will remain zero

as a result of the process in the circuit the output waveform will be positive

half wave.

Figure 4.1 Wave Form of Positive Half Wave Rectifier

24
 Full Wave Rectifier

Figure 4.2 Full Wave Rectifier Circuit Diagram

Full-wave rectification can be achieved by inverting the negative halves

of an input-signal waveform and applying the resulting signal to another diode

rectifier. The outputs of the two rectifiers are then joined to a common load.

For the positive half cycle the diode in the output will turns on and the diode

in the feedback will turns off and the op-amp will act as an inverting amplifier

the input signal will be inverted as it pass though the inverting summer

25
amplifier (op-amp 2) and the output signal will be negative and passing

through another inverting amplifier it will be inverted again resulting positive

output signal and it has the same value of the input signal. In the negative

half cycle the diode in the output will turns off and the op-amp 1 will also

turns off, the input voltage coming from the op-amp 1 will be removed

resulting to have a single input voltage coming directly in the input source

and the inverting summer amplifier will now act as an inverting amplifier only.

As the negative input voltage will pass through the op-amp 2 it will invert the

negative input voltage to a positive output voltage. The waveform of the

positive full wave.

Figure 4.3 Wave Form of Positive Half Wave Rectifier

26
  Positive Clipper

Figure 4.4 Positive Clipper Circuit Diagram

A positive clipper is a clipper that clips only the positive portion of the

input signal. a sinusoidal input voltage signal is applied to the inverting terminal

of the op-amp. The value of the reference voltage can be chosen by varying

resistance of the potentiometer. If the value of the input voltage is less than the

value of the reference voltage. Therefore, the output voltage of the circuit will

be same as that of the input voltage. If the value of the input voltage is greater

than the value of reference voltage. Therefore, the output voltage of the above

circuit will be equal to the value of the reference voltage.

27
 Figure 4.5 Wave Form of Positive Clipper

4.2. Schematic Diagrams

 Schematic Diagram of Dual Polarity Power Supply

Figure 4.6 Schematic Diagram Dual Power Supply

The Dual Polarity Power Supply Diagram supplies a positive voltage of 12

V for +Vcc and a negative voltage of 12 V for –Vee.

 Schematic Diagram of The Project

28
 Figure 4.7 Schematic Diagram of the Project

The circuit design of the project can operate precision full wave rectifier,

precision half wave rectifier and a clipper circuit. This schematic diagram can

operate under 700mV or the forward voltage of a diode. The circuit use three

(3) LM741 general purpose op-amps, two (2) 1N4001 rectifier diode, resistors,

potentiometer, and switches.

4.3. Computations

500mV Input Voltage from Function Generator

 Half Wave Rectifier

Positive Half Cycle Op-amp 1

𝑉𝑖𝑛 − 0 −𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡
=
150𝑘 150𝑘

𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = −𝑉𝑖𝑛

Positive Half Cycle Op-amp 2

(−𝑉𝑖𝑛) − 0 −𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡
=
300𝑘 300𝑘

−(−500𝑚𝑉) = 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡

𝑽𝒐𝒖𝒕 = 𝟓𝟎𝟎𝒎𝑽

Negative Half Cycle Op-Amp 1 and Op-Amp 2

Diode 2 is off,

Vout = 0 V

 Full Wave Rectifier

Positive Half Cycle Op-Amp 1

𝑉𝑖𝑛 − 0 −𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡
=
150𝑘 150𝑘

𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = −𝑉𝑖𝑛

29
 Positive Half Cycle Op-Amp 2

−500𝑚𝑉 − 0 500𝑚𝑉 − 0
300𝑘( + ) = −𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡
150𝑘 300𝑘

𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 500𝑚𝑉

Negative Half Cycle Op-Amp 1

Diode 2 is Off, Op-Amp 1 is Off

Negative Half Cycle Op-Amp 2

𝑉𝑖𝑛 − 0
= −𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡
300𝑘

−(−500𝑚𝑉) = 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡

𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 500𝑚𝑉

 Positive Clipper

If 10K Potentiometer is at Maximum Resistance

(1.5𝑘)(12)
𝑉𝑐𝑐 = = 1.565 𝑉
(150𝑘 + 1.5𝑘)

If 10K Potentiometer is at Minimum Resistance

(150𝑘 + 1.5𝑘)(12)
𝑉𝑐𝑐 = = 12
(150𝑘 + 1.5𝑘)

4.4. Power Consumption Table

 Half Wave Rectifier

Component Power
Voltage Drop Current Across
Type Consumption
150k ohm resistors
500 mV 3.33 uA 1.665 uW
(Input)
150k ohm resistors
200 mV 1.33 uA 266 nW
(Feedback)
300k ohm resistors
500 mV 1.67 uA 835 nW
(Input)
300k ohm resistors
500 mV 1.67 uA 835 nW
(Feedback)
1N4001 Diode 1 700 mV 3.33 uA 35 uW
1N4001 Diode 2 700 mV 3.33 uA 35 uW
OP-AMP 1 12 V 1.5 mA 18 mW

30
 OP-AMP 2 12 V 1.5 mA 18 mW
TOTAL POWER CONSUMPTION: 36.07 mW

 Full Wave Rectifier

Component Power
Voltage Drop Current Across
Type Consumption
150k ohm resistors
500 mV 3.33 uA 1.665 uW
(Input)
150k ohm resistors
200 mV 1.33 uA 266 nW
(Feedback)
150k ohm resistors
500 mV 3.33 uA 1.665 uW
(Input OP-AMP 2)
300k ohm resistors
500 mV 1.67 uA 835 nW
(Input)
300k ohm resistors
500 mV 1.67 uA 835 nW
(Feedback)
1N4001 Diode 1 700 mV 50 uA 35 uW
1N4001 Diode 2 700 mV 50 uA 35 uW
OP-AMP 1 12 V 1.5 mA 18 mW
OP-AMP 2 12 V 1.5 mA 18 mW
TOTAL POWER CONSUMPTION: 36.08 mW

 Positive Clipper

Component Power
Voltage Drop Current Across
Type Consumption
150k ohm resistors
500 mV 3.33 uA 1.665 uW
(Input)
150k ohm resistors
500 mV 3.33 uA 1.665 uW
(Feedback)
300k ohm resistors
500 mV 1.67 uA 835 nW
(Input)
300k ohm resistors
500 mV 1.67 uA 835 nW
(Feedback)
OP-AMP 1 12V 1.5 mA 18 mW
OP-AMP 2 12V 1.5 mA 18 mW
TOTAL POWER CONSUMPTION: 36.005 mW

4.5. CAD Design

31
 Figure 4.8 CAD Design of Project Casing

Figure 4.9 CAD Design Project Casing Legends

32
 Figure 4.10 CAD Design and Legends of Top View of the Project

4.6. Bill of Materials

COMPONENTS QUANTITY DESCRIPTION

Resistors are electronic components which
have a specific, never-changing electrical
150k ohm
5 resistance. The resistor's resistance limits
resistors
the flow of electrons through a circuit. Has
a resistivity of 10 kilo ohms.
Resistors are electronic components which
have a specific, never-changing electrical
300k ohm
4 resistance. The resistor's resistance limits
resistors
the flow of electrons through a circuit. Has
a resistivity of 20 kilo ohms.
Resistors are electronic components which
have a specific, never-changing electrical
1.5k ohm resistor 3 resistance. The resistor's resistance limits
the flow of electrons through a circuit. Has
a resistivity of 1.5 kilo ohms.
For 1N4001 Diode, the maximum current
carrying capacity is 1A it withstand peaks up
1N4001 diode 6
to 30A. Hence we can use this in circuits
that are designed for less than 1A. The

33
 reverse current is 5uA which is negligible. It
can withstand reverse voltage peak up to
50V.
The LM741 series are general-purpose
operational amplifiers which feature
improved performance over industry
standards like the LM709. The amplifiers
offer many features which make their
application nearly foolproof: overload
LM741
protection on the input and output, no
Operational 3
latch-up when the common-mode range is
Amplifier
exceeded, as well as freedom from
oscillations. The LM741C is identical to the
LM741 and LM741A except that the LM741C
has their performance ensured over a 0°C
to +70°C temperature range, instead of
−55°C to +125°C.
A device that opens and closes an electric
circuit. It uses a lever that is moved up and
Pole toggle switch 2
down. Switching from one circuit to
another.
A manually adjustable, variable resistor with
three terminals. Two terminals are
connected to a resistive element, the third
10k Potentiometer 1 terminal is connected to an adjustable
wiper. The position of the wiper determines
the output voltage. Resistance can be
adjusted from 0 – 10k ohms.
A device used in an electrical circuit for
Fuse 2 protecting electrical devices against overloads
and short circuit.
A passive electronic component that stores
1000uF 2 energy in the form of an electrostatic field.
Can store 1000 uF of charge.
A passive electronic component that stores
10uF 2 energy in the form of an electrostatic field.
Can store 10 uF of charge.
A 12V voltage regulator that can provide
local on-card regulation, eliminating the
distribution problems associated with single
point regulation. Each type employs internal
current limiting, thermal shut-down and
safe area protection, making it essentially
LM7812 1
indestructible. If adequate heat sinking is
provided, they can deliver over 1.5 A output
current. Although designed primarily as
fixed voltage regulators, these devices can
be used with external components to obtain
adjustable voltage and currents.

34
 A negative 12V voltage regulator that can
provide local on-card regulation,
eliminating the distribution problems
associated with single point regulation.
Each type employs internal current
limiting, thermal shut-down and safe area
protection, making it essentially
LM7912 1
indestructible. If adequate heat sinking is
provided, they can deliver over 1.5 A
output current. Although designed
primarily as fixed voltage regulators, these
devices can be used with external
components to obtain adjustable voltage
and currents.
A light-emitting diode (LED) is
a semiconductor device that emits visible
light when an electric current passes
LED 2
through it. The output from an LED can
range from red (at a wavelength of
approximately 700 nanometers)
device for opening and closing electrical
Single Switch 2 circuits under normal load conditions,
usually operated manually
A static electrical machine which
transfers AC electrical power from one
circuit to the other circuit at the
Transformer (12V) 1 constant frequency, but the voltage
level can be altered that means
voltage can be increased or decreased
according to the requirement.

Chapter Five

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Implementation of positive precision half-wave and full-wave rectifier and

clipper using operational amplifier with dead-zone circuits, the project operates

in two modes, switching to precision rectifier mode and precision clipper mode

and passing through the inverting summer circuit. Switching on to precision

rectifier mode will allow on going Full-wave or Half-wave rectifier.

35
 A 500 mV will pass through the whole circuit as an input. Switching on the

Half-wave rectifier the input signal will pass through the 1st op-amp which will

give an inverting or negative output in the positive half cycle and a 0 output on

the negative cycle, and the output signal will serve as input signal in the 2 nd op-

amp which is another an inverting amplifier which will make the output a positive

signal in the positive half cycle and the negative half cycle will stay the same as

it pass through. Switching on the Full-wave the input signal will also pass through

the 1st op-amp and 2nd op-amp but in the positive full-wave rectifier the positive

and negative half cycle will be have a positive output signal. Switching on the

Positive Clipper the input signal will be the same as the output signal but having

a potentiometer on the Vcc of the circuit will control the amplitude of the signal.

Adjusting the potentiometer to its maximum will give you a clipped output signal.

A Super Diode is a circuit combination of Op amp and diode. Diode rectifies

the input, generates the output and OP amp reduces the voltage drop of diode

to approximately 0. It generates the accurate output of the circuit.

The project includes a general knowledge, skills and mastery on

operational amplifier to perform the Precision Full-wave and Half-wave rectifier,

and the Positive Clipper for designing and creating the circuit, also for the

troubleshooting of the circuit. Using the laboratory equipment the project can be

check if the project reached the desired output.

For the future research, the researchers of this project recommend to use

a general purpose op-amps and suggested to use a LM741 for easy

troubleshooting and easy to find components. And researchers also recommend

to use a 1N4148 for its characteristics, fast recovery time and it also use if fast

36
switching are involve, it can be used as a protection to the device, it can prevent

the reverse polarity problem of the diode.

LIST OF REFERENCES

M. E. Schultz, Grob’s Basic Electronics, 11th Edition, McGraw-Hill Companies

Incorporated, New York, 2010.

S. Franco, Analog Circuit Design: Discrete And Integrated, Interanational

Edition, McGraw-Hill Education, 2 Penn Plaza New York, 2015

N. H. Sabah, Electronics Basic Analog and Digital with PSpice, CRC Press, Taylor
and Francis Group, 6000 Broken Sound Parkway : NW Suite Boca Raton,
2010.

NJATC, Semiconductor Principles and Applications, 2nd Edition, Delmar Cengage

Learning: 5 Maxwell Drive Clifton Park, NY, 2008.

37
O. N. Pandey, Electronic Engineering, 4821 Parwana Bhawan: Darya Ganj,
Ansari Road, New Delhi, India, 2010.

A. Malvino & D. Bates, Electronic Principles, 8th Edition United States: Mc Graw-
Hill Companies, Inc. 2016.

38
APPENDIX A: DATA SHEETS OF INTEGRATED
CIRCUITS USED

39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
 APPENDIX B: COMPANY PROFILE OF
MANUFACTURERS

Texas Instruments Inc. (TI)

Is an American technology company that designs and

manufactures semiconductors and various integrated circuits, which it sells to

electronics designers and manufacturers globally. Its headquarters are in Dallas,

Texas, United States. TI is one of the top ten semiconductor companies worldwide,

based on sales volume Texas Instruments's focus is on developing analog

chips and embedded processors. In addition to analog technologies, digital signal

processing (DSP) and microcontroller (MCU) semiconductors.

ON Semiconductor

The company was originally a spinoff of Motorola's Semiconductor Products

Sector. It continues to manufacture Motorola's discrete, standard analog,

and standard logic devices. The company is a Fortune 500 semiconductors supplier

company. Products include power and signal management, logic, discrete, and

custom devices for automotive, communications, computing, consumer, industrial,

LED lighting, medical, military/aerospace and power applications. ON

Semiconductor runs a network of manufacturing facilities, sales offices and design

centers in North America, Europe, and the Asia Pacific regions.

54